Welding-Metallurgy, The Base For Successful Welding

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Welding-metallurgy:
The Most Important Ingredient.
SOLUTIONS with Effective, Practical Advice
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Welding-metallurgy is the
subject of this page.
An introductory treatise is
found in Chapter 4 of the
Welding Handbook, Ninth
Edition, Volume 1, Welding
Science and Technology.
AWS WHB-1.9
Welding Science and
Technology,
Welding Handbook, 9th Ed.,
Vol. 1
American Welding Society,
01-Jan-2001
For those who deal with welding it is a
necessary sub-set of all the metallurgical
knowledge.
Metallurgy in general would also encompass arguments widely remote from the
worries of average welders, like extractive technologies or base metal shape
production.
In the normal welding practice however, Welding-metallurgy principles are
often called in cause.
There is a need to understand and explain the behavior of weldments.
Also to look for suitable procedures necessary to surmount the difficulties
arising sometimes from certain local conditions.
Designers of welded structures should be well advised to check their projects
with welding metallurgists before releasing their drawings to manufacturing.
It is easy to avoid pitfalls by adding of a simple note to the drawing.
And by specifying a special material whose properties had been overlooked.
Much more economical than looking for expensive solutions of welding
problems detected in service failures.
Among the subjects covered by Welding-metallurgy are those regarding:
the structure of metals and alloys,
melting,
fusion,
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solidification,
phase transformation,
mechanical properties as influenced by cold working and heat treatment,
thermal expansion,
conductivity
and corrosion resistance.
Welding-metallurgy to understand what happens
Metals in solid form are materials displaying
crystalline structure, meaning that their atoms are
arranged in definite geometric patterns.
Common metals can be classified according to the
type of crystalline structures they exhibit.
Some metals change their crystal structure from one
type to another at specific temperatures.
Welding-metallurgy studies how some of the properties
are structure dependent.
Pure metals are seldom used.
More common are alloys or complex mixtures.
Alloys are identified by indicating the base metal, that
of the largest proportion in the detailed composition.
Specific alloying elements are added to the base
metal, to modify the properties in favorable ways.
Residual elements in tiny proportions may remain in
the composition, either innocuously or for influencing
properties.
Alloys displaying useful engineering properties are
exploited to withstand service conditions at the least
possible cost.
The Welding-metallurgy examination of micro-
structure is performed on ground, polished and etched
metallic sections.
It reveals, under optical microscope, the presence of
small bodies, called grains, each with its own
crystallographic orientation, and touching at their
boundaries.
The crystal structure is far from perfect, including
different types of defects that contribute to limit the
strength of metallic bodies.
Melting, fusion and solidification describe the
transformation from solid to liquid and vice versa as
the temperature increases and decreases.
The melting temperature is definite and exact only for pure metals and for
certain alloys called eutectics.
For all other alloys one can speak only of melting ranges, temperatures at
which solid and liquid coexist in varying proportions.
In Welding-metallurgy phase changes describe the crystallographic "allotropic"
structure transformations.
These are incurred by distinct, describable portions, called phases, under
driving forces caused by temperature changes, when crossing certain critical
temperatures.
Phase diagrams are useful graphic representations, possibly simplified to
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include only two elements.
They describe the phases present, both in solid and liquid form, at different
temperatures as a function of concentration.
The percentage of one element decreases from left to right from 100% to 0,
while the percentage of the other element increases from 0 to 100%.
Any feature representing special behavior results clearly identified by the
composition and the temperature where occurring.
Iron and steel are among the most popular materials due to their relatively
limited cost and to their versatility.
This means that subtle changes in composition and/or heat treatment make
them suitable for widely different applications.
In particular phase transformations occurring while cooling down certain
steels at well defined cooling rates provide useful mechanical properties,
sought for particular services.
Thorough understanding of these transformations as explained by Welding-
metallurgy is essential to the successful application of welding processes to
steel structures.
Molten pure iron solidifies as a body-centered cubic structure called delta
ferrite. This means the idealized figure of a cube with an atom at each corner
and one more at its center.
Further cooling drives its transformation into a face-centered cubic structure
called gamma iron or austenite.
Here the atoms are found at different positions than those described above.
Additional cooling causes a further structural transformation to a different
body-centered cubic structure called alpha ferrite.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon (with a low percentage of this element)
that can contain also other alloying elements to enhance certain properties.
The presence and the amount of carbon modifies the temperatures at which
phase transformations occur.
Other common structures, called cementite, pearlite, bainite and martensite,
cannot be described in a short exposition.
The versatility of steel depends on careful control of composition and on
suitable heat treatments to generate the required structures.
Heat Treatment consists in the application of specific cycles of heating and
cooling at given rates of temperature change vs. time.
HT causes metallurgical phase transformations that change the structure,
developing the mechanical properties needed to meet definite service
conditions.
Cold rolling and cold forging introduce in the material plastic deformations that
increase strength while decreasing ductility.
In other words, Cold work changes the mechanical properties in such ways as
to be favorable for given applications.
Successive application of heat (e.g. by welding) may reduce the strength to
unacceptable low levels for given applications.
This is an example of the importance of Welding-metallurgy for understanding
the effects of applied treatments.
Welding-metallurgy studies also the influence of thermal expansion and
conductivity.
These may have a direct bearing on the possibility to provide the required heat
at the joint.
And also on the deformations likely to be caused by joining processes.
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Corrosion resistance too must be studied by Welding-metallurgy to find the most
favorable applications of suitable materials in given service conditions.
The most cost effective solutions must be singled out for every application.
Sometimes the use of clad metals could be preferred depending on the total
cost calculated for the entire duration of the useful life of the project.
An introduction on a new Website Page titled Metallurgical Expertise was
published (8) in issue 82 of Practical Welding Letter for June 2010.
Click on PWL#082 to see it.
In conclusion Welding-metallurgy is the sum of cumulative vast knowledge.
It considers all aspects of physical transformations occurring locally at the
joint location.
Therefore it is the most important tool for assuring welding performance.
Any welding shop could profit by securing access to the services of
knowledgeable professionals.
Coming from a welding engineer this comment can be carelessly disregarded
as self-serving.
It would be a mistake. Sometimes a useful hint could save lots of time and of
money.
Watch the following Video
Hobart Institute - Basic Metallurgy
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K8TEPwCE1Ow
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Articles from Past Issues of Practical Welding Letter,
click on Welding Topics.
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