Before You Start Writing: Organization is the Key

by editor Love2Edit

When you are faced with starting an academic paper, the most important part of
researching and writing is organization! If you are not organized, it will take
considerably more time to write the paper !utlining is one of the most effective
organization methods as it forces you to come up with a framework for your paper
before you start writing !utlines don"t have to be fancy, formal documents# all you
basically need to do is sketch out your main ideas in a logical order $elow are
some tips to get you started!
% &esearch
'ou certainly don"t need to conduct all of your research before you start your
outline (t the very least, however, you should do enough to come up with a
tentative thesis statement and to have a grasp of the broad main points that will be
re)uired to support your thesis !nce you have these, you can then fill in the rest of
the outline as you do your research
(s you research, you should keep a running list of all of the sources you have
consulted with a one or two sentence synopsis of each source It is also helpful and
time*saving to compile all of the bibliographical information you will need for your
reference page as you research If you are printing from the Internet, it is also wise
to set up the browser to print the +&L and date of access for every page as you will
need that later as well ,his prevents the arduous task of locating all of the
information at the end!
It is also helpful to categorize your research as you go ,his does not have to a
formal process# I find it helpful to -ust put all of my research on a similar topic or sub*
topic in the same pile and then clip it together and label it with a sticky note
2 .eveloping a /eneral ,hesis 0tatement
,he main purpose of a thesis statement is to help the reader identify the main idea
of your paper (nother purpose of a thesis statement is to help you develop a plan
for the writing of your paper
'our topic may change as you write, so you may need to revise your thesis
statement to reflect e1actly what you have discussed in the paper 2ost writers will
revise their thesis at least once during the course of writing a paper!
(t the end, however, your thesis statement should be specific3it should cover only
what you discuss in your paper and should be supported with specific evidence
4 5reating an !utline
!utlines are a great way for organizing your research and your writing (n outline
breaks down the parts of your thesis in a clear, organized fashion 2ost students
find that writing an outline before beginning the paper is most helpful in organizing
one6s thoughts ,he better your outline, the easier your paper should be to write
!utlines don"t have to fit the kind of formula 7heading, sub*heading, sub*sub*
heading8 that you learned in eighth grade (n outline is basically an organized list of
your main points that serves as a blueprint of how you want to construct your
argument 9ow much detail you place in your outline is really up to you! 0ome
writers cannot start writing until they have a detailed outline that sets forth every
point and sub point# others -ust need to sketch out all of their main ideas and the
order in which they will be addressed
&egardless of the level of details, your outline should at least contain an
I:,&!.+5,I!:, a $!.', and a 5!:5L+0I!: ,hese often serve as the main
headings 7ie I, II and III8 of the outline ,he Introduction contains background
information, states the thesis and sets the ob-ectives of the paper, while also
sparking the reader"s interest ,he $ody contains paragraphs that support and
develop the thesis**one point per paragraph, introduced by a topic sentence ,he
5onclusion restates the thesis, summarized the main points and e1presses a
personal view, if appropriate 'our subheadings and sub*sub headings, if any, will
serve as the main ideas for the paragraphs of your paper
; !rganizing 'our :otes and 0ources
(t this point, you should analyze, synthesize, sort and digest all of the information
you have gathered <irst, go through each source thoroughly and make notes of the
important points stated in each source :e1t, organize all the information you have
gathered according to your outline 2ark each note or source clearly with your
outline code or reference, eg, I$2a or II5, etc If you have categorized and labeled
your research along the way, this will be a less difficult process Either way, you
should review and critically analyze all of your research data +se only the best
available sources, check for accuracy and verify that the information is factual, up*to*
date and correct .o not include any information that is not relevant to your topic,
and do not include any information that you do not understand
= 0tarting the Writing >rocess
It is finally time to start writing! 0tart with the first topic in your outline &eview all of
the relevant notes and sources you have gathered that have been marked, eg with
the capital &oman numeral I
0ummarize, paraphrase or )uote directly for each idea you plan to use in your
essay +se a techni)ue that suits you, eg write summaries, paraphrases or
)uotations on note cards, or separate sheets of lined paper I prefer to use a word
processor to compile all of my notes so that I can easily cut and paste them into my
outline, which will ultimately become my first draft! $efore you know it, you have a
well organized term paper that is completed e1actly as outlined
(s described above, outlining can provide you with the building blocks for a well*
structured paper &egardless of the method used, writers should always devote
time to organization because it is invaluable to writing a persuasive and logical
paper
The Write Stuff

