Welding Inspector Duties and Responsibilities

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Duties and Responsibilities

Duties and Responsibilities
Section 1
Section 1
Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
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Code compliance
Code compliance
Workmanship control
Workmanship control
Documentation control
Documentation control
Main Responsibilities
Main Responsibilities 1.1 1.1
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Personal Attributes
Personal Attributes 1.1 1.1
Important qualities that good Inspectors are expected
Important qualities that good Inspectors are expected
to have are:
to have are:

Honesty
Honesty

Integrity
Integrity

Knowledge
Knowledge

Good communicator
Good communicator

Physical fitness
Physical fitness

Good eyesight
Good eyesight
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Standard for Visual Inspection
Standard for Visual Inspection 1.1 1.1
Basic Requirements
Basic Requirements
BS EN 970
BS EN 970
-
-
Non
Non
-
-
destructive examination of fusion
destructive examination of fusion
welds
welds
-
-
Visual examination
Visual examination
Welding Inspection Personnel should: Welding Inspection Personnel should:
be familiar with relevant standards, rules and specifications be familiar with relevant standards, rules and specifications
applicable to the fabrication work to be undertaken applicable to the fabrication work to be undertaken
be informed about the welding procedures to be used be informed about the welding procedures to be used
have good vision have good vision (which should be checked every 12 (which should be checked every 12
months) months)
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Welding Inspection
Welding Inspection 1.2 1.2
Conditions for Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)
Conditions for Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)
Illumination:
Illumination:
350 lux minimum required 350 lux minimum required
(recommends 500 lux (recommends 500 lux - - normal shop or office lighting) normal shop or office lighting)
Vision Access:
Vision Access:
eye should be within 600mm of the surface eye should be within 600mm of the surface
viewing angle (line from eye to surface) to be not less than viewing angle (line from eye to surface) to be not less than
30 30
30 30
600mm 600mm
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Welding Inspection
Aids to Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)
Aids to Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)
When access is restricted may use:
When access is restricted may use:
a mirrored boroscope
a mirrored boroscope
a fibre optic viewing system
a fibre optic viewing system
Other aids:
Other aids:
welding gauges
welding gauges
(for checking bevel angles, weld
(for checking bevel angles, weld
profile, fillet sizing, undercut depth)
profile, fillet sizing, undercut depth)
dedicated weld
dedicated weld
-
-
gap gauges and linear misalignment
gap gauges and linear misalignment
(high
(high
-
-
low) gauges
low) gauges
straight edges and measuring tapes
straight edges and measuring tapes
magnifying lens
magnifying lens
(if magnification lens used it
(if magnification lens used it
should have magnification between X2 to X5)
should have magnification between X2 to X5)
usually by usually by
agreement agreement
}
}
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Welding Inspectors Equipment
Welding Inspectors Equipment 1.3 1.3
Measuring devices:
Measuring devices:

flexible tape, steel rule
flexible tape, steel rule

Temperature indicating crayons
Temperature indicating crayons

Welding gauges
Welding gauges

Voltmeter
Voltmeter

Ammeter
Ammeter

Magnifying glass
Magnifying glass

Torch / flash light
Torch / flash light

Gas flow
Gas flow
-
-
meter
meter
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TWI Multi TWI Multi - -purpose Welding Gauge purpose Welding Gauge
Misalignment Gauges Misalignment Gauges
Hi Hi - -Lo Gauge Lo Gauge
Fillet Weld Gauges Fillet Weld Gauges
G.A.L.
S.T.D.
10mm
1
2
m
m
16mm
3
m
m
6
m
m
9
m
m
5
m
m
4
m
m
L
G.A.L.
S.T.D.
10mm
1
2
m
m
16mm
3
m
m
6
m
m
9
m
m
5
m
m
4
m
m
T
Welding Inspectors Gauges
Welding Inspectors Gauges 1.3 1.3
6
0
5
0
4
0
0
1/4 1/2
3/4
1
0
5
1
0
1
5
2
0
IN
M
M
M
M
1
5
1
/
2
M
M IN
H
I
-
L
O

S
i
n
g
l
e

P
u
r
p
o
s
e

W
e
l
d
i
n
g

G
a
u
g
e
1
2
3
4
5
6
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Tong Tester
Tong Tester
Ammeter
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Voltmeter
Welding Inspectors Equipment
Welding Inspectors Equipment 1.3 1.3
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Welding Inspection
Stages of Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)
Stages of Visual Inspection (to BS EN 970)
Extent of examination and when required should be defined in Extent of examination and when required should be defined in
the application standard or by agreement between the the application standard or by agreement between the
contracting parties contracting parties
For high integrity fabrications inspection required throughout For high integrity fabrications inspection required throughout
the fabrication process: the fabrication process:
Before welding
Before welding
(Before assemble & After assembly)
(Before assemble & After assembly)
During welding
During welding
After welding
After welding
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Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector
Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.5 1.5
Before Welding
Before Welding
Preparation: Preparation:
Familiarisation with relevant Familiarisation with relevant documents documents
Application Standard/Code Application Standard/Code - - for visual acceptance for visual acceptance
requirements requirements
Drawings Drawings - - item details and positions/tolerances etc item details and positions/tolerances etc
Quality Control Procedures Quality Control Procedures - - for activities such as material for activities such as material
handling, documentation control, storage & issue of handling, documentation control, storage & issue of
welding consumables welding consumables
Quality Plan/Inspection & Test Plan/Inspection Checklist Quality Plan/Inspection & Test Plan/Inspection Checklist - -
details of inspection requirements, inspection procedures details of inspection requirements, inspection procedures
& records required & records required
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Before Welding
Before Welding
Welding Procedures: Welding Procedures:
are applicable to joints to be welded & approved are applicable to joints to be welded & approved
are available to welders & inspectors are available to welders & inspectors
Welder Qualifications: Welder Qualifications:
list of available qualified welders related to WPS list of available qualified welders related to WPS s s
certificates are valid and certificates are valid and in in- -date date
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Before Welding
Before Welding
Equipment:
Equipment:
all inspection equipment is in good condition &
all inspection equipment is in good condition &
calibrated as necessary
calibrated as necessary
all safety requirements are understood & necessary
all safety requirements are understood & necessary
equipment available
equipment available
Materials:
Materials:
can be identified & related to test certificates,
can be identified & related to test certificates,
traceability !
traceability !
are of correct dimensions
are of correct dimensions
are in suitable condition (no damage/contamination)
are in suitable condition (no damage/contamination)
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Before Welding
Before Welding
Consumables:
Consumables:
in accordance with WPS
s
s
are being controlled in accordance with Procedure
are being controlled in accordance with Procedure
Weld Preparations:
Weld Preparations:
comply with WPS/drawing
comply with WPS/drawing
free from defects & contamination
free from defects & contamination
Welding Equipment:
Welding Equipment:
in good order & calibrated as required by Procedure
in good order & calibrated as required by Procedure
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Before Welding
Before Welding
Fit
Fit
-
-
up
up
complies with WPS
complies with WPS
Number / size of tack welds to Code / good
Number / size of tack welds to Code / good
workmanship
workmanship
Pre
Pre
-
-
heat
heat
if specified
if specified
minimum temperature complies with WPS
minimum temperature complies with WPS
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During Welding
During Welding
Weather conditions Weather conditions
suitable if site / field welding suitable if site / field welding
Welding Process(es) Welding Process(es)
in accordance with WPS in accordance with WPS
Welder Welder
is approved to weld the joint is approved to weld the joint
Pre Pre- -heat (if required) heat (if required)
minimum temperature as specified by WPS minimum temperature as specified by WPS
maximum interpass temperature as WPS maximum interpass temperature as WPS
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During Welding
During Welding
Welding consumables
Welding consumables
in suitable condition
in suitable condition
controlled issue and handling
controlled issue and handling
Welding Parameters
Welding Parameters
current, voltage & travel speed
current, voltage & travel speed
as WPS
as WPS
Root runs
Root runs
if possible, visually inspect root before single
if possible, visually inspect root before single
-
-
sided
sided
welds are filled up
welds are filled up
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During Welding
During Welding
Inter
Inter
-
-
run cleaning
run cleaning
in accordance with an approved method (& back
in accordance with an approved method (& back
gouging) to good workmanship standard
gouging) to good workmanship standard
Distortion control
Distortion control
welding is balanced & over
welding is balanced & over
-
-
welding is avoided
welding is avoided
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After Welding
After Welding
Weld Identification Weld Identification
identified/numbered as required identified/numbered as required
is marked with welder is marked with welder s identity s identity
Visual Inspection Visual Inspection
ensure weld is suitable for ensure weld is suitable for all all NDT NDT
visually inspect & visually inspect & sentence sentence to Code requirements to Code requirements
Dimensional Survey Dimensional Survey
ensure dimensions comply with Code/drawing ensure dimensions comply with Code/drawing
Other NDT Other NDT
ensure all NDT is completed & reports available ensure all NDT is completed & reports available
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After Welding
After Welding
Repairs
Repairs
monitor repairs to ensure compliance with Procedure,
monitor repairs to ensure compliance with Procedure,
ensure NDT after repairs is completed
ensure NDT after repairs is completed
PWHT
PWHT
monitor for compliance with Procedure
monitor for compliance with Procedure
check chart records confirm Procedure compliance
check chart records confirm Procedure compliance
Pressure / Load Test
Pressure / Load Test
ensure test equipment is suitably calibrated
ensure test equipment is suitably calibrated
monitor to ensure compliance with Procedure
monitor to ensure compliance with Procedure
ensure all records are available
ensure all records are available
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After Welding
After Welding
Documentation
Documentation
ensure any modifications are on
ensure any modifications are on
as
as
-
-
built
built
drawings
drawings
ensure all required documents are available
ensure all required documents are available
Collate / file documents for manufacturing records
Collate / file documents for manufacturing records
Sign all documentation and forward it to QC
Sign all documentation and forward it to QC
department.
department.
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Summary of Duties
Summary of Duties
A Welding Inspector must:
A Welding Inspector must:
Observe Observe
To observe all relevant actions related to weld quality To observe all relevant actions related to weld quality
throughout production. throughout production.
Record Record
To record, or log all production inspection points relevant to To record, or log all production inspection points relevant to
quality, including a final report showing all identified quality, including a final report showing all identified
imperfections imperfections
Compare Compare
To compare all recorded information with the acceptance To compare all recorded information with the acceptance
criteria and any other relevant clauses in the applied criteria and any other relevant clauses in the applied
application standard application standard
It is the duty of a Welding Inspector to ensure all the welding It is the duty of a Welding Inspector to ensure all the welding and and
associated actions are carried out in accordance with the associated actions are carried out in accordance with the
specification and any applicable procedures. specification and any applicable procedures.
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Terms & Definitions
Terms & Definitions
Section 2
Section 2
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Welding Terminology & Definitions
Welding Terminology & Definitions 2.1 2.1
What is a Weld?
What is a Weld?
A localised coalescence of metals or non A localised coalescence of metals or non- -metals produced metals produced
either by heating the materials to the welding temperature, either by heating the materials to the welding temperature,
with or without the application of pressure, or by the with or without the application of pressure, or by the
application of pressure alone (AWS) application of pressure alone (AWS)
A permanent union between materials caused by heat, and A permanent union between materials caused by heat, and
or pressure (BS499) or pressure (BS499)
An Autogenous weld: An Autogenous weld:
A weld made with out the use of a filler material and can A weld made with out the use of a filler material and can
only be made by TIG or Oxy only be made by TIG or Oxy- -Gas Welding Gas Welding
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Welding Terminology & Definitions
Welding Terminology & Definitions 2.1 2.1
What is a J oint?
What is a J oint?
The junction of members or the edges of members
The junction of members or the edges of members
that are to be joined or have been joined (AWS)
that are to be joined or have been joined (AWS)
A configuration of members (BS499)
A configuration of members (BS499)
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J oint Terminology
J oint Terminology 2.2 2.2
Edge
Edge
Open & Closed Corner
Open & Closed Corner Lap
Lap
Tee
Tee
Butt
Butt
Cruciform
Cruciform
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Welded Butt J oints
Welded Butt J oints 2.2 2.2
A_________ A_________Welded butt joint Welded butt joint Butt
Butt
A_________ A_________Welded butt joint Welded butt joint Fillet
Fillet
A____________ A____________Welded butt joint Welded butt joint Compound
Compound
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A_________ A_________Welded T joint Welded T joint Fillet
Fillet
A_________ A_________Welded T joint Welded T joint Butt
Butt
A____________ A____________Welded T joint Welded T joint Compound
Compound
Welded Tee J oints
Welded Tee J oints 2.2 2.2
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Weld Terminology
Weld Terminology 2.3 2.3
Compound weld
Compound weld
Fillet weld
Fillet weld
Butt weld
Butt weld
Edge weld
Edge weld
Spot weld
Spot weld
Plug weld
Plug weld
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Butt Preparations
Butt Preparations
Sizes
Sizes 2.4 2.4
Full Penetration Butt Weld
Partial Penetration Butt Weld
Design Throat
Thickness
Design Throat
Thickness
Actual Throat
Thickness
Actual Throat
Thickness
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Weld
Weld
Boundary
Boundary
C
A
B
D
Heat
Heat
Affected
Affected
Zone
Zone
Root
Root
Weld
Weld
metal
metal
A, B, C & D = Weld Toes
A, B, C & D = Weld Toes
Face
Face
Weld Zone Terminology
Weld Zone Terminology 2.5 2.5
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Excess Root
Excess Root
Penetration
Penetration
Excess
Excess
Cap height
Cap height
or Weld
or Weld
Reinforcement
Reinforcement
Weld Zone Terminology
Weld Zone Terminology 2.5 2.5
Weld cap width
Weld cap width
Design
Throat
Thickness
Actual Throat
Thickness
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Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) 2.5 2.5
tempered zone tempered zone
grain growth zone grain growth zone
recrystallised zone recrystallised zone
partially transformed zone partially transformed zone
Maximum Maximum
Temperature Temperature
solid solid- -liquid Boundary liquid Boundary
solid solid
weld weld
metal metal
unaffected base unaffected base
material material
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J oint Preparation Terminology
J oint Preparation Terminology 2.7 2.7
Included angle
Included angle
Root Gap
Root Gap
Root Face
Root Face
Angle of
Angle of
bevel
bevel
Root Face
Root Face
Root Gap
Root Gap
Included angle
Included angle
Root
Root
Radius
Radius
Single
Single
-
-
V Butt
V Butt
Single
Single
-
-
U Butt
U Butt
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J oint Preparation Terminology
J oint Preparation Terminology 2.8 & 2.9 2.8 & 2.9
Root Gap
Root Gap
Root Face
Root Face
Root Face
Root Face
Root Gap
Root Gap
Root
Root
Radius
Radius
Single Bevel Butt
Single Bevel Butt
Single
Single
-
-
J Butt
J Butt
Angle of bevel
Angle of bevel Angle of bevel
Land
Land
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Single Sided Butt Preparations
Single Sided Butt Preparations 2.10 2.10
Single Bevel
Single Bevel
Single Vee
Single Vee
Single
Single
-
-
J
J Single
Single
-
-
U
U
Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner materials Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner materials, or , or
when access form both sides is restricted when access form both sides is restricted
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Double Sided Butt Preparations
Double Sided Butt Preparations2.11 2.11
Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker materials Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker materials, or , or
when access form both sides is unrestricted when access form both sides is unrestricted
-
-
Vee
Vee
Double
Double
-
-
Bevel
Bevel Double
Double
-
-
J
J Double
Double
-
-
U
U
Double
Double
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Weld Preparation
Weld Preparation
Terminology & Typical Dimensions:
Terminology & Typical Dimensions:
V
V
-
-
Joints
Joints
bevel angle bevel angle
root face root face
root gap root gap
included angle included angle
Typical Dimensions Typical Dimensions
bevel angle bevel angle 30 to 35 30 to 35
root face root face ~1.5 to ~2.5mm ~1.5 to ~2.5mm
root gap root gap ~2 to ~4mm ~2 to ~4mm
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6 mm 6 mm
80 80
Poor Weld Toe Blend Angle Poor Weld Toe Blend Angle
Improved Weld Toe Blend Improved Weld Toe Blend
Angle Angle
20 20
3 mm 3 mm
Most codes quote the weld Most codes quote the weld
toes toes shall blend smoothly shall blend smoothly
This statement is not This statement is not
quantitative and therefore quantitative and therefore
open open to individual to individual
interpretation interpretation
The higher the toe blend The higher the toe blend
angle angle the greater the the greater the
amount amount of of stress stress
concentration concentration
The toe blend angle ideally The toe blend angle ideally
should should be be between 20 between 20
o o
- -30 30
o o
Butt Weld
Butt Weld
-
-
Toe Blend
Toe Blend
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Fillet Weld Features
Fillet Weld Features 2.13 2.13
Design Design
Throat Throat
Vertical Vertical
Leg Leg
Length Length
Horizontal leg Horizontal leg
Length Length
Excess Excess
Weld Weld
Metal Metal
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Fillet Weld Throat Thickness
Fillet Weld Throat Thickness 2.13 2.13
b
b
a
a
b = Actual Throat Thickness
a = Design Throat Thickness
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b
b
a
a
Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features
Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features2.13 2.13
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Fillet Weld Sizes
Fillet Weld Sizes 2.14 2.14
Calculating
Calculating
Throat Thickness
Throat Thickness
from a known Leg
from a known Leg
Length:
Length:
Design Throat Thickness = Leg Length x 0.7
Design Throat Thickness = Leg Length x 0.7
Question:
Question:
The Leg length is 14mm.
The Leg length is 14mm.
What is the Design Throat?
What is the Design Throat?
Answer:
Answer:
14mm x 0.7 =
14mm x 0.7 =
10mm
10mm
Throat Thickness
Throat Thickness
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Fillet Weld Sizes
Calculating
Calculating
Leg Length
Leg Length
from a known Design
from a known Design
Throat Thickness:
Throat Thickness:
Leg Length = Design Throat Thickness x 1.4
Leg Length = Design Throat Thickness x 1.4
Question:
Question:
The Design Throat is 10mm.
The Design Throat is 10mm.
What is the Leg length?
What is the Leg length?
Answer:
Answer:
10mm x 1.4 =
10mm x 1.4 =
14mm
14mm
Leg Length
Leg Length
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Features to Consider 2
Features to Consider 2 2.14 2.14
Approximately the same weld volume in both Fillet
Approximately the same weld volume in both Fillet
Welds, but the
Welds, but the
effective throat thickness has been
effective throat thickness has been
altered, reducing considerably the strength of weld B
altered, reducing considerably the strength of weld B
Importance of Fillet Weld Leg Length Size
Importance of Fillet Weld Leg Length Size
2mm
2mm
(b)
(b)
4mm
4mm
8mm
8mm
(a)
(a)
4mm
4mm
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Fillet Weld Sizes
Area
Area
=
=
4 x 4
4 x 4
=
=
8mm
8mm
2 2
2
2
Area
Area
=
=
6 x 6
6 x 6
=
=
18mm
18mm
2 2
2
2
The c.s.a. of
The c.s.a. of
(b)
(b)
is over
is over
double
double
the area of
the area of
(a)
(a)
without the extra
without the extra
excess weld metal being added
excess weld metal being added
4mm
(a)
6mm
(b)
Importance of Fillet weld leg length Size
Importance of Fillet weld leg length Size
4mm
(a)
Excess
6mm
(b)
Excess
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Mitre
Mitre
Fillet
Fillet
Convex Fillet
Convex Fillet
Concave Fillet
Concave Fillet
A concave profile A concave profile
is preferred for is preferred for
joints subjected to joints subjected to
fatigue loading fatigue loading
Fillet Weld Profiles
Fillet Weld Profiles 2.15 2.15
Fillet welds
Fillet welds
-
-
Shape
Shape
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EFFECTIVE THROAT THICKNESS
EFFECTIVE THROAT THICKNESS
s = Effective throat thickness
s a
a = Nominal throat thickness
Deep penetration fillet welds from high heat
input welding process MAG, FCAW & SAW etc
Fillet Features to Consider 2.15
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Welding Positions
Welding Positions 2.17 2.17
PA PA 1G / 1F 1G / 1F Flat / Downhand Flat / Downhand
PB PB 2F 2F Horizontal Horizontal- -Vertical Vertical
PC PC 2G 2G Horizontal Horizontal
PD PD 4F 4F Horizontal Horizontal- -Vertical (Overhead) Vertical (Overhead)
PE PE 4G 4G Overhead Overhead
PF PF 3G / 5G 3G / 5G Vertical Vertical- -Up Up
PG PG 3G / 5G 3G / 5G Vertical Vertical- -Down Down
H H- -L045 L045 6G 6G Inclined Pipe (Upwards) Inclined Pipe (Upwards)
J J - -L045 L045 6G 6G Inclined Pipe (Downwards) Inclined Pipe (Downwards)
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Welding Positions
Welding Positions 2.17 2.17
ISO
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Welding position designation
Welding position designation2.17 2.17
Butt welds in plate (see ISO 6947)
Butt welds in plate (see ISO 6947)
Flat - PA Overhead - PE
Vertical
up - PF
Vertical
down - PG
Horizontal - PC
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Welding position designation 2.17 2.17
Butt welds in pipe (see ISO 6947)
Butt welds in pipe (see ISO 6947)
Flat - PA
axis: horizontal
pipe: rotated
H-L045
axis: inclined at 45
pipe: fixed
Horizontal - PC
axis: vertical
pipe: fixed
Vertical up - PF
axis: horizontal
pipe: fixed
Vertical down - PG
axis: horizontal
pipe: fixed
J-L045
pipe: fixed
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Welding position designation2.17 2.17
Fillet welds on plate (see ISO 6947)
Fillet welds on plate (see ISO 6947)
Flat - PA Overhead - PD
Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG
Horizontal - PB
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Welding position designation 2.17 2.17
Fillet welds on pipe (see ISO 6947)
Fillet welds on pipe (see ISO 6947)
Flat - PA
pipe: rotated
Overhead - PD
axis: vertical
pipe: fixed
Vertical up - PF
axis: horizontal
pipe: fixed
Vertical down - PG
axis: horizontal
pipe: fixed
Horizontal - PB
axis: vertical
pipe: fixed
Horizontal - PB
axis: horizontal
pipe: rotated
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PA / 1G PA / 1G
PA / 1F PA / 1F
PC / 2G PC / 2G
PB / 2F PB / 2F
PD / 4F PD / 4F
PE / 4G PE / 4G
PG / 3G PG / 3G
PF / 3G PF / 3G
Plate/Fillet Weld Positions
Plate/Fillet Weld Positions2.17 2.17
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Pipe Welding Positions
Pipe Welding Positions 2.17 2.17
Weld: Flat Weld: Flat
Pipe: rotated Pipe: rotated
Axis: Horizontal Axis: Horizontal
PA / 1G PA / 1G
Weld: Vertical Downwards Weld: Vertical Downwards
Pipe: Fixed Pipe: Fixed
PG / 5G PG / 5G
Weld: Vertical upwards Weld: Vertical upwards
PF / 5G PF / 5G
Weld: Upwards Weld: Upwards
Axis: Inclined Axis: Inclined
Weld: Horizontal Weld: Horizontal
Axis: Vertical Axis: Vertical
PC / 2G PC / 2G
45 45
o o
Weld: Downwards Weld: Downwards
Axis: Inclined Axis: Inclined
J J- -LO 45 / 6G LO 45 / 6G
45 45
o o
H H- -LO 45 / 6G LO 45 / 6G
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Travel Speed Measurement
Travel Speed Measurement2.18 2.18
Definition:
Definition:
the rate of weld progression
the rate of weld progression
measured in case of mechanised and automatic
measured in case of mechanised and automatic
welding processes
welding processes
in case of MMA can be determined using ROL and arc
in case of MMA can be determined using ROL and arc
time
time
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Welding Imperfections
Section 3
Section 3
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Welding Imperfections 3.1 3.1
All welds have imperfections All welds have imperfections
Imperfections are classed as Imperfections are classed as defects defects when they are of a when they are of a
type, or size, not allowed by the Acceptance Standard type, or size, not allowed by the Acceptance Standard
A defect is an unacceptable imperfection A defect is an unacceptable imperfection
A weld imperfection may be allowed by one Acceptance A weld imperfection may be allowed by one Acceptance
Standard but be classed as a defect by another Standard Standard but be classed as a defect by another Standard
and require removal/rectification and require removal/rectification
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Standards for Welding Imperfections Standards for Welding Imperfections
BS BS EN ISO 6520 EN ISO 6520- -1 1
(1998)
(1998) Welding and allied processes Welding and allied processes
Classification of geometric Classification of geometric
imperfections in metallic materials imperfections in metallic materials - -
Part 1: Fusion welding Part 1: Fusion welding
Imperfections are classified into 6 groups, namely: Imperfections are classified into 6 groups, namely:
1 Cracks 1 Cracks
2 Cavities 2 Cavities
3 Solid inclusions 3 Solid inclusions
4 Lack of fusion and penetration 4 Lack of fusion and penetration
5 Imperfect shape and dimensions 5 Imperfect shape and dimensions
6 Miscellaneous imperfections 6 Miscellaneous imperfections
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Standards for Welding Imperfections Standards for Welding Imperfections
EN ISO 5817 EN ISO 5817
(2003)
(2003) Welding Welding - - Fusion Fusion- -welded joints in steel, welded joints in steel,
nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam
welding excluded) welding excluded) - - Quality levels for Quality levels for
imperfections imperfections
This main imperfections given in EN ISO 6520 This main imperfections given in EN ISO 6520- -1 are listed in 1 are listed in
EN ISO 5817 with acceptance criteria at 3 levels, namely EN ISO 5817 with acceptance criteria at 3 levels, namely
Level B (highest) Level B (highest)
Level C (intermediate) Level C (intermediate)
Level D (general) Level D (general)
This Standard is This Standard is directly applicable to directly applicable to visual visual testing of welds testing of welds
... ...(weld surfaces & macro examination) (weld surfaces & macro examination)
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Welding imperfections
Welding imperfections 3.1 3.1
classification
classification
Cracks
Cracks
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Cracks
Cracks 3.1 3.1
Cracks that may occur in welded materials
Cracks that may occur in welded materials
are caused generally by many factors and
are caused generally by many factors and
may be classified by shape and position.
may be classified by shape and position.
Note:
Note:
Cracks are classed as Planar
Cracks are classed as Planar
Defects.
Defects.
Classified by Shape
Classified by Shape
Longitudinal
Longitudinal
Transverse
Transverse
Chevron
Chevron
Lamellar Tear
Lamellar Tear
Classified by Position
Classified by Position
HAZ
HAZ
Centerline
Centerline
Crater
Crater
Fusion zone
Fusion zone
Parent metal
Parent metal
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Longitudinal parent metal Longitudinal parent metal
Longitudinal weld metal Longitudinal weld metal
Lamellar tearing Lamellar tearing
Transverse weld metal Transverse weld metal
Cracks
Cracks 3.1 3.1
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Transverse crack
Transverse crack Longitudinal crack
Longitudinal crack
Cracks
Cracks 3.1 3.1
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Main Crack Types
Main Crack Types
Solidification Cracks
Solidification Cracks
Hydrogen Induced Cracks
Hydrogen Induced Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar Tearing
Reheat cracks
Reheat cracks
Cracks
Cracks 3.2 3.2
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Solidification Cracking
Occurs during weld solidification process
Occurs during weld solidification process
Steels with high
Steels with high
sulphur
sulphur
impurities content (low
impurities content (low
ductility at elevated temperature)
ductility at elevated temperature)
Requires high tensile stress
Requires high tensile stress
Occur longitudinally down centre of weld
Occur longitudinally down centre of weld
Cracks
Cracks 3.2 3.2
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Cracks
Cracks 3.3 3.3
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking
Requires susceptible hard grain structure, stress, low
Requires susceptible hard grain structure, stress, low
temperature and hydrogen
temperature and hydrogen
Hydrogen enters weld via welding arc mainly as
Hydrogen enters weld via welding arc mainly as
result of contaminated electrode or preparation
result of contaminated electrode or preparation
Hydrogen diffuses out into parent metal on cooling
Hydrogen diffuses out into parent metal on cooling
Cracking developing most likely in HAZ
Cracking developing most likely in HAZ
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Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar Tearing3.5 3.5
Location:
Location:
Parent metal
Parent metal
Steel Type:
Steel Type:
Any steel type possible
Any steel type possible
Susceptible Microstructure:
Poor through thickness
Poor through thickness
ductility
ductility

