The Filmmaker's Toolkit:: A Practical Guide

The filmmakers toolkit:
a practical guide

by Claire Allam
Learning Development and Media Unit
The University of Sheffield

http://www.filmmakers-toolkit.group.shef.ac.uk/

Learning and Teaching Services
The University of Sheffield, 5 Favell Road, Sheffield, S3 7QX, http://www.shef.ac.uk/lets
Version: November 07 1
The filmmakers toolkit
Introduction....................................................................................................................... 4
Video - an overview........................................................................................................... 4
Preparation........................................................................................................................ 5
Organising your thoughts................................................................................................... 5
Storyboarding .................................................................................................................... 6
Writing a script .................................................................................................................. 6
How to describe shots....................................................................................................... 7
Shot sizes........................................................................................................................... 7
Moving shots...................................................................................................................... 7
Preparing to go on a shoot ................................................................................................ 8
The recce .......................................................................................................................... 8
The call-sheet .................................................................................................................... 9
The shotlist ........................................................................................................................ 9
Dos and donts.................................................................................................................. 9
Production......................................................................................................................... 9
Using a camera ................................................................................................................ 10
Tripods ............................................................................................................................ 10
Camera settings ............................................................................................................... 10
Moving shots.................................................................................................................... 11
Shooting sequences ......................................................................................................... 11
Lighting ............................................................................................................................ 11
3-point lighting................................................................................................................. 13
White balance ................................................................................................................. 13
Filming outdoors.............................................................................................................. 14
Sound recording.......................................................................................................................................................... 14
Conducting interviews.............................................................................................................................................. 15
Editing................................................................................................................................................................................ 15
Editing process.............................................................................................................................................................. 16
Logging.............................................................................................................................................................................. 16
The first cut .................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Editing interviews ........................................................................................................................................................ 17
The fine cut .................................................................................................................................................................... 17
Sound in editing ........................................................................................................................................................... 18
Music copyright ............................................................................................................................................................ 18
Special effects................................................................................................................................................................ 19
Outputting your film.................................................................................................................................................. 19
List of additional documents and resources ................................................................................................. 21
Glossary..................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Weblinks.......................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Bibliography............................................................................................................................................................................. 26
Storyboard title............................................................................................................................................................ 27
Checklist for taking on location........................................................................................................................... 28
Release form.................................................................................................................................................................. 29
A potted history of editing..................................................................................................................................... 30
Logsheet - programme title: .................................................................................................................................. 32
Creating Alpha Channels in Photoshop to use in Premiere pro 1.5................................................ 33
Introduction

This guide gives you the basic information needed for making your own video. It combines practical
tips with general information, and there are extra documents available to print off at the end of the
guide.
Video - an overview
There is a lot more to producing a video than grabbing the nearest video camera, rushing out and
hoping divine inspiration will intervene. There is a place for that, but only mixed in with a lot of leg
work! To help you, we have written a basic guide to the process. If you follow the advice, chances
are youll save a lot of time in the long run, although it may not seem like that at the start!

Why would you want to make a video? Here are some of the things that video can do:
tell a story
bring a subject to life
help your audience gain access to inaccessible places
explain complex subjects both verbally and visually at the same time
describe or explain something quickly
be delivered across many formats
enthuse and excite people

Before embarking on making a video, be aware that it:
is time intensive
is labour intensive
demands specialist skills
requires a lot of organisation and attention to detail
requires co-ordination, communication and planning

We have divided the production of a video into 3 distinct phases: preparation, production and
editing.

Note: the words video and film tend to get used interchangeably in these pages. Film is the
original photographic-based format and although most programmes are now shot using digital
video the term film is still in common parlance.

Preparation

This is the stage where you plan your video.
There are 2 vital questions that you need to know the answer to before you go any further:
who is the audience?
what is the aim of the video?
If you cant answer these questions, it means that what you are doing is likely to be unfocussed.
Knowing the intention and the audience is even more important if there is more than one of you
working on the film - it is very useful if you at least start out in agreement about what the film is
about and who its for!
Decide on the objectives of your film - is it to clarify, demonstrate, question, mystify, communicate,
amuse, shock?

Organising your thoughts

Structuring the film was quite difficult because we didnt know necessarily what we were
trying to end up with trying not to reveal too much at the beginning, trying not to sort
of put everything at the end. Almost half the task was making up the structure of how the
film would come across. (Architecture student)

It is useful to give your video a working title - one that describes what you are doing with your film
in a few words, rather than the esoteric title that may end up on the box lid! It helps you to
concentrate on what it is you are doing. It is also worth writing an outline description of your video
in one sentence. Its amazing how this helps to clarify what you are doing.
You can then write a treatment. This is usually around a page long, and gives more detail about
how you are going to achieve the effects you want. It will talk about conceptualisation, shooting
style, subjects, characterisation (for dramas), music etc. In Robert McKees book Story he describes
how in1930s Hollywood, screenwriters would often write a 500 page treatment for a screenplay
before one word of dialogue ever got written!
Spend some time watching different films and TV programmes and analyse how they use different
styles of camerawork, editing and sound to achieve their desired effect.
Think about your film as a piece of creative work. What job will the pictures do? What job will the
sound do? You have two major choices about how you approach this, depending on the type of
video you are making. If you are making a drama, or a piece of work that is very visual in nature,
you will need to make a storyboard. If you are making a more factual, documentary-type piece, you
will be better off with an outline script. It all depends on whether you plan to convey your message
primarily with images or words.
Whichever way you choose, you will need to think about the narrative structure of your film - what
happens at the beginning, middle and end. Are you building towards a glorious resolution, or
wanting to leave viewers with a question in their minds?