by editor 5ampbell

!?, so you"ve come up with a great idea for your paper, or you want your brochure
to boost sales, or you must make a positive first impression with your cover letter
What"s the secret@ !nce you have the title, headline or salutation, what
ne1t@ 0hould you -ust start writing and hope that something brilliant will come to you
as you write@
$uilding a well*written, and thus well*received, document doesn"t happen instantly#
it"s a process of thinking, organizing, writing and, maybe most importantly, rewriting
$efore you write, you must clearly understand the point of your paper, plan 7either in
your head or in a written outline8 what you want to say, and begin to organize your
ideas ?eep in mind that when you speak, you can get away with digressions and
fragmented thoughts, but when you write, you must be clear and logical
When you are ready to put pen to paper, or in most cases, fingers to keyboard, start
simply /ive all your ideas a chance to sink or float by transmitting them to visual
form# that gives your document the basic substance it needs to begin ,his can be
in fragmented form as information gathered from reference materials, interesting
tidbits about your topic or -ust random ideas you are considering using ,hen, and
only then, start to e1pand thoughts into sentences and paragraphs, discarding ideas
or conclusions as you go, keeping the ones that are strongest and will have the best
chance of informing or persuading the reader
,his Afirst draftB is nowhere near your completed work, as no amount of planning can
totally eliminate the need for improvement :ow you need to step back for at least
a short time, so that you can face your first draft with a clear head and an ob-ective
eye It"s time to begin rewriting
,hink first about the AwholeB you are trying to create, rather than the details
7punctuation, grammar, etc8, before you begin to alter its parts .oes the overall
document convey your message in a logical, thought*provoking manner, or is it
disorganized and clumsy@ When you read from paragraph to paragraph, is there a
clear, smooth transition@ .id you rush through an e1planation or description without
giving it the proper attention@ 9ave you supported all your claims or results with
ade)uate background information, statistics or references@
0tep back once again 9ave a cup of coffee or go -og around the block 5lear your
mind so that you can view your paper again with fresh eyes and mind :ow is the
time to move sentences and paragraphs around, combine choppy thoughts into
easily read sentences and delete unnecessary words, phrases or even paragraphs
Cust as a personal trainer helps you tone your body, you are toning your paper into a
lean, strong communications tool
0urely you are now finished $ut wait D what about the AdetailsB mentioned
above@ :ow you must carefully check your punctuation, grammar and sentence
structure# sometimes passing a course, making a sale or getting a -ob hinges on a
misused semicolon or a careless pronoun reference ,his is an especially important
step for E0L 7English 0econd Language8 writers because the rules of English are
not easy to learn nor always sensible <irst, use your 0pell 5heck! 2any grades
have been lowered, customers lost and resumes tossed in the Are-ectB pile because
of a misspelled word ,hen closely e1amine your punctuation .o you have more
commas than necessary@ 9ave you misused colons or semicolons@ 5an you read
each sentence separately and have it make sense@ !n the way to making your
paper the best it can be, you must focus on each and every detail
$e hard on yourself Euestion your phrasing and the appropriateness of word
choice ?eep your thesaurus nearby and e1periment with your vocabulary
&emember that -ust committing your thoughts to paper or monitor does not make
them sacred# it only gives you a visual field in which to place your ideas in their
strongest positions $y playing A.evil"s advocate,B you will identify weaknesses and
make your paper even stronger
&ewriting also indicates your concern for your reader While many poets write for
themselves and their individual personal passions, you are probably writing for a
specific reader or audience &ead your paper as if you were the professor, the
customer or the 9uman &esources .irector :o technical skills or fancy vocabulary
can make up for the need to read your message through your reader"s eyes
<inally, to make absolutely sure that you will be able to present your best, most
polished document, take advantage of our services at editavenuecom, where the
most ob-ective and e1perienced eyes and minds will hone your work to its finest
edge
,o &ecapF
% 0elect a topic for your paper
2 /ather all your reference materials and thoughts, and put them down in a loose
outline
4 2anipulate that information into a tighter outline, e1panding and discarding ideas
as you go
; $egin formulating sentences and paragraphs, and placing them in a logical order
to produce a first draft
= <irst &ewriteF e1amine the paper for illogical se)uences or unsupported claims
or ideas
G 0econd &ewriteF move sentences and paragraphs to more logical positions to
strengthen your points
H ,hird &ewriteF check the details of punctuation, grammar and sentence structure,
and correct errors
I <ourth &ewriteF read your paper as your intended audience will read it, and
make necessary changes
J /o online to wwweditavenuecom!
Tips for Writing Scientific Papers

by editor .r?>White (currently offline)