Lamellar tearing has a step like appearance due to the
Lamellar tearing has a step like appearance due to the
solid inclusions in the parent material (e.g. sulphides
solid inclusions in the parent material (e.g. sulphides
and silicates) linking up under the influence of welding
and silicates) linking up under the influence of welding
stresses
stresses

Low ductile materials in the short transverse direction
Low ductile materials in the short transverse direction
containing high levels of impurities are very susceptible
containing high levels of impurities are very susceptible
to lamellar tearing
to lamellar tearing

It forms when the welding stresses act in the short
It forms when the welding stresses act in the short
transverse direction of the material (through thickness
transverse direction of the material (through thickness
direction)
direction)
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Gas Cavities
Gas Cavities 3.6 3.6
Root piping Root piping
Cluster porosity Cluster porosity Gas pore Gas pore
Blow hole Blow hole
Herringbone porosity Herringbone porosity
Gas pore <1.5mm Gas pore <1.5mm
Blow hole.>1.6mm Blow hole.>1.6mm
Causes: Causes:
Loss of gas shield Loss of gas shield
Damp electrodes Damp electrodes
Contamination Contamination
Arc length too large Arc length too large
Damaged electrode flux Damaged electrode flux
Moisture on parent material Moisture on parent material
Welding current too low Welding current too low
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Root piping
Root piping
Porosity
Porosity
Gas Cavities
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Cluster porosity
Cluster porosity
Herringbone porosity
Herringbone porosity
Gas Cavities
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Crater pipe
Crater pipe
Weld crater
Weld crater
Crater Pipe
Crater Pipe 3.9 3.9
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Crater pipe is a shrinkage defect and not a gas defect, it has Crater pipe is a shrinkage defect and not a gas defect, it has
the appearance of a gas pore in the weld crater the appearance of a gas pore in the weld crater
Causes:
Causes:

Too fast a cooling
Too fast a cooling
rate
rate

Deoxidization
Deoxidization
reactions and
reactions and
liquid to solid
liquid to solid
volume change
volume change

Contamination
Contamination
Crater cracks Crater cracks
(Star cracks) (Star cracks)
Crater pipe Crater pipe
Crater Pipe
Crater Pipe 3.9 3.9
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Solid Inclusions
Solid Inclusions3.10 3.10
Slag inclusions are defined as a non
Slag inclusions are defined as a non
-
-
metallic inclusion
metallic inclusion
caused by some welding process
caused by some welding process
Causes: Causes:
Slag originates from Slag originates from
welding flux welding flux
MAG and TIG welding MAG and TIG welding
process produce silica process produce silica
inclusions inclusions
Slag is caused by Slag is caused by
inadequate cleaning inadequate cleaning
Other inclusions include Other inclusions include
tungsten and copper tungsten and copper
inclusions from the TIG inclusions from the TIG
and MAG welding process and MAG welding process
Slag inclusions Slag inclusions
Parallel slag lines Parallel slag lines
Lack of sidewall Lack of sidewall
fusion with fusion with
associated slag associated slag
Lack of Lack of interun interun
fusion + slag fusion + slag
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Elongated slag lines
Elongated slag lines
Interpass slag inclusions
Interpass slag inclusions
Solid Inclusions
Solid Inclusions 3.11 3.11
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Typical Causes of Lack of Fusion: Typical Causes of Lack of Fusion:
welding current too low
bevel angle too steep
root face too large (single-sided weld)
root gap too small (single-sided weld)
incorrect electrode angle
linear misalignment
welding speed too high
welding process related particularly dip-transfer GMAW
flooding the joint with too much weld metal (blocking Out)
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Lack of Fusion
Lack of Fusion3.13 3.13
Incomplete filled groove + Incomplete filled groove +
Lack of sidewall fusion Lack of sidewall fusion
1 1
2 2
1. 1. Lack of sidewall fusion Lack of sidewall fusion
2. 2. Lack of inter Lack of inter- -run fusion run fusion
Causes: Causes:
Poor welder skill Poor welder skill
Incorrect electrode Incorrect electrode
manipulation manipulation
Arc blow Arc blow
Incorrect welding Incorrect welding
current/voltage current/voltage
Incorrect travel speed Incorrect travel speed
Incorrect inter Incorrect inter- -run cleaning run cleaning
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Lack of sidewall fusion + incomplete filled groove
Lack of Fusion
Lack of Fusion 3.13 3.13
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Weld Root Imperfections
Weld Root Imperfections 3.15 3.15
Lack of Root Fusion
Lack of Root Fusion
Lack of Root Penetration
Lack of Root Penetration
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Cap Undercut
Cap Undercut 3.18 3.18
Intermittent Cap Undercut
Intermittent Cap Undercut
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Cap undercut
Cap undercut
Root undercut
Root undercut
Undercut
Undercut 3.18 3.18
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Surface and Profile
Surface and Profile 3.19 3.19
Incomplete filled groove
Poor cap profile
Poor cap profile
Excessive cap height
Excessive cap height
Poor cap profiles and Poor cap profiles and
excessive cap reinforcements excessive cap reinforcements
may lead to stress may lead to stress
concentration points at the concentration points at the
weld toes and will also weld toes and will also
contribute to overall poor toe contribute to overall poor toe
blend blend
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Excess cap reinforcement
Excess cap reinforcement
Surface and Profile
Surface and Profile 3.19 3.19
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Excessive root
Excessive root
penetration
penetration
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Overlap
Overlap 3.21 3.21
An imperfection at the toe or root of a weld caused by metal An imperfection at the toe or root of a weld caused by metal
flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to it it
Causes: Causes:
Contamination Contamination
Slow travel speed Slow travel speed
Incorrect welding Incorrect welding
technique technique
Current too low Current too low
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Overlap
Overlap 3.21 3.21
Toe Overlap
Toe Overlap
Toe Overlap
Toe Overlap
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Set
Set
-
-
Up Irregularities
Up Irregularities 3.22 3.22
Plate/pipe Linear Misalignment Plate/pipe Linear Misalignment
(Hi (Hi - -Lo) Lo)
Angular Misalignment Angular Misalignment
Linear misalignment Linear misalignment is is
measured from the lowest measured from the lowest
plate to the highest point. plate to the highest point.
Angular misalignment Angular misalignment is is
measured in degrees measured in degrees
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Set
Set
-
-
Up Irregularities
Up Irregularities3.22 3.22
Linear Misalignment
Linear Misalignment
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Linear Misalignment
Linear Misalignment
Set
Set
-
-
Up Irregularities
Up Irregularities3.22 3.22
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Incomplete Groove
Incomplete Groove3.23 3.23
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Concave Root
Concave Root
Causes:
Causes:
Excessive back purge