Storyboarding

A storyboard shows each shot you intend to make to produce your video. Its a great way of
getting you to think visually, and it doesnt matter if your drawing skills are not advanced. Using the
storyboard method means that the pictures lead the words and not the other way around. Each
shot-change has a new picture. Next to this, you write down any words that are spoken, plus shot
directions and music. If you are planning to use moving shots, its worth thinking about the duration
of the move, and how this ties in to any dialogue or any other words or music.

Professional examples of storyboards:
http://www.thestoryboardartist.com/

printable document: template storyboard

Writing a script

Writing an outline script before you start filming is a useful way of making sure you film all the
things you need. Use two columns, left for pictures, right for sound, and try to ensure there is
always something happening in both columns.

As you do this, it will become apparent what you need to find out. It may be necessary to do
research to find out who are the most appropriate people to be in your film. This is the time to be
doing that, and going to visit them if necessary.

The amount of text plays a large part in determining how much you will need in the way of visual
footage. Its useful to time yourself reading any voiceover text aloud but roughly, English is spoken
at 3 words per second. Think how many shots you will need to cover each sequence. But dont
saturate your script with words: a picture is worth a thousand words.

Whether you choose to use a storyboard or a script to structure your thoughts, now is a good
time to think about whether you want to use music in your film, and what type.

How to describe shots

As well as visually describing the story you are trying to tell, the type of shots you use should be
carefully thought about, so that they tell your story in the most appropriate way.
Shot sizes
It is worth introducing some standard shot size descriptions here. They mostly relate to the human
form and are:
wide shot (WS)- full body length
mid-shot (MS) - from waist upwards
close-up (CU) - head and top portion of shoulders
Other common shot descriptions are: medium wide shot (MWS), medium close up (MCU) and
big close up (BCU).

Moving shots
There are two ways to get movement into shots. One is to shoot action that is moving, the second
is to move the camera. The speed of camera movements, combined with the pace in cutting
contributes significantly to the look of your film.

If the camera stays in the same place but pivots from side to side through a horizontal
plane, its called a pan (left-to-right or right-left).
If the camera moves up and down through a vertical plane, its called a tilt (tilt-up or tilt-
down).
If the camera physically moves, its called a tracking shot.
If the camera stays still but the focal length of the lens is adjusted, its called a zoom.
If the camera focuses on one subject and gradually re-focuses onto something else that is
either closer or more distant in the shot, it is called a pull-focus; it shifts the viewers
attention from one thing to another in the shot.

If you shoot someone walking (or talking!), frame the shot so there is some space in front of them
to talk or move into i.e. the subject should not be right in the centre of the frame.

subject has room to breathe subject too central in shot

Preparing to go on a shoot

I think the most important thing is to plan what youre going to film, how youre going to
edit it and where youre going to go, otherwise you can waste time just filming things for
the sake of it. (Architecture student)

If you are working in groups, now is the time to think about who is doing what job. There are lots
of different tasks in filmmaking, using many different skills. Its worth deciding who will take
responsibility for what, particularly on the organisation front!

The more you plan, the more successful your shoot. If you want people to be in a certain place at a
certain time, double check and confirm with them.
The recce
The recce or reconnaisance is where you visit the place you want to film prior to the filming day.
Visiting the location tells you many things it can suggest ideas for shots and also show you when
the shots you planned are not feasible for technical, physical or safety reasons. It is also useful for
finding out practical information.
Safety is an important consideration no film is worth endangering peoples lives.
If you plan to spend more than a few hours at a location, are there toilet facilities close by?
Is there somewhere to get food?
Is there shelter?
Are there changing facilities (if necessary)?
Is there a power supply?
Do you have permission to be there?
Is the site noisy? Can you do something about it? (Otherwise you may end up with useless
sound).
Are there any road or building works planned nearby? (For sound).
Do you need to think about time of day you will be filming? (Is the location affected by the
suns position to the extent that shots a certain times of day will be unusable?)
The call-sheet
If lots of people are involved, it is worth writing a call-sheet. This should include:
the names and contact numbers of everyone who should be there
the address of the location
a map or directions
the time you should all meet
any special clothing needed