(mong editors, I have the distinct advantage of having had a long, highly successful
career as a scientific researcher, and having served as an editor and reviewer for
several, high*profile scientific -ournals I can tell you that there is no way to ensure,
with one hundred percent certainty, that your paper is going to be accepted by any
given -ournal 9aving said this, I also must tell you that, in my career, I only have
had one scientific paper which I failed to have published in a peer*reviewed scientific
-ournal In other words, it is important for you to realize that scientific -ournals
W(:, to publish good research If your study has been well designed and
orchestrated, irrespective of a positive or negative result, it is publishable It is
critical, therefore, not to let improper editing prevent you from having your papers
accepted What follows are a few tips, which stem from what I look for when
reviewing a paper 'ou never know, one day I may be reviewing yours
Let me start with some very basic writing tips
% While you, yourself, are editing your paper, read it out loud ,his is something I
always do and find e1tremely helpful
2 :ever rush to submit a paper 0et yourself a pre*target date to have the paper
written and edited, then let it sit a few days ,hen pick it up and read it again 'ou
will be surprised what changes you will think of
4 :ever write and edit a paper without feedback from others :o matter how
accomplished a writer you are, you are human 'ou cannot possibly think of
everything that a group of reviewers will want to see :or can most writers pick up
every potentially awkward phrase or sentence, every misspelling 7even with spell
checks, similar sounding words like there, their and they"re invariably become
confused I suggest that you have at least one other scientist in your field read your
paper and one other scientist outside your immediate field read it Why someone
outside your field@ Cust remember that, )uite possibly, at least one person reviewing
your paper for the -ournal will have an e1pertise somewhat distant from your own# if
that reviewer cannot understand your writing, you may be sunk <inally, I strongly
suggest that you have a professional editor or another very meticulous writer read
and edit it
; (lthough you want all parts of your paper to be as strong as they can be, really,
really make sure that its 2ethods and 2aterials section is meticulously written and
edited, and that all data are presented clearly, both in the te1t and in easy*to*follow
tables and figures &arely will a paper be re-ected outright because of a weak
Introduction or .iscussion ,he same is not true of weak 2ethods or &esults
:ow here are some specific tips for writing your 2ethods and 2aterials and your
&esults sectionsF
% 2ake sure that you have a very clearly stated primary hypothesis that is well
-ustified by your introduction ,his hypothesis should immediately follow the paper"s
introduction and flow directly from it !nly after you have clearly stated your primary
hypothesis or study ob-ective, should you state or list your secondary hypotheses
,oo often, I read papers in which every one of about ten different ob-ectives is given
e)ual importance ,his is e1tremely confusing to reviewers and will lead them to
believe that you never truly knew what you wanted to achieve (lso, the primary
ob-ective is the one which -ustifies your sample size
2 2ake sure that it is very clear how you are going to analyze your data to meet
each ob-ective When I am writing a research grant, the first thing I do is decide
what my primary and secondary ob-ectives are ,hen I immediately sit down and
plan my analysis scheme for each ob-ective ,his makes it easy later when I am
doing the analysis on collected data and when I am writing a paper for submission
2ost reviewers become e1tremely perple1ed if they cannot draw a straight line
between each ob-ective and the analysis plan you have described 2ake sure that
none of your ob-ectives is left without a clearly stated analysis plan I find that using
a matched numbering scheme for ob-ectives and analyses can be very helpful In
other words, ob-ective K% will be met by using data analysis method K%, and so on
4 .on"t forget to go back and fill in all the pertinent details that should fall between
listing your ob-ectives and describing your data analysis plan ,he most fre)uently
short*changed details in studies involving human sub-ects are those pertaining to
sub-ect recruitment .escribe in detail how sub-ects in each group 7,reatment (,
,reatment $, >lacebo and so on8 are recruitedF from the clinic or from the
community# randomly or consecutively# using a mailed )uestionnaire or by telephone
using trained interviewers# and so on (lso make sure that you list all of your
inclusion and e1clusion criteria ,hese lists are very important to reviewers
; If you randomize sub-ects into sub-ect groups, describe how If sub-ects are
blinded to treatment, describe how
= Custify your sample size ( recent study of scientific papers published in the last
decade found that the ma-ority never had enough sub-ects to ade)uately answer the
primary )uestion being addressed $ecause of this, current reviewers generally are
A Qualitative Approach to Acadeic Writing

by editor 0ue;J (currently offline)