Excessive back purge
pressure during TIG welding
pressure during TIG welding
Excessive root bead grinding
Excessive root bead grinding
before the application of the
before the application of the
second pass
second pass
welding current too high for
welding current too high for
2nd pass
2nd pass
overhead welding
overhead welding
root gap too large
root gap too large
-
-
excessive
excessive
weaving
weaving
A shallow groove, which may occur in the root of a butt weld A shallow groove, which may occur in the root of a butt weld
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Concave Root
Concave Root
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Concave root
Concave root
Excess root penetration
Excess root penetration
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Causes:
Causes:

High Amps/volts
High Amps/volts

Small Root face
Small Root face

Large Root Gap
Large Root Gap

Slow Travel
Slow Travel
Speed
Speed
Burn through
Burn through
A localized collapse of the weld pool due to excessive A localized collapse of the weld pool due to excessive
penetration resulting in a hole in the root run penetration resulting in a hole in the root run
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Burn Through
Burn Through
Weld Root Imperfections3.25 3.25
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Causes:
Causes:

Loss or insufficient
Loss or insufficient
back purging gas (TIG)
back purging gas (TIG)

Most commonly occurs
Most commonly occurs
when welding stainless
when welding stainless
steels
steels

Purging gases include
Purging gases include
argon, helium and
argon, helium and
occasionally nitrogen
occasionally nitrogen
Oxidized Root (Root Coking)
Oxidized Root (Root Coking)
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Miscellaneous Imperfections
Miscellaneous Imperfections 3.26 3.26
Arc strike
Arc strike
Causes: Causes:
Accidental striking of the Accidental striking of the
arc onto the parent arc onto the parent
material material
Faulty electrode holder Faulty electrode holder
Poor cable insulation Poor cable insulation
Poor return lead Poor return lead
clamping clamping
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Miscellaneous Imperfections
Miscellaneous Imperfections3.27 3.27
Causes:
Causes:

Excessive current
Excessive current

Damp electrodes
Damp electrodes

Contamination
Contamination

Incorrect wire feed
Incorrect wire feed
speed when welding
speed when welding
with the MAG welding
with the MAG welding
process
process

Arc blow
Arc blow
Spatter
Spatter
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Mechanical Damage
Mechanical Damage3.28 3.28
Mechanical damage can be defined as any surface
Mechanical damage can be defined as any surface
material
material
damage cause during the manufacturing process.
damage cause during the manufacturing process.
Grinding Grinding
Hammering Hammering
Chiselling Chiselling
Chipping Chipping
Breaking off welded attachments Breaking off welded attachments
(torn surfaces) (torn surfaces)
Using needle guns to compress Using needle guns to compress
weld capping runs weld capping runs
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Mechanical Damage
Mechanical Damage 3.28 3.28
Mechanical Damage/Grinding Mark
Mechanical Damage/Grinding Mark
Chipping Marks
Chipping Marks
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Destructive Testing
Destructive Testing
Section 4
Section 4
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Qualitative and Quantitative Tests
Qualitative and Quantitative Tests4.1 4.1
The following mechanical tests have units and are termed
The following mechanical tests have units and are termed
quantitative
quantitative
tests to
tests to
measure Mechanical Properties
measure Mechanical Properties
Tensile tests (Transverse Welded J oint, All Weld Metal)
Tensile tests (Transverse Welded J oint, All Weld Metal)
Toughness testing (Charpy, Izod, CTOD)
Toughness testing (Charpy, Izod, CTOD)
Hardness tests (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers)
Hardness tests (Brinell, Rockwell, Vickers)
The following mechanical tests have no units and are termed
The following mechanical tests have no units and are termed
qualitative
qualitative
tests for
tests for
assessing joint quality
assessing joint quality
Macro testing
Macro testing
Bend testing
Bend testing
Fillet weld fracture testing
Fillet weld fracture testing
Butt weld nick
Butt weld nick
-
-
break testing
break testing
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Tensile Specimens Tensile Specimens
Fracture Fillet Fracture Fillet
Specimen Specimen
CTOD Specimen CTOD Specimen
Charpy Specimen Charpy Specimen
Bend Test Bend Test
Specimen Specimen
Mechanical Test Samples
Mechanical Test Samples 4.1 4.1
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Destructive Testing
Destructive Testing4.1 4.1
Typical Positions for Test Typical Positions for Test
Pieces Pieces
Specimen Type Position Specimen Type Position
Macro + Hardness Macro + Hardness 5 5
Transverse Tensile Transverse Tensile 2, 4 2, 4
Bend Tests Bend Tests 2, 4 2, 4
Charpy Impact Tests Charpy Impact Tests 3 3
Additional Tests Additional Tests 3 3
WELDING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION TESTING WELDING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION TESTING
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
top of fixed pipe top of fixed pipe
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Malleability
Malleability
Ductility
Ductility
Toughness
Toughness
Hardness
Hardness
Tensile Strength
Tensile Strength
Ability of a material to
withstand deformation
withstand deformation
under static compressive
under static compressive
loading without rupture
loading without rupture
Definitions
Definitions
Mechanical Properties of metals Mechanical Properties of metals are related to the amount of are related to the amount of
deformation which metals can withstand under different deformation which metals can withstand under different
circumstances of force application. circumstances of force application.
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Malleability
Malleability
Ductility
Ductility
Toughness
Toughness
Hardness
Hardness
Tensile Strength
Tensile Strength
Ability of a material
Ability of a material
undergo plastic
undergo plastic
deformation under static
deformation under static
tensile loading without
tensile loading without
rupture. Measurable
rupture. Measurable
elongation and reduction
elongation and reduction
in cross section area
in cross section area
Definitions
Definitions
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Malleability
Malleability
Ductility
Ductility
Toughness
Toughness
Hardness
Hardness
Tensile Strength
Tensile Strength
withstand bending or the
withstand bending or the
application of shear
application of shear
stresses by impact loading
stresses by impact loading
without fracture.
without fracture.
Definitions
Definitions
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Malleability
Malleability
Ductility
Ductility
Toughness
Toughness
Hardness
Hardness
Tensile Strength
Tensile Strength
Measurement of a
Measurement of a
materials surface
materials surface
resistance to indentation
resistance to indentation
from another material by
from another material by
static load
static load
Definitions
Definitions
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Malleability
Malleability
Ductility
Ductility
Toughness
Toughness
Hardness
Hardness
Tensile Strength
Tensile Strength
Measurement
Measurement
of the
of the
maximum force required
maximum force required
to fracture a materials bar
to fracture a materials bar
of unit cross
of unit cross
-
-
sectional
sectional
area in tension
area in tension
Definitions
Definitions
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Transverse J oint Tensile Test
Transverse J oint Tensile Test4.2 4.2
Weld on plate
Weld on plate
Multiple cross joint
Multiple cross joint
specimens
specimens
Weld on pipe
Weld on pipe
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All All - -Weld Metal Tensile Weld Metal Tensile
Specimen Specimen
Transverse Tensile Transverse Tensile
Specimen Specimen
Tensile Test
Tensile Test 4.3 4.3
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STRA (Short Transverse Reduction Area)
STRA (Short Transverse Reduction Area)
For materials that may be subject to Lamellar Tearing
For materials that may be subject to Lamellar Tearing
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UTS Tensile test
UTS Tensile test 4.4 4.4
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Charpy V
Charpy V
-
-
Notch Impact Test
Notch Impact Test4.5 4.5
Objectives: Objectives:
measuring impact strength in different weld joint areas measuring impact strength in different weld joint areas
assessing resistance toward brittle fracture assessing resistance toward brittle fracture
Information to be supplied on the test report: Information to be supplied on the test report:
Material type Material type
Notch type Notch type
Specimen size Specimen size
Test temperature Test temperature
Notch location Notch location
Impact Strength Value Impact Strength Value
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- - 50 50
0 0 - - 20 20 - - 10 10
- - 40 40 - - 30 30
Ductile fracture Ductile fracture
Ductile/Brittle Ductile/Brittle
transition transition
point point
47 Joules 47 Joules
28 Joules 28 Joules
Temperature range Temperature range
Transition range Transition range
Brittle fracture Brittle fracture
Energy absorbed Energy absorbed
Testing temperature Testing temperature - Degrees Centigrade Degrees Centigrade
Ductile / Brittle Transition Curve
Ductile / Brittle Transition Curve4.6 4.6
Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature Three specimens are normally tested at each temperature
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Impact Energy J oules
Impact Energy J oules
Room Temperature
Room Temperature
-
-
20
20
o o
C Temperature
C Temperature
1.
1.
197 Joules
197 Joules
2.
2.
191
191
Joules
Joules
3.
3.
186
186
Joules
Joules
1.
1.
49
49
Joules
Joules
2.
2.
53
53
Joules
Joules
3.
3.
51
51
Joules
Joules
Average =
Average =
191
191
Joules
Joules
Average =
Average =
51
51
Joules
Joules
The test results show the specimens carried out at room The test results show the specimens carried out at room
temperature absorb more energy than the specimens carried temperature absorb more energy than the specimens carried
out at out at - -20 20
o o
C C
Comparison Charpy Impact Test Results
Comparison Charpy Impact Test Results4.6 4.6
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Charpy V
Charpy V
-
-
notch impact test specimen
notch impact test specimen4.7 4.7
Specimen dimensions according ASTM E23
Specimen dimensions according ASTM E23
ASTM: American Society of Testing Materials ASTM: American Society of Testing Materials
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Charpy V
Charpy V
-
-
Notch Impact Test
Notch Impact Test 4.8 4.8
Specime
Specime
n
n
Pendulu
Pendulu
m
m
(striker)
(striker)
Anvil (support)
Anvil (support)
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10 mm 10 mm
8

m
m
8

m
m
2

m
m
2

m
m
22.5 22.5
o o
Machined Machined
notch notch
100% Ductile
100% Ductile
Machined Machined
notch notch
Large reduction Large reduction
in area, shear in area, shear
lips lips
Fracture surface Fracture surface
100% bright 100% bright
crystalline brittle crystalline brittle
fracture fracture
Randomly torn, Randomly torn,
dull gray fracture dull gray fracture
surface surface
Charpy Impact Test
Charpy Impact Test4.9 4.9
100% Brittle
100% Brittle
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Hardness Testing
Hardness Testing4.10 4.10
Definition
Definition
Measurement of resistance of a material against
Measurement of resistance of a material against
penetration of an indenter under a constant load
penetration of an indenter under a constant load
There is a direct correlation between UTS and
There is a direct correlation between UTS and
hardness
hardness
Hardness tests:
Hardness tests:
Brinell
Brinell
Vickers
Vickers
Rockwell
Rockwell
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Hardness Testing
Hardness Testing 4.10 4.10
Objectives:
Objectives:
measuring hardness in different areas of a welded joint measuring hardness in different areas of a welded joint
assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold cracking assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold cracking
and corrosion sensitivity within a H and corrosion sensitivity within a H
2 2
S (Hydrogen Sulphide) S (Hydrogen Sulphide)
environment. environment.
Information to be supplied on the test report:
Information to be supplied on the test report:
material type material type
location of indentation location of indentation
type of hardness test and load applied on the indenter type of hardness test and load applied on the indenter
hardness value hardness value
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Vickers hardness tests:
Vickers hardness tests:
indentation body is a square based diamond pyramid
indentation body is a square based diamond pyramid
(136
(136
included angle)
included angle)
the average diagonal (d) of the impression is
the average diagonal (d) of the impression is
converted to a hardness number from a table
converted to a hardness number from a table
it is measured in HV5, HV10 or HV025
it is measured in HV5, HV10 or HV025
Adjustable Adjustable
shutters shutters
Indentation Indentation Diamond Diamond
indentor indentor
Vickers Hardness Test
Vickers Hardness Test 4.11 4.11
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Vickers Hardness Test Machine
Vickers Hardness Test Machine4.11 4.11
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Hardened steel ball of given diameter is subjected for

Hardened steel ball of given diameter is subjected for
a given time to a given load
a given time to a given load
Load divided by area of indentation gives Brinell

Load divided by area of indentation gives Brinell
hardness in kg/mm
hardness in kg/mm
2 2
More suitable for on site hardness testing

More suitable for on site hardness testing
Brinell Hardness Test
Brinell Hardness Test 4.11 4.11
30KN
30KN
=10mm
steel ball
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Rockwell Hardness Test
Rockwell Hardness Test
1KN
1KN
=1.6mm
steel ball
Rockwell B
Rockwell B
Rockwell C
Rockwell C
1.5KN
1.5KN
120Diamond
Cone
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Hardness Testing
Hardness Testing 4.12 4.12
Hardness Test Methods Typical Designations Hardness Test Methods Typical Designations
Vickers Vickers 240 HV10 240 HV10
Rockwell Rockwell Rc 22 Rc 22
Brinell Brinell 200 BHN 200 BHN- -W W
usually the hardest region usually the hardest region
1.5 to 3mm 1.5 to 3mm
HAZ HAZ
fusion line fusion line
or or
fusion fusion
boundary boundary
Hardness specimens can also be used for CTOD samples
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Crack Tip Opening Displacement testing
Crack Tip Opening Displacement testing 4.12 4.12
Test is for fracture toughness
Test is for fracture toughness
Square bar machined with a notch placed
Square bar machined with a notch placed
in the centre.
in the centre.
Tested below ambient temperature at a
Tested below ambient temperature at a
specified temperature.
specified temperature.
Load is applied at either end of the test
Load is applied at either end of the test
specimen in an attempt to open a crack at
specimen in an attempt to open a crack at
the bottom of the notch
the bottom of the notch
Normally 3 samples
Normally 3 samples
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Location:
Location:
Any stress concentration area
Any stress concentration area
Steel Type:
Steel Type:
All steel types
All steel types
All grain structures
All grain structures
Test for Fracture Toughness is CTOD
Test for Fracture Toughness is CTOD
(Crack Tip Opening Displacement)
(Crack Tip Opening Displacement)
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Fracture4.13 4.13
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Fatigue cracks occur under cyclic stress conditions
Fatigue cracks occur under cyclic stress conditions

Fracture normally occurs at a change in section, notch
Fracture normally occurs at a change in section, notch
and weld defects i.e stress concentration area
and weld defects i.e stress concentration area

All materials are susceptible to fatigue cracking
All materials are susceptible to fatigue cracking

Fatigue cracking starts at a specific point referred to as
Fatigue cracking starts at a specific point referred to as
a initiation point
a initiation point

The fracture surface is smooth in appearance
The fracture surface is smooth in appearance
sometimes displaying beach markings
sometimes displaying beach markings

The final mode of failure may be brittle or ductile or a
The final mode of failure may be brittle or ductile or a
combination of both
combination of both
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Fracture4.13 4.13
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Toe grinding, profile grinding.
The elimination of poor profiles
The elimination of partial penetration welds and weld
defects
Operating conditions under the materials endurance limits
The elimination of notch effects e.g. mechanical damage
cap/root undercut
The selection of the correct material for the service
conditions of the component
Precautions against Fatigue Cracks
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Fracture
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Fatigue fracture occurs in structures subject to repeated
Fatigue fracture occurs in structures subject to repeated
application of tensile stress.
application of tensile stress.
Crack growth is slow (in same cases, crack may grow
Crack growth is slow (in same cases, crack may grow
into an area of low stress and stop without failure).
into an area of low stress and stop without failure).
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Fracture
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Initiation points / weld defects Initiation points / weld defects
Fatigue fracture surface Fatigue fracture surface
smooth in appearance smooth in appearance
Secondary mode of failure Secondary mode of failure
ductile fracture rough fibrous ductile fracture rough fibrous
appearance appearance
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Fracture
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Crack growth is slow Crack growth is slow
It initiate from stress concentration points It initiate from stress concentration points
load is considerably below the design or yield stress level load is considerably below the design or yield stress level
The surface is smooth The surface is smooth
The surface is bounded by a curve The surface is bounded by a curve
Bands may sometimes be seen on the smooth surface Bands may sometimes be seen on the smooth surface
beachmarks beachmarks . They show the progress of the crack front from the . They show the progress of the crack front from the
point of origin point of origin
The surface is 90 The surface is 90 to the load to the load
Final fracture will usually take the form of gross yielding (as Final fracture will usually take the form of gross yielding (as the the
maximum stress in the remaining ligament increase!) maximum stress in the remaining ligament increase!)
Fatigue crack need initiation + propagation periods Fatigue crack need initiation + propagation periods
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue Fracture
Fatigue fracture distinguish features:
Fatigue fracture distinguish features:
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Object of test:
Object of test:

To determine the soundness of the weld zone. Bend
To determine the soundness of the weld zone. Bend
testing can also be used to give an assessment of
testing can also be used to give an assessment of
weld zone ductility.
weld zone ductility.

