Laser-based Measurement Techniques

R. V. Ravikrishna

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore
 Outline
• Introduction
• Overview of Techniques
• PLIF theory and fundamentals
• Introduction to PIV
• Case-I – Application to fuel-air mixing in
gas turbine combustors
• Case-II – Application to thin film thickness
measurement
• PLIF in IC Engine Research – State of the
art
 Why Laser Diagnostics?
• Flow physics can be extremely challenging – highly
transient flow, complex geometry, sprays, two-phase
flow, mixing, combustion and heat release,
turbulence, complex chemistry
• Physical probes perturb the flow, e.g. thermocouples,
gas chromatography
• Laser Diagnostics can provide detailed spatially &
temporally resolved information on species
concentration, temperature, and velocity
measurements in complex reacting media
 Laser Diagnostics
Involves:
• Laser systems (pulsed & cw lasers, dye lasers,diode
lasers
• Optical systems – lenses, prisms, mirrors, filters,
photodiodes, hardware
• Detection systems – PMTs, CCDs

Requires Understanding of:

• Species spectroscopy
• Interaction of laser radiation with molecule or atom
• Calculation of signal levels, estimates of accuracy,
precision
 Some Popular Techniques
• Rayleigh Scattering and Mie Scattering
• Spontaneous Raman Scattering (SRS)
• Laser-induced Fluorescence (LIF), Planar
LIF (PLIF)
• Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)
• Laser-induced Incandescence (LII)
 Rayleigh & Mie Scattering
Flame or Nonreacting
Flow

Single-Frequency Beam
Laser Dump

Excited
Electronic
Level Iodine Cell

Virtual
Level

CCD Array
Ground
Electronic
Level
Strong signal, spatially resolved,
not species-specific
Spontaneous Raman Scattering
Flame or Plasma

Fixed Frequency Beam

Laser Dump

Photomultiplier
Excited or CCD Array
Electronic
Level

Virtual
Level Spectrometer

v+1, J
v, J
Species-specific, spatially resolved,
quantitative, weak signal
Laser-Induced Fluorescence (LIF)
Frequency-Doubling
Crystal
Excited
Electronic Nd:YAG Laser Dye Laser
Level
545 nm
532 nm
Nonradiative Q-switched, 10-nsec to 800 nm 272 nm
Decay pulse, 500 mJ to 400 nm
Flame

Ground
Electronic Lens Focusing Lens

Level

Beam Dump or
Power Meter
Collecting Lens
Photomultiplier or
Digital Camera

Spectrometer or
Filter Computer

Species-selective, spatially resolved, strong signals,

complicated by nonradiative decay, not all species fluoresce
 LIF Theory
v'=1
Excited Electronic
State v'=0

A0,0 A0,1 A0,2 A0,3

Quenching
h? B lu B ul

v"=3
v"=2
v"=1
Ground Electronic v"=0
State
Stimulated Stimulated
Absorption Emission
Fluorescence

LIF - fluorescence emitted by a probe species excited by

laser radiation
Laser-Induced Fluorescence Spectroscopy

• LIF used for diagnosis and measurement in several

applications – fluid dynamics, atmospheric research,
medical imaging
• Chief advantages: (1) sensitive, (2)spatially
resolved measurement, (3) can be extended easily
for laser imaging

• Chief disadvantages: (1) difficult to quantify the

measurement due to collisional quenching of the
excited state, (2) potential photochemical effects, (3)
not all species absorb at convenient wavelengths, (4)
not all excited states fluoresce
Planar Laser-Induced Fluorescence (PLIF)
 Planar Laser-Induced Fluorescence

Advantages
• 2-D information acquired on single laser shot
• Gradient and spatial structure information can be
obtained, especially important in turbulent flames
• Data can be acquired very rapidly

Disadvantages
• Quantitative planar LIF is reacting flows is difficult
to achieve due to the collisional quenching - not such
a big problem in non-reacting flows
• Spectral information difficult or impossible to
acquire for 2-D imaging
PLIF Measurements of Molecular
Mixing in Shear Layers

King et al., Phys.

Fluids, Vol. 11, 403
(1999).

Meyer et al., Phys.

Fluids, Vol. 11, 3401
(1999).

Meyer et al., Phys.

Fluids, Vol. 13, 3411
(2001).
PLIF Measurements of Molecular
Mixing in a Driven Shear Layer

Meyer et al., Phys. Fluids, Vol. 11, 3401 (1999).

Meyer et al., Phys. Fluids, Vol. 11, 3401 (1999).
PLIF Measurements
of CH and OH in a
Turbulent Flame

Donbar et al., Combust.

Flame, Vol. 122, 1 (2000).

Re = 18,600 flame

Fuel: 30% CH4, 70% N2

Co-Flow: Pure O2
 PIV measurements
PIV measures the instantaneous velocity field over an entire region of interest.

PIV instrumentation

The working fluid (air) is seeded with fog particles.

Images are captured with a CCD camera.
 Principle of PIV
t t+? t

n
f(i,j) g(i,j)

q p m
? K ( m, n ) ? ?? f k (i, j ).g k (i ? m, j ? n)
Cross-correlation
j ? 1 i ?1
function
 A sample image and a velocity
field
2.0 2.0

y/h y/h

-1.0 -1.0
7.4 11.2
x/h
7.2 12.12
x/h
A sample image of particles A sample velocity field
 PIV – Important issues
• Non-intrusive technique for velocity
measurement
• Indirect measurement – tracer particle velocity
• Whole field technique (2-D, 3-D)
• Selection of tracer particles important – to
avoid velocity lag
• Compromise between laser power and particle
size (larger particles can be used for liquid
flows)
• Duration of illumination pulse – particle
should be ‘frozen’
 PIV – Important issues (contd.)