When it comes to academic writing, a great many teachers insist that their students
use what they call A,he <ive >aragraph EssayB In fact, it seems to have become
the organizational tool of choice in a great number of high schools and colleges
today It is a simple format that can give a variety of short essays some structure
!ne is e1pected to assert a thesis statement in an introductory paragraph, e1plain or
develop that thesis in three supporting paragraphs, and then both prove and
summarize it in a concluding paragraph :ow, as a teacher myself, I am not about
to suggest that this format is either inappropriate or ineffective :o, it works
perfectly well3but only for the e1tremely limited number of tasks or topics that lend
themselves to it
Effective writing simply is not a )uantitative task It is, instead, a highly )ualitative
venture A2iss <eather"s &ule of ,hree,B a )ualitative way of thinking and analyzing,
can be applied successfully to any academic writing task3from short essays or
-ournal abstracts to research papers, dissertations and even scholarly volumes
2y high school debate coach, 2iss <eather, taught us to think, plan, and speak in
three"s 0he drilled us in this basic organizational pattern until it became part of
us 2iss <eather taught us that every academic or scholarly piece of writing or
speech fulfills one of three purposes Each of these pieces consists of three parts
(nd, finally, each of these three parts consists of three sub*parts Eventually, we
became )uite fluent in her A,hree 0peechB
We compose messages in order to inform, persuade or entertain others If the
purpose of your message is to inform your audience, you want to let your audience
know something or help them to understand something better If the purpose of
your message is to persuade your audience, you want to inspire your audience to
think, feel or do something differently (nd if your purpose is to entertain, you want
to move your audience to either laughter or tears
'our message will consist, then, of three parts3an introduction, a body and a
conclusion ,oo often, teachers leave their discussion of organization and structure
at that3be sure that your writing has a clear introduction, body and conclusion
2any fail to tell us what to do within each part of the whole ,his is where 2iss
<eather diverges from the rest of pack Within each part of the message, there are
three important steps that must be taken in order to accomplish your end
2iss <eather"s &ule of ,hree became so deeply ingrained in us that we thought,
dreamed and conversed in A,hree 0peechB ( typical debater lunch conversation in
2iss <eather form, then, might start like this
LWill you look at that ugly poster over there@ It looks like something my little brother
would do, and he6s a rather backward three*year*old I think these posters should
be scrapped ,hey have no artistic )ualities#
they have no persuasive elements# and they -ust don6t get the message acrossL
:ow, let"s use this conversation starter as the basis of our e1amination of 2iss
<eather"s
&ule in each of its three parts
>art !neF ,he Introduction
In this portion of your message 7appro1imately one*si1th of its overall length if you
really want a )uantitative measure8, you have three tasks to accomplish 'ou
mustF %8 grab your audience"s attention# 28 establish your thesis statement, and 48
provide your organizational plan Let"s look at each step in a bit more detail
<irst, you need to grab your audience"s attention 'ou might begin with an
interesting )uotation, a startling statistic, a personal story, or even a )uestion that will
lead your audience 7readers or listeners8 to your specific topic In our debater lunch
scenario, that AgrabB wasF LWill you look at that ugly poster over there@ It looks like
something my little brother would do, and he6s a rather backward three*year*oldL
:e1t, you need to establish your thesis statement 5onnect your attention*grabbing
lead to the specific topic that you will cover ,hat topic should be stated in a single
declarative sentence ,his is, in fact, the single most important sentence in your
piece, so it should be simple, direct and clear It indicates e1actly what you will
cover, what you will prove or support in your message LI think that these posters
should be scrappedL
<inally, you need to provide your organizational plan ,his, the second most
important sentence in your piece, is a crucial step too often neglected by writers and
speakers (t this point, let your audience know, in brief, -ust how you will proceed to