There are three ways to perform a bend test:
There are three ways to perform a bend test:
Root bend Root bend
Face bend Face bend
Side bend Side bend
Side bend tests are normally carried out on welds over 12mm in t Side bend tests are normally carried out on welds over 12mm in t hickness hickness
Bend Tests
Bend Tests 4.15 4.15
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Bending test
Bending test4.16 4.16
Types of bend test for welds (acc. BS EN 910): Types of bend test for welds (acc. BS EN 910):
Thickness of material
Thickness of material
-
-
t
t
t
t
up to 12 mm
up to 12 mm
t
t
over 12 mm
over 12 mm
Root / face
Root / face
bend
bend
Side bend
Side bend
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Fillet Weld Fracture Tests
Fillet Weld Fracture Tests 4.17 4.17
Object of test:
Object of test:
To break open the joint through the weld to permit
To break open the joint through the weld to permit
examination of the fracture surfaces
examination of the fracture surfaces
Specimens are cut to the required length
Specimens are cut to the required length
A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied
along the fillet welds length
along the fillet welds length
Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen
Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen
with a single hammer blow
with a single hammer blow
Visual inspection for defects
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Fracture should break weld saw cut to root
Fracture should break weld saw cut to root
2mm 2mm
Notch Notch
Hammer Hammer
Fillet Weld Fracture Tests4.17 4.17
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This fracture indicates This fracture indicates
lack of fusion lack of fusion
This fracture has This fracture has
occurred saw cut to root occurred saw cut to root
Fillet Weld Fracture Tests 4.17 4.17
Lack of Penetration Lack of Penetration
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Nick
Nick
-
-
Break Test
Break Test4.18 4.18
Object of test:
Object of test:
To permit evaluation of any weld defects across
To permit evaluation of any weld defects across
the fracture surface of a butt weld.
the fracture surface of a butt weld.
Specimens are cut transverse to the weld

Specimens are cut transverse to the weld

along the welds root and cap
along the welds root and cap
Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with

Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with
a single hammer blow
a single hammer blow

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Approximately 230 mm Approximately 230 mm
19 mm 19 mm
2 mm 2 mm
2 mm 2 mm
Notch cut by hacksaw Notch cut by hacksaw
Weld reinforcement Weld reinforcement
may or may not be may or may not be
removed removed
Nick
Nick
-
-
Break Test
Break Test4.18 4.18
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Nick Break Test
Nick Break Test 4.18 4.18
Inclusions on fracture Inclusions on fracture
line line
Lack of root penetration Lack of root penetration
or fusion or fusion
Alternative nick Alternative nick- -break test break test
specimen, notch applied all specimen, notch applied all
way around the specimen way around the specimen
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We test welds to establish minimum levels of mechanical
properties, and soundness of the welded joint
We divide tests into Qualitative & Quantitative methods:
Qualitative: (Have no units/numbers)
For assessing joint quality
Macro tests
Bend tests
Fillet weld fracture tests
Butt Nick break tests
Quantitative: (Have units/numbers)
To measure mechanical properties
Hardness (VPN & BHN)
Toughness (Joules & ft.lbs)
Strength (N/mm
2
& PSI, MPa)
Ductility / Elongation (E%)
Summary of Mechanical Testing
Summary of Mechanical Testing 4.19 4.19
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
WPS
WPS
Welder Qualifications
Welder Qualifications
Section 5
Section 5
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Welding Procedure Qualification
Welding Procedure Qualification 5.1 5.1
Question: Question:
What is the main reason for carrying out a Welding Procedure What is the main reason for carrying out a Welding Procedure
Qualification Test ? Qualification Test ?
(What is the test trying to show ?) (What is the test trying to show ?)
Answer: Answer:
To show that the welded joint has the To show that the welded joint has the properties properties* * that satisfy that satisfy
the design requirements (fit for purpose) the design requirements (fit for purpose)
* p * properties roperties
mechanical properties are the main interest mechanical properties are the main interest - - always strength always strength but but
toughness & hardness may be important for some applications toughness & hardness may be important for some applications
test also demonstrates that the weld can be made without defects test also demonstrates that the weld can be made without defects
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Welding Procedures
Welding Procedures5.1 5.1
Producing a welding procedure involves:
Producing a welding procedure involves:
Planning the tasks
Planning the tasks
Collecting the data
Collecting the data
Writing a procedure for use of for trial
Writing a procedure for use of for trial
Making a test welds
Making a test welds
Evaluating the results
Evaluating the results
Approving the procedure
Approving the procedure
Preparing the documentation
Preparing the documentation
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In most codes reference is made to how the procedure are to In most codes reference is made to how the procedure are to
be devised and whether approval of these procedures is be devised and whether approval of these procedures is
required. required.
The approach used for procedure approval depends on the The approach used for procedure approval depends on the
code: code:
Example codes: Example codes:
AWS D.1.1: Structural Steel Welding Code AWS D.1.1: Structural Steel Welding Code
BS 2633: Class 1 welding of Steel Pipe Work BS 2633: Class 1 welding of Steel Pipe Work
API 1104: Welding of Pipelines API 1104: Welding of Pipelines
BS 4515: Welding of Pipelines over 7 Bar BS 4515: Welding of Pipelines over 7 Bar
Other codes may not specifically deal with the requirement of Other codes may not specifically deal with the requirement of
a procedure but may contain information that may be used in a procedure but may contain information that may be used in
writing a weld procedure writing a weld procedure
EN 1011Process of Arc Welding Steels EN 1011Process of Arc Welding Steels
Welding Procedures
Welding Procedures 5.2 5.2
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The welding engineer writes The welding engineer writes qualified Welding Procedure Welding Procedure
Specifications (WPS) for production welding Specifications (WPS) for production welding
Production Production welding conditions must remain within the must remain within the range of
qualification allowed by the WPQR
(according to EN ISO 15614) (according to EN ISO 15614)
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(according to EN Standards) (according to EN Standards)
welding conditions welding conditions are called are called welding variables welding variables
welding variables are classified by the EN ISO Standard as: welding variables are classified by the EN ISO Standard as:
Essential variables
Essential variables
Non
Non
-
-
essential variables
essential variables
Additional variables
Additional variables
Note: Note: additional variables = ASME supplementary essential additional variables = ASME supplementary essential
The The range of qualification range of qualification for production welding is based on for production welding is based on
the limits that the EN ISO Standard specifies for the limits that the EN ISO Standard specifies for essential essential
variables* variables*
( (* * and when applicable and when applicable - - the additional variables) the additional variables)
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WELDING ESSENTIAL
WELDING ESSENTIAL
VARIABLES
VARIABLES
Question: Question:
Why are some welding variables classified as Why are some welding variables classified as essential essential ? ?
Answer: Answer:
A variable, that if changed beyond certain limits (specified by A variable, that if changed beyond certain limits (specified by
the Welding Standard) may have the Welding Standard) may have a significant effect a significant effect on the on the
properties properties* of the joint * of the joint
* particularly joint strength and ductility * particularly joint strength and ductility
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SOME TYPICAL SOME TYPICAL ESSENTIAL ESSENTIAL VARIABLES VARIABLES
Welding Process Welding Process
Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)
Material Type Material Type
Electrode Type, Filler Wire Type (Classification) Electrode Type, Filler Wire Type (Classification)
Material Thickness Material Thickness
Polarity (AC, DC+ve / DC Polarity (AC, DC+ve / DC- -ve) ve)
Pre Pre- -Heat Temperature Heat Temperature
Heat Input Heat Input
Welding Position Welding Position
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Welding Procedures
Components of a welding procedure
Parent material
Parent material
Type (Grouping) Type (Grouping)
Thickness Thickness
Diameter (Pipes) Diameter (Pipes)
Surface condition) Surface condition)
Welding process
Welding process
Type of process (MMA, MAG, TIG, SAW etc) Type of process (MMA, MAG, TIG, SAW etc)
Equipment parameters Equipment parameters
Amps, Volts, Travel speed Amps, Volts, Travel speed
Welding Consumables
Welding Consumables
Type of consumable/diameter of consumable Type of consumable/diameter of consumable
Brand/classification Brand/classification
Heat treatments/ storage Heat treatments/ storage
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Welding Procedures
J oint design
J oint design
Edge preparation Edge preparation
Root gap, root face Root gap, root face
Jigging and tacking Jigging and tacking
Type of baking Type of baking
Welding Position
Welding Position
Location, shop or site Location, shop or site
Welding position e.g. 1G, 2G, 3G etc Welding position e.g. 1G, 2G, 3G etc
Any weather precaution Any weather precaution
Thermal heat treatments
Thermal heat treatments
Preheat, temps Preheat, temps
Post weld heat treatments e.g. stress relieving Post weld heat treatments e.g. stress relieving
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Object of a welding procedure test Object of a welding procedure test
To give maximum confidence that the welds mechanical To give maximum confidence that the welds mechanical
and metallurgical properties meet the requirements of the and metallurgical properties meet the requirements of the
applicable code/specification. applicable code/specification.
Each welding procedure will show a range to which the Each welding procedure will show a range to which the
procedure is approved (extent of approval) procedure is approved (extent of approval)
If a customer queries the approval evidence can be If a customer queries the approval evidence can be
supplied to prove its validity supplied to prove its validity
Welding Procedures
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Summary of designations:
Summary of designations:
pWPS:
pWPS: Preliminary Welding Procedure Specification Preliminary Welding Procedure Specification
(Before procedure approval) (Before procedure approval)
WPAR (WPQR):
WPAR (WPQR): Welding Procedure Approval Record Welding Procedure Approval Record
(Welding procedure Qualification record) (Welding procedure Qualification record)
WPS:
WPS: Welding Procedure Specification Welding Procedure Specification
(After procedure approval) (After procedure approval)
Welding Procedures
Welding Procedures
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Example:
Example:
Welding
Welding
Procedure
Procedure
Specification
Specification
(WPS)
(WPS)
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Numerous codes and standards deal with welder qualification, Numerous codes and standards deal with welder qualification,
e.g. BS EN 287. e.g. BS EN 287.
Once the content of the procedure is approved the next Once the content of the procedure is approved the next
stage is to approve the welders to the approved procedure. stage is to approve the welders to the approved procedure.
A welders test know as a A welders test know as a Welders Qualification Test (WQT). Welders Qualification Test (WQT).
Object of a welding qualification test: Object of a welding qualification test:
To give maximum confidence that the welder meets the To give maximum confidence that the welder meets the
quality requirements of the approved procedure (WPS). quality requirements of the approved procedure (WPS).
The test weld should be carried out on the same material and The test weld should be carried out on the same material and
same conditions as for the production welds. same conditions as for the production welds.
Welder Qualification
Welder Qualification5.4 5.4
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Welder Qualification 5.4 & 5.5 5.4 & 5.5
Question: Question:
What is the main reason for qualifying a welder ? What is the main reason for qualifying a welder ?
Answer: Answer:
To show that he has the skill to be able to make production To show that he has the skill to be able to make production
welds that are free from defects welds that are free from defects
Note: Note: when welding in accordance with a Qualified WPS when welding in accordance with a Qualified WPS
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The welder is allowed to make production welds within the The welder is allowed to make production welds within the
range of qualification shown on the Certificate range of qualification shown on the Certificate
The The range of qualification allowed for production welding is range of qualification allowed for production welding is
based on the limits that the EN Standard specifies for the based on the limits that the EN Standard specifies for the
welder qualification essential variables
Welder Qualification 5.5 5.5
(according to EN 287 ) (according to EN 287 )
A Certificate may be withdrawn by the Employer if there is A Certificate may be withdrawn by the Employer if there is
reason to doubt the ability of the welder, for example reason to doubt the ability of the welder, for example
a high repair rate a high repair rate
not working in accordance with a qualified WPS not working in accordance with a qualified WPS
The qualification shall remain valid for 2 years provided there The qualification shall remain valid for 2 years provided there is certified is certified
confirmation of welding to the WPS in that time. confirmation of welding to the WPS in that time.
A Welder A Welder s Qualification Certificate automatically expires if the welder s Qualification Certificate automatically expires if the welder has not has not
used the welding process for 6 months or longer. used the welding process for 6 months or longer.
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Welding Engineer writes a Welding Engineer writes a preliminary Welding Procedure Welding Procedure
Specification ( Specification (p pWPS) for each test weld to be made WPS) for each test weld to be made
A welder makes a test weld in accordance with the A welder makes a test weld in accordance with the p pWPS WPS
A welding inspector records all the welding conditions used A welding inspector records all the welding conditions used
for the test weld (referred to as the for the test weld (referred to as the as as- -run run conditions) conditions)
An Independent Examiner/ Examining Body/ Third Party An Independent Examiner/ Examining Body/ Third Party
inspector inspector may may be be requested to monitor the qualification requested to monitor the qualification
process process
The finished test weld is subjected to NDT in accordance with The finished test weld is subjected to NDT in accordance with
the methods specified by the EN ISO Standard the methods specified by the EN ISO Standard - - Visual, MT or Visual, MT or
PT & RT or UT PT & RT or UT
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Test weld is subjected to destructive testing (tensile, bend, Test weld is subjected to destructive testing (tensile, bend,
macro) macro)
The Application Standard, or Client, may require additional The Application Standard, or Client, may require additional
tests such as impact tests, hardness tests (and for some tests such as impact tests, hardness tests (and for some
materials materials - - corrosion tests) corrosion tests)
A A Welding Procedure Qualification Record (WPQR) is prepared is prepared
giving details of: giving details of: - -
The welding conditions used for the test weld The welding conditions used for the test weld
Results of the NDT Results of the NDT
Results of the destructive tests Results of the destructive tests
The welding conditions that the test weld allows for The welding conditions that the test weld allows for
production welding production welding
The The Third Party may be requested to sign the WPQR as a true may be requested to sign the WPQR as a true
record record
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An approved WPS should be available covering the range of An approved WPS should be available covering the range of
qualification required for the welder approval. qualification required for the welder approval.
The welder qualifies in accordance with an approved WPS The welder qualifies in accordance with an approved WPS
A welding inspector monitors the welding to make sure that A welding inspector monitors the welding to make sure that
the welder uses the conditions specified by the WPS the welder uses the conditions specified by the WPS
EN Welding Standard states that an Independent Examiner, EN Welding Standard states that an Independent Examiner,
Examining Body or Third Party Inspector Examining Body or Third Party Inspector may may be be required to required to
monitor the qualification process monitor the qualification process
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The finished test weld is subjected to NDT by the methods The finished test weld is subjected to NDT by the methods
specified by the EN Standard specified by the EN Standard - - Visual, MT or PT & RT or UT Visual, MT or PT & RT or UT
The test weld may need to be destructively tested - for certain
materials and/or welding processes specified by the EN
Standard or the Client Specification
A Welder A Welder s Qualification Certificate is prepared showing the s Qualification Certificate is prepared showing the
conditions used for the test weld and the range of qualification conditions used for the test weld and the range of qualification
allowed by the EN Standard for production welding allowed by the EN Standard for production welding
The Qualification Certificate is usually endorsed by a Third The Qualification Certificate is usually endorsed by a Third
Party Inspector as a true record of the test Party Inspector as a true record of the test
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Information that should be included on a welders test certificat Information that should be included on a welders test certificat e are, e are,
which the welder should have or have access to a copy of ! which the welder should have or have access to a copy of !
Welders name and identification number
Date of test and expiry date of certificate
Standard/code e.g. BS EN 287
Test piece details
Welding process.
Welding parameters, amps, volts
Consumables, flux type and filler classification details
Sketch of run sequence
Welding positions
Joint configuration details
Material type qualified, pipe diameter etc
Test results, remarks
Test location and witnessed by
Extent (range) of approval
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Materials Inspection
Materials Inspection
Section 6
Section 6
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Material Inspection
Material Inspection
One of the most important items to consider is Traceability
One of the most important items to consider is Traceability
.
.
The materials are of little use if we can not, by use of an
The materials are of little use if we can not, by use of an
effective QA system trace them from specification and
effective QA system trace them from specification and
purchase order to final documentation package handed over to
purchase order to final documentation package handed over to
the Client.
the Client.
All materials arriving on site should be inspected for:
All materials arriving on site should be inspected for:
Size / dimensions
Size / dimensions
Condition
Condition
Type / specification
Type / specification
In addition other elements may need to be considered
In addition other elements may need to be considered
depending on the materials form or shape
depending on the materials form or shape
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We inspect the condition
(Corrosion, Damage, Wall thickness Ovality, Laminations & Seam)
Specification
Welded
seam
Size
LP5
Pipe Inspection
Pipe Inspection
Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion tolerance,
number of plates and storage.
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Size
We inspect the condition
(Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Laps, Bands &
Laminations)
5L
Specification
Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion
tolerance, number of plates and storage.
Plate Inspection
Plate Inspection
Plate Inspection
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Parent Material Imperfections
Parent Material Imperfections
Lamination Lamination
Mechanical damage Mechanical damage
Lap Lap
Segregation line Segregation line
Laminations Laminations are caused in the parent plate by the steel making are caused in the parent plate by the steel making
process, originating from ingot casting defects. process, originating from ingot casting defects.
Segregation bands Segregation bands occur in the centre of the plate and are low occur in the centre of the plate and are low
melting point impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous. melting point impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous.
Laps Laps are caused during rolling when overlapping metal does not are caused during rolling when overlapping metal does not
fuse to the base material. fuse to the base material.
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Lapping
Lapping
Lapping
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Lamination
Lamination
Lamination
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Laminations
Laminations
Plate Lamination
Plate Lamination
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Codes & Standards
Codes & Standards
Section 7
Section 7
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Codes & Standards
Codes & Standards
The 3 agencies generally identified in a code or standard:
The customer, or client
The manufacturer, or contractor
The 3
rd
party inspection, or clients representative
Codes often do not contain all relevant data, but may
refer to other standards
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Standard/Codes/Specifications
Standard/Codes/Specifications
STANDARDS STANDARDS
SPECIFICATIONS SPECIFICATIONS CODES CODES
Examples Examples
plate, pipe plate, pipe
forgings, castings forgings, castings
valves valves
electrodes electrodes
Examples Examples
pressure vessels pressure vessels
bridges bridges
pipelines pipelines
tanks tanks
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Welding Symbols
Welding Symbols
Section 8
Section 8
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Advantages of symbolic representation:
Advantages of symbolic representation:
simple and quick plotting on the drawing
simple and quick plotting on the drawing
does not over
does not over
-
-
burden the drawing
burden the drawing
no need for additional view
no need for additional view
gives all necessary indications regarding the specific
gives all necessary indications regarding the specific
joint to be obtained
joint to be obtained
Disadvantages of symbolic representation:
Disadvantages of symbolic representation:
used only for usual joints
used only for usual joints
requires training for properly understanding of symbols
requires training for properly understanding of symbols
Weld symbols on drawings
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The symbolic representation includes:
The symbolic representation includes:
an arrow line
an arrow line
a reference line
a reference line
an elementary symbol
an elementary symbol
The elementary symbol may be completed by:
The elementary symbol may be completed by:
a supplementary symbol
a supplementary symbol
a means of showing dimensions
a means of showing dimensions
some complementary indications
some complementary indications
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In most standards the cross sectional dimensions are given to In most standards the cross sectional dimensions are given to
the left side of the symbol, and all linear dimensions are give the left side of the symbol, and all linear dimensions are give on on
the right side the right side
Dimensions
Dimensions
Convention of dimensions
Convention of dimensions
a = Design throat thickness
s = Depth of Penetration, Throat thickness
z = Leg length (min material thickness)
BS EN ISO 22553
BS EN ISO 22553
AWS A2.4
AWS A2.4
In a fillet weld, the size of the weld is the leg length
In a butt weld, the size of the weld is based on the depth of the
joint preparation
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A method of transferring information from the
A method of transferring information from the
design office to the workshop is:
design office to the workshop is:
The above information does not tell us much about the wishes The above information does not tell us much about the wishes
of the designer. We obviously need some sort of code which of the designer. We obviously need some sort of code which
would be understood by everyone. would be understood by everyone.
Most countries have their own standards for symbols. Most countries have their own standards for symbols.
Some of them are AWS A2.4 & BS EN 22553 (ISO 2553) Some of them are AWS A2.4 & BS EN 22553 (ISO 2553)
Please weld Please weld
here here
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Joints in drawings may be indicated:
Joints in drawings may be indicated:
by detailed sketches, showing every dimension