• Distribution of tracer particles needs to be

homogeneous
• Density of tracer particles – medium
preferred for PIV
• Time-resolved PIV possible with high rep
rate, double-pulsed laser systems
Simultaneous CH
PLIF and PIV
Measurements in a
Turbulent Flame

Carter et al., Appl. Phys. B,

Vol. 66, 129 (1998).
Simultaneous CH PLIF and PIV
Measurements in a Turbulent Flame

Carter et al., Appl. Phys.

B, Vol. 66, 129 (1998).
1. Fuel-air Mixing in Gas Turbine
Combustors - Background
• Rolls-Royce/Allison Engine Company
• Industrial Gas Turbine – operating on
natural gas
• Low NOx emission (below 10 ppm)
mandates homogeneous lean, premixed
combustion (? ? 0.5)
• Avoid flashback, enhance flame stability
and maximize combustion efficiency
• Key requirement – efficient and compact
mixing of fuel & air
 Lean Premix Module
• Originally designed using CFD
• Consists of
– Fuel delivery tubes located between swirl vanes to
guide radial air inflow
– Injector holes arranged along fuel tube in two
axial rows
• Objective – Evaluation of fuel-air mixing at
exit of Swirler Vane/Fuel Tube assembly
• Effect of air momentum and fuel tube
alignment also to be studied
Schematic of Module
 PLIF Diagnostic Procedure
• Fuel mole fraction image obtained via acetone
PLIF (280 nm excitation and 465?40 nm
detection)
• Acetone/He/N2 fuel surrogate (0.27% acetone)
• Calibration via known acetone concentration
in gaseous jet
• Fluorescence events (150) integrated on ICCD
detector
• PLIF images perpendicular to air-fuel mixture
flow exiting module – 17-29 mm downstream
Experimental Setup
Mixing Profiles
N2/Acetone

• Quantitative
Images of Fuel
Concentration

• Mixing is poor
even at
downstream
locations
Mixing Profiles
N2/He/Acetone

• Results indicate
importance of
surrogate fuel
composition

• Mixing still not

satisfactory at
downstream
locations
 Effect of Air
Flow Variations
• Small reductions in
air flow degrade
mixing

• This implies that

fluctuations in air
flow can be a major
source of
unmixedness and
hence increased
NO formation
 Effect of Fuel
Tube Orientation

• Dramatic Effect
of Fuel Tube
Orientation on
Mixing
• Optimum angle
identified
through PLIF
images of mixing
 Conclusions
• Quantitative information on fuel-air mixing
obtained at downstream locations
• Mixing found to be enhanced by greater air
to fuel momentum ratio
• Mixing found to be strongly affected by
variations in air flow rate
• Fuel Tube orientation radically affects
mixing – optimum angle determined by
PLIF experimentation
 2. LIF in Oil Film Thickness
Measurement

• Motivation – IC Engine Tribology

• Study of friction & wear at piston ring -
cylinder liner interface
• Harsh environment – high temperatures &
pressures, debris from combustion
• Oil film thickness plays very important role
in determining regime of lubrication
 LIF in Measurement of Oil Film
Thickness
• Fluorescent dye mixed with engine oil a priori
• Engine oil film exposed to laser radiation
• Laser wavelength chosen to excite dye
molecule
• Excited dye molecule emits fluorescence
• Measured fluorescence used to estimate oil
thickness
 Experimental Configuration
• Helium Cadmium Laser – 50 mW at 442 nm
• Fiber-optic cable employed to carry laser light and receive
fluorescence
• Dichroic & Interference filters
• Photo-multiplier tube (PMT) for detection of fluorescence
RECIPROCATING
SPECIMEN

OIL FILM

DICHROIC INTERFERENCE
MIRROR FILTER (495 nm)

FIBER- OPTIC 495 nm

CABLE (Fluorescence
Signal)
INTERFERENCE
FILTER (442 nm)
OSCILLOSCOPE

442 nm (Laser Radiation)

HELIUM- CADMIUM
LASER
 Summary
• Reasonable fluorescence signals detected for
thin films
• Reciprocatory tribometer to be commissioned
– Up to 50 Hz, 500 N Normal Load, Stroke – 16 mm
– Recirculating oil feed system with temperature
control
– Flexibility of making film thickness measurement
at any location along stroke
• LIF Measurement to be integral part of
Tribometer
 3. PLIF in IC Engine Research-
State of the art
• In-cylinder liquid fuel imaging in both SI
and diesel engines
• Vaporization and mixing studies
• Combustion species imaging – complicated
due to interferences from PAHs
– Only qualitative imaging of OH, NO
 Laser-sheet Dropsizing (LSD)
• Utilizes PLIF and Planar Mie-Scattering
Images
• Obtains drop size from the d3 dependence of
PLIF and d2 dependence of Mie-images
• However, Mie-scattering difficult under real
engine conditions
 Mean PLIF & Mie-scatter Images
Pressure-swirl atomizer (Le Gal et al., 1999)
PLI(E)F – Exciplex Fluorescence
• Two tracers (M-monomer, N-partner) added
to fuel
• M excited by laser radiation fluoresces in
the vapour phase
• M forms excited state complex (exciplex)
with N in liquid phase under laser radiation
• Both signals are at different wavelengths –
can be separated by filters
PLI(E)F Liquid Fuel Imaging
(Bruneaux, 2001)
 SI Engine – Direct Fuel Injection
Cyclic Variation (Hentschel, 2000)