If there is more than one location, you should list all the locations for filming, and a rough
timetable of where you will be and at what time. Dont forget to put in meal-breaks and allow
for travel time. Together with the equipment checklist and the shotlist, this should enable you
to adhere to the schedule and get all that you want.
The shotlist
Write a list of the shots you want so you dont forget anything vital. If you need moving shots, its
worth timing the length against a script where possible, so you come back with something you can
use. If you are filming in more than one location, on more than one day, it is worth taking the time
to write a separate list of shots for each, so they can be ticked off. Its amazingly easy to forget a
vital shot in a hectic days filming! Shooting order will not necessarily be the same as final order in
your film - it should be in a practical order - geographic, or to fit in with peoples availabilities.
Dos and donts
Do not let the camera out of your sight! The camera kit is your responsibility - check all
accessories and BRING THEM ALL BACK - especially make sure the plate for the tripod is
on the tripod not the camera!!!
Recharge batteries you have flattened.
Label tapes - date, roll number, content. Do it there and then.
Switch off mobile phones when filming.
If you are filming members of the public, introduce yourself, explain what you are doing,
and ask their permission first. A little courtesy goes a very long way.
It may be worth getting the participants in your film to sign a release form. This gives you
written permission to use what they say.

printable documents: equipment checklist, release form

Production

This is where you transform your ideas into moving pictures and sound. The style of the camera
work (whether you use lots of movement or static shots) together with the content of your shots,
creates the look of the film.
Try to make each shot interesting in its own right - think about composition, texture, colour and
form. Is there an ideal time of day to do the shot you want?

Using a camera

I think the main thing I realised is how careful you need to be when youre shooting
footage because any small, little wobble, move, noise looks very insignificant when youre
filming, but when you watch it back on the monitor, It interferes a lot with what youre
watching. (Architecture student)

It makes a lot of sense to familiarise yourself with the camera before a big days shooting. Try some
tests and make sure you know what camera settings you want before your subject is standing in
front of you, raring to go. This will make you feel less pressurised and you are more likely to get
good results.
Remember to vary the shot size - usually, wide shots establish a scene, medium shots give a more
specific view and close ups show detail. Always allow run-up time for the camera i.e. start recording
10 seconds before you film the action on each shot - this is necessary for when you start editing,
sometimes you cant digitise from the very start of the shot.
Tripods
Use a tripod where possible - what looks fine on the day of filming can be difficult to use in the edit
suite. A tripod can minimise distracting movement and this can be especially useful if you need to
compress your images for low resolution on-line delivery - for instance when streaming over the
web. Dont forget to level the tripod, or your horizons and verticals will be wonky! if you intend to
superimpose something over the shot, especially if it is static art-work, then you really must use a
tripod for filming.
Camera settings
Automatic settings on a camera can be very useful, but remember:
The autofocus may not do what you hope for. It is designed to concentrate on the centre
of frame - not always ideal. For example, in a simple interview your subject is unlikely to
be in the middle of the frame.
Always make sure your subject is in sharpest focus - traditionally, you focus on the subjects
eyeball! Some cameras allow you to select a focus at the start of the shot and hold it.
Similarly with exposure - the camera does not always expose the shot as you would like -
try adjusting. Using the exposure lock setting can be very useful for this, particularly if you
are shooting a relatively dark subject (eg a face) against a very light background (eg a
window).

Make sure that all the settings are correct before you shoot - like a pre-flight check. It is very easy
for small controls to be accidentally altered.
Moving shots
Moving the camera is a very good way of bringing a dynamic and exciting element to your film.
However, it comes at a price:
Moving shots are harder to get right than static ones.
You need to find a good starting frame and a better end frame, you need to make sure
there are no uninteresting areas in the shot as you move through it.
You need to get the pacing right, and have a smooth movement and non-jerky start and
stop.
The action that happens within the shot needs to be relevant to your film.
Give yourself at least a ten second hold on both the start and end frame of a moving shot,
in case you decide these work better than the move when you get to the editing stage.
It can be tempting to try to include everything in an all-encompassing moving shot; instead
of this, try doing a number of different shots of varying size.
If you are shooting hand-held, try to keep shots steady - if you use the camera like a hose-
pipe, editing will be traumatic!

Shooting sequences
If you are shooting a 'sequence', for example describing a particular action by using a number of
shots of different sizes and from varying angles, remember to take shots of people's faces
(cutaways). There are two good reasons for this: first, we read a lot of information from their
expression and secondly, having a bridging shot to literally cut away from the main action, will mean
you can condense the amount of time a particular action takes.
To get a useful sequence, you may need to repeat the action several times (one of the reasons
filming is so time-consuming!). It makes sense to do the master shot (the wide shot showing the
whole action) first. If you stay on the same side of the subject, all the actions in all the shots travel in
the same direction and you will avoid crossing the line which makes editing really hard.
Overlapping the action makes your editors life easy they can choose the very best point at which
to cut from one shot to another but only if you have all the action on both shots.
Remember that you can vary the height of the camera as well as the angle, to add interest, but bear
in mind that there are associated connotations - a 'high angle' shot, looking down on your subject
diminshes their authority, while a 'low angle' shot, looking up at you subject, will increase it.

Lighting

When filming, you are painting in light. Lighting creates the mood and atmosphere of your film,
even if you are shooting outside in available light. Think about the difference between a shot of a
building on a grey day, and one lit by late afternoon sun.
If you rely on available light when shooting interiors, you may find its too dark to get a technically
good shot. Basic lighting will almost certainly help. There is a lot to lighting, but careful use of light
will give your images depth and help the audience to concentrate on what you want them to look
at. Here are some images that show how different light positions affect the look of the subject.

front light three quarter light side light
flat passport effect some modelling half a face

back light top light bottom light
silhouette eyes in shadow good for horror film!

