SSS Korrosionsschutztechnik

Corrosion and Corrosion Protection

of Underground Steel Pipelines
SSS Korrosionsschutztechnik
GmbH & Co. KG
Mnchener Str. 69
D-45145 Essen
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E-mail
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Preface
1 Definitions:
Corrosion, corrosion manifestation,
corrosion damage, and corrosion
protection
2 Basics of underground corrosion and its
conditions
2.1 Partial reactions in corrosion chemistry
2.2 Influencing factors
and consecutive chemical reactions
2.3 Interactions between anodic
and cathodic partial reactions -
mutual dependence
2.4 Corrosion with uniform metal consumption
2.5 Formation of electrochemical cells
2.5.1 Anodic region; localized attack
2.5.2 Cathodic region;
formation of covering layers
2.5.3 Interaction between anodic
and cathodic regions
2.5.4 Influence of anodic
and cathodic area ratio
3 Estimation of corrosion danger for pipelines
not subject to electrical influence;
Fundamentals of protection methods
3.1 Aggressiveness of the soil
3.1.1 Uniform oxygen corrosion
3.1.2 Cell formation in the soil
3.1.3 Intensity of corrosion
in different types of soil
3.2 Methods of corrosion protection
3.2.1 Coatings: passive corrosion protection
3.2.1.1 Corrosion chemical interactions
on a coated steel surface
3.2.1.2 Required protective properties
of coating materials
3.2.2 Cathodic protection:
active corrosion protection
3.2.2.1 Potential dependence of corrosion
3.2.2.2 Application of cathodic protection;
verification of protection potential
3.2.3 Active protection + passive protection
= complete protection
4 Cathodic protection of pipelines
4.1 Constructional requirements
put by cathodic protection
4.2 Cathodic protection by using galvanic anodes
4.3 Cathodic protection by impressed current
4.4 Current feed test and adjustment
4.5 Side effects of the protection current
4.5.1 Interference with extraneous equipment
4.5.2 Internal interference
within water pipelines
5 Corrosion danger caused by foreign
cathodes; localized cathodic protection
5.1 External currents
5.2 Corrosion caused by foreign cathodes
5.2.1 Characteristic of a foreign cathode
5.2.2 Examples of foreign cathodes
5.2.3 Estimation of corrosion danger
5.2.4 Coating influence
5.3 Protection measures
5.3.1 Galvanic separation
5.3.2 Local cathodic protection,
hot spot protection
6 Corrosion caused by stray currents;
protection methods
6.1 Origins of stray currents
6.2 Characteristics of stray current action
6.3 Protection measures
against stray currents
6.3.1 Immediate drainage
6.3.2 Rectified drainage
6.3.3 Forced drainage
6.3.4 Use of controlling rectifiers
for forced drainage
Contents
7 High voltage interference, protective
measures and effect to cathodic protection
7.1 Types and causes of high voltage influence
7.2 Protective measures against too
high voltages in personal contact
7.2.1 Short time interference caused by short
circuit currents
7.2.2 Permanent interference caused by operating
currents
7.3 Grounding the pipeline
8 Conditions related to stress corrosion
cracking; preventive measures
8.1 Critical agents causing SCC
8.2 Danger caused by corrosion on the inside
surface of the pipes; protective measures
8.3 Danger caused by corrosion on the outside
surface of the pipes; protective measures
8.3.1 SCC caused by nitrates
8.3.2 SCC caused by sodium hydroxide
8.3.3 SCC caused by sodium bicarbonate
8.3.4 SCC in hard spots
8.3.5 SCC caused by cathodically produced
hydrogen
9 Behaviour of stainless steel in the ground
9.1 When to use stainless steel
9.2 Stainless steel parts acting as foreign
cathodes vs. unalloyed steel
9.3 Overall corrosion properties
and influence of alien currents
9.4 Conditions requiring protective measures
9.4.1 Sensitization
9.4.2 Concentrated chloride
10 Symbols
In this paper corrosion and corrosion protection of underground
steel pipelines are treated. Complementary to a number of
existing technical regulations it describes causes of corrosion
processes and possible protection measures based upon many
years practical experience of our customers. It gives hints and
explanations to engineers in charge of planning and operating
steel pipelines in order to help them realize and assess corrosion
dangers that may arise, and provide for suitable protection
measures in time.
The possible corrosion processes being manifold and complex,
and the service conditions of the pipelines not always being
thoroughly anticipated, completeness cannot be claimed, nor
may any guarantee be given for security against corrosion
damage. The planning, construction, and operation of active
corrosion protection facilities are the tasks of pertinent expert
contractors but are not the subject of this text.
As a coherent and compact treatise on corrosion-related
problems and based upon the general principles of corrosion
chemistry, this paper is intended to contribute to a more common
understanding of these. This understanding is to promote the
application of suitable corrosion protection, e.g. high grade
passive protection by polyethylene coating and application of
modern electrochemical protection methods so that steel
pipelines can be put to use with optimal profit and operated
securely.
The paper has been subdivided into many paragraphs similar
to a handbook so as to facilitate the locating of particular
problems.
The definitions of terms, and the electrochemical principles of
underground corrosion have been described in great detail
deliberately because for a comprehension of corrosion dangers
arising in practice and of appropriate protective measures this
knowledge is necessary.
Preface
Steel pipelines are used for the transportation of gases,
water, mineral oil, long-distance heating water and
chemi cal products as wel l as for the hydraul i c
transportation of solid materials. In most cases the pipe
material is unalloyed or low alloy steel. There is practically
no difference in the chemical properties of these
materials. High alloy steels - so-called stainless steels
- used for special applications only, have totally different
chemical properties varying considerably from type to
type. The weldability of line pipe steels allows the
construction of almost homo-geneous and mechanically
durable pipeline systems.
In this presentation mainly the corrosion behaviour of
unalloyed and low alloy steels is covered. Minor
differences in the chemical compositions of these may
be ignored; so for simplification, in the following chapters
this group of steels will just be called steel.
Corrosion is understood to be reactions of the material
in question with chemical constituents of its environment.
The changes resulting from these reactions are
manifestations of corrosion. In the case of steel in water
and humid soil the corrosion manifestation is always the
transformation of iron into corrosion products, mostly
solid, called rust. The question, whether or not this results
in damage, is answered exclusively by the extent of the
process in relation to the required performance of the
construction element.
In case the construction element does no longer perform
its task or if it may stop functioning within its projected
service life, then there is damage. In the case of a
pipeline the word damage means the pipe wall is
perforated or does no l onger ful fi l l the servi ce
requirements. Generally corrosion damage may be
taken to have occurred, if the wall thickness falls unduly
short of the specified minimum.
In this way of differentiating the various corrosion related
concepts from one another, as put down in DIN 50 900,
the fact is taken into account that all the metals in
common use generally corrode more or less rapidly
without this causing damage in every case.
Essential for the assessment of corrosion resistance
is always the definition of the requirements to be fulfilled
by the construction element in question, and, consequently,
the maximum tolerable rate of corrosion. With steel
pipelines this may be assumed to be a few 0.01 mm
per year. In case, however, corrosion rates amount to
some 0.1 mm per year, this may result in later damage,
depending on wall thickness, or have no consequences
if, for instance, corrosion rates drop in the course of
time due to the formation of surface layers. In projecting
pipelines this consuming corrosion is usually allowed
for by means of extra, compensatory wall thickness.
Very dangerous are conditions that lead to corrosion
rates of some millimeters per year, because in most
such cases perforation results within a few years.
Corrosion protection is understood to be methods that,
correctly applied, ensure corrosion to be mitigated to a
rate not exceeding the tolerable maximum. There is
neither a technical necessity nor the possibility in
common practice to achieve zero corrosion rate. That
this is not possible by methods applicable in practice
can be proved; as opposed to this, technically negligible
corrosion rates below 0.01 mm per year may well be
attained.
The different methods of corrosion protection for under-
ground pipelines work in different ways. Which of them
should be applied mainly depends on the relevant
conditions that may stimulate or mitigate corrosion,
these not always being obvious and generally difficult
to be assessed. There are even borderline cases where
a protection method, unsuitably applied, accelerates
corrosion. This is why pipeline protection, as a rule, is a
job for an expert.
1 Definations:
Corrosion, corrosion manifestation,
corrosion damage, and corrosion protection
2.1 Partial reactions in corrosion chemistry
Steel is made up predominantly of iron atoms; their
chemical symbol is Fe. Like all other metals steel is
characteri zed by an excepti onal l y hi gh el ectri c
conductivity in the order of magnitude of 10
5