cover the topic you have chosen In other words, lay out an outline of the AproofB
you will offer in the work In this case, we know that three points will be covered in
the pieceF L,hey have no artistic )ualities# they have no persuasive elements# and
they -ust don6t get the message acrossL Why is this step so crucial@ It is rather like
a contract Letting your audience know e1actly what points you do intend to cover
in your message means that 7generally speaking8, your readers or listeners can hold
you responsible for doing what you said you intended to do
>art ,woF ,he $ody
In the body of your message 7consisting of appro1imately two*thirds of the whole8,
you need to cover 7in order8 each point that you isolated in your organizational
statement It may take a paragraph, a page, or even a chapter to cover each point,
depending upon the comple1ity of the message you are constructing Euantity is
not the issue here What is important is that you fulfill three tasks when it comes to
each point Each main idea should be clearlyF %8 e1plained, 28 supported, and
linked 0o, using the first main point in our sample organizational plan, Athese
posters have no artistic )ualities, persuasive elements, and getting the message
across,L let"s e1plain, support and link
E1plain what you mean when you say that A,hese posters have no artistic
)ualitiesB 2ake it clear to your audience In this case, our speaker or writer might
e1plain in this wayF L,hese posters are -ust plain ugly ,hey were obviously done
very )uickly3there are no drawings or graphics on them ,he lettering is uneven,
etcL
It is important, then, to support what you have to say >rovide an e1ample or some
other form of LevidenceL 7)uoted material**statistics, results of a study, a sample
case, etc8 to back up your point LIt is very important that advertising be done with
great care (ccording to .r Ima /reat (rtist, .irector of the 9oo9a +niversity
.epartment of (dvertising (rt and .esign, 6effective posters should be done neatly
and should include beautiful drawings or graphics6 In her book, >oster >ower,
.r (rtist goes on to point out that social scientists have proven that such care
results in greater audience acceptanceL
<inally, you need to link what you have to say to what has come before and what will
come after 5onnect your point to the specific topic or thesis statement, and
indicate how it leads you to your ne1t point L(s .r (rtist has so clearly shown,
artistic )uality is critical when evaluating the effectiveness of any individual
poster In fact, the higher the )uality, the more likely it is that audiences will be
persuaded to act upon the poster6s messageL
It is now time to fulfill these three tasks with your ne1t main idea In this case, your
ne1t paragraph might begin, L>ersuasive elements in posters includeMB 2ove on to
e1plaining, supporting and linking the idea that Athey have no persuasive
elementsB (nd, finally, do the same with the point that Athey -ust don"t get the
message acrossB E1plain it, support it, and link it
>art ,hreeF ,he 5onclusion
In this ending portion of your message 7consisting of appro1imately one*si1th of the
whole8, you need to complete the following three tasks When you wrap up, you
need toF %8 summarize, 28 prove your thesis, and 48 let your people go It6s actually
like doing the Introduction in reverse
<irst, you need to summarize $riefly restate the main points that you covered
LWe can see, therefore, that artistic )ualities, persuasive elements, and the ability to
get the message across are all critical when evaluating the effectiveness of
postersL
:e1t, restate your thesis >ut that statement in completed, proved andNor supported
terms LIn this case, then, it is clear that our posters simply do not measure up
,hey should be scrappedL
(nd, finally, let your people go 'ou grabbed your audience6s attention at the
outset**now you need to give it back 2aking a reference to your opening lead,
carrying it full circle, can be very satisfying for both readers and listeners L0o, if
you really want to drive the point home, don6t rely on backward three*year*old
brothers to do the work!L
,here are times when ,he <ive >aragraph Essay -ust won"t do (nd yet, its overall
intent is e1tremely valuable and even, in some cases, )uite workable It is, of
course, important to structure your academic messages well $ut, in the long run,
remembering what you need to do when you compose your messages may be more
effective than remembering how long it should be 0o, try following 2iss <eather3
in three"s
!haos to !oherence in " #asy Steps

