Super Bug

Antibiotic resistance is a form of drug resistance whereby some (or, less commonly, all) sub-
populations of a microorganism, usually a bacterial species, are able to survive after exposure to
one or more antibiotics; pathogens resistant to multiple antibiotics are consideredmultidrug
resistant (MDR) or, more colloquially, superbugs.
[1]

Antibiotic resistance is a serious and growing phenomenon in contemporary medicine and has
emerged as one of the pre-eminent public health concerns of the 21st century, in particular as it
pertains to pathogenic organisms (the term is especially relevant to organisms that cause disease in
humans). A World Health Organization report released April 30, 2014 states, "this serious threat is
no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has
the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country. Antibiotic resistancewhen bacteria
change so antibiotics no longer work in people who need them to treat infectionsis now a major
threat to public health."
[2]

In the simplest cases, drug-resistant organisms may have acquired resistance to first-line antibiotics,
thereby necessitating the use of second-line agents. Typically, a first-line agent is selected on the
basis of several factors including safety, availability, and cost; a second-line agent is usually broader
in spectrum, has a less favourable risk-benefit profile, and is more expensive or, in dire
circumstances, may be locally unavailable. In the case of some MDR pathogens, resistance to
second- and even third-line antibiotics is, thus, sequentially acquired, a case quintessentially
illustrated by Staphylococcus aureus in some nosocomial settings. Some pathogens, such
as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, also possess a high level of intrinsic resistance.
It may take the form of a spontaneous or induced genetic mutation, or the acquisition of
resistance genes from other bacterial species by horizontal gene
transfer via conjugation,transduction, or transformation. Many antibiotic resistance genes reside on
transmissible plasmids, facilitating their transfer. Exposure to an antibiotic naturally selects for the
survival of the organisms with the genes for resistance. In this way, a gene for antibiotic resistance
may readily spread through an ecosystem of bacteria. Antibiotic-resistance plasmids frequently
contain genes conferring resistance to several different antibiotics. This is not the case
for Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the bacteria that causes Tuberculosis, since evidence is lacking for
whether these bacteria have plasmids.
[3]
Also M. tuberculosis lack the opportunity to interact with
other bacteria in order to share plasmids.
[3][4]

Genes for resistance to antibiotics, like the antibiotics themselves, are ancient.
[5]
However, the
increasing prevalence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial infections seen in clinical practice stems from
antibiotic use both within human medicine and veterinary medicine. Any use of antibiotics can
increase selective pressure in a population of bacteria to allow the resistant bacteria to thrive and the
susceptible bacteria to die off. As resistance towards antibiotics becomes more common, a greater
need for alternative treatments arises. However, despite a push for new antibiotic therapies, there
has been a continued decline in the number of newly approved drugs.
[6]
Antibiotic resistance
therefore poses a significant problem.
The growing prevalence and incidence of infections due to MDR pathogens is epitomised by the
increasing number of familiar acronyms used to describe the causative agent and sometimes the
infection; of these, MRSA is probably the most well-known, but others including VISA (vancomycin-
intermediate S. aureus), VRSA (vancomycin-resistant S. aureus), ESBL (Extended spectrum beta-
lactamase), VRE (Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus) and MRAB (Multidrug-resistant A.
baumannii) are prominent examples. Nosocomial infections overwhelmingly dominate cases where
MDR pathogens are implicated, but multidrug-resistant infections are also becoming increasingly
common in the community.
Although there were low levels of preexisting antibiotic-resistant bacteria before the widespread use
of antibiotics,
[7]