-1
cm
-1
.
Responsible for this is a high concentration of free
electrons in the metal lattice. These electrons being
considered separate particles, for a realistic description
it is more appropriate not to use the symbol Fe for
denoting steel, but instead:
Fe <---> (Fe
2+
+ 2 e
-
) (1)
This manner of writing is used in chemistry to denote
mesomeric conditions of substances. The meaning is
that steel behaves like being in a state between two
limiting ones which are signified by the opposite sides
of formula (1).
This means steel can react in both these modifications:
(Fe), or (Fe
2+
+ 2 e
-
). This fact is the reason for the electro-
chemical nature of the corrosion of metals in electrolytic
solutions. Both components of the metal may react with
the environment independently of each other:
(Fe
2+
)
steel
---> (Fe
2+
)
electrolyte solution
(2a)
(e
-
)
steel
---> (e
-
)
electrolyte solution
(2b)
Electrons (e
-
) as such are not soluble in water, but they may
react directly with oxidizing components of the elec-
trolytic solution:
4e
-
+ O
2
+ 2 H
2
O ---> 4OH
-
(3)
2e
-
+ 2 H
2
O ---> 2 OH
-
+ H
2
(4)
Eqs. (2), (3), and (4) may be described in this way: Eq.
(2a) signifies a transfer of electrically positively charged
particles from the material into the soil; the transfer is
accompanied by a loss of bulk material. This process
is an anodic electrochemical reaction immediately
resulting in a corrosive metal consumption. This type
of corrosion is called electrolytical corrosion, or better:
anodic corrosion. According to Faradays law its velocity
w is equivalent to an electric current I
A
or, more
correctly, to the current density J
A
defined by the
relation of the current to the surface area of the material:
w
mm/year
= 11.6
mA cm
-2
J
A
= 1.16
A m
-2
J
A
Eq. (2b) denotes a transfer of electrons - i.e. negative
charges - from the material into the soil. The electron
transfer is not accompanied by a loss of bulk material.
This process is a cathodic electrochemical reaction,
and it is possible only if a chemical consecutive reaction
like those in eqs. (3) and (4) can occur. Obviously, for
the reaction in eq. (3) to take place the access of oxygen
(O
2
) to the steel surface within the soil is necessary.
Consequently corrosion rendered possible this way is
called oxygen corrosion. The oxygen reacting with
electrons according to eq. (3) may be replaced by other
oxidizing agents. However, these are rarely present in
the soil except in the case of nitrates from fertilizers or
hydrogen ions from humic and/or carbonic acid. In the
absence of oxygen, i.e. in anaerobic regions of the soil,
the action of sulfate reducing bacteria may lead to the
following reaction:
8 e
-
+ SO
4
2-
+ 4 H
2
O ---> 8 OH
-
+ S
2-
(6)
Characteristic of this reaction is the occurrence of sul-
fides, e.g. iron sulfide FeS, recognized by the well known
odour of hydrogen sulfide upon addition of hydrochloric
acid. Compared to the reduction of oxygen according
to eq. (3) all these alternative reactions are of minor
importance.
The reaction according to eq. (4) may be totally
neglected in the case of normal soil corrosion. This
reaction is very slow; the equivalent corrosion rate stays
well below 0.01 mm per year. But in case this reaction
proceeds under electrical constraint it is of special
importance as will be pointed out in section 2.5.2.
2 Basics of underground corrosion
and its conditions
(5)
2.2 Influencing factors and
consecutive chemical reactions
All electrochemical reactions in eqs. (2a, b) depend on
chemical and electrical influencing factors in a typical
manner.
Electrolytic corrosion: Anodic reaction ace. to eq. (2a).
Stimulation by: High dissolving power of the electrolytic
solution for Fe
2+
-ions (low pH, large content of dissolved
salts, e.g. chlorides and sulfates); clean surface of the
steel (no deposits, reaction products, and/or coatings);
shifting of the voltage between the steel and the soil
towards more positive values.
Mitigation by: Immediate precipitation of Fe(II)
compounds constituting solid corrosion products on the
steel surface (high pH, small content of dissolved salts);
covered steel surface (coatings or deposits of reaction
products); shifting of the voltage between the steel and
the soil towards more negative values.
Oxygen reduction: Cathodic reaction following eq. (2b).
Stimulation by: Large oxygen content and easy access
to the steel surface (aerated soil); steel surface totally
without a cover or with a coating of relatively low electric
resistivity; shifting of the voltage between the steel and
the soil towards more negative values.
Mitigation by: Low oxygen content, and restricted access
to the steel surface (unaerated soil); coating with a
relatively high electrical resistivity; shifting of the voltage
between the steel and the soil towards more positive
values.
These influencing factors may be summarized as
follows:
The voltage between the steel and the soil, commonly
called the pipe-to-soil potential, determines the
electrochemical reactions in alternative ways. A shift
of the potential towards more positive values stimulates
anodic corrosion. A shift of the potential towards more
negative values stimulates the cathodic reaction.
Reaction products and coatings on the steel surface
impede the cathodic reaction much less than the anodic
one. As shown by eqs. (3), (4), and (6), the cathodic
reactions result in a formation of OH
2
-ions, i.e. in an
increase of the pH on the steel surface. This
phenomenon is sometimes called surface alkalinity.
Surface alkalinity promotes the formation of solid
reaction products on the steel surface, and thus
impedes the anodic reaction.
2.3 Interactions between anodic
and cathodic partial reactions -
mutual dependence
It is true that the electrochemical reactions according
to eqs. (2a, b) may be discussed independently of each
other, but there are interactions that must be kept in
mind:
Mutual influence via chemical consecutive reactions
(e.g. impediment of the anodic reaction by products of
cathodic reactions);
Conservation of electrical charges or balance of
currents.
Corrosion being electrochemical in character, current
balance is of paramount importance for its influencing
factors and its consequences.
To achieve a fundamental comprehension, it is helpful
to first consider a totally homogeneous steel surface in
the ground. In this connection the word homogeneous
is to signify that the electrochemical reactions on this
surface proceed at uniform velocity independent of the
particular site on this surface. The reaction velocities
are represented by currents, the equivalence given by
eg. (5): Anodic partial current I
A
, and cathodic partial
current I
K
. Both of these are dependent on the pipe-to-
soil potential, but with opposite tendencies. This potential
is understood to be the voltage between the steel
pipeline and a reference electrode at the surface of the
ground. Commonly used as such is a copper/copper
sulfate electrode (see figure 1).
Housing
Gasket with filling hole
and plug
Copper
Ceramic-Diaphragm
Lid
Cable
Saturated copper
sulfate solution
Figure 1 Copper/copper sulfate electrode
Refernce electrode for measuring pipe-to-soil potentials
(Potential values obtained with the Cu/CuSO
4
electrode may be
converted to the standard hydrogen scale by adding 0.32 V)
V
A
Current
source
Capillary probe
Reference
electrode
Electrolyte solution
The dependence of the partial reactions on the potential is
schematically shown in fig. 2. Superposition of the two
partial current vs. potential curves results in a total current
vs. potential curve I(U):
I
A
(U) - I
K
(U) = I(U) (7)
Figure 2 Partial and total current potential curves valid for a
homogenoues steel-to-soil electrode (schematized)
Anodic partial current - potential curve
Cathodic potential current - potential curve
I
A
anodic partial current; I
K
Cathodic partial current
I
A
anodic partial current; I
K
Cathodic partial current
Total current - potential curve
Figure 3
Measuring circuitry for determining total current - potential curves
by means of a current source, a voltage (V) and a current (A) meter
(Also suitable for the determination of corrosion rate - potential curves;
in this case a potential controlling rectifier serves as the current source)
This total current - potential curve is the electrical charac-
teristic of the homogeneous steel-to-soil electrode, i.e. it
can be established by direct measurement. The procedure
is shown in fig. 3. In this special case the reference elec-
trode works with a capillary probe, which is necessary for
tapping the potential immediately in front of the steel
surface. If this probe is omitted, the measured potential
difference contains a deviation corresponding to ohmic
voltage in the ground, and proportional to the total current.
2.4 Corrosion with uniform metal
consumption
If the steel surface is not electrically influenced from
without the total current equals zero. This is the situation of
free corrosion; the pertinent potential is the rest potential.
Following eq. (7) in the case of free corrosion we have
I
A
(U
R
) = I
K
(U
R
) (8)
In this case the corrosion rate is directly equivalent to the
velocity of the cathodic reaction, i.e. of oxygen reduction.
In unaerated soils free corrosion is negligibly slow. A total
current different from zero may either increase or decrease
the corrosion velocity, depending on its direction. A
negative total current signifies cathodic polarization.
Corrosion protection achieved this way is called cathodic
protection. A positive total current establishes anodic
corrosion danger and may be due to various external
origins. The corrosion rate which is possible in such a
situation - in some cases it is very large - is almost
independent of the nature of the surrounding soil.
Risk of anodic corrosion
Cathodic
protection
Potential
N
e
g
a
t
i
v
e


c
u
r
r
e
n
t
I
k
I
K
I
A
I
a
U
R
P
o
s
i
t
i
v
e

c
u
r
r
e
n
t
2.5 Formation of electrochemical cells
In the case of a homogeneous electrode eq. (8) is valid
for every point of the surface, so this relation also holds
good for current densities:
J
A
(U
R
) = J
K
(U
R
) (9)
As a consequence of soil corrosion usually solid
corrosion products are formed, which differently affect
different electrochemical reactions. So, in the course of
corrosion, a homogeneous electrode is transformed into
a heterogeneous electrode composed of different regions
in each of which one of the electrochemical reactions
prevails.
Figure 4 schematically shows such a heterogeneous
electrode with a central anodic area and peripheral
cathodic regions. The electrochemical reactions in these
areas combined with their chemical consecutive
reactions are such that the heterogeneous situation of
the electrode is stabilized. This will be discussed in the
following sections.
Figure 4 Corrosion cell with anode and cathode on
heterogeneous steel surface in the soil
Cell circuit (arrows only denoting migration of particle in
question)
Surface layer on the cathode (formation favoured by surface
alkalinity NaOH); due to HCl formed by hydrolysis, the anode
remains free of surface layer within the rust nodule
Fe
2+
+ 2 Cl
-
+ H
2
O
Fe (OH) Cl + HCl
2e
-
Fe
2+
Cathode
Cathode
Rust nodule
2