by editor emccarthy 7currently offline8

.o you have trouble getting started on your writing assignments@ +nsure of where
to start@ 9ere"s a simple five*step techni)ue that gets you going and saves you time
without sacrificing )uality I call it 0!.&, 70ketch, !rganize, .raft, &ewrite, and
,est8 Like anything else it improves with practice <or the sake of argument, let"s
assume you"re doing a short essay on how your English class can be
improved ,his method works for all writing assignments or tasks
,he first step, idea sketching, re)uires you to rela1! ,urn on a classical music station
or tape (ny classical music will do I recommend baro)ue, and 2ozart is
especially good 7'es, the 2ozart effect works It doesn"t make you smarter, It does
make your brain work more efficiently and creatively with less stress8 If you like to
work in a library, bring your Walkman ,ake a blank I%N2 1 %%B piece of paper and
turn it sideways so the %%B sides are at the top and bottom .raw a circle in the
middle and write your topic in the middle of the circle Cot down anything about the
topic that comes to you ,ry to keep the ideas, details, thoughts to -ust three wordsF
circle them and move on :o sentences, no punctuation, no spelling, -ust a ma1 of
three words in circles or any other visual model that pops into your head /et
creative in any way you want +se different colors, arrows, doodles, whatever
strikes your artistic bent! .o this )uickly as the ideasNthoughts come to you Let
them flow onto the page ,en to fifteen minutes should generate plenty of data and
info for your writing assignment
'ou"ve -ust overcome the greatest obstacle all writers faceF the $L(:? piece of
paper 'our topic is out of the closet and down on paper ,ake a couple of deep
breaths andNor a glass of water to reward your brain for its work 7it loves
o1ygen8 'ou"re now ready for the second step
:ow start to organize $egin connecting the circles with arrows, looking to connect
main points or ideas with their supporting details 'ou might add in more specifics
and details, as you organize, to go with your main points (ll good writing is specific
writing It"s okay to write A2y instructor"s techni)ue needs improving,B but you must
support it with details like, A9e needs to look students in the eye,B or A9e should use
the backboard for e1amplesB :aturally, you will do this with all of your main 7general
points8 :ow write your draft from the outline, which might look like this
Intro 2y English class can be improved in three ways
main point improve instructor"s techni)ue
support 7look students in the eye, use blackboard for e1amples8
main point make assignments easier
support 7e1plain criteria, fewer assignments from reserve books8
main point improve testing
support 7fewer pop )uizzes, more take home tests8
5onclusion 0ummary of main points
!nce you have a draft you"re in good shape $ut you still have work to do 0tart by
putting your writing down for awhile and coming back to it later ,his allows your
conscious and subconscious to assimilate the material and start reorganizing
it 70uggestionF read your draft before you go to sleep ,hink about what
improvements it needs and put it away until the ne1t day :euroscientists say this
can help, especially with creative work8
When you return to rewrite your draft, rememberF rewriting is the key to getting your
idea fleshed out &evision, as some call this step, literally means Aseeing againB
'ou"ll pick up on a variety of things you overlooked in your original draftF more
background info for the introduction, not enough detail or specifics to support ma-or
points, awkward sentences, punctuation problems, and misspellings
&ewrite as many times as you need, making corrections, polishing, perhaps
selecting different words 7always have a dictionary, thesaurus and classical music
handy8
$efore you hand in your work, test it! ,here is no substitute for having a live human
being react to your writing (sk a friend, roommate, family member, fellow student
or colleague to read you piece before it"s due .on"t be sensitive to criticism#
remember every time you work on your paper, you"re looking to improve it
If you can"t get a reader, read your piece into a tape recorder (s you play it back,
read along from your document .oes it sound like you@ 7.on"t try to sound like a
literary critic or 9emingway, -ust yourself8 .id you say what you wanted to say in
the way you wanted to say it@ If not, revise again 2ake sure you"ve checked for
spelling and grammar, and the paper is neat and presentable (ppearances are
important (lways make a copy of your writing and keep the original for yourself
,he 0!.&, 70ketch, !rganize, .raft, &ewrite, and ,est8 chops up the writing task
into manageable units and allows the mind to focus on one task at a time (gain,
classical music will enhance the method (nd as you get more comfortable with it,
you"ll see how much time it saves you$