[8]
evolutionary pressure from their use has played a role in the development of
multidrug-resistant varieties and the spread of resistance between bacterial species.
[9]
In medicine,
the major problem of the emergence of resistant bacteria is due to misuse and overuse of
antibiotics.
[10]
In some countries, antibiotics are sold over the counter without a prescription, which
also leads to the creation of resistant strains. Other practices contributing to resistance
include antibiotic use in livestock feed to promote faster growth.
[11][12]
Household use of antibacterials
in soaps and other products, although not clearly contributing to resistance, is also discouraged (as
not being effective at infection control).
[13]
Unsound practices in the pharmaceutical manufacturing
industry can also contribute towards the likelihood of creating antibiotic-resistant strains.
[14]
The
procedures and clinical practice during the period of drug treatment are frequently flawed usually
no steps are taken to isolate the patient to prevent re-infection or infection by a new pathogen,
negating the goal of complete destruction by the end of the course
[15]
(see Healthcare-associated
infections and Infection control).
Certain antibiotic classes are highly associated with colonisation with "superbugs" compared to other
antibiotic classes. A superbug, also called multiresistant, is a bacterium that carries several
resistance genes.
[16]
The risk for colonisation increases if there is a lack of susceptibility (resistance)
of the superbugs to the antibiotic used and high tissue penetration, as well as broad-spectrum
activity against "good bacteria". In the case of MRSA, increased rates of MRSA infections are seen
with glycopeptides, cephalosporins, and especially quinolones.
[17][18]
In the case of colonisation
with Clostridium difficile, the high-risk antibiotics include cephalosporins and in particular quinolones
andclindamycin.
[19][20]

Of antibiotics used in the United States in 1997, half were used in humans and half in animals; in
2013, 80% were used in animals.
[21]

sect Nervous Systems
Insects are remarkable for their variety of color, form, and presence in different habitats. The life cycle
of many insects includes striking morphological changes (e.g., from caterpillar to butterfly) that not
only affect the external form of the animal but also involve a resculpturing of the nervous system. The
sensory organs of insects also display great variety and sensitivity.
The Central Nervous System Varies Little
among Insects
Despite the diversity of insect body form (there are over a million living species), the central nervous
systems of insects are remarkably similar: they vary astonishingly little from the most primitive to
the most advanced (J. S. Edwards and Palka, 1991, p. 391). The gross outline of the adult insect
nervous system consists of a brain in the head end and ganglia in each body segment behind the head
(Figure 1). Bundles of axons connect ganglia to the brain. The number of ganglia varies: in some
insects all the ganglia of the chest and abdomen fuse into one major collection of cells; in other
insects there are as many as eight ganglia in a chain.

Figure 1 The Nervous System of a Typical Insect, Drosophila melanogaster
In insects, such as this fruit fly, the brain with its subdivisions is linked via bundles of axons (connectives) to
groups of ganglia in the thorax and abdomen. The brain, connectives, and ganglia are shown here in blue.
The brain itself contains three major compartments: two lobes of the protocerebrum and an optic
lobe. The protocerebrum is the most complex part of the insect brain, and its right and left lobes are
each continuous with the large optic lobe, an extension of the compound eye. Within the optic lobe are
distinct masses of cells that receive input from the eye, as well as from the brain. Electrical stimulation
of sites within the protocerebrum elicits complex behaviors. The relative sizes of different components
of the protocerebrum differ among insects, and some of these variations may be particularly relevant
to behavioral variations. For example, a portion of the protocerebrum called the corpus
pedunculatum is especially well developed in social insects, and the behavior of these animals tends to
be more elaborate than that displayed by solitary insects.
One prominent feature of the nerve cord of insects is giant axonsfibers much bigger in diameter
than most. The large diameter of these axons means that they conduct action potentials rapidly (see
Chapter 3), making them valuable for sending messages quickly. Some insects have receptive organs
(the cerci, singular circus) in the tail that detect air movement; these receptors connect to giant
interneurons with very large axons that ascend the nerve cord to the head. Along the way, these
axons excite some motoneurons. This system originated to allow insects to escape predation by
retreating rapidly. In many insects (e.g., cockroaches) this system still functions as an escape system;
in other insects the cerci and the connections of the giant interneurons have been modified so that
they also play a role in reproductive behavior (in crickets) or help regulate flight maneuvers (in
grasshoppers). No matter how this system functions in a particular species, its basic organization and
cellular composition appear to have remained the same for a very long time, perhaps as long as 400
million years (J. S. Edwards and Palka, 1991).
Vertebrate and Invertebrate Nervous
Systems Differ
Lets compare some of the features of vertebrate and invertebrate nervous systems:
Basic plan. All vertebrates and most invertebrates share a basic plan that consists of a central
nervous system and a peripheral nervous system.
Brain. All vertebrates and many invertebrates, including mollusks and insects, have brains.
The general evolutionary trend in both vertebrates and invertebrates is toward increasing
brain control over ganglia at lower levels of the body.
Number of neurons. Whereas vertebrate brains usually have many neurons devoted to
information processing, invertebrate brains usually have fewer but larger and more-
complicated neurons to integrate information.
Ganglion structure. Vertebrate ganglia have the cell bodies on the inside and the dendrites and
axons on the outside. Ganglia in invertebrate nervous systems have a different structure: an
outer rind of cell bodies and an inner core consisting of extensions of the cell bodies forming a
dense neuropil (a network of axons and dendrites).
Axons and neural conduction. Many axons of mammalian neurons are surrounded by myelin,
which helps them conduct impulses faster than unmyelinated axons can (see Chapter 3).
Invertebrates have no myelin to speed nerve conduction, but as we mentioned in the previous
section, many have a few giant axons to convey messages rapidly.
Structural changes. The structure of the nervous system undergoes large-scale changes in
some invertebrates during metamorphosis. Vertebrates show important changes in neural
structure during development, but these changes are not as dramatic as the changes during
invertebrate metamorphoses.
Location in the body. In vertebrates the central nervous system is encased in the bony skull
and spinal column. In many invertebrates, the nervous system is built around the digestive
tract (see Figure 1).
2010 Sinauer Associates, Inc.
CHAPTER 6