N
a
+
2

C
l
-
Migrations
of ions
O
2
- diffusion
Fe (OH)
+
O
2
FeOOH
Anode
O
2
+
H
2
O
+
2e
-
Na
+
OH
-
2
Soil
Fe
Steel
2.5.1 Anodic region; localized attack
At the anodic site the anodic reaction prevails. This
means the total current density is positive:
J
a
= J
A
- J
K
> 0 (Anode) (10)
Such a region may develop due to the fact that here the
steel surface is loosely covered or otherwise less
aerated. A positive total current corresponds to an
anodic cell current which, according to eq. (2a),causes
anodic corrosion. In the ground it is propagated in the
form of an ionic current, partly represented by cations
moving into the soil, partly by anions moving towards
the steel surface. This anion migration enables the
positively charged corrosion products (Fe
2+
) to be
electrically neutralized in the soil. Together with a
consecutive hydrolysis, this may be described as
follows:
Fe
2+
+ 2 Cl
-
+ H
2
O ---> (Fe(OH)
+
+ Cl
-
) + (H
+
+ Cl
-
) (11)
On the left hand side of the equation we have a correct
balance of currents (corrosion current minus migration
current), on the right hand side we see two electrically
neutralized ion pairs dissolved in the water. In this the
hydrochloric acid (H
+
Cl
-
) lowers the pH and thus keeps
the steel surface clear of deposits of corrosion products.
At some distance from the steel surface the corrosion
product may be further oxidized by oxygen to form
insoluble rust:
4 Fe(OH)Cl + O
2
+ 2 H
2
O ---> 4 FeOOH + 4 Hl (12)
This process causes the well known rust nodules to
develop above the anodic spots of the steel surface.
They cover the anode and, thus, stabilize it purely
mechanically.
2.5.3 Interaction between anodic and
cathodic regions
In the formation of electrochemical cells it is important
that there is an increase in pH at the cathode (surface
alkalinity, eq. (14)).This decreases the solubility of
corrosion products, as can be seen immediately from
the solubility product:
c(Fe
2+
) x c
2
(OH
-
) = 5 x 10
-16
mole
3
1
-3
(15)
Because of hydrolysis the pH at the anode is definitely
lower than 6, so that c(OH-) < 10
-8
mole/1. This allows
c(Fe
2+
) > 5 mole/1 = 280 g/1. At the cathode pH is defi-
nitely above 8, corresponding to c(OH
-
) > 10
-6
mole/1.
The result is c(Fe
2+
) < 5 x 10
-4
mole/1. In most cases
pH is around 9. The possible iron concentration is then
c(Fe
2+
) = 0.3 mg/1. This explains that there can be no
solid corrosion products at the anode within a corrosion
nodule, whereas the cathodic regions must be closely
covered. Within the latter the anodic reaction is more
impeded than the cathodic one.
This consideration shows how the heterogeneous state of
the corrosion cell is stabilized by consecutive chemical
reactions in both the anodic and cathodic regions. Salts
dissolved in the moisture of the soil participate in these
consecutive reactions, sodium and chloride ions being
particularly effective. Without these salts neither anodes
nor cathodes can stabilize themselves. Another
consequence of the absence of salts is the limitation of
electrolytic conductivity; this means that for merely
electrical reasons no effective cells can develop. The
existence of electrical space charges not being possible,
the production of Fe
2+
and OH
-
ions according to eqs.
(2a), (2b) and (3), respectively, must take place within
the immediate neighbourhood of each other. This, however,
does not lead to localized corrosion attack below rust
nodules but to the formation of homogeneous rust layers:
Fe
2+
+ 2 OH ---> Fe(OH)
2
---> FeOOH (16)
The presence of dissolved salts being essential for
localized corrosion to proceed the symbols of sodium and
chloride ions were incorporated in fig. 4. Their omission
for the sake of simplification would be incorrect. If they
were omitted, a wrong concept of the action of saltfree
water would be signalized, and the essential effect of the
ions would be missed. To simplify the scheme in fig. 4, J
K
was taken to be zero in the anodic region, the same holds
good for J
A
in the cathodic one. This simplification is
indeed acceptable, because it makes the picture more
distinct without changing its meaning.
O
2
2.5.2 Cathodlc region; formation of covering
layers
In the cathodlc region the cathodic reaction prevails.
So the total current density is negative:
J
k
= J
A
- J
k
< 0 (cathode). (13)
Such a region may develop, e.g., owing to the steel
surface being amply aerated or covered by coatings or
reaction products with only minor electrical resistance.
A negative total current corresponds to a cathodic cell
current, enabling cathodic reactions to take place
according to eq. (2b). Within the soil it is propagated in
the form of an ionic current, partly represented by OH
-
-
anions moving off, partly by cations moving towards
the steel surface. The latter process again is a migration
current that covers the electrical neutralization of the
cathodic reaction products according to eqs. (3), (4),
and (6), namely the OH
-
-ions, in thesoil.
Immigration of alkaline earth ions into the cathodic region
leads to the formation of solid cover-layers, immigration
of alkali ions to the formation of caustic alkali:
2 OH
-
+ Ca
2+
---> Ca(OH)
2
------> CaCO
3
, (14a)
OH
-
+ Na
+
= NaOH (14b)
Eqs. (14a, b) should be understood the same way as
eq. (11), showing the current balance on the left hand
side (cathodic reduction current minus migration current),
and the electrically neutralized ion pairs (metal
hydroxides) on the right hand side. In addition to this, in
eq. (14a) the formation of solid calcium carbonate with
carbonic acid from the soil is indicated. These reactions
are substantially promoted by cathodic protection
because the negative total currents enforced by it speed
up the reactions according to eqs. (3) and (4) on all
bare parts of the steel surface.
CO
2
2.5.4 Influence of anodic and cathodic area ratio
In the case of a corrosion cell, i.e. any heterogeneous
steel surface, neither are the current densities of the
electrochemical reactions J
A
and J
K
locally uniform, nor
does the total current density equal zero with free
corrosion. It is true that taken over the complete steel
surface the integral of current densities equals zero.
Then, considering a simplified corrosion cell with one
anode and one cathode like in fig. 4 we find:
J
a
x S
a
+ J
k
x S
k
= 0 (17)
S
a
and S
k
stand for the areas of the anodic and cathodic
regions of the steel surface respectively. The total current
density J
a
of the anodic region increases proportionally
to the ratio S
k
/S
a
, provided the total cathodic current
density remains constant. This may be assumed to be
the case with corrosion in the soil, J
A
in eq. (13) being
neglected, and J
k
being determined only by a uniform
access of oxygen. Then, what follows from eqs. (13)
and (17) is the law of areas:
J
a
= J
K
x (18)
J
a
, and J
k
stand for the total current densities
corresponding to eqs. (10), and (13), respectively. An
exterior current may not only influence J
a
and J
k
but
also via consecutive chemical reactions alter the areas
S
a
and S
k
, provided its duration is sufficient. Sufficiently
strong positive or negative currents totally convert a
heterogeneous steel surface into one anode or one
cathode respectively. Following eq. (19) a negative
current J
k
x S
k
may make J
a
= 0. Then, corresponding to
eq. (10), the anodic region is no longer threatened by
cell formation but only by the cathodic reaction proceeding
within this very region at the velocity J
K
. = J
A
. Even this
kind of a cathodic protective action may be very helpful
in preventing early failure.
This consideration concerning the interaction of chemical
and electrical parameters is fundamental for a com-
prehension of corrosion processes. It enables a semi-
quantitative description of steel corrosion in the soil to
be given with reference to the conditions set in practice
by the type of soil and the construction or type of
installation. It also gives an insight into how to apply
protective measures.
S
k
S
a
The danger of anodic corrosion caused by this cell
formation is obvious from fig. 2, with a positive total
current I
a
= J
a
x S
a
. Only in case I
K
in the anodic region
may be neglected compared to I
A
, the total current
density J
a
may be taken to equal the corrosion current
density J
A
. If exterior electric currents are active,
corresponding to eq. (7), eq. (17) may be extended to:
I = J
a
x S
a
+ J
k
x S
k
(19)
3 Estimation of corrosion danger for pipelines
not subject to electrical influence;
fundamentals of protection methods
3.1 Aggressiveness of the soil
3.1.1 Uniform oxygen corrosion
As indicated by eq. (9), on a homogeneous steel surface
the corrosion velocity corresponds to the cathodic current
density J
K
. On a heterogeneous steel surface the local
corrosion rate within the anodic region is higher by a
factor S
k
(/S
a
- the ratio of cathodic and anodic areas -
as is indicated by eq. (18). So, in any case for assessing
the corrosion rate, it is essential to know the cathodic
current density J
K
, or, correspondingly, the rate of oxygen
access. An approximation may be derived from the law
of diffusion. By combining eqs. (5) and (9), we get a
relation between corrosion rate and oxygen diffusion:
In the case of air saturation c (O
2
) may be taken equal to
10 mg/l.The quantity l
D
denotes the effective path of diffu-
sion. In the case of a rapidly flowing underground water,
which cannot form a covering layer on the steel surface,
l
D
= 0.2 mm may be assumed. Air saturation given, this
corresponds to a corrosion velocity of 0.8 mm/year. In
soil being at rest, l
D
is bigger by a factor of 10, at least,
corresponding to a corrosion velocity of 0.08 mm/year.
Covering layers of corrosion products further increase

l
D
,
so corrosion slows down with time. Except in cases of
flowing ground water the corrosion velocity on a
homogeneous steel surface in the soil equals a few 0.01
mm/year. So, as a rule, it may be neglected.
3.1.2 Cell formation In the soil
But other considerations (in section 2.5) showed also that
dissolved salts which are present in different concen-
trations in all types of soil, cause any homogeneous steel
surface to become a heterogeneous one in the course of
time. The velocity of this process grows with the salt
content, i.e. the electrolytic conductivity of the soil, and,
above all, with the extension of the steel surface. Especially
extended, however, are pipelines; moreover they may tra-
verse areas with different types of soil. Then anodes and
cathodes develop in a typical manner, as Is described in
section 2.2, with respect to influencing factors:

mm/year
c(O
2
)
mg/l
l
D
mm
= 1.6 x 10
-2
:
(20)
anodic region: rich in salts, aerated little or not at all,
dense, and wet. Example: Clay; especially aggressive
are sour soils (humus) and soils containing hydrogen
sulfide.

Experiments made with steel sheets in different types

of soil verified that corrosion is never totally uniform.
Fig. 5 shows samples that freely corroded for 6 years,
one in sand and one in clay. The mean rates of metal
consumption were 0.01 mm/year in sand and 0.03 mm/
year in clay. Local maxima were ten times that. Extensi-
ve investigations made by the National Bureau of Stan-
dards tor the U.S. Department of Commerce showed
rates of metal con-sumption ranging from 0.01 to 0.09
mm/year, depending on the aggressiveness of the soil;
in weakly aggressive soils there was a distinct drop in
consumption rates after a few years.
cathodic region: well aerated, moderate moisture and
salt content, light and porous soil. Example: Soils
containing lime; sandy soils are little effective in the
case of low conductivity, but they too favour the
development of cathodic regions.

Sand ( = 4 x 10
6
cm) Clay ( = 7 x 10
6
cm)
Figure 5 Surface of steel samples (100 x 150 x 3 mm) after 6
years` corrosion in sand and clay
Humous soil
Clay Sand
Loam
Loam Clay
Peaty soil
C
l
a
y
Sand
S
a
n
d
S
a
n
d
y
m
a
r
l
Sandy
marl
Loess
Clayey
marl
C
la
y
e
y
m
a
r
l
Loamy marl
Lime
Calcareous
marl
C
a
lc
a
r
e
o
u
s
m
a
r
l
C
a
lc
a
r
e
o
u
s
m
a
r
l
H
u
m
o
u
s

s
o
il
H
u
m
o
u
s

s
o
il
L
im
e
L
im
e
Lime 100% Humus 100% Humus 100%
Peaty soil Peaty soil
Sand 100% Clay 100%
Humus 100%
Not aggressive
(cathodic regions
Conditionally
aggressive
Aggressive
(anodic
regions)
3.1.3 Intensity of corrosion in different types of soil
Fig. 6 gives a systematic survey of the different types of
soil. The rates of metal consumption in aggressive soils
may range from 0.05 to 0.10 mm/year. J
K
is quite large;
the reaction of humus acids contributes to this. In soils
conditionally aggressive corrosion velocities are frequently
found to be negligibly small. In both these types of soil,
though, anodic regions develop on traversing pipelines.
Cathodic regions develop only in soils which are not ag-
gressive.
The development of extended corrosion cells on a pipeline
passing through various types of soil does not allow an
estimation of corrosion velocity. As opposed to this the
very positions of the anodic regions may be located quite
well by referring to the groups in fig. 6. Corrosion velocity
will be all the greater, the smaller the anodic and the greater
the cathodic regions are, compare eq. (18). This holds
true provided the electric conductivity of the ground is
sufficient; if it is not, for instance in dry sandy soils, even
large cathodic regions remain inactive with respect to
corrosion cell action. As opposed to this, intensively active
cathodic regions afford fast corrosion of the anodic
regions, then the properties of the soil near the anode
are less influential. So, evi dently, there is no absolute
measure of corrosiveness of a soil. A rating of
aggressiveness in terms of grades may be gained based
on a soil analysis.
Figure 6 Type system of soils and their corrosion aggressiveness
Approximate assumptions of corrosion velocities within
the anodic regions of pipelines may range over a few
0.1 mm per year. Local metal consumption rates above
1 mm/year are definitely due to other reasons to be
detailed in sections 5 and 6. Corrosion danger imposed
by soil containing coal (or coke!) belongs to this group.
The reason is cell formation between the steel surface
and the coke, the latter constituting the cathode, the
former being the anode. In this case there is but one
suitable protective measure: replacement of the soil along
the pipeline.
The presence of coke and foreign electric influences
excluded, unprotected steel pipelines can definitely be
used without the danger of early failure, i.e. for several
years. This is in accordance with experience. At some
later time though, depending on the wall thickness,
damage must be expected. This means corrosion
protection measures are indispensable.
3.2 Methods of corrosion protection
3.2.1 Coatings: passive corrosion protection
The most simple measure of corrosion protection is
coating the steel surface with bitumen or plastics. To be
sure there is a lot of literature and specifications con-
cerning the required properties of the coating materials,
but the purpose of each of these requirements with
relation to corrosion protection is not always obvious.
Essential are these two properties:
The coating material must be stable for a long time
under the relevant service conditions in the ground.
The applied coating must be mechanically as resistant
as possible to minimize frequency and extent of
mechanical damage.