by detailed sketches, showing every dimension
by symbolic representation
by symbolic representation
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Elementary Welding Symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4) (BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of the elementary symbols:
Convention of the elementary symbols:
Various categories of joints are characterised by an elementary
symbol.
The vertical line in the symbols for a fillet weld, single/double bevel
butts and a J -butt welds must always be on the left side.
Square edge
Square edge
butt weld
butt weld
Weld type
Weld type
Sketch
Sketch Symbol
Symbol
Single
Single
-
-
v
v
butt weld
butt weld
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Single
Single
-
-
V butt
V butt
weld with broad
weld with broad
root face
root face
Weld type
Weld type
Sketch
Sketch
Symbol
Symbol
Single
Single
bevel butt
bevel butt
weld
weld
Single bevel
Single bevel
butt weld with
butt weld with
broad root
broad root
face
face
Backing run
Backing run
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Single
Single
-
-
U
U
butt weld
butt weld
Weld type
Weld type Sketch
Sketch
Symbol
Symbol
Single
Single
-
-
J
J
butt weld
butt weld
Fillet weld
Fillet weld
Surfacing
Surfacing
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Plug weld
Resistance spot weld
Resistance seam weld
Square Butt weld
Steep flanked
Single-V Butt
Surfacing
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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Arrow Line
Arrow Line
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4):
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4):
Convention of the arrow line:
Convention of the arrow line:
Shall Shall touch the joint intersection touch the joint intersection
Shall Shall not be parallel to the drawing not be parallel to the drawing
Shall Shall point towards a single plate preparation (when only point towards a single plate preparation (when only
one plate has preparation) one plate has preparation)
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(AWS A2.4)
(AWS A2.4)
Convention of the reference line:
Shall Shall touch the arrow line touch the arrow line
Shall Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing be parallel to the bottom of the drawing
Reference Line
Reference Line
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or
or
Reference Line
Reference Line
(BS EN ISO 22553)
(BS EN ISO 22553)
Shall Shall touch the arrow line touch the arrow line
Shall Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing be parallel to the bottom of the drawing
There shall There shall be a further broken identification line above or be a further broken identification line above or
beneath the reference line (Not necessary where the weld beneath the reference line (Not necessary where the weld
is symmetrical!) is symmetrical!)
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(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of the double side weld symbols:
Convention of the double side weld symbols:
Representation of welds done from Representation of welds done from both sides both sides of the joint of the joint
intersection, touched by the arrow head intersection, touched by the arrow head
Fillet weld Fillet weld
Double V Double V
Double bevel Double bevel
Double U Double U
Double J Double J
Double side weld symbols
Double side weld symbols
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Arrow line
Arrow line
Reference lines
Reference lines
Arrow side
Arrow side
Other side
Other side
Arrow side
Arrow side
Other side
Other side
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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Single Single- -V Butt flush cap V Butt flush cap
Single Single- -U Butt with sealing run U Butt with sealing run
Single Single- -V Butt with V Butt with
permanent backing strip permanent backing strip
M M
Single Single- -U Butt with U Butt with
removable backing strip removable backing strip
M R M R
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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Single
Single
-
-
bevel butt
bevel butt
Double
Double
-
-
bevel butt
bevel butt
Single
Single
-
-
bevel butt
bevel butt Single
Single
-
-
J butt
J butt
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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Partial penetration single
Partial penetration single
-
-
V butt
V butt
S
S
indicates the depth of penetration

indicates the depth of penetration
s10
s10
10
10
15
15
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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a
a
= Design throat thickness
s
s
= Depth of Penetration, Throat
thickness
thickness
z
z
= Leg length(min material thickness)
a
a
= (0.7 x z)
= (0.7 x z)
a 4
a 4
4mm Design throat
4mm Design throat
z 6
z 6
6mm leg
6mm leg
a
z
s
s 6
s 6
6mm Actual throat
6mm Actual throat
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Arrow side Arrow side
Arrow side Arrow side
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Other side Other side
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Other side Other side
s6
s6
6mm fillet weld
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n n = number of weld elements = number of weld elements
l l = length of each weld element = length of each weld element
( (e e) ) = distance between each weld element = distance between each weld element
n
n
x
x
l
l
(
(
e
e
)
)
Welds to be Welds to be
staggered staggered
Process Process
2 x 40
2 x 40
(50)
(50)
3 x 40
3 x 40
(50)
(50)
111
111
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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80
80 80
90 90 90
6
6
5
5
z5 z5
z6 z6
3 x 80 (90) 3 x 80 (90)
3 x 80 (90) 3 x 80 (90)
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
All dimensions in mm
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 199 199 of 691 of 691
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
8
8
6
6
80 80 80
90
90
90
z8 z8
z6 z6
3 x 80 (90) 3 x 80 (90)
3 x 80 (90) 3 x 80 (90)
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Supplementary symbols
Concave or Convex Concave or Convex
Toes to be ground smoothly Toes to be ground smoothly
(BS EN only) (BS EN only)
Site Weld Site Weld
Weld all round Weld all round
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of supplementary symbols
Supplementary information Supplementary information such as welding process, weld
profile, NDT and any special instructions
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Further supplementary information, such as WPS number, or Further supplementary information, such as WPS number, or
NDT may be placed in the fish tail NDT may be placed in the fish tail
Ground flush Ground flush
111 111
Welding process Welding process
numerical BS EN numerical BS EN
MR MR
Removable Removable
backing strip backing strip
Permanent Permanent
backing strip backing strip
M M
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Supplementary information Supplementary information such as welding process, weld profile,
NDT and any special instructions
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b
b
a
a
d
d c
c
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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Convex
Convex
Mitre
Mitre
Toes
Toes
shall be
shall be
blended
blended
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Concave
Concave
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a
a
s
s
thickness
thickness
z
z
a
a
= (0.7 x z)
= (0.7 x z)
a 4
a 4
4mm Design throat
4mm Design throat
z 6
z 6
6mm leg
6mm leg
a
z
s
s 6
s 6
6mm Actual throat
6mm Actual throat
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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Field weld (site weld) Field weld (site weld)
The component requires The component requires
NDT inspection NDT inspection
WPS WPS
Additional information, Additional information,
the reference document the reference document
is included in the box is included in the box
Welding to be carried out Welding to be carried out
all round component all round component
(peripheral weld) (peripheral weld)
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Complimentary Symbols
Complimentary Symbols
NDT NDT
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Numerical Values for Welding Processes:
Numerical Values for Welding Processes:
111: 111: MMA welding with covered electrode MMA welding with covered electrode
121: 121: Sub Sub- -arc welding with wire electrode arc welding with wire electrode
131: 131: MIG welding with inert gas shield MIG welding with inert gas shield
135: 135: MAG welding with non MAG welding with non- -inert gas shield inert gas shield
136: 136: Flux core arc welding Flux core arc welding
141: 141: TIG welding TIG welding
311: 311: Oxy Oxy- -acetylene welding acetylene welding
72: 72: Electro Electro- -slag welding slag welding
15: 15: Plasma arc welding Plasma arc welding
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
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AWS A2.4 Welding Symbols
AWS A2.4 Welding Symbols
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1 1(1 (1- -1/8) 1/8)
60 60
o o
1/8 1/8
Depth of Depth of
Bevel Bevel
Effective Effective
Throat Throat
Root Opening Root Opening
Groove Angle Groove Angle
AWS Welding Symbols
AWS Welding Symbols
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1(1 1(1- -1/8) 1/8)
60 60
o o
1/8 1/8
GSFCAW GSFCAW
Welding Process Welding Process
GMAW GMAW
GTAW GTAW
SAW SAW
AWS Welding Symbols
AWS Welding Symbols
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3
3
10
10
3
3
10
10
Welds to be Welds to be
staggered staggered
SMAW SMAW
Process Process
10
10
3
3 3
3
AWS Welding Symbols
AWS Welding Symbols
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1(1-1/8)
1/8
60
o
FCAW
Sequence of
Operations
1st Operation
2nd Operation
3rd Operation
AWS Welding Symbols
AWS Welding Symbols
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1(1-1/8)
1/8
60
o
FCAW
Sequence of
Operations
RT
MT
MT
AWS Welding Symbols
AWS Welding Symbols
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Dimensions- Leg Length
6/8
6 leg on member A
8
6
Member A
Member B
AWS Welding Symbols
AWS Welding Symbols
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Intro To Welding Processes
Intro To Welding Processes
Section 9
Section 9
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Welding is regarded as a joining process in which the work Welding is regarded as a joining process in which the work
pieces are in atomic contact pieces are in atomic contact
Pressure welding
Pressure welding
Forge welding Forge welding
Friction welding Friction welding
Resistance Welding Resistance Welding
Fusion welding
Fusion welding
Oxy Oxy- -acetylene acetylene
MMA (SMAW) MMA (SMAW)
MIG/MAG (GMAW) MIG/MAG (GMAW)
TIG (GTAW) TIG (GTAW)
Sub Sub- -arc (SAW) arc (SAW)
Electro Electro- -slag (ESW) slag (ESW)
Laser Beam (LBW) Laser Beam (LBW)
Electron Electron- -Beam (EBW) Beam (EBW)
Welding Processes
Welding Processes
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20 20 80 80 40 40 60 60 130 130 140 140 120 120 100 100 180 180 160 160 200 200
10 10
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
80 80
70 70
90 90
100 100
Normal Operating Normal Operating
Voltage Range Voltage Range
Large voltage variation, e.g. Large voltage variation, e.g. + +
10v (due to changes in arc 10v (due to changes in arc
length) length)
Small amperage change Small amperage change
resulting in virtually constant resulting in virtually constant
current e.g. current e.g. + + 5A. 5A.
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Amperage Amperage
Required for: MMA, TIG, Plasma Required for: MMA, TIG, Plasma
arc and SAW > 1000 AMPS arc and SAW > 1000 AMPS
O.C.V. Striking voltage (typical) for O.C.V. Striking voltage (typical) for
arc initiation arc initiation
Constant Current Power Source
(Drooping Characteristic)
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Monitoring Heat Input
Heat Input:
Heat Input:
The amount of heat generated in the
The amount of heat generated in the
welding arc per unit length of weld.
welding arc per unit length of weld.
Expressed in kilo J oules per millimetre
Expressed in kilo J oules per millimetre
length of weld (kJ /mm).
length of weld (kJ /mm).
Heat Input (kJ /mm)=
Heat Input (kJ /mm)=
Volts x Amps
Volts x Amps
Travel speed(mm/s) x 1000
Travel speed(mm/s) x 1000
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Weld and weld pool temperatures
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Monitoring Heat Input As Required by
Monitoring Heat Input As Required by
BS EN ISO 15614
BS EN ISO 15614
-
-
1:2004
1:2004
In accordance with EN 1011
In accordance with EN 1011
-
-
1:1998
1:1998
When impact requirements and/or hardness requirements are
specified, impact test shall be taken from the weld in the highest
heat input position and hardness tests shall be taken from the
weld in the lowest heat input position in order to qualify for all
positions
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
MMA Welding
MMA Welding
Section 10
Section 10
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 222 222 of 691 of 691
MMA
MMA
-
-
Principle of operation
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MMA welding
MMA welding
Main features:
Main features:
Shielding provided by decomposition of flux covering
Shielding provided by decomposition of flux covering
Electrode consumable
Electrode consumable
Manual process
Manual process
Welder controls:
Welder controls:
Arc length
Arc length
Angle of electrode
Angle of electrode
Speed of travel
Speed of travel
Amperage settings
Amperage settings
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 224 224 of 691 of 691
Power source Power source
Holding oven Holding oven
Inverter power Inverter power
source source
Electrode holder Electrode holder
Power cables Power cables
Welding visor Welding visor
filter glass filter glass
Return lead Return lead
Electrodes Electrodes
Electrode Electrode
oven oven
Control panel Control panel
(amps, volts) (amps, volts)
Manual Metal Arc Basic Equipment
Manual Metal Arc Basic Equipment
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Transformer: Transformer:
Changes mains supply voltage to a voltage suitable for welding. Changes mains supply voltage to a voltage suitable for welding.
Has no moving parts and is often termed static plant. Has no moving parts and is often termed static plant.
Rectifier: Rectifier:
Changes a.c. to d.c., can be mechanically or statically achieved Changes a.c. to d.c., can be mechanically or statically achieved. .
Generator: Generator:
Produces welding current. The generator consists of an armature Produces welding current. The generator consists of an armature
rotating in a magnetic field, the armature must be rotated at a rotating in a magnetic field, the armature must be rotated at a
constant speed either by a motor unit or, in the absence of constant speed either by a motor unit or, in the absence of
electrical power, by an internal combustion engine. electrical power, by an internal combustion engine.
Inverter: Inverter:
An inverter changes d.c. to a.c. at a higher frequency. An inverter changes d.c. to a.c. at a higher frequency.
MMA Welding Plant
MMA Welding Plant
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Voltage Voltage
The arc voltage in the MMA process is measured as close to The arc voltage in the MMA process is measured as close to
the arc as possible. It is variable with a change in arc length the arc as possible. It is variable with a change in arc length
O.C.V. O.C.V.
The open circuit voltage is the voltage required to initiate, or The open circuit voltage is the voltage required to initiate, or
re re- -ignite the electrical arc and will change with the type of ignite the electrical arc and will change with the type of
electrode being used e.g 70 electrode being used e.g 70- -90 volts 90 volts
Current Current
The current used will be determined by the choice of The current used will be determined by the choice of
electrode, electrode diameter and material type and electrode, electrode diameter and material type and
thickness. Current has the most effect on penetration. thickness. Current has the most effect on penetration.
Polarity Polarity
Polarity is generally determined by operation and electrode Polarity is generally determined by operation and electrode
type e.g DC + type e.g DC +ve ve, DC , DC ve ve or AC or AC
MMA Welding Variables
MMA Welding Variables
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20 20 80 80 40 40 60 60 130 130 140 140 120 120 100 100 180 180 160 160 200 200
10 10
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
80 80
70 70
90 90
100 100
Normal Operating Normal Operating
Voltage Range Voltage Range
Large voltage variation, e.g. Large voltage variation, e.g. + +
10v (due to changes in arc 10v (due to changes in arc
length) length)
Small amperage change Small amperage change
resulting in virtually constant resulting in virtually constant
current e.g. current e.g. + + 5A. 5A.
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
Amperage Amperage
O.C.V. Striking voltage (typical) for arc O.C.V. Striking voltage (typical) for arc
initiation initiation
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MMA welding parameters
Travel speed
Travel speed
Travel Travel
speed speed
Too high Too high Too low Too low
wide weld bead contour wide weld bead contour
lack of penetration lack of penetration
burn burn- -through through
lack of root fusion lack of root fusion
incomplete root incomplete root
penetration penetration
undercut undercut
poor bead profile, poor bead profile,
difficult slag removal difficult slag removal
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Type of current:
Type of current:
voltage drop in welding cables is lower with AC
voltage drop in welding cables is lower with AC
inductive looses can appear with AC if cables are coiled
inductive looses can appear with AC if cables are coiled
cheaper power source for AC
cheaper power source for AC
no problems with arc blow with AC
no problems with arc blow with AC
DC provides a more stable and easy to strike arc,
DC provides a more stable and easy to strike arc,
especially with low current,
especially with low current,
better positional weld, thin
better positional weld, thin
sheet applications
sheet applications
welding with a short arc length (low arc voltage) is easier
welding with a short arc length (low arc voltage) is easier
with DC,
with DC,
better mechanical properties
better mechanical properties
DC provides a smoother metal transfer, less spatter
DC provides a smoother metal transfer, less spatter
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Welding current
Welding current
approx. 35 A/mm of diameter