Quic% &eference 'uide to ()A

by editor Love2Edit

2L( 72odern Language (ssociation8 style is most commonly used to write papers
and cite sources within the liberal arts and humanities 2L( style specifies
guidelines for formatting papers and for referencing sources through parenthetical
citation and Works 5ited pages ,he rules and guidelines for 2L( style are set forth
in the 2L( 9andbook for Writers of &esearch >apers 7Gth edition8 and the 2L( 0tyle
2anual and /uide to 0cholarly >ublishing 72nd edition8
,his article will discuss the most commonly referenced 2L( rules and serve as a
)uick reference guide for students
% /eneral /uidelines for <ormatting 'our >aper
.ouble*space the te1t of your paper, and use a legible font like ,imes :ew &oman
or 5ourier with a font size of %O*%2 pt Leave only one space after periods or other
punctuation marks 7unless otherwise instructed by your instructor8 0et the margins
of your document to % inch on all sides Indent the first line of a paragraph one half*
inch 7five spaces or press tab once8 from the left margin
2 ,he $asics of In*,e1t 5itation
2L(, like most formatting styles, uses parenthetical citations to give credit to the
work of others ,o properly cite to a source, immediately following a )uotation from
a source or a paraphrase of a source"s ideas, place the author6s name followed by a
space and the page from which the )uotation or paraphrase is taken <or e1ampleF
0ocial support is the assistance individuals receive through their interpersonal
relationships 75obb %O8
,he author"s name may appear either in the sentence itself or in parentheses
following the )uotation or paraphrase, but the page number7s8 should always appear
in the parentheses, not in the te1t of your sentence <or e1ampleF
5obb states that social support is the assistance individuals receive through their
interpersonal relationships 7%O8
+nknown (uthor
When a source has no known author, use a shortened title of the work in place of the
author"s name >lace the title in )uotation marks if it6s a short work, or italicize or
underline it if it6s a longer work
2ultiple 5itations
,o cite multiple sources in the same parenthetical reference, separate the citations
by a semi*colon <or e1ampleF
0ocial support is the assistance individuals receive through their interpersonal
relationships 75obb %O# Williams 2=8
2ultiple Works by the 0ame (uthor
If the author6s name is not mentioned in the sentence, you would format your citation
with the author6s name followed by a comma, followed by a shortened title of the
work, followed, when appropriate, by page numbers If the author"s name is
mentioned in the sentence, it can be omitted from the citation
5iting to Indirect 0ources
0ometimes you may have to use an indirect source (n indirect source is a source
cited in another source <or such indirect )uotations, use A)td inB to indicate the
source you actually consulted
4 .ealing with Euotations
0hort Euotations
,o indicate short )uotations 7fewer than four typed lines of prose or three lines of
verse8 in your te1t, simply enclose the )uotation within double )uotation marks
Long Euotations
Longer )uotations of more than four typed lines should be placed in a free*standing
block of te1t, omitting )uotation marks, but maintaining double*spacing 0tart the
)uotation on a new line, with the entire )uote indented one inch from the left
margin !nly indent the first line of the )uotation by a half inch if you are citing
multiple paragraphs 'our parenthetical citation should come after the closing
punctuation mark
Euotes within Euotes
!ne of the most difficult types of )uotes to punctuate is a )uote within a
)uote 0ometimes, you may want to use )uoted dialogue or a )uote that includes a
word that is already set off by )uotation marks ,o mark a )uotation within the te1t
you want to )uote in your own paper, enclose them in single )uotation marks
7P "8F
!riginal te1tF 9e went to see the film A5asablancaB
Euoted te1tF $ecause Ahe went to see the film P5asablanca,"B he was late for the
audition
; $asic <ormat of the Works 5ited >age
(ll entries in the Works 5ited page must correspond to the sources cited in your
main te1t $egin your Works 5ited page on a separate page at the end of your
research paper Label the page Works 5ited 7do not underline the words Works
5ited or put them in )uotation marks8 and center the words Works 5ited at the top of
the page .ouble space all citations, but do not skip spaces between entries
+se italics or underlining for titles of larger works 7books, magazines8 and )uotation
marks for titles of shorter works 7poems, articles8
Entries are listed by author name 7for entire edited collections, listed by editor
names8 (uthor names are written last name first# middle names or middle initials
follow the first name E1ampleF ?insella, 0ophie If the book has no author, you
can list and alphabetize by the title of the book
= Works 5itedF $ooks
$ooks with !ne (uthor
$asic <ormatF Last name, <irst name ,itle of $ook >lace of >ublicationF >ublisher,
'ear of >ublication
E1ampleF ?insella, 0ophie 0hopaholic Q $aby :ew 'orkF $antam >ress, 2OOH
$ook with 2ore ,han !ne (uthor
<irst author name is written last name first# subse)uent author names are written
first name, last name If there are more than three authors, you may list only the
first author followed by the phrase et al in place of the other authors6 names, or you
may list all the authors in the order in which their names appear on the title page
G Works 5itedF >eriodicals
(rticle in a 2agazine
$asic <ormatF (uthor7s8 A,itle of (rticleB ,itle of >eriodical .ay 2onth 'earF pages
E1ampleF 0mith, Cames A,he Ira) WarB ,ime 2O :ov 2OOOF HO*H%
(rticle in a :ewspaper
5ite a newspaper article as you would a magazine article If there is more than one
edition available for that date 7as in an early and late edition of a newspaper8,
identify the edition following the date 7eg, %H 2ay %JIH, late ed8 Where a
newspaper title does not indicate the location of publication, add the city of
publication between s)uare brackets, eg .aily ,elegraph RLondonS
E1ampleF 5ave, (ndrew A2icrosoft and 0un 0ettle Cava $attleB .aily ,elegraph
RLondonS 2= Can 2OO%F 4G
(rticle in a 0cholarly CournalF
(uthor7s8 A,itle of (rticleB ,itle of Cournal TolumeIssue 7'ear8F pages
E1ampleF :ielsen, Laura $eth A0ubtle, >ervasive, 9armfulF &acist and 0e1ist
&emarks in >ublic as 9ate 0peechB Cournal of 0ocial Issues =I2 72OO28F 2G=
H Works 5itedF Internet 0ources
,he following are the basic components of an Internet citationF
%8 (uthor
28 A,itle of (rticle, Web page or siteB in )uotation marks
48 ,itle of 2agazine, Cournal, :ewspaper, :ewsletter, $ook, Encyclopedia, or
>ro-ect, underlined
;8 Editor of >ro-ect
=8 Indicate type of material, eg advertisement, cartoon, clipart, electronic card,
interview, map, online posting, photograph, working paper, etc if not obvious
G8 .ate of article, of Web page or site creation, revision, posting, last update, or date
last modified
H8 /roup, association, name of forum, sponsor responsible for Web page or Web
site
I8 (ccess date 7the date you accessed the Web page or site8
J8 5omplete +niform &esource Locator 7+&L8 or network address in angle
brackets
'ou may not be able to find all of the above# it is ok to skip any information that you
cannot find anywhere on the Web page or in the Web site /enerally, a minimum of
three items are re)uired for an Internet citationF ,itle, (ccess .ate and +&L
E1ampleF A9ow to 2ake EggsB e9owcom %O 2ay 2OOG
UhttpFNNwwwehowcomNhowV%OH2HVmake*eggshtmlW
Avoiding !oon Pitfalls in Acadeic Writing

by editor 0ue;J (currently offline)