PE-coating, fully meets these requirements. In cases of

very rough service conditions, e.g. laying of the pipes in
rocky soil with pointed stones and in soils containing slag,
additional rock protection should be given.
3.2.1.1 Corrosion chemical interactions on a coated
steel surface
In spite of top quality coatings, careful insulation of the
weld joints, repair of gross mechanical coating damage,
and in spite of scrupulous supervision of the laying
procedures, the occurrence of damage exposing the
steel surface to the soil cannot be prevented. Within
these coating defects the electrochemical processes of
corrosion take place as described in fig. 7. They must
be considered in connection with the properties of the
coating material.
Corrosion of the steel surface within a coating
damage
The reactions taking place are those according to eqs.
(2a, b and 3), the anodic reaction predominantly in the
mi ddl e, the cathodi c one - produci ng NaOH -
predominantly at the rim of the holiday. The alkali solution
generated there may creep some way under the coating
and thus loosen it. This effect may be observed in waters
rich in dissolved salts. It is harmless, though, provided
the mechanical properties of the coating ensure the
coatings unchangingly close fit to the pipe surface, thus
preventing an open cleft from developing.
Oxygen and Ion permeation through the coating
Due to water absorption, organic coating materials may
become weak electric conductors. Then they are not
insulators like, for instance, porcelain. Apart from that,
organic coating materials are not gastight like, for
instance, a metal. Accordingly, permeation of alkali ions
(Na
+
) and oxygen (O
2
) is possible. This results in the
coated surface behaving like a weakly effective cathode.
The accompanying anode is the steel surface within the
holiday. Thus the formation of cells accelerates the corro-
sion taking place below coating holidays. This corrosion
danger is directly proportional to the electrical con-
ductivity of the coating (to be measured in holiday-free
areas!). Another result is the formation of NaOH on the
cathodic steel surface below the coating. This may
decrease the coatings adhesion and, with thin coatings,
even lead to blister formation. There are no such cell
effects with coating resistivities large enough, say
10
9
m
2
. As a consequence, one of the requirements
to be put to coating materials is the display of very high
resistivity, as previously said, this being measured in
holiday-free coatings. The resistivity of PE-coating even
in long time service remains far above this value.
Permeation of corrosive substances through
and rust formation under the coating
Besides oxygen also water and carbon dioxide may per-
meate the intact coating, and, below this, give rise to
corrosion of the steel surface. Generally, though, the
diffusion velocity is so low as to result only in a minute
rate of metal consumption. So, in the beginning, there is
no corrosion danger. But as soon as corrosion products
loosen and fracture the coating, i.e. force it open, the
protection is lost. Such processes are possible, for
instance, with thin coating layers used for the protection
of structures in open air. Rust formation below these
coatings is prevented for several years by using
protecting pigments in a special primer. Long time or
permanent protection though, as to be specified for
underground pipelines, is not attainable this way. With
thick plastic coatings sitting snugly on the pipe surface
- sticking to it or not - such processes are of no concern.
Velocities of rust formation below such coatings are
equivalent to metal consumption rates less than 0.001
mm/year.
Figure 7 Corrosion chemical interactions in connection with coatings
Undercutting by alkaline moisture; cell formation including coated cathode surface; penetration and rust formation underneath the coating
3.2.1.2 Required protective properties of coating
materials
Following these lines the requirements to be fulfilled by
a good pipeline coating may be summarized as follows:
Passive corrosion protection given to pipelines by such
coatings is sufficient, provided there are no external
electrical influences, and the soil is not aggressive
according to fig. 6, because - within the few spots of
coating damage - the steel surface corrodes almost
homogeneously, and long line corrosion cells cannot
develop. This statement is fully corroborated by practical
experience provided they are embedded in sand and
electrically disconnected from other parts of construction
by insulating joints.
Because of the good electric conductance of welds, with
long pipelines in arbitrary soils cell formation between
different bare parts of the steel surface in coating
holidays may occur, even if these parts are separated
by considerable distances. With a pipeline cover having
a low coating resistivity - measured within an un-
damaged area of the coating, as already emphasized -
cathodic action of the coated area according to fig. 7,
cannot be excluded either. It has to be kept in mind that
the large surface of a pipeline even with a coating
resistivity of 10
5
m
2
brings about an electrical
resistance in the cell current circuit which is quite poor.
Anodic corrosion velocity depends on the extent of
damage in the different soils and on the types of soil. It
may only be assessed very roughly. Corrosion velocities
of some 0.1 mm/year are possible. For this reason for
all pipelines subject to special safety specifications an
additional active protection, i.e. cathodic protection, is
prescribed. In general this kind of protection is
recommended for merely economic reasons, in spite of
the fact that the probability of damage is much smaller
with passively protected pipelines, compared to the
situation with uncoated lines.

Long time stability of the coating material under

service conditions,
Good durability against mechanical influences and
High electric coating resistivity.
3.2.2 Cathodic protection: active corrosion
protection
3.2.2.1 Potential dependence of corrosion
The basis of cathodic protection - CP - was already
given in fig. 2. By means of a cathodic current I
k
, the
potential has to be shifted to more negative values, and
that as far as to make the anodic partial current /
A
negligibly small. So a quantitative assessment
necessitates the knowledge of the anodic partial current
density - potential characteristic J
A
vs. U. Such relations
may also be obtained by means of a measuring apparatus
according to fig. 3, provided there is a controlling current
source maintaining a constant potential for the duration
of the test. By measuring the weight loss of the sample,
the corrosion rate - potential characteristic (U), and,
according to eq. (5), the partial current - potential
characteristic J
A
vs. U, too, may be determined. Fig. 8
shows such results for saline electrolyte solutions. There
it is obvious that with a potential U
Cu/CuSO4
= -0.85 V in
neutral waters the corrosion rate is less than 0.01 mm/
year. This is the cathodic protection potential, well known
from practice. In waters containing much carbonic acid,
that may flow from mineral springs but are not present
in normal soil, the protection potential is slightly more
negative.
10
3
1
0.3
0.1
0.03
0.01
0.003
-0.90 -0.80 -0.70 -0.60 -0.85 -0.75 -0.65
Potential (U
Cu/CuSO4
, V)
C
o
r
r
o
s
i
o
n

r
a
t
e

(
m
m
/
y
e
a
r
)
Figure 8 Corrosion rate/potential curve valid for steel in saline
electrolyte solutions
Saturated with oxygen
Free of oxygen
Free of oxygen, saturated with carbon dioxide
Region of free corrosion (at more negative potentials the current is negative,
at more positive potentials it is positive)
P
i
p
e
-
t
o
-
s
o
i
l

p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

(
U
C
U
/
S
O
4
,

V
)-1.2
-1.0
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
0 20 40 60
Time, starting with current switch-off, h
On-potential
Off-potential
Old pipeline
(10 years`cathodic
protection)
Old pipeline
(3 years`cathodic
protection)
New pipeline
(2 years`cathodic
protection)
Figure 9 Registration of the pipe-to-soil potential after switch-off
protection current
(v = Recorder paper travel speed)
Ohmic
voltage drop
IR
off
on
v = 1 cm/min
v = 1 cm/s
v = 50 cm/s
v = 250 cm/s
0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1.0 -1.2 -1.4 V
Potential (U
CU/SO4
, V)
P
a
p
e
r

t
r
a
v
e
l
,

t
i
m
e

(
v
)
Figure 10 Decay of pipe-to-soil potentials of different pipelines
after switch-off protection current
3.2.2.2 Application of cathodlc protection;
verification of protection potential
The application of CP in practice is achieved the same
way principally as represented by the measurement
arrangement in fig. 3. The proportions, however, are totally
different.
Generally it is not possible to use capillary probes of
reference electrodes within the ground. The reference
electrode according to fig. 1, is put onto the surface of
the ground. The potential determined this way with the
current flowing is called on-potential. By the Ohmic po-
tential drop (IR) within the ground it is more negative
than the true potential, i.e. the potential free from IR,
that would be measured with a capillary probe. In case
the protection current is switched off for a short duration,
the potential drop within the ground caused by this
current collapses immediately. The change of potential
due to chemical changes proceeds much slower, so the
off-potential measured immediately after switching off
the protection current may be taken as a very good
approximation to the IR-free potential. There might still
be errors due to Ohmic drops along stray currents from
extraneous direct current systems or due to relaxation
or cell currents between differently polarized regions of
the pipeline including electrically connected foreign
installations, see sections 5, and 6.
Fig. 9 shows potential - time graphs obtained with diffe-
rent paper speeds. A registration effected too slowly
may cause the off-potential to be found more positive
than the true value. In general the potential change after
the switching off essentially depends on the object being
protected. As is shown in fig. 10, a high quality coating
of a new pipeline as well as a long duration of CP will
slow down the decay of the potential.
PE/PE 30
PE/PE 40
PE/PE 270
PE/PE 350
PE/B 150
PE/B 600
B/B 300
B/B 450
1970 1975 1980
3 x 10
5
3 x 10
4
10
5
10
4
r
u