approx. 35 A/mm of diameter
governed by thickness, type of joint and welding

governed by thickness, type of joint and welding
position
position
Welding Welding
current current
poor starting poor starting
slag inclusions slag inclusions
weld bead contour too weld bead contour too
high high
lack of lack of
fusion/penetration fusion/penetration
spatter spatter
excess excess
undercut undercut
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Arc length = arc voltage
Arc length = arc voltage
Arc Arc
voltage voltage
arc can be extinguished arc can be extinguished
stubbing stubbing
spatter spatter
porosity porosity
excess excess
undercut undercut
Polarity: DCEP generally gives deeper penetration
Polarity: DCEP generally gives deeper penetration
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MMA
MMA
-
-
Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting
MMA quality (left to right)
MMA quality (left to right)
current, arc length and travel speed normal; current, arc length and travel speed normal;
current too low; current too low;
current too high; current too high;
arc length too short; arc length too short;
arc length too long; arc length too long;
travel speed too slow; travel speed too slow;
travel speed too high travel speed too high
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MMA electrode holder
MMA electrode holder
Collet or twist type Collet or twist type
Tongs Tongs type with type with
spring spring- -loaded jaws loaded jaws
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The three main electrode covering types used in MMA welding The three main electrode covering types used in MMA welding
Cellulosic
Cellulosic - - deep penetration/fusion deep penetration/fusion
Rutile
Rutile - - general purpose general purpose
Basic
Basic - - low hydrogen low hydrogen
(Covered in more detail in Section 14) (Covered in more detail in Section 14)
MMA Welding Consumables
MMA Covered Electrodes
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Most welding defects in MMA are caused by a lack of welder Most welding defects in MMA are caused by a lack of welder
skill (not an easily controlled process), the incorrect setting skill (not an easily controlled process), the incorrect settings s
of the equipment, or the incorrect use, and treatment of of the equipment, or the incorrect use, and treatment of
Typical Welding Defects: Typical Welding Defects:
Slag inclusions Slag inclusions
Arc strikes Arc strikes
Porosity Porosity
Undercut Undercut
Shape defects (overlap, excessive root penetration, etc.) Shape defects (overlap, excessive root penetration, etc.)
MMA welding typical defects
MMA welding typical defects
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Advantages:
Advantages:
Field or shop use Field or shop use
Range of consumables Range of consumables
All positions All positions
Portable Portable
Simple equipment Simple equipment
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:
High welder skill required High welder skill required
High levels of fume High levels of fume
Hydrogen control (flux) Hydrogen control (flux)
Stop/start problems Stop/start problems
Comparatively uneconomic when compared with Comparatively uneconomic when compared with some some
other processes i.e MAG, SAW and FCAW other processes i.e MAG, SAW and FCAW
Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMA)
Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMA)
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
TIG Welding
TIG Welding
Section 11
Section 11
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 238 238 of 691 of 691
The TIG welding process was first developed in the USA The TIG welding process was first developed in the USA
during the 2 during the 2
nd nd
world war for the welding of aluminum alloys world war for the welding of aluminum alloys
The process uses a non The process uses a non- -consumable tungsten electrode consumable tungsten electrode
The process requires a high level of welder skill The process requires a high level of welder skill
The process produces very high quality welds. The process produces very high quality welds.
The TIG process is considered as a slow process compared The TIG process is considered as a slow process compared
to other arc welding processes to other arc welding processes
The arc may be initiated by a high frequency to The arc may be initiated by a high frequency to avoid scratch avoid scratch
starting, which could cause starting, which could cause contamination of contamination of the tungsten the tungsten
and weld and weld
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
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TIG
TIG
-
-
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 240 240 of 691 of 691
Voltage
Voltage
The voltage of the TIG welding process is variable only by the The voltage of the TIG welding process is variable only by the
type of gas being used, and changes in the arc length type of gas being used, and changes in the arc length
Current
Current
The current is adjusted proportionally to the tungsten The current is adjusted proportionally to the tungsten
electrodes diameter being used. The higher the current the electrodes diameter being used. The higher the current the
deeper the penetration and fusion deeper the penetration and fusion
Polarity
Polarity
The polarity used for steels is always DC The polarity used for steels is always DC ve as most of the ve as most of the
heat is concentrated at the +ve pole, this is required to keep heat is concentrated at the +ve pole, this is required to keep
the tungsten electrode at the cool end of the arc. When the tungsten electrode at the cool end of the arc. When
welding aluminium and its alloys AC current is used welding aluminium and its alloys AC current is used
TIG Welding Variables
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Types of current
Types of current
can be DCEN or DCEP
can be DCEN or DCEP
DCEN gives deep penetration
DCEN gives deep penetration
requires special power source
requires special power source
low frequency
low frequency
-
-
up to 20
up to 20
pulses/sec (thermal pulsing)
pulses/sec (thermal pulsing)
better weld pool control
better weld pool control
weld pool partially solidifies
weld pool partially solidifies
between pulses
between pulses
Type of
Type of
welding
welding
current
current
can be sine or square wave
can be sine or square wave
requires a HF current (continuos
requires a HF current (continuos
or periodical)
or periodical)
provide cleaning action
provide cleaning action
DC
DC
AC
AC
Pulsed
Pulsed
current
current
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Choosing the proper electrode
Current type influence
Current type influence
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
- -
Electrode capacity Electrode capacity
Current type & polarity
Heat balance Heat balance
Oxide cleaning action Oxide cleaning action
Penetration Penetration
DCEN DCEN DCEP DCEP AC (balanced) AC (balanced)
70% at work
30% at electrode 30% at electrode
50% at work
35% at work
Deep, narrow Deep, narrow Medium Medium Shallow, wide Shallow, wide
No No Yes Yes - - every half cycle every half cycle Yes Yes
Excellent Excellent
(e.g. 3,2 mm/400A) (e.g. 3,2 mm/400A)
Good Good
(e.g. 3,2 mm/225A) (e.g. 3,2 mm/225A)
Poor Poor
(e.g. 6,4 mm/120A) (e.g. 6,4 mm/120A)
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ARC CHARACTERISTICS
ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Volts
Volts
Amps
Amps
OCV OCV
Constant Current/Amperage Characteristic
Constant Current/Amperage Characteristic
Large change in voltage = Large change in voltage =
Smaller change in amperage Smaller change in amperage
Welding Voltage Welding Voltage
Large arc gap Large arc gap
Small arc Small arc
gap gap
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TIG
TIG
-
-
arc initiation methods
arc initiation methods
simple method simple method
tungsten electrode is in contact tungsten electrode is in contact
with the workpiece! with the workpiece!
high initial arc current due to high initial arc current due to
the short circuit the short circuit
impractical to set arc length in impractical to set arc length in
advance advance
electrode should tap the electrode should tap the
workpiece workpiece - - no scratch! no scratch!
ineffective in case of AC ineffective in case of AC
used when a high quality is not used when a high quality is not
essential essential
Arc initiation
Arc initiation
method
method
Lift arc
Lift arc HF start
HF start
need a HF generator (spark need a HF generator (spark- -
gap oscillator) that generates a gap oscillator) that generates a
high voltage AC output (radio high voltage AC output (radio
frequency) frequency) costly costly
reliable method reliable method required on required on
both DC (for start) and AC (to both DC (for start) and AC (to
re re- -ignite the arc) ignite the arc)
can be used remotely can be used remotely
HF produce interference HF produce interference
requires superior insulation requires superior insulation
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Pulsed current
Pulsed current
usually peak current is 2 usually peak current is 2- -10 10
times background current times background current
useful on metals sensitive to useful on metals sensitive to
high heat input high heat input
reduced distortions reduced distortions
in case of dissimilar thicknesses in case of dissimilar thicknesses
equal penetration can be equal penetration can be
achieved achieved
Time
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
Pulse
time
Cycle
time
Peak
current
Background
current
Average current
one set of variables can be used in all positions one set of variables can be used in all positions
used for bridging gaps in open root joints used for bridging gaps in open root joints
require special power source require special power source
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 246 246 of 691 of 691
Polarity Influence
Polarity Influence
cathodic cleaning effect

4/23/2007 4/23/2007 247 247 of 691 of 691
Old types: (Slightly Radioactive)
Thoriated: DC electrode Thoriated: DC electrode - -ve ve - - steels and most metals steels and most metals
1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values 1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values
2% thoriated for lower current values 2% thoriated for lower current values
Zirconiated: AC Zirconiated: AC - - aluminum alloys and magnesium aluminum alloys and magnesium
New types: (Not Radioactive)
Cerium: DC electrode Cerium: DC electrode - -ve ve - - steels and most metals steels and most metals
Lanthanum: AC Lanthanum: AC - - Aluminum alloys and magnesium Aluminum alloys and magnesium
Tungsten Electrodes
Tungsten Electrodes
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 248 248 of 691 of 691
TIG torch set
TIG torch set
-
-
up
up
Electrode extension
Electrode extension
Electrode Electrode
extension extension
Stickout Stickout
2 2- -3 times 3 times
electrode electrode
diameter diameter
Electrode
Electrode
extension
extension
Low electron
Low electron
emission
emission
Unstable arc
Unstable arc
Too
Too
small
small
Overheating
Overheating
Tungsten
Tungsten
inclusions
inclusions
Too
Too
large
large
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Choosing the correct electrode
Choosing the correct electrode
Polarity Influence
Polarity Influence

4/23/2007 4/23/2007 250 250 of 691 of 691
Thoriated: DC electrode Thoriated: DC electrode - -ve ve - - steels and most metals steels and most metals
1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values 1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values
2% thoriated for lower current values 2% thoriated for lower current values
Zirconiated: AC Zirconiated: AC - - aluminum alloys and magnesium aluminum alloys and magnesium
Cerium: DC electrode Cerium: DC electrode - -ve ve - - steels and most metals steels and most metals
Lanthanum: AC Lanthanum: AC - - Aluminum alloys and magnesium Aluminum alloys and magnesium
Tungsten Electrodes
Tungsten Electrodes
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Tungsten electrode types
Pure tungsten electrodes:
Pure tungsten electrodes:
colour code
colour code
-
-
green
green
no alloy additions
no alloy additions
low current carrying capacity
low current carrying capacity
maintains a clean balled end
maintains a clean balled end
can be used for AC welding of Al and Mg alloys
can be used for AC welding of Al and Mg alloys
poor arc initiation and arc stability with AC compared
poor arc initiation and arc stability with AC compared
with other electrode types
with other electrode types
used on less critical applications
used on less critical applications
low cost
low cost
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Thoriated tungsten electrodes:
Thoriated tungsten electrodes:
colour code
colour code
-
-
yellow
yellow
/
/
red
red
/
/
violet
violet
20% higher current carrying capacity compared to
20% higher current carrying capacity compared to
pure tungsten electrodes
pure tungsten electrodes
longer life
longer life
-
-
greater resistance to contamination
greater resistance to contamination
thermionic
thermionic
-
-
easy arc initiation, more stable arc
easy arc initiation, more stable arc
maintain a sharpened tip
maintain a sharpened tip
recommended for DCEN, seldom used on AC
recommended for DCEN, seldom used on AC
(difficult to maintain a balled tip)
(difficult to maintain a balled tip)
This slightly radioactive
This slightly radioactive
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Ceriated
Ceriated
tungsten electrodes:
colour code
colour code
-
-
grey (orange acc. AWS A
grey (orange acc. AWS A
-
-
5.12)
5.12)
operate successfully with AC or DC
operate successfully with AC or DC
Ce not radioactive
Ce not radioactive
-
-
replacement for thoriated types
replacement for thoriated types
Lanthaniated
Lanthaniated
colour code
colour code
-
- black
/
/
gold
gold
/
/
blue
blue
operating characteristics similar with ceriated
operating characteristics similar with ceriated
electrode
electrode
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 254 254 of 691 of 691
Zirconiated tungsten electrodes:
Zirconiated tungsten electrodes:
colour code
colour code
-
-
brown
brown
/
/white
operating characteristics fall between those of pure
operating characteristics fall between those of pure
and thoriated electrodes
and thoriated electrodes
retains a balled end during welding
retains a balled end during welding
-
-
good for AC
good for AC
welding
welding
high resistance to contamination
high resistance to contamination
preferred for radiographic quality welds
preferred for radiographic quality welds
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 255 255 of 691 of 691
Electrode tip for DCEN
Electrode tip for DCEN
Electrode tip prepared for low Electrode tip prepared for low
current welding current welding
Electrode tip prepared for high Electrode tip prepared for high
current welding current welding
Vertex
Vertex
angle
angle
Penetration
Penetration
increase
increase
Increase
Increase
Bead width
Bead width
increase
increase
Decrease
Decrease
2 2
- -
2
,
5

t
i
m
e
s

2
,
5

t
i
m
e
s

e
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r
e
l
e
c
t
r
o
d
e

d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 256 256 of 691 of 691
Electrode tip for AC
Electrode tip for AC
Electrode tip ground Electrode tip ground
Electrode tip ground and Electrode tip ground and
then conditioned then conditioned
AC
DC -ve
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Tungsten electrodes
Tungsten electrodes
The electrode diameter, type and vertex angle are all critical The electrode diameter, type and vertex angle are all critical
factors considered as essential variables. The vertex angle is factors considered as essential variables. The vertex angle is
as shown as shown
Vetex angle Vetex angle
Note: Note: when welding when welding
aluminium with AC aluminium with AC
current, the tungsten end current, the tungsten end
is chamfered and forms a is chamfered and forms a
ball end when welding ball end when welding
DC DC - -ve ve
Note: Note: too fine an angle will too fine an angle will
promote melting of the promote melting of the
electrodes tip electrodes tip
AC AC
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Unstable
Unstable
arc
arc
Tungsten
Tungsten
inclusions
inclusions
Welding
Welding
current
current
Electrode tip
Electrode tip
not properly
not properly
heated
heated
Excessive
Excessive
melting or
melting or
volatilisation
volatilisation
Too
Too
low
low
Too
Too
high
high
Factors to be considered:
Factors to be considered:
Penetration
Penetration
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Shielding gas requirements
Shielding gas requirements
Preflow and
Preflow and
postflow
postflow
Preflow Preflow Postflow Postflow
Shielding gas flow Shielding gas flow
Welding current Welding current
Flow rate Flow rate
too low too low
Flow rate Flow rate
too high too high
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Special shielding methods
Special shielding methods
Pipe root run shielding
Pipe root run shielding
Back Purging to prevent

Back Purging to prevent
excessive oxidation during welding, normally argon.
excessive oxidation during welding, normally argon.
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TIG torch set
TIG torch set
-
-
up
up
Electrode extension
Electrode extension
Electrode Electrode
extension extension
Stickout Stickout
2 2- -3 times 3 times
electrode electrode
diameter diameter
Electrode
Electrode
extension
extension
Low electron
Low electron
emission
emission
Unstable arc
Unstable arc
Too
Too
small
small
Overheating
Overheating
Tungsten
Tungsten
inclusions
inclusions
Too
Too
large
large
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TIG Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for TIG:
Filler wires, Shielding gases, tungsten electrodes (non

