22/7/2014 Force Measurement

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A Historical Perspective
From Ari stotl e to Hawki ng
Force & Its Effects
Measurement Li mi tati ons

The Strain Gage
Sensor Desi gns
Measuri ng Ci rcui ts
Appl i cati on & Instal l ati on

Process Pressure
Measurement
From Mechani cal to
El ectroni c
Transducer Types
Practi cal Consi derati ons

High Pressure & Vacuum
Hi gh Pressure Desi gns
Very Hi gh Pressures
Vacuum Instrumentati on

Pressure Gauges
& Switches
Pressure Gauge Desi gns
Protecti ve Accessori es
Pressure Swi tches

Force, Acceleration,
& Torque
Force Sensors
Accel erati on & Vi brati on
Torque Measurement

Load Cell Designs
Operati ng Pri nci pl es
New Sensor Devel opments
Strai n Gage Confi gurati ons

Weighing Applications
Wei ghi ng System Desi gn
Instal l ati on & Cal i brati on
Speci al i zed Instal l ati ons

Information Resources
Glossary
Index
List of Figures
Data Tables
Force & Its Effects
Force is a quantity capable of changing the size, shape, or motion of
an object. It is a vector quantity and, as such, it has both direction
and magnitude. In the SI system, the magnitude of a force is
measured in units called newtons, and in pounds in the
British/American system. If a body is in motion, the energy of that
motion can be quantified as the momentum of the object, the product
of its mass and its velocity. If a body is free to move, the action of a
force will change the velocity of the body.
There are four basic forces in nature: gravitational, magnetic, strong
nuclear, and weak nuclear forces. The weakest of the four is the
gravitational force. It is also the easiest to observe, because it acts
on all matter and it is always attractive, while having an infinite range.
Its attraction decreases with distance, but is always measurable.
Therefore, positional "equilibrium" of a body can only be achieved when
gravitational pull is balanced by another force, such as the upward
force exerted on our feet by the earth's surface.
Figure 1-3: Atmospheric Reference Gauge
Pressure is the ratio between a force acting on a surface and the
area of that surface. Pressure is measured in units of force divided by
area: pounds per square inch (psi) or, in the SI system, newtons per
square meter, or pascals. When an external stress (pressure) is applied
to an object with the intent to cause a reduction in its volume, this
process is called compression. Most liquids and solids are practically
incompressible, while gases are not.
The First Gas Law, called Boyle's law, states that the pressure and
volume of a gas are inversely proportional to one another: PV = k,
where P is pressure, V is volume and k is a constant of proportionality.
The Second Gas Law, Charles' Law, states that the volume of an
enclosed gas is directly proportional to its temperature: V = kT, where
T is its absolute temperature. And, according to the Third Gas Law,
the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature: P = kT.
Figure 1-4: Flexible Load-Cell Connections
22/7/2014 Force Measurement
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Combining these three relationships yields the ideal gas law: PV = kT.
This approximate relationship holds true for many gases at relatively
low pressures (not too close to the point where liquification occurs)
and high temperatures (not too close to the point where condensation
is imminent).

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