(
O
h
m


m
2
)
Coating of pipe/coating of weld joints km
Figure 11 Coating resistivities of differently coated pipelines vs.
time in service
B = Bitumen; PE = Polyethylene
J
s
A m
-2
x
r
u
m
2
= 3 x 10
5
(21)
3.2.3 Active protection + passive protection
= complete protection
Coating and cathodic protection, when combined, make
up a complete protection of a pipeline. An additional profit
afforded by the method is the possibility of continuous
supervision by monitoring the potential. In connection
with this combined protection method the interaction
between a coating and CP is sometimes also considered.
This interaction may give rise to further requirements
put to the coating. Cathodic currents accelerate the
processes of blistering and of cathodic disbonding shown
in fig. 7. Especially with a thin coating, a gaping cleft
between the steel surface and the loosened coating may
develop. An impairment of protection is the consequence,
much less critical though with underground pipelines
than, e.g., with ships and hydraulic structures. Thick
pipeline coatings are not subject to cathodic blistering,
comp. sec. 3.2.1.1. As opposed to this, cathodic
disbonding starting from coating damage is inevitable.
Because of the close fit of thick coatings, the lack of
adhesion within the immediate neighbourhood of a spot
of damage does not result in a gaping cleft. This means
the exposed part of the steel surface does not grow
through cathodic disbonding. The protection current
demand does not increase. Fig. 11 shows average
coating resistivities of underground pipelines coated with
bitumen and with PE. The slow decrease of r
u
with the
bitumen coatings is due to the formation of very small
pores in the bitumen during service, slightly enhancing
its electric conductivity. Lines of PE coated pipes the
joints of which were field coated with bitumen show,
less distinctly, the same effect, fig. 11.
The effective coating resistivity of a pipeline is deter-
mined exclusively by number and sizes of holidays,
inevitable in practice. So essentially the mechanical
properties of a coating are of influence in this respect,
not so the electrical properties of the coating material.
The coating resistivity and the protection current density
of a buried pipeline are related as follows:
The application of CP to pipelines is amply described in
specific literature
Handbook of Cathodic Protection
Pocket Book of Cathodic Protection
In this section only the main features of this method of
corrosion protection can be discussed which are of
interest to those running pipelines.
4.1 Constructional requirements put by
cathodic protection
For CP to be applicable to a pipeline, some conditions
must be fulfilled. The requirements are:
Continuous lengthwise electrical conductivity of the
pipeline and its branches to be included into CP
This means, pipelines with flange and socket joints
having poor lengthwise conductivity cannot be
cathodically protected without each joint being electrically
bridged; this is quite costly.
In other words: The ends of the pipeline and of its
branches included into CP must be electrically separated
from continuing lines by means of insulating flanges. In
special cases, e.g. compulsory grounding for super-
ordinate reasons (see sec. 7), this requirement may be
given up. In case constructional reasons prohibit elec-
trical disconnection, a special kind of CP, to be described
in sec. 5, may be considered.
A coating resistivity exceeding 10
4
m
2
This refers to the apparent coating resistivity, described
in sec. 3.2.3, and determined by size and number of
holidays in the coating. According to eq. (21), the
protection current density is inversely proportional to
the coating resistivity. With PE coated pipelines,
protection current densities of 1 A m
-2
may be achieved,
see fig. 11. The smallness of protection current density
is advantageous as it
extends the range of protection and improves the
distribution of current,
and
decreases the overall current demand and thus
reduces any interference with extraneous
installations.
Electrical separation of the pipeline from all units with
low resistance groundings, and from extraneous
installations

4 Cathodic protection of pipelines

In cases of too great protection current densities only
enlarged numbers of anodes - quite expensive - help to
achieve good current distributions and to avoid detri-
mental influences on foreign installations. With pipelines
covered with PE coating, protection ranges far exceeding
50 km are easily achieved, and interference with
extraneous equipment is virtually excluded.
The ground containing the anode should have the lowest
possible resistivity so as to decrease the required
rectifier voltage. Where public power supply is not
available, the application of other sources of energy (e.g.
solar, wind, gas) for the generation of current may be
considered. Usually in these rare cases galvanic anodes
rather than rectifiers will be the protection current
sources.
4.2 Cathodic protection by using galvanic
anodes
Galvanic anodes are applied for CP in those cases in
which protection by current drawn from an external po-
wer supply is not possible or less economic. Galvanic
anodes consist of light metal alloys. They are buried in
a special bedding rich in electrolyte, called backfill, and
their potential is substantially more negative than that
of steel. This potential, negative compared to that of the
pipeline, generates the protection current or, in other
words, shifts the pipe-to-soil potential to the desired,
more negative value. Because with galvanic anodes
applied there is no way of controlling the current - except
for decreasing it by Insertion of a resistor - the desired
current distribution may only be achieved by a suitable
distribution and sizing of the anodes. This layout must
be given special care. For underground protection magne-
sium anodes may be used, in soils with very low resis-
tivities also zinc or aluminium anodes.
The maximum possible current delivered by a galvanic
anode depends on the size of the anode and on soil
resistivity. Its order of magnitude is 0.1 A. This is
sufficient for the CP of not too large pipelines having a
moderate protection current demand, for instance,
pipelines covered with PE.
A suitable site for the anode to be installed for feeding
in the protection current, and a power supply (public
utility)
4.3 Cathodic protection by impressed
current
With large pipelines and also for reasons of easy control
mainly externally powered protection facilities are
installed. Fig. 12 shows such an installation consisting
of embedded anodes and a current supply unit. Gene-
rally the anodes consist of ferrosilicon castings or
magnetite embedded in coke. The electronic conductivity
of the coke helps to cut down the anodic consumption
of anode material. The main advantage of coke bedding
an anode is a substantial reduction of its electrical resis-
tance in the soil. For economic reasons horizontal anodes
- shown in fig. 12 - are preferred. Where there is not
enough space for this type of anode and where foreign
installations might be influenced due to an excessive
field strength near the anode, vertical anodes may be
burled 10 to 100 m deep (deep seated anodes).
Figure 12 Impressed current protection installation with anode
bedding, protection current source, and connections to pipeline
Anode lead Cathode lead
Measuring cable leading to the pipeline and the built-in
reference electrode( helps to circumvent great IR-drops near
the anode in the operation of potential controlling rectifiers)
4.4 Current drain test and adjustment
For adjusting the protection current a current drain test
is made. At the ends of the protection length and at
other accessible places, but above all, at armatures,
branch-offs, in the regions of casings and aggressive
soils, on- and off- potentials are measured. Fig. 13 shows,
as an example, the result of a current drain test made at
a pipeline having a large protection current demand. Only
then has the protection current been adjusted correctly
if everywhere the on-potential reaches U
Cu/CuSO4
1 V.
In fig. 13 this has been accomplished only for kilometers
5 to 9.
In most cases an off-potential of U
Cu/CuSO4
-0.85 V can-
not be achieved during a current drain test. Only this
off-potential indicates complete cathodic protection.
<
=
<
=
Fig. 13 however, shows that the potential already did
shift substantially from the starting point of free
corrosion, thus stopping any corrosion cell action. When
checked after about a year, the potential is supposed to
have reached or gone beyond the protection potential.
In case this cannot be achieved, even by increasing the
protection current, the reason for this situation must be
found. Aside from large damage of the coating, galvanic
connections to extraneous installations may be mainly
responsible by drawing off an unexpectedly large part
of the protection current. Such connections may be
discovered by electrical measurements and eliminated
by constructional provisions. With pipes going through
casings, crossing over other utility lines, and entering
buildings, there is always the danger of galvanic contacts
ensuing. Obviously this danger is especially imminent
in urban areas.
Figure 13 Potentials measured in a current feed test with a bitumen
coated pipeline of nominal diameter 200 mm, after 4 h polarization
Pipe-to-soil potential under free corrosion conditions
On-potential Off-potential
Locations of current measurement with results;
U
s
= Protection potential
Location of feed-in and current value
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13
1.03 A 0.3 A 1.17 A 0.36 A
Pipeline length (km)
9.6 A
P
i
p
e
-
t
o
-
s
o
i
l