o Summary & Outline
o Study Questions
o Tutorials & Activities
The larva is a general term to denote young one or immature stage of insect between egg and pupa
having complete and hyper metamorphosis (Holometabolus or Endopterygota insects). The larvae are
classified into four groups on the basis of development of appendages.
1. Protopod Larva: In this eggs contain little yolk and larvae hatch out from the eggs, while they are still
in early stages of embryonic development. The abdomen is devoid of segmentation and head (cephalic)
and thoracic appendages are rudimentary e.g. Larvae of Endoparasitic Hymenoptera.
2. Polypod Larva: This type of larva has well segmented body and possesses three pairs of thoracic legs
and 2 to 5 pairs of abdominal prolegs. The reparatory system os peripneustaic type i.e. only prothoracic
and abdominal spiracles only are open. These larvae are also termed as Eruciform (cylindrical type)
e.g. larvae of butterflies and moths. On the basis of number and location of prolegs, these larvae are
further classified as:
a) Caterpillar
b) Semilooper and
c) Looper.
a. Caterpillar: It is a type of polypod larva which bears 3 pairs of thoracic legs and 5 pairs of prolegs. The
prolegs are present on 3, 4, 5, 6, & 10th abdominal segments e.g. Larva of Lemon butter fly, larva of
gram pod borer etc.
b. Semilooper: It is a type of polypod larva which bears 3 pairs of thoracic legs and 3 pairs of prolegs.
Prolegs are present on 5, 6, and 10th abdominal segments e.g. Castor Semilooper, cotton Semilooper
etc.
c. Looper: It is a type of polypod larva which bears 3 pairs of thoracic legs and two pairs of prolegs on
6th and 10th abdominal segments e.g. Cabbage looper.
3. Oligopod Larva: These larvae have well segmented body and they bear well development cephalic
(head) appendages and 3 pairs of thoracic legs. The abdominal appendages (prolegs) are absent. In
some larvae a pair of cerci or similar caudal processes may be present. On the basis of structure, the
oligopod larvae are further classified into two types viz. a) Campodeiform type b) Scarabaeiform type.
a. Campodeiform Type larva: The larva appear like campodea insect (from order Diplura) and hence the
name. These larvae have elongated more or less fusiform (i.e. tapering at both the ends). Some what
depressed body which is often well sclerotized bearing long thoracic legs and usually a pair of terminal
cerci e.g. Lady Bird beetle, lace wing etc.
b. Scarabaeiform Type Larva: This type of larva is shout, fleshy C shaped with shorter thoracic legs and
without terminal abdominal processes (cerci). They are less active and sluggish e.g. White grub,
rhinoceros beetle etc.
4. Apodous Larva: These larvae do not have either thoracic legs or abdominal prolegs (legless) e.g.
House fly, fruit fly, honey bee.
The apodous larvae may be classified into following 3 types on the basis of degree of development of
head.
a. Eucephalous Larva: This type of larvae have well sclerotized head capsule with relatively reduced of
cephalic appendages e.g. Mosquito, mango stem borer etc.
b. Hemiphaous Larva: This type of larvae appreciably reduced head capsule and its appendages. The
head can be withdrawn into the thorax e.g. Honey bees, robber lies, horse flies etc.
c. Acephalous Larva: They have no obvious head capsule and cephalic appendages e.g. Larva of house
fly.
Significance of Larva Stage: It helps in increasing size and putting on more weight of insect.