-
-
consumable).
consumable).
Filler wires of different materials composition and

variable diameters available in standard lengths, with
applicable code stamped for identification
Steel Filler wires of very high quality, with copper

coating to resist corrosion.
shielding gases mainly Argon and Helium, usually of

highest purity (99.9%).
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 263 263 of 691 of 691
A Tungsten Inclusion always shows up as
A Tungsten Inclusion always shows up as
bright white on a radiograph
bright white on a radiograph
Tungsten Inclusion
Tungsten Inclusion
May be caused by Thermal Shock of
heating to fast and small fragments
break off and enter the weld pool, so a
slope updevice is normally fitted to
prevent this could be caused by touch
down also.
Most TIG sets these days have slope-
up devices that brings the current to
the set level over a short period of
time so the tungsten is heated more
slowly and gently
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Most welding defects with TIG are caused by a lack of welder Most welding defects with TIG are caused by a lack of welder
skill, or incorrect setting of the equipment. i.e. current, torc skill, or incorrect setting of the equipment. i.e. current, torch h
manipulation, welding speed, gas flow rate, etc. manipulation, welding speed, gas flow rate, etc.
Tungsten inclusions (low skill or wrong vertex angle) Tungsten inclusions (low skill or wrong vertex angle)
Surface porosity (loss of gas shield mainly on site) Surface porosity (loss of gas shield mainly on site)
Crater pipes (bad weld finish technique i.e. slope out) Crater pipes (bad weld finish technique i.e. slope out)
Oxidation of S/S weld bead, or root by poor gas cover Oxidation of S/S weld bead, or root by poor gas cover
Root concavity (excess purge pressure in pipe) Root concavity (excess purge pressure in pipe)
Lack of penetration/fusion (widely on root runs) Lack of penetration/fusion (widely on root runs)
TIG typical defects
TIG typical defects
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Advantages
Advantages
High quality
High quality
Good control
Good control
All positions
All positions
Lowest H
Lowest H
2 2
process
process
Minimal cleaning
Minimal cleaning
Autogenous welding
Autogenous welding
(No filler material)
(No filler material)
Can be automated
Can be automated
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
High skill factor required
High skill factor required
Low deposition rate
Low deposition rate
Small consumable
Small consumable
range
range
High protection required
High protection required
Complex equipment
Complex equipment
Low productivity
Low productivity
High ozone levels +HF
High ozone levels +HF
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
MIG/MAG Welding
MIG/MAG Welding
Section 12
Section 12
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 267 267 of 691 of 691
The MIG/MAG welding process was initially developed in the The MIG/MAG welding process was initially developed in the
USA in the late 1940s for the welding of aluminum alloys. USA in the late 1940s for the welding of aluminum alloys.
The latest EN Welding Standards now refer the process by the The latest EN Welding Standards now refer the process by the
American term GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding American term GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding) )
The process uses a continuously fed wire electrode The process uses a continuously fed wire electrode
The weld pool is protected by a separately supplied The weld pool is protected by a separately supplied
shielding gas shielding gas
The process is classified as a semi The process is classified as a semi - -automatic welding automatic welding
process but may be fully automated process but may be fully automated
The wire electrode can be either bare/solid wire or flux The wire electrode can be either bare/solid wire or flux
cored hollow wire cored hollow wire
Gas Metal Arc Welding
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MIG/MAG
MIG/MAG
-
-
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 269 269 of 691 of 691
MIG/MAG process variables
Welding current
Polarity
Increasing welding current
Increase in depth and width
Increase in deposition rate
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 270 270 of 691 of 691
Arc voltage
Travel speed
Increasing travel speed
Reduced penetration and width, undercut
Increasing arc voltage
Reduced penetration, increased width
Excessive voltage can cause porosity,
spatter and undercut
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Types of Shielding Gas
MIG (Metal Inert Gas)
MIG (Metal Inert Gas)
Inert Gas is required for Inert Gas is required for all non all non- -ferrous alloys ferrous alloys (Al, Cu, Ni) (Al, Cu, Ni)
Most common inert gas is Argon Most common inert gas is Argon
Argon + Helium used to give a Argon + Helium used to give a hotter hotter arc arc - - better for thicker better for thicker
joints and alloys with higher thermal conductivity joints and alloys with higher thermal conductivity
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 272 272 of 691 of 691
MIG/MAG
MIG/MAG
shielding gases
shielding gases
Type of material
Type of material
Shielding gas
Shielding gas
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Stainless steel
Stainless steel
Aluminium
Aluminium
CO
CO
2 2
, Ar+(5
, Ar+(5
-
-
20)%CO
20)%CO
2 2
Ar+2%O
Ar+2%O
2 2
Ar
Ar
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 273 273 of 691 of 691
MIG/MAG shielding gases
Argon (Ar):
Argon (Ar):
higher density than air; low thermal conductivity
higher density than air; low thermal conductivity
the
the
arc has a high energy inner cone; good wetting at the
arc has a high energy inner cone; good wetting at the
toes; low ionisation potential
toes; low ionisation potential
Helium (He):
Helium (He):
lower density than air; high thermal conductivity
lower density than air; high thermal conductivity
uniformly distributed arc energy; parabolic profile; high

uniformly distributed arc energy; parabolic profile; high
ionisation potential
ionisation potential
Carbon Dioxide (CO
Carbon Dioxide (CO
2 2
):
):
cheap; deep penetration profile; cannot support spray
cheap; deep penetration profile; cannot support spray
transfer; poor wetting; high spatter
transfer; poor wetting; high spatter
Ar Ar-He He CO
2
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Gases for dip transfer
Gases for dip transfer
:
:
CO
CO
2 2
:
:
carbon steels only
carbon steels only
: deep penetration; fast welding
: deep penetration; fast welding
speed; high spatter levels
speed; high spatter levels
Ar + up to 25% CO
Ar + up to 25% CO
2 2
:
:
carbon and low alloy steels
carbon and low alloy steels
:
:
minimum spatter; good wetting and bead contour
minimum spatter; good wetting and bead contour
90% He + 7.5% Ar + 2.5% CO
90% He + 7.5% Ar + 2.5% CO
2 2
:
:
stainless steels
stainless steels
:
:
minimises undercut; small HAZ
minimises undercut; small HAZ
Ar:
Ar:
Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys on thin sections
Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys on thin sections
Ar + He mixtures:
Ar + He mixtures:
Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys on
Al, Mg, Cu, Ni and their alloys on
thicker sections (over 3 mm)
thicker sections (over 3 mm)
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Gases for spray transfer
Gases for spray transfer
Ar + (5
Ar + (5
-
-
18)% CO
18)% CO
2 2
:
:
carbon steels
carbon steels
: minimum spatter;
: minimum spatter;
good wetting and bead contour
good wetting and bead contour
Ar + 2% O
Ar + 2% O
2 2
:
:
low alloy steels:
low alloy steels:
minimise undercut;
minimise undercut;
provides good toughness
provides good toughness
Ar + 2% O
Ar + 2% O
2 2
or CO
or CO
2 2
:
:
stainless steels
stainless steels
: improved arc
: improved arc
stability; provides good fusion
stability; provides good fusion
Ar:
Ar:
Al, Mg, Cu, Ni, Ti and their alloys
Al, Mg, Cu, Ni, Ti and their alloys
Ar + He mixtures:
Ar + He mixtures:
Al, Cu, Ni and their alloys
Al, Cu, Ni and their alloys
: hotter arc
: hotter arc
than pure Ar to offset heat dissipation
than pure Ar to offset heat dissipation
Ar + (25
Ar + (25
-
-
30)% N
30)% N
2 2
:
:
Cu alloys
Cu alloys
: greater heat input
: greater heat input
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MAG (Metal Active Gas)
MAG (Metal Active Gas)
Active gases used are Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Active gases used are Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Argon with a small % of active gas is required for all
Argon with a small % of active gas is required for all
steels (including stainless steels) to ensure a stable
steels (including stainless steels) to ensure a stable
arc & good droplet wetting into the weld pool
arc & good droplet wetting into the weld pool
Typical active gases are
Typical active gases are
Ar + 20% CO
Ar + 20% CO
2 2
for C
for C
-
-
Mn & low alloy steels
Mn & low alloy steels
Ar + 2% O
Ar + 2% O
2 2
for stainless steels
for stainless steels
100% CO
100% CO
2 2
can be used for C
can be used for C
-
-
steels
steels
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Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow
Excess weld metal Maximum Moderate Minimum Excess weld metal Maximum Moderate Minimum
Undercut Severe Moderate Minimum Undercut Severe Moderate Minimum
MIG/MAG Gas Metal Arc Welding
MIG/MAG Gas Metal Arc Welding
Electrode
Electrode
orientation
orientation
Electrode extension
Electrode extension
Increased extension Increased extension
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MIG / MAG
MIG / MAG
-
-
self
self
-
-
regulating
regulating
arc
arc
Stable condition Stable condition Sudden change in gun position Sudden change in gun position
L L
19 mm 19 mm
25 mm 25 mm
L L
Arc length L = 6,4 mm Arc length L = 6,4 mm
Arc voltage = 24V Arc voltage = 24V
Welding current = 250A Welding current = 250A
WFS = 6,4 m/min WFS = 6,4 m/min
Melt off rate = 6,4 m/min Melt off rate = 6,4 m/min
Arc length L Arc length L = 12,7 mm = 12,7 mm
Melt off rate = 5,6 Melt off rate = 5,6
m/min m/min
Current (A) Current (A)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
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MIG/MAG
MIG/MAG
-
-
self
self
-
-
regulating arc
regulating arc
Sudden change in gun position Sudden change in gun position
25 mm 25 mm
L L
Arc length L Arc length L = 12,7 mm = 12,7 mm
Current (A) Current (A)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
)
Re Re- -established stable condition established stable condition
25 mm 25 mm
L L
Arc length L = 6,4 mm Arc length L = 6,4 mm
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Terminating the arc
Terminating the arc
Burnback time
Burnback time
delayed current cut

delayed current cut
-
-
off to prevent wire freeze
off to prevent wire freeze
in the weld end crater
in the weld end crater
depends on WFS (set as short as possible!)

depends on WFS (set as short as possible!)
Contact tip Contact tip
Workpiec Workpiec
e e
Burnback time Burnback time 0.05 sec 0.05 sec 0.10 sec 0.10 sec 0.15 sec 0.15 sec
14 mm 14 mm
8 mm 8 mm
3 mm 3 mm
Current Current - - 250A 250A
Voltage Voltage - - 27V 27V
WFS WFS - - 7,8 m/min 7,8 m/min
Wire Wire diam diam. . - - 1,2 mm 1,2 mm
Shielding gas Shielding gas - -
Ar+18%CO Ar+18%CO
2 2
Insulatin Insulatin
g slag g slag
Crater fill
Crater fill
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MIG/MAG
MIG/MAG
-
-
metal transfer modes
Set
Set
-
-
up for dip transfer
up for dip transfer
Set
Set
-
-
up for spray transfer
up for spray transfer
Electrode Electrode
extension extension
19 19- -25 mm 25 mm
recessed recessed
(3 (3- -5 mm) 5 mm)
extension extension
(0 (0- -3,2 mm) 3,2 mm)
Electrode Electrode
extension extension
6 6- -13 mm 13 mm
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MIG/MAG
MIG/MAG
-
-
Current/voltage conditions
Current/voltage conditions
Current Current
Voltage Voltage
Dip transfer Dip transfer
Spray Spray
transfer transfer
Globular Globular
transfer transfer
Electrode diameter = 1,2 mm Electrode diameter = 1,2 mm
Current = 145 A Current = 145 A
Voltage = 18 Voltage = 18- -20V 20V
Electrode diameter = 1,2 mm Electrode diameter = 1,2 mm
Current = 295 A Current = 295 A
Voltage = 28V Voltage = 28V
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MIG/MAG
MIG/MAG
-
-
methods of metal transfer
Dip transfer
Dip transfer
Transfer occur due to short circuits
Transfer occur due to short circuits
between wire and weld pool,
between wire and weld pool,
high
high
level of spatter, need inductance
level of spatter, need inductance
control to limit current raise
control to limit current raise
Can use pure CO
Can use pure CO
2 2
or Ar
or Ar
-
-
CO
CO
2 2
mixtures as shielding gas
mixtures as shielding gas
Metal transfer occur when arc is
Metal transfer occur when arc is
extinguished
extinguished
Requires low welding current/arc
Requires low welding current/arc
voltage, a
voltage, a
low heat input process.
low heat input process.
Resulting in low residual stress
Resulting in low residual stress
and distortion
and distortion
Used for thin materials and all
Used for thin materials and all
position welds
position welds
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MIG/MAG
MIG/MAG
-
-
Spray transfer
Spray transfer
Transfer occur due to pinch
Transfer occur due to pinch
effect
effect
NO contact between wire
NO contact between wire
and weld pool!
and weld pool!
Requires argon
Requires argon
-
-
rich shielding
rich shielding
gas
gas
Metal transfer occur in small
Metal transfer occur in small
droplets, a
droplets, a
large volume weld
large volume weld
pool
pool
Requires high welding
Requires high welding
current/arc voltage, a
current/arc voltage, a
high heat
high heat
input process. Resulting in high
input process. Resulting in high
residual stress and distortion
residual stress and distortion
Used for thick materials and
Used for thick materials and
flat/horizontal position welds
flat/horizontal position welds
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MIG/MAG
MIG/MAG
-
-
Pulsed transfer
Pulsed transfer
Controlled metal transfer,
Controlled metal transfer,
one droplet per pulse,
one droplet per pulse,
No transfer between droplet and weld pool!
No transfer between droplet and weld pool!
Requires special power sources
Metal transfer occur in small droplets (diameter equal
Metal transfer occur in small droplets (diameter equal
to that of electrode)
to that of electrode)
Requires moderate welding current/arc voltage, a
Requires moderate welding current/arc voltage, a
reduced heat input . Resulting in smaller residual
reduced heat input . Resulting in smaller residual
stress and distortion compared to spray transfer
stress and distortion compared to spray transfer
Pulse frequency controls the volume of weld pool,
Pulse frequency controls the volume of weld pool,
used for root runs and out of position welds
used for root runs and out of position welds
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MIG/MAG
MIG/MAG
-
-
Pulsed transfer
Pulsed transfer
Controlled metal transfer.
Controlled metal transfer.
one droplet
one droplet
per pulse. NO transfer during
per pulse. NO transfer during
background current!
background current!
Metal transfer occur in small droplets
Metal transfer occur in small droplets
(diameter equal to that of electrode)
(diameter equal to that of electrode)
Requires moderate welding current/arc voltage,
Requires moderate welding current/arc voltage,
reduced
reduced
heat input
heat input
smaller residual stress and distortions

