The Brushed DC Motor gets its name from the "brushes" used for commutation.

A brushed DC motor is an internally commutated electric motor designed to be

run from a direct current power source. Here are some key points about
the brushed DC motor:
Typically the rotor, also known as an armature, has windings on it
terminated on to a commutator
Brushes make and break contact with commutation segments, thus
commutating power to the armature
The stator, or outer cylinder, of a permanent magnet DC motor will have
two or more permanent magnet pole pieces
The opposite polarities of the energized winding and the stator magnet
attract causing the rotor to rotate until it is aligned with the stator
Just as the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move across the
commutator contacts and energize the next winding
Brushed DC motors are easy to control because speed and torque are
proportional to the applied voltage/current.
The rotor is heavy due to windings on the armature, more inertia makes it more
difficult to start/stop. Heat is generated in windings on the rotor, and is more
difficult to remove.
Good controllability: on/off, proportional
Linear torque/current curve
Speed proportionate to voltage applied
Requires maintenance
Low overloading capability
Low heat dissipation
Working :
The rotor is made up of one or more windings. When these windings are
energized they produce a magnetic field. The magnetic poles of this rotor field
will be attracted to the opposite poles generated by the stator, causing the
rotor to turn. As the motor turns, the windings are constantly being energized in
a different sequence so that the magnetic poles generated by the rotor do not
overrun the poles generated in the stator. This switching of the field in the rotor
windings is called Commutation.
Brushed DC motors do not require a controller to switch current in the motor
windings. Instead, it uses a mechanical commutation of the windings. A copper
sleeve (commutator), resides on the axle of the rotor. As the motor turns, carbon
brushes slide over the commutator, coming in contact with different segments of
the commutator. The segments are attached to different rotor windings,
therefore, a dynamic magnetic field is generated inside the motor when a
voltage is applied across the brushes of the motor.


Operation:
In PMDC motor, a fixed magnetic field generated by the permanent
magnets interacts with the perpendicular field induced by the currents in
the rotor windings, thus creating a mechanical torque.
As the rotor turns in response to this torque, the angle between the stator
and rotor fields is reduced, so that the torque would be nullified within a
rotation of 90 electrical degrees.
To sustain the torque acting on the rotor, permanent-magnet DC motors
incorporate a commutator, fixed to the rotor shaft.
The commutator switches the supply current to the stator so as to maintain
a constant angle, =90, between two fields.
Because the current is continually switched between windings as the rotor
turns, the current in each stator winding is actually alternating, at a
frequency proportional to the number of motor magnetic poles and the
speed.


Note: The basic principle of operation of Permanent Magnet DC motor and the
Brushless DC motor[BLDC] is one as same. In PMDC, commutator is used whereas
in BLDC motor power electronic switch circuit is used for switching the current in
the stator winding.

Disadvantages
The major disadvantage of the PMDC motor is that the permanent magnets
can be demagnetized by armature reaction mmf causing the motor to
become inoperative.
Demagnetization can result from
1) improper design
2) Excessive armature current caused by a fault or transient or improper
connection in the armature circuit
3) temperature effects.

Brush - It is a device which conducts current between stationary wires and
moving parts, most commonly in a rotating shaft.
Carbon is used as it is a reasonable conductor, and is soft enough to wear
down instead of wearing down the "comutator"
Commutator - It is a device used to change the direction of current flow
through the motor. It is needed is because a DC current in a magnetic field
can only turn the motor through 180 degrees, after which the force will
cause the motor to return to a fixed position. In order to make the force turn
the motor the current needs to be changed every 180 degrees so that the
force will act in the opposite direction, spinning the motor around. This is
achieved using a commutator.








The brushes are the way that the motor provides the coils with power, and the
geometrical characteristics and position of the brushes (and the commutator of
course) will be responsible for changing the magnetic field of the two
electromagnets according to the position of the rotor. So, how this is done? The
brushes are two metallic pieces that act like springs. On one side, they have a
piece of conductive material, usually made of carbon to stand against friction.
On the other side, they have the pin that the power supply is applied to the
motor. The brushes are pushed (by the spring action of the metallic part) against
the commutator. The commutator is a metallic ring, also conductive and able to
stand friction, it fixed on the shaft of the motor. Each semi-ring has one pole of
each coil. Giving thus power to both half-rings, is like giving power to the coils.
Instead of 2, there are actually 3 coils that takes part as :
Now there is No such position when the commutators are short-circuited, and
the motor will provide all the time torque, without the problems from over-
current.
And because the coils have 120
o
angle between them, the torque provided by
the motor is much more smooth and never falls to 0.
Finally, if the motor had 2 coils and it was stopped in this position where the
commutator is short-circuited, it would be impossible to start it again.
Of course, the 3 coils require now a different construction of the commutator. It is
composed by 3 pieces instead of two, and the gaps are in circular pattern with
120
o
angle. The brushes are again two





SPEED CONTROL:
The speed of a BDC motor is proportional to the voltage applied to the motor.
When using digital control, a pulse-width modulated (PWM) signal is used to
generate an average voltage. The motor winding acts as a low pass filter so a
PWM waveform of sufficient frequency will generate a stable current in the
motor winding. The relation between average voltage, the supply voltage, and
duty cycle is given by: V avg = D * V supply
Thus Speed and duty cycle are proportional to one another.
For example, if a BDC motor is rated to turn at 15000RPM at 12V, the motor will
(ideally) turn at 7500 RPM when a 50% duty cycle waveform is applied across the
motor.
Pulse-width modulation (PWM) Its main use is to allow the control
of the power supplied to electrical devices, especially to inertial loads such as
motors.
The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning
the switch between supply and load on and off at a fast pace. The longer the
switch is on compared to the off periods, the higher the power supplied to the
load is.
Duty Cycle : It describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular interval or
'period' of time; a low duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the power
is off for most of the time. Duty cycle is expressed in percent, 100% being fully
on.
The simplest way to generate a PWM signal is the intersective method, which
requires only a sawtooth or a triangle waveform and a comparator. When the
value of the reference signal is more than the modulation waveform , the PWM
signal is in the high state, otherwise it is in the low state.



The frequency of the PWM waveform is an important consideration.
Too low a frequency will result in a noisy motor at low speeds and sluggish
response to changes in duty cycle.
Too high a frequency lessens the efficiency of the system due to switching
losses in the switching devices. A good rule of thumb is to modulate the input
waveform at a frequency in the range of 4 kHz to 20 kHz.











































A neodymium magnet ( NdFeB, NIB or Neo magnet), is the most widely used type
of rare-earth magnet. It is a permanent magnet made from an alloy of
neodymium, iron and boron to form the Nd2Fe14B tetragonal crystalline
structure