Diapause, when referencing animal dormancy, is the delay in development in response to regularly and
recurring periods of adverse environmental conditions.
[1][2]
It is considered to be a physiological state
of dormancy with very specific initiating and inhibiting conditions. Diapause is a mechanism used as a
means to survive predictable, unfavorable environmental conditions, such as temperature extremes,
drought or reduced food availability. Diapause is most often observed in arthropods, especially insects,
and in the embryosof many of the oviparous species of fish in the
order Cyprinodontiformes.
[3]
(Diapause does not occur in embryos of
the viviparousand ovoviviparous species of Cyprinodontiformes.)
Diapause is not only induced in an organism by specific stimuli or conditions, but once it is initiated, only
certain other stimuli are capable of bringing the organism out of diapause. The latter feature is essential
in distinguishing diapause as a different phenomenon from other forms of dormancy such
as stratification, and hibernation.
Activity levels of diapausing stages can vary considerably among species. Diapause may occur in a
completely immobile stage, such as the pupae and eggs, or it may occur in very active stages that
undergo extensive migrations, such as the adult Monarch butterfly,Danaus plexippus. In cases where the
insect remains active, feeding is reduced and reproductive development is slowed or halted.
Diapause in insects is a dynamic process consisting of several distinct phases (Kostal 2006). While
diapause varies considerably from one taxon of insects to another, these phases can be characterized by
particular sets of metabolic processes and responsiveness of the insect to certain environmental
stimuli.
[4]
Diapause can occur during any stage of development in arthropods, but each species exhibits
diapause in specific phases of development. Reduced oxygen consumption is typical as is reduced
movement and feeding.
[5]

Comparison of diapause periods[edit]
The sensitive stage is the period where stimulus must occur to trigger diapause in the organism.
Examples of sensitive stage/diapause periods in various insects:
[

Diapause in insects is a dynamic process consisting of several distinct phases (Kostal 2006). While
diapause varies considerably from one taxon of insects to another, these phases can be characterized by
particular sets of metabolic processes and responsiveness of the insect to certain environmental
stimuli.
[4]
Diapause can occur during any stage of development in arthropods, but each species exhibits
diapause in specific phases of development. Reduced oxygen consumption is typical as is reduced
movement and feeding.
[5]

Comparison of diapause periods[edit]
The sensitive stage is the period where stimulus must occur to trigger diapause in the organism.
Examples of sensitive stage/diapause periods in various insects:
[

Induction[edit]
The induction phase occurs at a genetically predetermined stage of life and occurs well in advance of the
environmental stress.
[4]
This sensitive stage may occur within the lifetime of the diapausing individual, or
in preceding generations, particularly in egg diapause.
[8]
During this phase, insects are responsive to
external cues called token stimuli, which trigger the switch from direct development pathways to
diapause pathways. Token stimuli can consist of changes
in photoperiod, thermoperiod or allelochemicals from food plants. These stimuli are not in themselves
favourable or unfavourable to development, but they herald an impending change in environmental
conditions.
[2]