Although all these can be used to great effect in the right place, it should be an informed choice,
and none of these are conventionally flattering!

3-point lighting

There is a basic lighting convention when lighting for filming. Its called 3-point lighting and it can be
widely adapted. The main, or key light, is the most powerful light source. It can be a hard light
source that casts a shadow. The fill light is a more diffused light source that softens some of the
shadows cast by the key light. This is necessary because cameras are not as sensitive as eyes and
they do not cope well with a high contrast ratio - you will lose detail in either the bright areas or
the shadows. Angling the key and fill lights at roughly 45 degrees to either side of the camera gives
the subject some modelling. The third component in 3-point lighting is the back light. This is
positioned somewhere to the rear of the subject (but obviously not in shot!) on the same side as
the fill light. It gives a halo effect and is used to give the image depth by separating the subject from
the background.

key light only key light plus fill key plus fill plus backlight

If you dont have access to lights, use a natural source e.g. a window, as your key light. A white or
silvered reflector board (white polystyrene and silver foil) can be used to fill the shadowed areas.
In the end, lighting is very subjective, and it is worth trying out before you do major shooting, even
running tests on video. When trying lighting, view it on a TV monitor, since just looking with the
naked eye does not always tell you enough.
White balance
Always make sure the cameras white balance is adjusted correctly for the light source you are
using, or you will get a blue or orange bias to your pictures. If you are using mixed light, for
example daylight and an artifical light source, you may get a combination of blue and orange tones
in your shots. If you want to avoid this, fix blue daylight gels onto your lamps. This will make the
artificial lights the same colour as daylight so you will need to set the camera to its daylight setting.
Filming outdoors
A grey day with diffused light will make everything look flat. The sun is a point-source of light - it
gives strong shadows and therefore defines shapes well - it gives modelling to 3d forms and
provides tonal contrast - light and shade.

Sound recording

I found sound the most difficult thing really - I guess because were not used to doing it as
architect students. So I think if I was to do it again Id go back and actually really record
sound properly because that was almost like a side-line and got left to the last minute and I
had to just pick through the sound I had. (Architecture student)

The importance of sound is often overlooked. It is a great ally and arguably, 50% of your films
communication is via sound. It frequently gets forgotten about while filming, and bad sound can
result in unusable footage.
There are several different types of microphone: the on-board camera mic, directional mics, non-
directional mics, clip-on mics.
The camera mic is useful in extremis. It records sound, but as its inside the camera, the loudest
sound it records are the noise of the camera itself, the noise of the camera operator moving
controls like the zoom and anything the camera operator says! A separate microphone will always
be better. It can be attached to the top of the camera, or better still, get someone to point it in the
direction of the subject you are filming - as close as possible without being in shot.
A directional mic will allow you to pick up sound from a narrower radius, so you get more of the
subject and less of what is going on all around. This is useful for picking up dialogue. A non-
directional mic picks up sound from a wider area, so is more useful for ambient sound.
Clip-on mics are useful for recording interviews and can be clipped to tie or lapel, but if the subject
is wearing rustly clothing like silk, you may get a lot of noise if they move about.
Always make sure a separate mic is switched on and its battery is working (if there is one).
Use headphones to check sound quality, especially if you are using a separate mic. It tells you
exactly what is being recorded. Be aware of all the background noises, and try to turn off any
equipment, such as air conditioning or fridges, that you can. If a siren interrupts a shot, dont be
afraid to do it again - trying to make a sequence flow where there are intermittent background
noises that change from shot to shot is a nightmare.
Dont chat when the camera is recording - the sound will get recorded and you will have no
atmos sound. This is the general background sound of traffic, birds and people. It provides
atmosphere to your shot, hence the name. It is worth recording a buzz track in each location: 30
seconds or a minute of background sound, which can be added at the editing stage to smooth out
bumpy sound transitions.

Conducting interviews

When interviewing someone for your film, it really helps if you already have a good idea of what
their answer is going to be (unless its breaking news!). That means, ideally, you should already have
met them and discussed the topic you want them to cover, to make sure they are the right person
to be interviewing in the first place. Unfortunately, you never know how they will appear on screen
until the day of filming. The most extrovert people can lose their nerve on camera, and someone
who seems shy can shine.
The success of an interview is largely down to how you ask the questions. Its generally preferable
not to include the interviewers questions in the edited film, so the interviewee needs to give self-
contained, not one-word, answers (My name is John and not John). Useful word formulations for
questions are Tell me Lets talk about or who, what, when, where, why, which or how type
questions. It is good to run through the questions with the interviewee before starting the
interview.
The interviewer should sit next to the camera, and the interviewee should usually look at him or
her, not down the camera lens. Generally, the camera should be roughly at the same height as the
interviewees eye-level. Encourage the interviewee to maintain eye contact with you - they look
very shifty if they start gazing round the room!
Listen to their answer and make sure they tell you what you need for your film, in a way that will
work for you. It also means you avoid asking them for info they have already given you if they cover
the answer to one of your later questions. Dont be afraid to ask supplementary questions if they
start an interesting line of comment, but dont get sidetracked - if its irrelevant to your film, theres
no point shooting it! Do not talk when they are talking. If they start their answer before youve
finished talking, it makes editing difficult. If this happens, get them to start again. Also, avoid saying
yes, or making encouraging sounds while they are speaking. Nod instead!
It is always possible to ask someone to repeat a question - you may need to get people to either
shorten their answers or expand if they are very terse. The interviewee also needs to know that
they can start again if they fluff what they are saying.
It is worth varying the shot size, to make cuts between parts of an interview appear more natural.
Ask your camera operator to adjust shot size while you are asking the question. Close-ups work
best for more intimate detail. Be aware that if you use moving shots, it can be hard to cut out of
the shot if they stop speaking half way through your move, or if you want to lose their answer
early. Cutaways, such as shots of the interviewees hands, or shots of the interviewer if its that style
of film, can be used but they are becoming less fashionable.