p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

U
C
u
/
C
u
S
O
4
-1.5
-1.0
-0.5
0
7
4.5 Side effects of the protection current
4.5.1 Interference with extraneous equipment
It must always be kept in mind that an underground
cathodic protection current may jeopardize extraneous
installations which, from it, may suffer stray current
corrosion. This is illustrated in fig. 14. Symbolically
depicted is the potential and current field between an
anode and a pipeline to be protected, the latter crossing
another pipeline.
Near the anode the extraneous pipeline receives
protection current, i.e. here it is polarized cathodically.
Close to the crossover, however, the current leaves this
pipeline for the soil in order to reach the nearby pipeline
to be protected. In the region of current exit the
unprotected line is anodically polarized, and so,
corresponding to fig. 2, there is also the danger of anodic
corrosion. In the situation depicted here, the extraneous
pipeline may only be protected from anodic danger by
being included into cathodic protection across a resistor
(potential connection). The conductance of the
connection must be at least sufficient to cause some
protection current to enter the foreign line in the
crossover area; then for sure no current will leave. The
easiest way to solve problems of interference is to fully
include the foreign line in question into CP; this, though,
may raise private law problems with the owners of the
line. Whoever runs a cathodic protection unit is, in the
legal sense, a producer of stray current and bound to
observe the national standards and regulations. In
practice, problems of interference should be kept to a
minimum by the anodes being suitably placed and by a
high coating resistivity of the pipeline.
Today cathodic protection of all kinds of pipelines is a
proven technique raising no unusual problems. CP may
also be given to distribution systems in urban areas,
provided the pipes are coated well; however, here it
entails the heavy expenditure of numerous insulating
joints becoming necessary in the house connections.
4.5.2 Internal Interference within water pipelines
Naturally the goods conveyed within the pipeline are of
no concern to external protection, provided they are not
electrolyte solutions. But, if this is the case, special
precautions have to be taken in the regions of insulating
joints.
Protection current may enter an unprotected part of a
pipeline situated beyond an insulating joint in the ground.
From the internal pipe surface the current passes over
into the electrolyte within which it flows into the protected
pipeline section. So danger arises for the internal surface
of the unprotected pipeline section beyond the insulating
joint. With water pipelines an electrically insulating lining
about half the length of a pipe on both sides of the
insulating joint is sufficient for corrosion protection. In
the case of a cement mortar lining there is no danger.
With pipelines carrying salt waters, internal cathodic
protection beside the insulating joint also proved useful.
Since in these cases the danger is that of anodic
corrosion, only the conductivity of the electrolyte but
not its corrosion aggressiveness is of concern. In other
words, with noncorrosive oxygen-free brines and waters
used for long distance heating being transported, the
danger of anodic corrosion behind the insulating joint is
much more severe than the danger of free corrosion in
aggressive waters.
Figure 14 Influence of the protection current of a pipeline on a
crossing unprotected pipeline
Anodic region Cathodic region
Current leaving the unprotected line to
the protected line
5.1 External currents
In section 3.2.1 for an uninfluenced pipeline the corrosion
danger was assessed, that may be countered by means
of a coating and cathodic protection. An external
influence is given, if current enters the pipeline from
extraneous installations across a metallic contact, or if,
caused by electric fields within the ground, stray currents
enter and leave certain parts of the pipeline respectively,
as was described in fig. 14. Stray current will be dealt
with in chapter 6. Chapter 5 is concerned with those
currents exclusively that enter the pipeline at places of
metallic contact.
Normal cathodic protection is an example of this. The
effect of the negative current fed in is the prevention of
corrosion damage. This was pointed out in the beginning
with relation to fig. 2. Conversely, there is a definite
corrosion danger, if the current fed in is positive. So
obviously great care has to be taken to make it just
impossible for the rectifier of an external current
protection unit to be reversed.
5.2 Corrosion caused by foreign cathodes
Positive current enters the pipeline at a place of metal-
lic contact whenever the contacted extraneous
installation has a rest potential more positive than that
of the pipeline.
However, some 10 mV need not yet be considered
critical, a potential difference of 0.3 V is about the margin.
Potential deviations of about 0.1 V are quite normal with
pipelines and due to different properties of soil and
coating. They signalize the formation of corrosion cells
along the pipeline as described in section 3.1.2, compare
also the rest potentials in fig. 13.
5.2.1 Characteristic of a foreign cathode
The rest potential of steel in the ground ranges between
U
Cu/CuSO4
= -0.7 and -0.5 V. A potential of -0.4 V and
more positive values in the neighbourhood of a foreign
contact raises the suspicion of corrosion danger caused
by too positive a potential of the extraneous object. In
this case we have a corrosion cell, the pipeline as a
whole representing the anode and the extraneous
object being the cathode.
Danger is evidenced by potentials around -0.2 V and
above being found near the extraneous object. Indicative
are measurements made after breaking the contact, if
this is possible. The separation having been effected,
the electrical potentials of the disconnected parts must
drift in opposite directions: The pipeline will become more
negative and the foreign cathode more positive. By use
of a low resistance ammeter even the cell current may
be measured directly.
By means of such a potential measurement also the
operator of a pipeline may check whether it is anodically
endangered by foreign cathodes or not. Required is a
Cu/CuSO
4
reference electrode, easily built by laboratory
personnel referring to fig. 1, and a high resistance voltage
meter, the min. input resistance of which is1 M/V. For
a potential measurement to be made, the reference
electrode has to be put on moist soil. A potential
measurement on an asphalt road surface is impossible!
In case there is an indication of corrosion danger, experts
should assess its extent and plan protective measures.
In connection with this, it must be kept in mind that in
the case of an external cathode raising danger, the
electrical influence on corrosion strongly prevails and
that the properties of the soil are almost of no concern,
provided only, a cell current can flow. This means, only
in sandy soils with very high resistivities is the danger
of corrosion diminished.
5.2.2 Examples of foreign cathodes
Although it is easy to realize that great potential
differences mean anodic danger, it is comparatively
difficult for the non-expert, when judging from the mate-
rial, to see which parts of construction might act as
foreign cathodes.
In the case of a pipeline connected to other installations,
e.g. groundings, mainly those parts that consist of nob-
ler materials like, for instance, copper, copper alloys,
and stainless steel may be suspected to act as foreign
cathodes. In many instances the surface fraction of these
materials in the ground is so small that, in accordance
with the law of areas, eq. (18), the corrosion danger
may be neglected. However, the potential is dependent
not only on the kind of metallic material but also on the
chemical properties of the environment. In the ground
there may be large areas of steel surface covered by
concrete or cement mortar. Now, the chemical properties
of cement mortar are vastly different from those of soils.
Covered by cement mortar, steel is in a special condition,
5 Corrosion danger caused by foreign cathodes;
localized cathodic protection
called passivity. Within cement mortar it behaves like
stainless steel surrounded by water. So, foreign cathodes
may be represented by all parts of copper, stainless
steel and steel covered by cement mortar. Apart from
this, old rusted steel surfaces of pipes, storage tanks,
and other constructional parts may act as foreign
cathodes.
Today, steel parts in concrete structures acting as foreign
cathodes are the most frequent origins of anodic danger.
Possible examples are fixing points and manholes near
armatures, points of entry into buildings, connections
to building foundations, and to groundings. In this line
fig. 15 schematically shows the course of the pipe-to-
soil potential near the pipeline contacting a reinforced
concrete structure. The funnel-shaped potential distri-
bution above the coating holiday only exists with respect
to the IR-free potential which, theoretically, might be
determined by using probes. The pipe-to-soil potential
as measured on the surface of the ground is much more
even due to the ohmic voltage drop of the current leaving
the steel surface through the holiday. Were the pipeline
disconnected from the rebars in the building, the pipe-
to-soil potential would assume a value U
Cu/CuSO4
< -0.6 V
belonging to the steel surface below the holiday.
5.2.3 Estimation of corrosion danger
Equation (17), may be used for an assessment of corro-
sion danger, the indices a and k referring to the pipeline
and the foreign cathode respectively. Steel in concrete
being passive, eq. (18), may be taken to be valid; and,
in the case of large corrosion rates, J
a
= J
A
may be
assumed. So it is the area proportion which is decisive,
and with it the magnitude of S
a
, the total area of the
steel surface lying bare in an area of coating damage.
The better the coating, i.e. the less mechanical damage
occurred along the pipeline, or the higher the coating
resistivity is, the larger will be the anodic current density
according to eq. (18), or, according to eq. (5), the faster
will be the corrosion at places where damage did occur.
In such cases corrosion rates may exceed 1 mm/year,
and, in saline waters, even reach 1 cm/year. It is true
that the corrosion rate will be lower with a pipeline having
a badly damaged coating with many holidays or even
having no coating at all. So lack of passive protection
might help to avoid early failure, but not damage
occurring later.
Figure 15 Result of a contact between a pipeline and a reinforced
concrete structure
Pipe-to-soil potential mesured with reference electrode on the
ground surface
Pipe-to-soil potential, free of IR-drops (as if measured with
the probe placed on the pipe surface)
-0.2 V
-0.4 V
-0.6 V
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

U
C
u
/
C
u
S
o
4

(
V
)
Length
Reinforced concrete structure
SOIL
5.2.4 Coating influence
Certainly, doing without a coating is not a protection
measure to be recommended, just in order to delay
failure. But the user must be aware that, danger by foreign
contacts being given, the choice of a top quality coating
cannot be considered a protective measure as long as
there is no 100% certainty of the coating being free of
any minute holiday remaining that during service.
This seemingly paradoxical effect of the extent of coating
damage in the case of an external electrical influence is
generally valid; it is not limited to foreign cathodes
generating danger. The effect is easily understood in
view of these relations:
The electrical resistance in the ground in front of a
coating damage (contact resistance, grounding
resistance) is inversely proportional to the mean
radius of the uncovered steel surface below the
damage:

R
F
= A r
-1
(22)
The size of this uncovered steel surface is proporti-
onal to the square of the same mean radius:
S
F
= B r
2
(23)
With a voltage U acting upon the pipeline around the
damages, Ohm`s law gives:
I
a
=
U
R
F
Ur
A
= (24)
J
a
=
I
a
S
F
U
A B
= r
-1
(25)
So the current density J
a
will increase, if the radius r
decreases!
5.3 Protection measures
Protection against danger caused by foreign cathodes
may be accomplished in two ways:
Galvanic separation
Local cathodic protection
5.3.1 Galvanic separation
Galvanic separation is the most effective means because
by it the very source of corrosion cell danger is
eliminated.
The reliability of this depends on easy control of all the
sites of possible connections, and on the certainty with
which accidental contacts may be excluded in practice.
Standards and regulations specify galvanic separation
to be effected for house connections in public gas delivery
systems, because for inside the building, intentional
connecti ons for personal protecti on are made
compulsory by DIN/VDE-regulations. With reinforced
concrete construction and interconnection of all domes-
tic installations being common today, personal protection
observing DIN/VDE results in the formation of spacious
foreign cathodes with respect to gas pipelines, that have
to be disconnected from these by inserting insulating
flanges.
5.3.2 Local cathodic protection, hot spot protection
In ranges of industrial plant, galvanic separation is
inapplicable because of the presence of too many
interconnections, in many instances also for construc-
tional reasons. Applicable then is local cathodic protec-
tion. The techniques of normal CP cannot be followed
for these reasons:
The foreign cathodes will consume much more current
than the pipeline to be protected. Large ohmic drops in
the ground will result. So IR will become a substantial
part of the on-potential.
The pipeline and the foreign cathodes vastly differ
with respect to their electrochemical properties. Free
corrosion endangers the pipeline anodically. Given
cathodic polarization, the two areas are polarized
differently. After switching off the protective current for
the off-potential to be measured, comparatively large
relaxation currents between the pipeline and the foreign
cathode will flow. The corresponding ohmic drop will
falsify the off-potential too. The measured value is more
positive than the IR-free (true) value.
The basis of local cathodic protection may be derived
from eq. (19). The protection current is rated and fed in
so that the foreign cathodes do not deliver cell current
but consume protection current. Then eq. (19) gives:
In other words; Aimed at is the polarization of the foreign
cathodes so as to render them harmless instead of
breaking their corrosion cell with the pipeline. Within
industrial plant many 10
4
m
2
of reinforced concrete surface
I
>
=
J
k
S
k
and J
a
<
=
0 (26)
contact the ground and consume a mean current of about
5 mA m
-2
, so the order of magnitude of the current
consumed for local cathodic protection of a special plant
is 10
2
A. The interference problems raised by such
currents can only be solved by all underground in-
stallations being incorporated into the protection system.
Fig. 16 shows the application of local cathodic protection
to a power station with large cooling water ducts (nomi-
nal diameters 2000 and 2500 mm) and water conduits
for fire extinguishing. For 19 000 m
2
of reinforced concrete
foundations and 2000 m
2
of copper groundings a current
of 120 A is fed in via eight deep-groundbeds
With a resistivity of 150 to 350 m this soil is a compara-
tively poor conductor; so, for a local potential lowering
of specific objects to be protected, a directed current
may be fed in via horizontal groundbeds.
The values given under Aare pipe-to-soil potentials
measured with free corrosion going on before local cath-
odic protection was installed. These potentials range from
U
Cu/CUSO4
= -0.5 to -0.1 V. The values given under B,
and Care on-potentials (off-potentials) measured after
4 months and one year, respectively, of the protection
system being in operation. As expected, it was not
possible to produce off-potentials more negative than
the critical protection potential (-0.85 V), this is in spite
of (some) vastly negative on-potentials. However, due
to the IR-bound error still present in the off-potential
measurements, this impossibility does not imply that
the object is not fully cathodically protected. There are
ways of measuring that work with polarization probes
and/or test coupons, and enable off-potentials at critical
points of the structure to be measured sufficiently
depleted of I R-errors. Thi s affords a rel i abl e
ascertainment of protection.
Complicated adjustment steps during the design and
construction phases, and later on, controlling measure-
ments and the handling of very large protection currents
in view of possible interference with foreign objects,
necessitate this type of protection to be managed by
expert enterprises having advanced experience. During
the last decade progress was manifested in numerous
successful applications.
Figure 16 Local cathodic protection in a power station
Deep groundbrds
Horizontal anodes
Cooling water lines
Fire extinguishing lines
A
B
C
Pipe-to-soil potential under free corrosion conditions
Pipe-to-soil potential after 4 months` polarization
Without brackets: On-potential, in brackets: Off-potential
Same as B, but after one years` polarization
6.1 Origins of stray currents
A stray current is an underground current originating
from current-carrying parts of electrical installations. In
most cases these are the rails of electric railways. But
CP facilities installed for foreign objects to be protected
may also be responsible. Related interference problems
were discussed already with regard to fig. 14. Depending
on the geometric situation of the pipeline in relation to
the direction of the current, i.e. the electric field generated
by the unit in question, stray current will enter the pipeline
over large areas. Within the most positive region the
stray current leaves the pipeline for the ground, and here
it causes anodic corrosion.
6.2 Characteristics of stray current action
Corrosion caused by stray currents is in many respects
similar to that caused by foreign cathodes. However,
there are typical differences, too.
Corrosion danger essentially depends on current
density only. Properties of the ground are of no concern,
actually, provided a stray current does flow. So only in
sandy soils of very high resistivity is the corrosion
danger diminished.
The influence of the pipe coating is varied.
If there is no direct connection leading in stray current
from foreign objects to the pipeline, a high coating
resistivity could be useful, because stray current entry
would be cut down. On the other hand in the region of
current exit the same conditions are given, as were
discussed in section 5.2.4 with respect to foreign
cathodes, in view of eqs. (22) through (25), page 24.
Hence in this area a high coating resistivity is un-
favourable. Useful would be only a coating 100% free of
holidays, and that after the laying of the line and during
service.
As opposed to the situation with foreign cathodes, the
origin of danger cannot be eliminated. Stray currents
are present in the ground, and they do not need connec-
tions to enter the pipeline. A suitable protection measure
is not impediment of stray current entry but that of stray
current exit.
As in the case of danger caused by foreign cathodes,
the corrosion rate is hardly assessable. Values ex-
ceeding 1 mm/year may be expected. The endangered
regions are characterized by very positive pipe-to-soil
potentials. Contrary to the action of foreign cathodes
and foreign protection facilities the potential accom-
panying railway currents is intensely variable with time.
Depending on construction and usage of the railway track
the regions of entry and exit of stray current are subject
to considerable alterations. For these reasons simple
measurements of potentials are not sufficient; necessary
is recording the potentials for several hours duration.
The same way as with foreign cathodes creating danger,
the user of the pipeline may, by potential measurements,
recognize stray currents to be present. These measure-
ments must by all means be continued for several hours
while the neighbouring railway tracks are being used.
Assessment of the danger can be achieved by an ex-
pert only. The intense danger of early damage necessi-
tates protection measures as soon as possible.
6 Corrosion caused by stray currents;
protection methods
Figure 17a Stray currents originating from railways
6.3 Protection measures against stray
currents
Protection may be achieved by leading the stray current
through electrical connections back directly to the
installation that produces it. Fig. 17 shows schematically
stray currents being created by a D.C. railway and flowing
through a neighbouring pipeline. Near the rectifier railway
feeding station of the railway the stray current leaves
the pipeline and causes severe anodic corrosion in this
area. This is the very location for protection measures to
be taken.
6.3.1 Immediate drainage
Via a heavy duty low ohmic resistor the pipeline is
directly connected to the stray current source, i.e. the
railway track.Even this measure alone is very effective,
provided the connection is made in the immediate
neighbourhood of the rectifier railway feeding station of
the railway, and the overhead conductor is the positive
pole. Thus the negative potential of the rails is transfer-
red to the pipeline, so that even a moderate cathodic
protection may be the result.
Figure 17 Protection against stray currents originating fro railway
stray currents in the soil, pipeline and current drain
Anodic region
Cathodic region
of influenced unprotected pipeline
6.3.2 Rectified drainage
This is a special case of immediate stray current drai-
nage. It is characterized by heavy duty diodes incor-
porated in the draining connections to the rails. The
diodes are meant to ensure that current can only flow
from the pipeline to the rails and not in the opposite
direction. This type of draining connection must be
applied, if a direct drainage cannot be installed in the
immediate neighbourhood of the rectifier railway feeding
station. Increasing with the distance from the railway
rectifier is the chance of pole changings taking place
between pipeline and rails according to varying situations
in railway traffic, so that there is the danger of stray
current entering through the very drainage. This is to be
prevented by diodes. Rectified drainage must be installed
in several locations along the pipeline, where stray current
may often leave.
6.3.3 Forced drainage
With this type of drainage a protective rectifier unit is
incorporated into the connection. By means of its voltage
the rectifier extracts the stray current from the pipeline
and directs it to the rails. Actually this is a normal
arrangement for cathodic protection, the rails repre-
senting the anode. Since due to varying situations in
railway traffic the voltage pipeline/rail may be subject to
substantial alterations, the protective rectifier unit should
be adjustable to voltage variations with time. There are
several possibilities to lower the resulting current
variations, e.g. installation of inductivities.
6.3.4 Use of controlling rectifiers for forced drainage
In the case of very large current variations it is ad-
vantageous to use rectifiers controlling the potential. By
means of the fixed reference electrode RE the rectified
current is controlled so as to keep the pipe-to-soil po-
tential in the place of drainage at a fixed value U
nom
. At
larger distances from the reference electrode the stray
current influence is different, so there are increases in
the temporal variations of the pipe-to-soil potential again,
but this is of no concern to the protection effectiveness.
If in some region the pipe-to-soil potential is often found
to be too far positive, another protection unit must be
installed there.
A
B
7.1 Types and causes of high voltage
influence
In densely populated areas there is not always a way
around constructing pipelines running in close proximity
to open high voltage lines, crossing them or even
parallelling them for some distance. Due to alternating
voltages induced in these pipelines high contact voltages
may develop, which necessitates protective measures.
During construction and operation of pipelines special
measures must be taken according to relevant standards
and regulations, also with regard to the cathodic pro-
tection system. There are two main types of interference
which must be assessed in different ways:
Short time interference caused by short circuit
currents of the high voltage power line
Permanent interference caused by operating currents
of the high voltage power line
In both cases by a suitable grounding of the pipeline the
induced contact voltages must be safeguarded against
exceeding the admissible extremes. In section 4,
however, it was pointed out that disconnection from
groundings is a prerequisite for cathodic protection.
Groundings consume protection current, and, because
of possible relaxation currents flowing after the protection
current switch-off, they may cause measuring problems
in the determination of true potentials by application of
the off-potential technique.
7.2 Protective measures against too high
voltages in personal contact
According to to relevant standards and regulations the
voltages permissible for bodily contact depend on the
duration of their action, this enables different protection
measures to be taken against the two above mentioned
types of interference.
7.2.1 Short time interference caused by short circuit
currents of the high voltage power line
In the case of a short circuit of this kind, power is cut
off after about 0.2 s. Permissible for bodily contact are
voltages exceeding 1000 V. This means the required
groundings may be connected to the pipeline across
excess voltage drains, working by way of gas discharge
with starting voltages (threshold voltages) about 250 V.
So during normal operation the groundings are electri-
cally separated from the pipeline, and neither do they
interfere with cathodic protection nor with its control by
potential measurement. With a short circuit given, secure
grounding is provided for the short duration required.

7.2.2 Permanent interference caused by operating

currents of the high voltage power line
The maximum permissible voltage for long time bodily
contact is < 65 V. This means the required groundings
may be connected to the pipeline across AC-voltage
limiter IVL-10. The Limiter IVL-10 effectively blocks the
protective DC-current required for cathodic protection
while providing a low ohmic ground connection for
induced AC-currents caused by operating or short circuit
currents of high voltage overhead line systems.
Measuring of true potentials by application of the off-
potential technique are guaranteed.
Electromagnetic field
Soil resistivity
Length of
parallelism
Coating quality
Coating resistance
Distance OH-line - Pipeline
Important parameters regarding the causes of
induced AC on pipelines in utility corridors
Dimensions
Coating resistance
Distance OH-line-Pipeline
Buried depth
Soil resistivity
Operating current
Short circuit current
Phase imbalance
Operating frequeny
Length of parallelism
Pipeline Overhead line
Figure 18 Parameters regarding the causes of induced AC on
pipelines
7 High voltage interference, protective measures
and effect to cathodic protection
7.3 Grounding the pipeline
With the pipeline having a coating resistivity r
u
to be
lowered to r
uG
because of high voltage interference and
with n groundings of resistances R
E
each to be installed
for this purpose
S
r
uG
S
r
u
=
n
R
E
+ (28)
S = d l R
E
is the surface of the pipeline section in
question with the diameter d and the length l. So the
required number of groundings is
n = d l R
E
x
r
u
- r
uG
r
u
x r
uG
(29)
In the case of very good coating resistance eq. (29) is
simplified to
d R
E
r
uG
n = l x (30)
Some experience-based practices are generally followed
to earth and isolate the pipeline and/or divert the in-
duced high voltage/current surges to ground. These
practices are generally not backed-up by analytical field
investigations.
For optimization of grounding systems computer soft-
ware is used to determine the necessary locations and
the required earth resistances of single groundings along
a influenced pipeline section. Results of these computer
calculations confirm the predictions of experts but may
surprise those who earth and/or isolate based on
practice.
The groundings may be made of galvanized steel, the
zinc layer should at least 70 m. Strip iron with a dimen-
sion 30 x 3.5 mm and rods with about 20 mm diameter
are suitable for application as horizontal and deep seated
groundings respectively.
0,00
0,50
1,00
1,50
2,00
2,50
3,00
3,50
4,00
4,50
5,00
5,50
6,00
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 250 300
Required
earthing resistance
[ ]
3.0
66 m
Lengt of earthing strip [ m ]
r
h
o
=
1
5
0
O
h
m
x
m r
h
o
=
1
2
0
O
h
m
x
m
r
h
o
=
1
0
0
O
h
m
x
m
r
h
o