Preparation[edit]
The preparation phase usually follows the induction phase, though insects may go directly from
induction to initiation without a preparation phase.
[4]
During this phase, insects accumulate and store
molecules such as lipids, proteins and carbohydrates. These molecules are used to maintain the insect
throughout diapause and to provide fuel for development following diapause termination. Composition
of the cuticle may be altered by changing hydrocarbon composition and by adding lipids to reduce water
loss making the organism resistant to desiccation.
[9]
Diapausing puparia of the flesh fly Sarcophaga
crassipalpis increase the amount of cuticular hydrocarbons lining the puparium, effectively reducing the
ability of water to cross the cuticle.
[10]

Initiation[edit]
Photoperiod is the most important stimulus initiating diapause.
[6]
The initiation phase begins when
morphological development ceases.
[4]
In some cases, this change may be very distinct and can
involve moulting into a specific diapause stage, or be accompanied by color change. Enzymatic changes
may take place in preparation for cold hardening. For example, only diapausing adults of the fire
bug, Pyrrhocoris apterus, have the enzymatic complement that allows them to accumulate polyhydric
alcohols, molecules that help to lower their freezing points and thus avoid freezing.
[11]
Insects may also
undergo behavioural changes and begin to aggregate, migrate or search for suitable overwintering sites.


Overwintering Monarch Butterflies in diapause clustering on Oyamel trees. Note that one tree is
completely covered in butterflies. These butterflies were located on a preserve outside
ofAngangueo, Michoacn, Mexico
Maintenance[edit]
During the maintenance phase, insects experience lowered metabolism and developmental arrest is
maintained.
[4]
Sensitivity to certain stimuli which act to prevent termination of diapause, such
as photoperiod and temperature, is increased. At this stage, insects are unresponsive to changes in
the environment that will eventually trigger the end of diapause, but they grow more sensitive to these
stimuli as time progresses.
Termination[edit]
In insects that undergo obligate diapause, termination may occur spontaneously, without any external
stimuli.
[4]
In facultative diapausers, token stimuli must occur to terminate diapause. These stimuli may
include chilling, freezing or contact with water, depending on the environmental conditions being
avoided. These stimuli are important in preventing the insect from terminating diapause too soon, for
instance in response to warm weather in late fall. In the Edith's Checkerspot butterfly, individuals must
receive enough sunlight in order to terminate the diapause stage and became a fully grown
butterfly.
[12]
Termination may occur at the height of unfavourable conditions, such as in the middle of
winter. Over time, depth of diapause slowly decreases until direct development can resume, if
conditions are favourable.
Post-diapause quiescence[edit]
Diapause frequently ends prior to the end of unfavourable conditions and is followed by a state
of quiescence from which the insect can arouse and begin direct development, should conditions
change to become more favourable.
[4]
This allows the insect to continue to withstand harsh conditions
while being ready to take advantage of good conditions as rapidly as possible.
Regulation of diapause[edit]
Diapause in insects is regulated at several levels. Environmental stimuli interact with genetic pre-
programming to affect neuronal signalling, endocrine pathways and eventually metabolic and enzymatic
changes.
Environmental[edit]
Environmental regulators of diapause generally display a characteristic seasonal pattern.
In temperate regions, photoperiod is the most reliable cues of seasonal change.
[8]
Depending on the
season in which diapause occurs, either short or long days can act as token stimuli. Insects may also
respond to changing day length as well as relative day length. Temperature may also act as a regulating
factor, either by inducing diapause or, more commonly, by modifying the response of the insect to
photoperiod.
[8]
Insects may respond to thermoperiod, the daily fluctuations of warm and cold that
correspond with night and day, as well as to absolute or cumulative temperature. Food availability and
quality may also help regulate diapause. In the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria, a
plant hormone called gibberellin stimulates reproductive development.
[13]
During the dry season, when
their food plants are in senescence and lacking gibberellin, the locusts remain immature and their
reproductive tracts do not develop.
Neuroendocrine[edit]
The neuroendocrine system of insects consists primarily of neurosecretory cells in the brain, the corpora
cardiaca, corpora allata and the prothoracic glands.
[2]
There are several key hormones involved in the
regulation of diapause: juvenile hormone (JH), diapause hormone (DH), and prothoracicotropic
hormone (PTTH).
[14]