Editing

You have to be very careful about how long you pause on a shot in order to get across
what you want to say. (Architecture student)

This is the point at which your planning and hard work comes to fruition. The choices you make
about what shot to use and where are what tells your story.
Editing is a synthesis - the ideal is to make the whole greater than the sum of the parts. The pace of
the cutting between shots can be determined by what is going on in the shot or on the soundtrack,
or you can edit to a rhythm - eg cutting to music. Editing pace can be increased (by making each
shot shorter) to increase the drama or tension. Try to vary the cutting pace to add interest.
There is a choice of computer-based non-linear editing systems, e.g. Adobe Premiere, Windows
Movie Maker, i-movie, Final Cut Pro and Avid. Some are easier to learn than others. We have written
a simple guide to using Premiere and Windows Movie Maker and these can be downloaded from
the Filmmakers Toolkit website.
Printable documents: history of editing

Editing process

Logging

Logging is where you make a list of the shots with a description of what happens in the shot and
the shot size and whether it works or not. You should note the timecode on the counter when
the shot starts and finishes. If you have re-done the shot a number of times, it is worth noting the
ones that work, calling them Take 1, Take 2 etc. If a shot doesnt work, label it N.G (no good). If
you have a big enough crew while filming, it can be done then; otherwise, you can view and log
before you start to edit.
You can log the shots as you digitise or you can do it before. It's also worth noting the clip name
you have assigned when you digitise. If you have limited space on the edit system, then be selective
in what you digitise - it is not worth digitising NG shots into the edit system.
Logging can be boring and time-consuming but it saves a lot of time later when you desperately
want 'that shot where the bird flies away'.
Once you have done the log, it can be helpful to prepare a paper edit, either as a formal document (below) or by just
adding the timecode references of selected shots to the script.


Shot # Description/Comments/File name In Out
1 Wide shot researcher walking in to lab labwide1.avi 02.22 02.32
2 mid shot walking up to bench and picking up sample-
labwide2.avi
03.45 03.55
3 Close up of putting sample into machine machine1.avi 05.12 05.25
4 Researcher walks back out of lab labwide3.avi 02.50 03.01
Dissolve to
5 Walks back in labwide3.avi 03.13 03.23

Printable document: logging sheet

The first cut
The first stage when you start cutting is to make a first assembly. This is where you put the shots
together in the order that you think they should go. Dont be too fussy about the individual cuts -
that comes later.
Once you have cut your first assembly, view it. Play through without stopping, making a note of
strengths and weaknesses. Does each sequence contribute to the story? Is each sequence in the
right place? How is the pacing of the film? Should it be faster or slower? What about the overall
length?

Editing interviews
Interviews need to be listened to really carefully - they can often be shortened significantly without
detracting from the sense. You dont have to see a person on screen for the whole time they are
talking - you could put a (relevant) visual sequence over the words, although it is customary to see
the person at least once. Using a visual sequence makes the interview more interesting; it also
allows you to cut the interview so that it contains only the bits you really want. You must, however,
be ethical about this: you should not misrepresent what your interviewee is saying by cutting out
crucial words.

The fine cut
Once you have dealt with the major issues, such as re-ordering the film, the next stage is to refine
your film, making adjustments to enhance it. Each cut youve made should be scrutinised - is the
cut in the right place? Does it work? If the cut jars, then it could probably be improved. If you cut
while the shot (or the subject) is moving you can aim for a smooth transition by matching the
movement (or action) of the outgoing shot to that of the incoming shot.

Sound in editing

The most obvious sound you will have is the sync sound (the synchronous sound you recorded
with the picture on location). This can include dialogue, interviews or just the incidental
atmosphere. However, you can add to, or replace this, with narration, music, or sound effects and
these can really increase the impact of your film. There is also the option of silence, and this can
add dramatic effect, as can pauses.
A simple way to deal with the sound is to keep one sound track for music and effects, another for
sync sound. Adjust the sound levels to achieve a good balance. It is usually worth putting the sync
sound in, even if you play it at very low level under other sounds such as music. Split edits, where
the sync sound comes in slightly before or slightly after the picture, are a good way to make the cut
appear less abrupt.
If you decide to use narration, you will need to record it. It makes sense to craft the words so they
fit with the picture they accompany. Try not to make it wall-to-wall talk as it will dominate the
pictures, and if you show something using pictures, you dont need to describe the actions on the
voice track! Hone the words so that the statements are simple and to the point.