=

8
0

O
h
m

x

m
r
h
o

=

6
0

O
h
m

x

m
rho = 40 Ohm x m
rho = 20 Ohm x m
Figure 19 Determination of earthing strip length depending on
required earthing resistance and specific soil resistivity
Example of application:
Required earthing resistance : 3.0
Specific soil resistivity : 94.0 m
Diagram: selected =100 m and 3.0
Result: Lengt of earthing strip = 66 m, taken: 75 m
In the previous sections those types of corrosion were
described exclusively which result in a more or less
uniform metal consumption, according to eq. (2a.
Corrosion damage is given by the diminishing of wall
thickness and the development of trough-shaped cavities
and pittings.
Common to all of these processes are the anodic parti-
al reaction of eq. (2), and the electrochemical protection
measure, to shift the potential to < U
Cu/CuSO4
= 0.85 V,
the protection potential. But there are still other types of
corrosion, that may lead to pipeline damage. They are
governed by mechanisms different from those of the
above discussed types and their dependence on poten-
tial is quite varied. Among these are the different kinds
of stress corrosion cracking, SCC, characterized by the
development of cracks under tensile stresses and with-
out any noticeable material consumption.
8.1 Critical agents causing SCC
SCC may occur provided there is a simultaneous action
of sufficiently high tensile stresses and critical agents.
Strong influences are exerted by the concentrations of
these substances, by temperature and potential. In many
cases SCC is even restricted to fairly narrow potential
regions, so that the question about susceptibility to SCC
cannot be answered without reference to the relevant
potential.
According to the knowledge available so far - mainly
chemical in nature - the following substances may trigger
SCC in steels:
Intergranular cracks
Caustic alkali solutions, alkali carbonate, and bicarbo-
nate; nitrates, fuming nitric acid and condensates con-
taining nitrous oxides (e.g. from flue gases), ammonium
salts of weak acids.
Transgranular cracks
Aqueous condensates of hydrogen sulphide, prussic
acid, carbon dioxide + carbon monoxide (gases common
in refineries), liquefied ammonia and pressurized hy-
drogen.
8 Conditions related to stress corrosion cracking;
preventive measures
8.2 Danger caused by corrosion
on the inside surface of the pipes;
protective measures
Examples of critical substances, that may cause stress
corrosion cracking at sufficiently high pressures, and
pertinent protection measures are combined in this
survey:
Critical substances
H
2
S, moist
HCN, moist
CO + CO
2
, moist
liquid NH
3
H
2
(gaseous)
Protection measure
Drying, inhibition
Drying
Drying
Inhibition (by adding H
2
O);
O
2
-removal
Inhibition (by adding O
2
),
avoidance of sharp edged notches
SCC of pipelines so far mainly started from the inside
of the pipes. As critical substances H
2
S and CO + CO
2
had to be given attention. Corrosion and corrosion
protection of the outside surface in the ground are of no
concern to these processes. Protection measures are
exclusively directed to conditioning the goods to be
transported and to the working conditions of the pipelines.
8.3 Danger caused by corrosion
on the outside surface of the pipes;
protective measures
Damage caused by SCC starting from the outside sur-
faces of pipelines is very rare, and restricted to lines
working above ambient temperature, especially those
under high pressure. The table below gives a survey
concerning this matter. The features of these types of
corrosion will be described in the following paragraphs.
8.3.1 SCC caused by nitrates
The critical potentials lie in the region of normal rest
potentials. Ordinary cathodic protection totally eliminates
the danger of SCC. Nitrates from artificial fertilizers being
ubiquitous in farming areas, cathodic protection is always
recommendable.
8.3.2 SCC caused by sodium hydroxide
The critical potentials are distinctly more negative than
the protection potential. But SCC only occurs with tem-
peratures permanently exceeding 50 C (which does not
happen in normal pipeline operation), and with very high
concentrations of sodium hydroxide. Causative for its
formation is, following eqs. (2b), (3), (4), cathodic
polarization in combination with ion migration, eq. (14b).
So, danger will only arise if there are very high protection
current densities, if high concentrations of alkali ions
are present, and if the sodium hydroxide is impeded
from diffusing off by deposits or solid materials on the
pipe surface.
Lessening the protection current density is doubly
effective. In the first place the probability of the critical
potentials being reached and in the second place the
concentration of sodium hydroxide is decreased. If, due
to a lower current density, the protection potential is not
fully attained in some areas, this situation has to be put
up with. Avoiding SCC that may lead to early failure takes
priority of definitely preventing the material consuming
type of corrosion, that might - with a decreased
probability! - lead to late occurring damage.
Substance; origin
Nitrates; fertilizers
(NH
4
)
2
CO
3
; frtilizers
NaOH; cathodes
see eq.(4)!
NaHCO
3
; NaOH at cathodes
CO
2
from surroundings
Na
2
CO
2
; (like with NaHCO
3
)
not specific
(soil and salts)
Critical potentials
V VS. Cu/CuSO
4
> -0.45
about -0.65
about -1.1
about -0.7
about -0.9
predominantly with
cathodic protection
Damage became
known in
Long-distance heating
pipeline
Long-distance heating
pipeline
High pressure gas
pipeline
High pressure pipeline
Protection measures
Cathodic protection
Cathodic protection
Reduction of temperature
(<50 C)
Cooling, blasting of steel surface,
use of CO
2
-free coatings,
sufficient cathodic protection
(like with NaOH)
Avoidance of hard spot
formation (about >400 HV)
Only in hard spots on the pipe surface!
Critical substances at the pipe surface that may lead to stress corrosion cracking in soil if critical potentials
and sufficiently strong mechanical stress are present
8.3.3 SCC caused by sodium bicarbonate
The critical potentials are a bit more positive than the
protection potential. Sodium bicarbonate is formed out
of sodium hydroxide, which is cathodically generated,
and carbon dioxide from the environment:
NaOH + CO
2
---> NaHCO
3
. (31)
The carbon dioxide may come from the soil or from the
coating material. Because of the potential range required
for this type of corrosion to occur, the bare steel surface
below coating holidays is not in danger, provided
sufficient cathodic protection is given. Critical potentials
may occur below deposits and loose parts of the
coatings, especially if there is mill scale still on the steel
surface. For this reason, giving adequate cathodic
protection, and the removal of mill scale from the steel
surface are important protection measures.
Another protective arrangement is directed against the
formation of sodium bicarbonate after eq. (31). Carbon
dioxide may come from the soil and permeate the coating,
or, at elevated temperatures, be emitted by the coating
material.
For this reason only such coating materials should be
used, that do not emit carbon dioxide at elevated
temperatures, and have a comparatively small
permeation coefficient for carbon dioxide. Another
protection measure is lowering the temperature.
In all these cases by diminishing mechanical stress the
danger of SCC may be cut down decisively. In this
respect not only stress created by internal pressure,
but also additional loads, e.g. by thermal elongation,
should be considered.
8.3.4 SCC in hard spots
At the end of the table still another possible type of
damage is included that may occur in hard spots of the
steel surface, the type of material, and the potential being
of no concern whatever. Cathodic protection may slightly
further the progress of damage but is not actually
causative. This type of SCC is caused by the hydrogen
sensitivity of hard spots, the hydrogen being produced
by a cathodic partial reaction according to eq. (4).
These hard spots exceeding 400 HV are not common
phenomena on pipe surfaces. In case they do occur,
danger is created only then if the coating is damaged in
the very same place. The chance of such a coincidence
is very narrow - and virtually eliminated by application
of coatings with high mechanical strength.
8.3.5 SCC caused by cathodlcally produced
hydrogen
In theory, hydrogen produced cathodically according to
eq. (4), may cause hydrogen-induced SCC of pressur-
ized pipelines, especially in the case of sulfides being
present on the steel surface, a situation which cannot
be excluded in the soil. This type of corrosion, though,
is sharply dependent on the pH of the electrolyte in
action. Damage can occur in condensates from sour
gas (H
2
S), see section 8.2, not so, however, in soils
with much higher pH values. Moreover by cathodic
polarization the pH value at the steel surface is increased
according to eqs. (3) and (4), so that this type of damage
occuring in soils is definitely excluded even with higher
strength pipeline steels. This is in conformance with all
practical experience.
9.1 When to use stainless steel
Stainless steel pipelines are very rarely used for under-
ground service. One reason for using them is the speci-
fication of particular purity of the transported goods,
like for instance fuel. Generally a normal austenitic
chromium-nickel steel (German Standard material No.
1.4301; AISI 304), containing about 18% Cr and 9% Ni
is used, that, due to its passivity, is totally stable in the
soil.
For particularly aggressive substances to be transported
higher alloy steels with specific chemical properties may
also be used. For instance in mineral oil and natural gas
production the ferritic-austenitic duplex steel AF 22
(German Standard material No. 1.4462) is used for
mains. This type of steel is highly resistant against
chloride induced pitting and SCC, and apart from this it
exhibits a comparatively high strength.
9.2 Stainless steel parts acting as foreign
cathodes vs. unalloyed steel
Mixed installation of stainless and unalloyed steels
causes problems since stainless steel parts will act as
foreign cathodes, see section 5.2.2. Corrosion danger
may be relieved by electrically separating the parts of
different materials and by coating the stainless steel
parts. The parts may be wrapped with the simplest
insulating tapes; these are only needed to insulate the
greatest part of the surface but not to protect the stain-
less steel from corrosion.
9.3 Overall corrosion properties and
influence of alien currents
Stainless steel cannot be jeopardized by foreign
cathodes in the ground, because, with respect to it -
they just do not exist. Anodic danger may only be caused
by stray currents. This may happen, e.g., in case stain-
less steel parts are, by means of insulating flanges,
kept separate from cathodically protected pipelines.
Protection current may enter the stainless steel line and
- similar to the situation in Fig. 14, - leave it near the
insulating flange. Then, in this region an anodic
polarization being present, chloride ions in the soil may
cause pitting. For corrosion prevention the stainless steel
line should be included into CP by means of a potential-
connection. The protection of stainless steel, though,
does not require the potential that is recommended for
the protection of unalloyed steel. Pitting is prevented by
a protection potential U
Cu/CuSO4
= - 0.1 V; this is definitely
more positive than the protection potential for unalloyed
steel. Stainless steel in the soil may be exposed to any
potential more negative than the protection potential.
There is no hazard that this might result in a loss of
passivity.
9.4 Conditions requiring protective
measures
Stainless steels in the soil may be subject to corrosion
danger on these conditions:
9.4.1 Sensitizatlon
Stability might be impaired at welds. Improper heat treat-
ment may sensitize stainless steels to intergranular
corrosion. Linked to this is an increased sensitivity to
pitting corrosion. Sensitization may be avoided by way
of proper selection of materials and welding procedures.
Danger of corrosion only exists with severely sensitized
materials exposed to aggressive soils. Usually a weak
cathodic polarization, which is effected simply by
galvanic contact with pieces of unalloyed steel, gives
full corrosion protection.
9.4.2 Concentrated chloride
With pipelines operated at higher temperatures there is
always the danger of chlorides being concentrated below
deposits on the steel surface. In the case of stainless
steel this causes pitting, and if the steel is austenitic,
the additional result is heavily branched transgranular
SCC. Application of a cathodic protection potential
U
Cu/CuSO4
= - 0.1 V may be considered.
In any case even a galvanic contact with unalloyed steel
is sufficient to eliminate a possible corrosion danger.
So, for the protection of stainless steel a piece of un-
alloyed steel may be used as a galvanic anode.
The material is sensitive to intergranular corrosion
according to DIN 50 914.
The pipeline is operated at temperatures exceeding
50 C (approximately)

9 Behaviour of stainless steel in the ground

10 Symbols
c(X)
d
I
I
B
I
A
I
K
I
a
I
k
J
J
s
l
l
D
n
R
R
E
R
F
Concentration of substance (X)
Pipe diameter
Electric current
Operational current in high power lines
Anodic partial current
(for anodic electrochemical reaction)
Cathodic partial current
(for cathodic electrochemical reaction)
Positive (anodic) total current
Negative (cathodic) total current
Current density
(indices A, K, a, k apply with current)
Protection current density
Length of pipeline or section thereof
Effective distance of diffusion
Number of groundings
Electrical resistance
Electrical resistance of a grounding
Contact resistance of the steel surface
under a coating holiday
r
r
u
r
uG
S
S
a, k
S
F
U
U
R
U
B
U
B max
U
s
U
Cu/CuSO4
w

Radius of coating holiday

Coating resistivity
Maximum admissible coating resistivity in
the case of high voltage influence
Area
Area of an anodic or a cathodic region,
respectively, on a heterogeneous steel surface
Steel surface area under a coating holiday
Voltage, electrical potential
Rest potential, potential in the case of free
potential
Contact voltage
Maximum admissible contact voltage
Protection potential
(in the case of cathodic protection)
Potential with relation to copper/copper
sulfate electrode
Corrosion rate; rate of metal consumption
Soil resistivity
Transmission measure