Prothoracicotropic hormone stimulates the prothoracic glands to produce ecdysteroids that are
required to promote development.
[14]
Larval and pupal diapauses are often regulated by an interruption
of this connection, either by preventing release of prothoracicotropic hormone from the brain or by
failure of the prothoracic glands to respond to prothoracicotropic hormone.
The corpora allata is responsible for the production of juvenile hormone (JH). In the bean bug, Riptortus
pedestris, clusters of neurons on the protocerebrum called the pars lateralis maintain reproductive
diapause by inhibiting JH production by the corpora allata.
[15]
Adult diapause is often associated with the
absence of JH, while larval diapause is often associated with its presence.
In adults, absence of JH causes degeneration of flight muscles, atrophy or cessation of development of
reproductive tissues, and halts mating behaviour. The presence of JH in larvae may prevent moulting to
the next larval instar, though successive stationary moults may still occur.
[16]
In the corn borer, Diatraea
gradiosella, JH is required for the accumulation by the fat body of a storage protein that is associated
with diapause.
[17]

Diapause hormone regulates embryonic diapause in the eggs of the silkworm moth, Bombyx mori.
[18]
DH
is released from the subesophageal ganglion of the mother and triggerstrehalase production by
the ovaries. This generates high levels of glycogen in the eggs, which is converted into the polyhydric
alcohols glycerol and sorbitol. Sorbitol directly inhibits the development of the
embryos. Glycerol and sorbitol are reconverted into glycogen at the termination of diapause.
Tropical diapause[edit]
Diapause in the tropics is often initiated in response to biotic rather than abiotic factors.
[19]
For example,
food in the form of vertebrate carcasses may be more abundant following dry seasons,
or oviposition sites in the form of fallen trees may be more available following rainy seasons. Also,
diapause may serve to synchronize mating seasons or reduce competition, rather than to avoid
unfavourable climatic conditions.
Diapause in the tropics poses several challenges to insects that are not faced
in temperate zones.
[19]
Insects must reduce their metabolism without the aid of cold temperatures and
may be faced with increased water loss due to high temperatures. While cold temperatures inhibit the
growth of fungi and bacteria, diapausing tropical insects still have to deal with these pathogens.
Also, predators and parasites may still be abundant during the diapause period.
Aggregations are common among diapausing tropical insects, especially in the
orders Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Hemiptera.
[19]
Aggregations may be used as protection
againstpredation, since aggregating species are frequently toxic and predators quickly learn to avoid
them. They can also serve to reduce water loss, as seen in the fungus beetle,Stenotarsus rotundus,
which forms aggregations of up to 70,000 individuals, which may be eight beetles deep. Relative
humidity is increased within the aggregations and beetles experience less water loss, probably due to
decreased surface area to volume ratios reducing evaporative water loss.
[20]

Sounds are caused when materials vibrate (move back and forth). When you rub the file across the
paper, the rough surface of the file plucks the paper's edge, causing it to vibrate. The vibrating paper
produces sound.
Certain insects, like crickets and grasshoppers, produce sounds in much the same way. These insects
make sounds by rubbing two body parts, usually one sharp-edged and the other rough or filelike, against
each other. This process is called stridulation. The short-horned grasshopper or locust stridulates by
rubbing its rough hind leg across the sharp edge of its wing. Most insect sounds are made by males to
attract females and to warn other males away.
Let's Explore
Most insect sounds do not get higher or lower, but remain constant throughout the sound. The sounds
of related insect species are different because they have different rhythms(sounds in regular patterns).
The length of time a sound is made and the time between sounds produces a rhythm. The rhythm in the
experiment is the time between the sound produced by two quick strokes of the file across the card,
silence for 1 second, then the sound of the two strokes again. Repeat the experiment, producing
different rhythms. One way would be to first draw the file across the card very slowly two times. Then
draw the file across the card quickly four to five times, followed by another second of silence before
starting over.
Show Time!


Demonstrate this method of sound production by cutting off the narrow part of a 12-inch (30-cm) round
balloon. Stretch the bottom, rounded part of the balloon over the mouth of a 10-ounce (300-ml) plastic
glass. Pinch the center of the stretched balloon between the thumb and index finger of one hand. Pull
the pinched balloon outward, then release it.