Music copyright
The quickest way to add atmosphere, or to signal mood changes in your film is by the addition of
music. However, it is not usually free! For anything other than purely personal use, and certainly for
any instance where a film is distributed on a website, any music or sound that you didnt produce
yourself or get from a copyright free site will have to be properly copyright cleared, by seeking the
original artists permission, or buying a music licence.
There are two no-cost solutions. The first is to use any of the copyright free music available at
LDMU, for University of Sheffield users. The second is to use music which has been made available
via a Creative Commons Licence. This is where music and other artefacts are licensed by their
creators as some rights restricted, rather than the usual all rights restricted. It's an altruistic act (or
a way of getting your music heard without a record deal!).
There are different types of licence, some allow you to download and use the artefact intact, but if
you are adding music to a soundtrack you are manipulating it, so you will need a 'sampling' or
'sampling plus' licence. Many of the licences request that you credit the creator as a condition of
use.

See the Creative Commons website for more information:
http://www.creativecommons.org/

For a clear explanation:
http: //www.creativecommons.org/

Special effects

I was really pleased with the way which you could mix different kinds of media. Like using
photographs of your model, they can be a little bit abstract and they still work quite well in
the film and bring it to life. (Architecture student)

There is a variety of transitions between shots apart from cuts. These include dissolves and wipes.
Sparingly used they can be effective.
It is also possible to combine more than one shot by superimposing one or more over another.
One way is to do a half mix from one image to another. Another method relies on keying one
image over the other. Essentially an electronic (key)hole is cut in one image, allowing another image
to replace it. Keys can use the luminance (light) levels of the image itself (a luma key), or the key
can be a separate black and white image of any shape (a matte key). Usefully, Photoshop offers a
matte key option, so that you can quite easily key Photoshop artwork over any footage you
choose.
The third option is the chroma key. This is used for combining a person or a model filmed in a
studio, with a completely different shot. The subject is filmed against a single colour background,
usually blue, that is evenly lit. In effect, the subject can be peeled off the background colour and
superimposed over any other shot. The subject needs to be shot so that it is in sensible proportion
to the desired background, and is at the right angle (it is usually best to do the shot you want to
superimpose onto first. The lighting on the subject may also have to be adjusted so that it looks
more realistic.

filming an architectural model against chromakey blue

printable document: photoshop mattes

Outputting your film

Once you are satisfied that your film is the best you can make it (its worth trying it out on other
people too) then you have a choice of delivery formats, depending on how you want to use it. You
can export your project to tape, CD or DVD or straight to DVD movie.
The image quality of your final film depends on what you started out with! However, it also
depends on your delivery format. The highest quality can be achieved using MPEG2, and this
should be delivered on DVD. However, if you are intending to use small images on a computer
screen, or for Powerpoints, or streaming over the web, MPEG1 would be better, since the file size
is smaller. Windows Movie files are also small, and of surprisingly good quality.
If you export as a DVD movie bear in mind you will only be able to play it, you wont be able to
subsequently add it into anything else.

Good luck and happy filmmaking!

I hope you have found this useful. If you have any comments or feedback about this practical guide,
please email c.allam@sheffield.ac.uk
List of additional documents and resources

Glossary

Weblinks

Bibliography

Storyboard template

Checklist for filming

Release form template

Short history of editing

Logging sheet template

Using alpha channels in Photoshop
Glossary

note: many terms used in video production are anachronistic, coming from the time when films
were shot on long rolls of celluloid. Editing literally meant that the film was chopped up and stuck
together with sellotape (hence cutting).

back light light source behind the subject making them stand out from the background

cutting editing, joining one shot to another

editing selectively arranging shots to create your finished piece of work

film the original medium, a chemical-based process, now used as the generic term for artifacts
created using moving images and sound captured on camera, synonymous with the word video

focal length the distance between the lens and the film surface, or the lens and the CCD chip

footage the filmed shots

frame a single still image lasting1/25 of a second

fill light diffuse light source, used to reduce shadows cast by key light

key light main, hard source of light

location place where filming takes place

log a list of the shots, with comments on the quality and usability plus a note of the timecode

master shot - a wide shot which encompasses all the action in a scene or sequence, usually the first
shot to be filmed

rushes the filmed material

sequence a discrete series of shots combined in editing

shooting term for going out and filming your shots

shot a series of individual images (frames) that when combined together create a moving image,
a shot is what happens between switching the camera on to record and switching it off

storyboard a pictorial representation of your film

sync sound the sound recorded at the same time as the pictures

videotape an electronic recording medium largely used at present, it can be analogue, now more
commonly digital

Weblinks

The BBC has lots of online info and courses:
http://www.bbctraining.com/

see the Good Shooting Guide: the basic principles on:
http://www.bbctraining.com/onlineCourse.asp?tID=5914&cat=2781

Channel 4 also have one
http://www.channel4.com/film/makingmovies/makemovies.html

and a blog about documentary filmmaking
http://www.channel4.com/blogs/page/fourdocs?catname=%2FFilmmaking+Tips