,he written word is a powerful tool, the command of it an important skill When
writing in the humanities, one should have a core set of tools including a good
dictionary 7I suggest the (merican 9eritage .ictionary R(9.S andNor the !1ford
English .ictionary R!E.S8, a thesaurus, an encyclopaedia, a world atlas, a general
te1t on world mythology, a bible, and te1ts such as 0trunk and White"s Elements of
0tyle, the 5hicago 2anual of 0tyle, and whatever discipline*specific style guides and
sources you may need, such as the 2L(, (>, (>( handbooks, or 0ylvan $arnett"s (
0hort /uide to Writing (bout (rt I also recommend foreign dictionaries and a
dictionary of and of foreign words and phrases ,here are many other sources that
are available in print and on*line, but this basic list should suffice for any academic or
scholarly writer from grade school to the professional level
,heses statements
,he body of work opens with a thesis statement where the author lays down the
foundation of the argument 0ome academic writers like to begin with statements
such as Pin this essay I will be discussingM" and then launch into their topic ,his
method is wordy and uninteresting ,he thesis statement should grab the attention
of the reader while asserting your hypotheses or ideas in a clear and simple
fashion
,he temptation to use a )uote of another author or speaker as a springboard from
which the thesis launches is too great, and academically lazy ,his practice relies
too much upon what has already been said or done, rather than asserting the fresh,
new perspective of the author 7you8 Even if the ob-ective is to refute or support the
claims )uoted, e1plain your approach clearly, using the )uote as support for your
arguments within the body of the te1t ,hesis statements should be clear, concise,
and to the point
,he 2eat of 'our (rgument
,he body 7or argument8 is the meat of your work, and is where your story, proof,
ideas, and theories are presented and substantiated in clear prose Whenever
possible, avoid -argon and collo)uialisms, and never use contractions in a scholarly
paper $e specific in your writing and avoid making vague and broad statements
It is important to always substantiate your ideas with proof 'our writing should not
only be clear to you, but also to your reader impersonal pronouns such as Ait,B
Athey,B and AthatB are referring ,he pitfall to combating vagueness is repetition
+se your thesaurus to find other words, or restructure sentences to restate your
point without sacrificing meaning $ig words however, do not necessarily mean
better writing, especially if they are misused or overused 0ometimes a simple work
is more effective than a multisylabic, grandiose one that may ultimately detract from
your point !ne can choose simple phrasing and clear language without becoming
dull, however it is a delicate balance indeed In order to avoid run*on sentences,
sentence fragments, and vague constructions read your prose aloud If you can
neither speak it fluidly, nor can a listener understand it, the work needs to be
revised
/ive 5redit Where 5redit is .ue
When )uoting or paraphrasing another author or authority, one must include citations
or footnotes or endnotes, whichever you choose be consistent throughout your
work ,he 5hicago 2anual of 0tyle has a beautiful chapter on this topic 2ost
word*processing software programs have automatic features for formatting footnotes
and endnotes >lace footnote and endnote markers in superscript after the final
punctuation mark of the )uote, or at the end of the appropriate paragraph In the
actual note, give a bibliographic citation that includes the page number and any
other pertinent or anecdotal information that enhances your argument7s8, but that
might detract from the clear, fluid momentum of the presentation ,he prose should
lead to a conclusion 7or set of conclusions8 With few e1ceptions 7mostly in
scientific writing or multi*chapter works8 the conclusion should not restate all of the
points made in the body of the essay :o scholarly work is complete without a
bibliography or list of works cited ,hese should be listed in alphabetical order by
author"s last name 2ultiple works by the same author should be listed in
chronological order ,he bibliography should also include publication information
and page numbers where relevant
!n EditorsF
,here are three basic stages at which an editor can become involved with your workF
proofreading, copy editing, and substantive editing If you want an editor to
proofread or copy edit your work, your copy should have already been through
several drafts already ,hese two stages assume that you have done most of the
work to prepare a work that needs another pair of eyes to catch errors that you may
have missed 0ubstantive editing re)uires greater involvement between you and
the editor, and may include altering or restructuring whole sentences or paragraphs
as necessary, and depending upon the nature of your agreement
Writing is a beautiful thing It communicates our thoughts, feelings, ideas, and
discoveries $ut because these intangible things somehow becomes concrete and
immortalized when placed into print, it is the task of the writer to uphold a certain
standard of e1cellence by writing well and avoiding these common pitfalls and
temptations 9appy writing!