1.
a. Some insects produce sounds by expelling (forcing out) air or liquid from some body
opening. Insects usually produce these sounds in response to disturbances. Some
cockroaches produce a hissing sound by expelling air from certain spiracles(breathing
holes) in their bodies. Demonstrate this type of sound production by holding your teeth
together and blowing air between them.
b. The death's-head sphinx moth produces a whistling sound as it expels air from
itspharynx (throat). Use a balloon to show how expelling air can cause a whistling
sound. Blow up the balloon and hold the open end with the index finger and thumb of
both hands. Stretch the neck of the balloon outward to form a narrow opening and let
the air out slowly.
2. Male cicadas produce very loud sounds by vibrating special membranes (thin, flexible sheets of
tissue) called tymbals. The abdomen of the male cicada is almost completely hollow. The
vibrating tymbals and the hollow abdomen act like a drum.
3. Insects also produce sound by vibrating their wings or other body parts. Bees and mosquitoes
buzz because their wings vibrate. Use a vibrating index card to demonstrate the sound of an
insect's vibrating wings. Stretch a rubber band around a 4-by-6-inch (10-by-15-cm) piece of
cardboard. Place 2 pencils under the rubber band at opposite ends of the cardboard. Pluck the
rubber band with your finger, then immediately touch the vibrating rubber band with the tip of
an index card, which will make the index card vibrate. Use this and the other sound models to
prepare a display for the different sound-producing mechanisms.

GLITTERING ORBS: A frozen spiderweb hangs serenely, abandoned by its creator. (Photo:
jlcwalker/Flickr)
One of the best things about winter, for many people, is the lack of bugs. It's grown too cold for the
mosquitoes, the ladybugs have finally stopped swarming around windows and the clouds of gnats that
characterize summer in the Midwest have disippated. The question hardly anyone thinks about,
however, is the following: where do all the insects go? There are many tactics insects use to escape the
cold, and when the insects use these tactics, they are pretty much invisible to human notice.

Many insects hibernate as adults, such as wasps and ladybugs. They usually hibernate in large groups,
and they seek out sheltered hiding places, such as in attics or under eaves. Hiding in decomposing leaves
on the ground is also a common habit, as well as hibernating in holes in trees. According to the
Smithsonian Institute Encyclopedia, some butterflies like the Mourning Cloak butterfly are able to resist
the cold by reducing water in their body, and then making glycerol to use as antifreeze. Bees tend to
stay in groups inside their hives, and they can vibrate their wing muscles to keep warm. They also eat
the honey they have stored, giving them energy to keep themselves from getting too cold. Ants and
termites huddle together in colonies as well, similar to bees.



Other insect species spend the winter as larvae or pupae, emerging as adults in the spring. This allows
them to get most of their growth out of the way while they are hibernating, and they can flourish as
adults when it's warmer and there is more food. Mosquitoes, for instance, hibernate as eggs, and once
the cold of winter starts to thaw, the eggs begin to grow. This is why, when heat and humidity rise, the
mosquito population multiplies. They are all hatching out of their eggs and reproducing even more.

Pro tip: If you have a pond in your back yard, a good way to keep the mosquito population down is to
introduce goldfish into the pond in early spring, when the water is defrosted all the way, and they will
eat the mosquito eggs and larvae.

Insects can also create galls, which are orb-like formations on the side of trees. They burrow into the
tree and suck the inner plant tissue, causing the tissue to swell and form a sort of bubble. They
sequester themselves inside the bubble, and the bubble of plant tissue protects them from the elements
during the winter. Sometimes insects do come out in winter when the temperature rises above 45
degrees Fahrenheit, but this is rare. They come out for the warmth of the sun, but once the weather
goes back to a colder temperature, they go right back inside their hiding place. These insects can often
be found coming out of dead or dying trees, since a lot of insects burrow into holes inside the bark to
shield themselves.

So, insects may appear hidden during the winter, and that definitely has an advantage for humans, but
they are still there. They just have very clever ways of hiding themselves.