This comes highly recommended
http://filmmaker.com/links.html

Professional examples of storyboards:
http://www.thestoryboardartist.com/

A comparison of traditional film editing with electronic nonlinear editing:
http://www.nonlinear4.com/brandt.htm

Film and art
Jane and Louise Wilson
Art practices, multi-screen video installations, created films such as Monument Apollo Pavillion and
Normapaths.
http://www.artfacts.net/index.php/pageType/artistInfo/artist/2474

Mike Figgis
Mainstream filmmaker/Director, has developed innovative techniques. Produced Time Code in
2000, where the film screen is split into 4 with consecutive and interlocking stories shown at once.
http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001214/
http://www.haro-online.com/movies/time_code.html

Peter Greenaway
Filmmaker/Director, his work has been called anti-cinematic in that he works against the established
mainstream, high budget films. Two examples of his work are The Belly of an Architect in 1987,
Drowning by Numbers in 1988.
http://www.petergreenaway.co.uk

Lev Manovich
Media expert and visual artist, Manovich is interested in the development of film in the past, and
how the digital age has enabled more people to push the boundaries of filmmaking.
http://www.manovich.net

Patrick Keiller
Makes films that are perceived as architectural as they often focus on different and varied
environments, with still shots that allow the viewer to watch an everyday scene unfold at a speed
that encourages you to look around the screen rather than focus on the middle. Titles include
London and Robinson in Space
http://www.luxonline.org.uk/artists/patrick_keiller/index.html
Bibliography

These books are all available in University of Sheffield libraries

Film art: an introduction by David Bordwell, Kristin Thompson. New York ; London : McGraw-Hill,
1993 - Has been in print for years. Excellent.

Directing on camera: a checklist of video and film technique by Harris Watts, London: Aavo Media,
1992 - The TV producers bible!

Film and video editing by Roger Crittenden, London: Blueprint, 1995 - A thought provoking book

Film directing shot by shot: visualizing from concept to screen by Steven D. Katz.
Studio City, Calif.: Michael Wiese Productions, c1991- A useful guide to get you started

Movie making: a guide to film production by Sumner Glimcher, Warren Johnson. New York:
Columbia University Press, 1975.
Projections: film-makers on film-making, edited by John Boorman and Walter Donohue. Vol.5.
The complete book of video: techniques, subjects, equipment by David Cheshire. London: Dorling
Kindersley, 1990
A Digital nonlinear editing: editing film and video on the desktop by Thomas Ohanian.
Boston, Mass.; Oxford: Focal Press, c1998
The independent film & videomaker's guide by Michael Wiese. Studio City, CA: Michael Wiese
Productions, 1998
Novel into film: the case of La familia de Pascual Duarte and Los santos inocentes by Patricia J.
Santoro. Newark: London: University of Delaware Press; Associated University Presses, c1996.
Producing and directing the short film and video by Peter W. Rea and David K. Irving. Boston;
Oxford: Focal Press, 1995.
Story : substance, structure, style and the principles of screenwriting by Robert McKee. London:
Methuen, 1998.
Video camera techniques by Gerald Millerson. Oxford: Focal Press, 1994.
Video production handbook by Gerald Millerson. Oxford: Focal Press, 1992
Storyboard title_________________________________
description

shot no.

shot no.

shot no.

Checklist for taking on location

Date: ___ /____ /______ Location: Subject:

Equipment
Camera
Fully charged battery(ies)
Power lead
Video tapes (dont forget to label, number and date them!)
Tripod
External microphone + Headphones
Light(s) and stand(s), colour gels and diffuser
Release forms
Gaffer tape
Extension leads

Checks
Camera angles
Position
Comfortable place for camera-person
Lighting
Sound
Ambient sound such as slamming doors, trains, etc
Power source location
Release form

Name (Please print):_______________________________________________________

I consent and agree that The University of Sheffield, its employees or agents have the right to take
photographs or record video of me (and/or my property) and to use these in any and all media
and for educational purpose only.
I do hereby release to The University of Sheffield, its agents and employees all rights to use this
work in print and electronic form. I waive any rights, claims or interest I may have to control the
use of my identity or likeness in the photographs and agree that any uses described herein may be
made without compensation.
I am at least 18 years of age, have read and understand the foregoing statement, and am
competent to execute this agreement.
Unless otherwise stated, your name and contact details will be kept confidential.

Name:

Date:

Email:

Address:

Tel. no:

A potted history of editing

In the very early days of film, they were made as one continuous shot. Editing came along quite
quickly after that, so that by 1916 DW Griffiths was making sophisticated films that made use of the
idea of changing shot sizes and camera positions.
There is a balance however between using cutting the juxtaposition of shot against shot, with
Mise en scene. Mise en scene is the placement of action in a scene in relation to the camera, and
also of camera movement itself. This, combined with editing create the form of the film. A
disadvantage of allowing the action to unfold in front of the camera without cutting is that it can be
very slow, things have to happen in real time, whereas with editing, you can speed up irrelevant
detail (e.g. unlocking the car door prior to a car chase). Also, a cut changes your focus of attention
much more crisply.
The dominant style of editing in narrative films is known as continuity editing nearly all Hollywood
films conform to this way of putting films together. They are cut so that shot follows shot in a
believable sense, and it feels as though events were occurring seamlessly as the story unfolds.
There are many rules and conventions to follow, but if you watch any TV drama or film on TV and
start to look at how it is constructed, you will get a sense of this. Generally a wide shot is followed
by a closer, mid shot, followed by a close-up. Wide shots tend to stay on screen for longer than
tighter shots. Visually a sequence will contain shots of broadly similar tonal range and you will
always understand where you are spatially in relation to the characters on screen. A shot change is
nearly always accompanied by a 30 degree or more change in camera angle, but it will stay on the
same side of the action.
Continuity editing is not, however, the only style of editing. Ever since editing came about there
have been people who have developed other styles of editing, not according to the rules of helping
a story to progress invisibly, but in terms of using cuts in either a rhythmic way, or using the
graphical content of the images or contrasting time or location between cuts.
The length of a shot can vary from 1x 25th of a second to the entire length of the film. How rapidly
you cut from one shot to another can depend on the action, or it can depend on the rhythm you
want to create. You can decide to make a cut every second, or 3 seconds, and set up an arbitrary
rhythm, thereby determining the pace of your film.
Graphical cutting means that you are using the shot as an image a shape, or series of patterns,
and this determines your criteria for cutting e.g. the dance sequences in Busby Berkely musicals of
30s where women dressed up as piano keys, or hi angle shots of their legs moving were used to
make kaleidoscope patterns.
In a conventional narrative scene, you stay in one time and place. You can however, cut between
one location and another, and this, known as cross-cutting or parallel cutting, can create a powerful
sense of the two places being interconnected in some way. It allows you to join quite separate
incidents.
Filmmaking can be described as many things certainly story telling, but also painting with time and
light. The temporal aspect of editing allows us to control the time of the editing it allows us to tell
a story spanning 300 years in 1.5 hours, by selecting the necessary pieces of the story. It also
controls the order of events you show.
Some of the most famous proponents of this non-continuity style of editing were a group of
Russians, just after the Russian Revolution of 1917. The social upheaval, and sense of creating a new
world order had a strong effect on all the creative arts of the time. The Russian film makers worked
on the idea of montage that is cutting together seemingly disjointed images, to create a deeper
level of meaning. They saw editing as writing a film with shots. The editing was the organisation of
the film it did not merely progress the story. The most famous of all these is Sergei Eisenstein. He
wanted involve his audience in the construction of the meaning of the film, so he juxtaposed
seemingly unrelated images such as shots of starving people with soldiers and bombs. He wanted
to create a collision of meanings, a conflict and synthesis of opposites. He called this dynamic
editing. Of course we are all so used to this now, that it seems unremarkable, but he was trying to
get the audience to make a connection between the two shots, and to respond to the film on an
emotional, intellectual and perceptual; level. He called this intellectual montage. As well as
juxtaposing shots of different places and events, he also did not work to real time In some of his
films he would depict the same event time after time. Again, we are used to seeing that sort of
thing now, but traditionally, mainstream narrative films will show you an event only once, then get
on with the story. Eistenstein wanted to show the event from many different points of view, so a
sequence that would take only a few seconds to occur in life could take several minutes in one of
his films. Perhaps the most famous example of this is the Odessa steps sequence in his film
Potemkin made in 1925.
Logsheet - programme title:
tape number: group name date: page no.

shot no Timecode
in/out
take no. description and comments & file name

Creating Alpha Channels in Photoshop to use in Premiere pro 1.5
This is a good way of making a key really quickly and easily. It is a simple way to superimpose
models over a filmed landscape without having to use chromakey.
Essentially, you create an alpha channel image in Photoshop, import it into Premiere and then fill it
with your image.
Here is a worked step-by-step example which creates an oval shaped key or mask, allowing you
to have a background image and a different foreground image, both of which can be moving.

Alpha mask
Open Photoshop and create a new file 720 pixels wide by 576 high (70dpi resolution) or
the same size as your video.
The picture should be white rather than transparent.
Select the oval marquee tool and in the grey options bar, choose fixed size from the
style pop-up menu. Enter 470 pixel height by 630 pixel wide.
Drag the oval into position, go to select then inverse.
Select black as the foreground colour on the tool box. Go to edit then fill. The oval will
stay white, its surround will become black.
Deselect the image. Go to filter then blur then gaussian blur. Select 8 pixels. This will
give a graduated, or blurry, edge to the oval. Save the image.
Select the whole image and copy it.
Go to window, show channels and create a new channel (the alpha channel) and paste
the image into it. Save the image.
The mask is now ready to import into Premier.

Adding the effect to your video
Open the Premier project you want to use the mask in.
Put your background video image on video track 1.
Put you foreground image on video track 2.
In the projects window go to the effects section.
Select video effects>keying>image matte key.
Drag this onto the top video layer.
Go to effect controls, select setup (the box with text in icon, on the same line as image
matte key). A window will pop us, asking you to select a matte image. Double click on your
matte image.
Click on the triangle next to image matte key to drop down the menu. Click the triangle
next to matte alpha and choose matte alpha.
You may need to render the image before it will play. Press enter to do this. Areas with a
red line above them need to be rendered.
Watch the clip to see if it works.


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