smaller residual stress and distortions
compared to spray transfer
compared to spray transfer
Pulse frequency controls the volume of weld pool, used
Pulse frequency controls the volume of weld pool, used
for root runs and out of position welds
for root runs and out of position welds
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MIG/MAG
MIG/MAG
-
-
Globular transfer
Globular transfer
Transfer occur due to gravity Transfer occur due to gravity or or
short circuits between drops and short circuits between drops and
weld pool weld pool
Requires CO Requires CO
2 2
Metal transfer occur in large drops Metal transfer occur in large drops
(diameter larger than that of (diameter larger than that of
electrode) hence electrode) hence severe spatter severe spatter
Requires high welding current/arc Requires high welding current/arc
voltage, a voltage, a high heat input process. high heat input process.
Resulting in high residual stress Resulting in high residual stress
and distortion and distortion
Non desired mode of transfer! Non desired mode of transfer!
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O.C.V. Arc Voltage O.C.V. Arc Voltage
Virtually no Change. Virtually no Change.
Voltage Voltage
Flat or Constant Voltage Characteristic Used With Flat or Constant Voltage Characteristic Used With
MIG/MAG, ESW & SAW < 1000 amps MIG/MAG, ESW & SAW < 1000 amps
100 100 200 200 300 300
33 33
32 32
31 31
Large Current Change Large Current Change
Small Voltage Small Voltage
Change. Change.
Amperage Amperage
Flat or Constant Voltage Characteristic
Flat or Constant Voltage Characteristic
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MIG/MAG welding gun assembly
MIG/MAG welding gun assembly
Contact
Contact
tip
tip
Gas
Gas
diffuser
diffuser
Handle
Handle
Gas
Gas
nozzle
nozzle
Trigger
Trigger WFS remote
WFS remote
control
control
potentiometer
potentiometer
Union nut
Union nut
The Push
The Push
-
-
Pull gun
Pull gun
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PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS
Requires a constant voltage power source, gas supply, wire Requires a constant voltage power source, gas supply, wire
feeder, welding torch/gun and feeder, welding torch/gun and hose package hose package
Wire is fed continuously through the conduit and is burnt Wire is fed continuously through the conduit and is burnt - -off off
at a rate that maintains a constant arc length/arc voltage at a rate that maintains a constant arc length/arc voltage
Wire feed speed is directly related to burn Wire feed speed is directly related to burn- -off rate off rate
Wire burn Wire burn- -off rate is directly related to current off rate is directly related to current
When the welder holds the welding gun the process is said When the welder holds the welding gun the process is said
to be a semi to be a semi - -automatic process automatic process
The process can be mechanised and also automated The process can be mechanised and also automated
In Europe the process is usually called MIG or MAG In Europe the process is usually called MIG or MAG
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Most welding imperfections in MIG/MAG are caused by lack of Most welding imperfections in MIG/MAG are caused by lack of
welder skill, or incorrect settings of the equipment welder skill, or incorrect settings of the equipment
Worn contact tips will cause poor power pick up, or transfer Worn contact tips will cause poor power pick up, or transfer
Bad power connections will cause a loss of voltage in the arc Bad power connections will cause a loss of voltage in the arc
Silica inclusions (in Fe steels) due to poor inter Silica inclusions (in Fe steels) due to poor inter- -run cleaning run cleaning
Lack of fusion (primarily with dip transfer) Lack of fusion (primarily with dip transfer)
Porosity (from loss of gas shield on site etc) Porosity (from loss of gas shield on site etc)
Solidification problems (cracking, centerline pipes, crater Solidification problems (cracking, centerline pipes, crater
pipes) especially on deep narrow welds pipes) especially on deep narrow welds
MIG/MAG typical defects
MIG/MAG typical defects
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Flux Core Arc Welding
Flux Core Arc Welding
(Not In The Training Manual)
(Not In The Training Manual)
WELDING PROCESS
WELDING PROCESS
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Flux cored arc welding
FCAW
FCAW
methods
methods
With gas
With gas
shielding
shielding
-
-
Outershield
Outershield
Without gas
Without gas
shielding
shielding
-
-
Innershield
Innershield
With metal
With metal
powder
powder
-
-
Metal core
Metal core
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Outershield
Outershield
-
-
principle of operation
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Innershield
Innershield
-
-
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 296 296 of 691 of 691
ARC CHARACTERISTICS
ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Volts
Volts
Amps
Amps
OCV
OCV
Constant Voltage Characteristic
Small change in voltage = Small change in voltage =
large change in amperage large change in amperage
The self
The self
adjusting arc.
adjusting arc.
Large arc gap Large arc gap
Small arc gap Small arc gap
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Insulated extension nozzle Insulated extension nozzle
Current carrying guild tube Current carrying guild tube
Flux cored hollow wire Flux cored hollow wire
Flux powder Flux powder
Arc shield composed of Arc shield composed of
vaporized and slag forming vaporized and slag forming
compounds compounds
Metal droplets covered Metal droplets covered
with thin slag coating with thin slag coating
Molten Molten
weld weld
pool pool
Solidified weld Solidified weld
metal and slag metal and slag
Flux core Flux core
Wire joint Wire joint
Flux core Flux core
wires wires
Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW)
Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW)
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FCAW
FCAW
methods
methods
With gas
With gas
shielding
shielding
-
-
Outershield
Outershield
Without gas
Without gas
shielding
shielding
-
-
Innershield
Innershield
(114)
(114)
With metal
With metal
powder
powder
-
-
Metal core
Metal core
With active
With active
gas shielding
gas shielding
(136)
(136)
With inert gas
With inert gas
shielding (137)
shielding (137)
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FCAW
FCAW
-
-
differences from MIG/MAG
differences from MIG/MAG
usually operates in DCEP
usually operates in DCEP
but some
but some
Innershield
Innershield
wires operates in DCEN

wires operates in DCEN
power sources need to
power sources need to
be more powerful due to
be more powerful due to
the higher currents
the higher currents
doesn't work in deep
doesn't work in deep
transfer mode
transfer mode
require knurled feed rolls
require knurled feed rolls
Innershield
Innershield
wires use
wires use
a different type of
a different type of
welding gun
welding gun
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Backhand (
Backhand (
drag
drag
) technique
) technique
Advantages
Advantages
preferred method for flat or horizontal position
preferred method for flat or horizontal position
slower progression of the weld
slower progression of the weld
deeper penetration
deeper penetration
weld stays hot longer,
weld stays hot longer,
easy to remove dissolved
easy to remove dissolved
gasses
gasses
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
produce a higher weld profile
produce a higher weld profile
difficult to follow the weld joint
difficult to follow the weld joint
can lead to burn
can lead to burn
-
-
through on thin sheet plates
through on thin sheet plates
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Forehand (
Forehand (
push
push
) technique
) technique
Advantages
Advantages
preferred method for vertical up or overhead
preferred method for vertical up or overhead
position
position
arc is directed towards the unwelded joint
arc is directed towards the unwelded joint
, preheat
, preheat
effect
effect
easy to follow the weld joint and control the
easy to follow the weld joint and control the
penetration
penetration
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
produce a low weld profile, with coarser ripples
produce a low weld profile, with coarser ripples
fast weld progression, shallower depth of penetration
fast weld progression, shallower depth of penetration
the amount of spatter can increase
the amount of spatter can increase
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FCAW advantages
FCAW advantages
less sensitive to lack of fusion
less sensitive to lack of fusion
requires smaller included angle compared to MMA
requires smaller included angle compared to MMA
high productivity
high productivity
all positional
all positional
smooth bead surface, less danger of undercut
smooth bead surface, less danger of undercut
basic types produce excellent toughness properties
basic types produce excellent toughness properties
good control of the weld pool in positional welding
good control of the weld pool in positional welding
especially with rutile wires
especially with rutile wires
seamless wires have no torsional strain, twist free
seamless wires have no torsional strain, twist free
ease of varying the alloying constituents
ease of varying the alloying constituents
no need for shielding gas
no need for shielding gas
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FCAW disadvantages
FCAW disadvantages
limited to steels and Ni
limited to steels and Ni
-
-
base alloys
base alloys
slag covering must be removed
slag covering must be removed
FCAW wire is more expensive on a weight basis
FCAW wire is more expensive on a weight basis
than solid wires (exception: some high alloy steels)
than solid wires (exception: some high alloy steels)
for gas shielded process, the gaseous shield may be
for gas shielded process, the gaseous shield may be
affected by winds and drafts
affected by winds and drafts
more smoke and fumes are generated compared
more smoke and fumes are generated compared
with MIG/MAG
with MIG/MAG
in case of Innershield wires, it might be necessary to
in case of Innershield wires, it might be necessary to
break the wire for restart (due to the high amount of
break the wire for restart (due to the high amount of
insulating slag formed at the tip of the wire)
insulating slag formed at the tip of the wire)
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Advantages:
Advantages:
1) Field or shop use
1) Field or shop use
2) High productivity
2) High productivity
3) All positional
3) All positional
4) Slag supports and
4) Slag supports and
shapes the weld Bead
shapes the weld Bead
5) No need for shielding
5) No need for shielding
gas
gas
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:
1) High skill factor
2) Slag inclusions
2) Slag inclusions
3) Cored wire is
3) Cored wire is
Expensive
Expensive
4) High level of fume
4) High level of fume
(Inner
(Inner
-
-
shield)
shield)
5) Limited to steels and
5) Limited to steels and
nickel alloys
nickel alloys
FCAW advantages/disadvantages
FCAW advantages/disadvantages
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 305 305 of 691 of 691
Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Submerged Arc Welding
Section 13
Section 13
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 306 306 of 691 of 691
Submerged arc welding was developed in the Soviet Union
during the 2
nd
world war for the welding of thick section steel.
The process is normally mechanized.
The process uses amps in the range of 100 to over2000, which
gives a very high current density in the wire producing deep
penetration and high dilution welds.
A flux is supplied separately via a flux hopper in the form of either
fused or agglomerated.
The arc is not visible as it is submerged beneath the flux layer
and no eye protection is required.
Submerged Arc Welding Introduction
Submerged Arc Welding Introduction
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SAW Principle of operation
SAW Principle of operation
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 308 308 of 691 of 691
Principles of operation
Principles of operation
Factors that determine whether to use SAW Factors that determine whether to use SAW chemical chemical
composition and mechanical properties required for the weld composition and mechanical properties required for the weld
deposit deposit
thickness of base metal to be welded thickness of base metal to be welded
joint accessibility joint accessibility
position in which the weld is to be made position in which the weld is to be made
frequency or volume of welding to be performed frequency or volume of welding to be performed
SAW methods
SAW methods
Semiautomatic
Semiautomatic
Mechanised
Mechanised
Automatic
Automatic
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 309 309 of 691 of 691
- -
+ +
Power Power
supply supply
Filler wire spool Filler wire spool
Flux hopper Flux hopper
Wire electrode Wire electrode
Flux Flux
Slide rail Slide rail
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SAW process variables
welding current welding current
current type and polarity current type and polarity
welding voltage welding voltage
travel speed travel speed
electrode size electrode size
electrode extension electrode extension
width and depth of the layer of flux width and depth of the layer of flux
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Welding current
Welding current
controls depth of penetration and the amount of

controls depth of penetration and the amount of
base metal melted
base metal melted
&
&
dilution
dilution
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SAW operating variables
Current type and polarity
Current type and polarity
Usually DCEP, deep

Usually DCEP, deep
penetration, better
penetration, better
resistance to
resistance to
porosity
porosity
DCEN increase
DCEN increase
deposition rate but
deposition rate but
reduce penetration
reduce penetration
(surfacing)
(surfacing)
AC used to avoid
AC used to avoid
arc blow; can give
arc blow; can give
unstable arc
unstable arc
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SAW Consumables
SAW Consumables
(Covered in detail in Section 14) (Covered in detail in Section 14)
Fused fluxes advantages:
good chemical homogeneity

easy removal of fines without affecting flux

composition
composition
normally not hygroscopic

& easy storage and handling
& easy storage and handling
readily recycled without significant change in particle

readily recycled without significant change in particle
size or composition
size or composition
Fused fluxes disadvantages:
difficult to add deoxidizers and ferro

-
-
alloys (due to
alloys (due to
segregation or extremely high loss)
high temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit the

high temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit the
range of flux compositions
range of flux compositions
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SAW Consumables
SAW Consumables
Agglomerated fluxes advantages: Agglomerated fluxes advantages:
easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements
usable with thicker layer of flux when welding usable with thicker layer of flux when welding
colour identification colour identification
Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages: Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages:
tendency to absorb moisture tendency to absorb moisture
possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to
porosity porosity
possible change in flux composition due to segregation or possible change in flux composition due to segregation or
removal of fine mesh particles removal of fine mesh particles
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SAW equipment
SAW equipment
Power sources can be: Power sources can be:
transformers for AC transformers for AC
transformer transformer- -rectifiers for DC rectifiers for DC
Static characteristic can be: Static characteristic can be:
Constant Voltage (flat) Constant Voltage (flat) - - most of the power sources most of the power sources
Constant Current (drooping) Constant Current (drooping)
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SAW equipment
SAW equipment
Constant Voltage (Flat Characteristic) power sources: Constant Voltage (Flat Characteristic) power sources:
most commonly used supplies for SAW most commonly used supplies for SAW
can be used for both semiautomatic and automatic welding can be used for both semiautomatic and automatic welding
self self - -regulating arc regulating arc
simple wire feed speed control simple wire feed speed control
wire feed speed controls the current and power supply wire feed speed controls the current and power supply
controls the voltage controls the voltage
applications for DC are limited to 1000A due to severe arc applications for DC are limited to 1000A due to severe arc
blow (also thin wires!) blow (also thin wires!)
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ARC CHARACTERISTICS
ARC CHARACTERISTICS
Volts
Amps
OCV
Small change in voltage =
large change in amperage
The self
adjusting arc.
Large arc gap
Small arc gap
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SAW equipment
SAW equipment
Constant Current (Drooping Characteristic) power sources: Constant Current (Drooping Characteristic) power sources:
Over 1000A Over 1000A - - very fast speed required very fast speed required - - control of burn off control of burn off
rate and stick out length rate and stick out length
can be used for both semiautomatic and automatic welding can be used for both semiautomatic and automatic welding
not self not self - -regulating arc regulating arc
must be used with a voltage must be used with a voltage- -sensing variable wire feed sensing variable wire feed
speed control speed control
more expensive due to more complex wire feed speed more expensive due to more complex wire feed speed
control control
arc voltage depends upon wire feed speed whilst the power arc voltage depends upon wire feed speed whilst the power
source controls the current source controls the current
cannot be used for high cannot be used for high- -speed welding of thin steel speed welding of thin steel
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SAW equipment
SAW equipment
Welding heads can be mounted on a: Welding heads can be mounted on a:
Tractor type carriage Tractor type carriage
provides travel along straight or provides travel along straight or
gently curved joints gently curved joints
can ride on tracks set up along the can ride on tracks set up along the
joint (with grooved wheels) or on joint (with grooved wheels) or on
the workpiece itself the workpiece itself
can use guide wheels as tracking can use guide wheels as tracking
device device
due to their portability, are used in due to their portability, are used in
field welding or where the piece field welding or where the piece
cannot be moved cannot be moved
Courtesy of ESAB AB Courtesy of ESAB AB
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Welding current
Welding current
too high current: excessive excess weld metal

too high current: excessive excess weld metal
(waste of electrode), increase weld shrinkage and
(waste of electrode), increase weld shrinkage and
causes greater distortions
causes greater distortions
excessively high current:

excessively high current:
digging arc, undercut,
digging arc, undercut,
burn through; also a high and narrow bead &
burn through; also a high and narrow bead &
solidification cracking
solidification cracking
too low current:

too low current:
incomplete
incomplete
fusion or inadequate penetration
fusion or inadequate penetration
excessively low current:

excessively low current:
unstable arc
unstable arc
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Welding voltage
Welding voltage
welding voltage controls arc welding voltage controls arc
length length
an increased voltage can increase pick an increased voltage can increase pick- -up of alloying elements up of alloying elements
from an alloy flux from an alloy flux
increase in voltage produce a increase in voltage produce a
flatter and wider bead flatter and wider bead
increase in voltage increase increase in voltage increase
flux consumption flux consumption
increase in voltage tend to increase in voltage tend to
reduce porosity reduce porosity
an increased voltage may an increased voltage may
help bridging an excessive help bridging an excessive
root gap root gap
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Welding voltage
Welding voltage
low voltage produce a

low voltage produce a
stiffer
stiffer
arc & improves

arc & improves
penetration in a deep
penetration in a deep
weld groove and resists
weld groove and resists
arc blow
arc blow
excessive low voltage

excessive low voltage
produce a high narrow
produce a high narrow
bead & difficult slag
bead & difficult slag
removal
removal
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Welding voltage
Welding voltage
excessively high voltage

produce a
produce a
hat
hat
-
-
shaped
shaped
bead
bead
& tendency to crack
& tendency to crack

increase undercut & make slag
increase undercut & make slag
removal difficult in groove
removal difficult in groove
welds
welds

produce a concave fillet weld
produce a concave fillet weld
that is subject to cracking
that is subject to cracking
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Travel speed
Travel speed
increase in travel speed: decrease heat input

increase in travel speed: decrease heat input
& less
& less
filler metal applied per unit of length, less excess
filler metal applied per unit of length, less excess
weld metal
weld metal
&
&
weld bead becomes smaller
weld bead becomes smaller
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Travel speed
Travel speed
excessively high speed

excessively high speed
lead to undercut, arc
lead to undercut, arc
blow and porosity
blow and porosity
excessively low speed

excessively low speed
produce
produce
hat
hat
-
-
shaped
shaped
beads
beads
danger of cracking
danger of cracking
excessively low speed produce rough beads and

excessively low speed produce rough beads and
lead to slag inclusions
lead to slag inclusions
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Electrode size
Electrode size
at the same current, small electrodes have higher

at the same current, small electrodes have higher
current density
current density
& higher deposition rates
& higher deposition rates
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Electrode extension
Electrode extension
increased electrode extension adds resistance in the increased electrode extension adds resistance in the
welding circuit welding circuit I increase in deposition rate, decrease in I increase in deposition rate, decrease in
penetration and bead width penetration and bead width
to keep a proper weld shape, when electrode extension is to keep a proper weld shape, when electrode extension is
increased, voltage must also be increased increased, voltage must also be increased
when burn when burn- -through is a problem (e.g. thin gauge), increase through is a problem (e.g. thin gauge), increase
electrode extension electrode extension
excessive electrode extension: it is more difficult to excessive electrode extension: it is more difficult to
maintain the electrode tip in the correct position maintain the electrode tip in the correct position
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Depth of flux
Depth of flux
depth of flux layer influence the appearance of weld

depth of flux layer influence the appearance of weld
usually, depth of flux is 25

usually, depth of flux is 25
-
-
30 mm
30 mm
if flux layer is to deep

if flux layer is to deep
the arc is too confined, result is
the arc is too confined, result is
a rough ropelike appearing weld
a rough ropelike appearing weld
if flux layer is to deep the gases cannot escape & the

if flux layer is to deep the gases cannot escape & the
surface of molten weld metal becomes irregularly
surface of molten weld metal becomes irregularly
distorted
distorted
if flux layer is too shallow, flashing and spattering will

if flux layer is too shallow, flashing and spattering will
occur, give a poor appearance and porous weld
occur, give a poor appearance and porous weld
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SAW technological variables
Travel angle effect
Travel angle effect
-
-
Butt weld on plates
Butt weld on plates
Penetration Deep Moderate S Penetration Deep Moderate Shallow hallow
Excess weld metal Maximum Moderate Minimum Excess weld metal Maximum Moderate Minimum
Tendency to undercut Severe Moderate Minimum Tendency to undercut Severe Moderate Minimum
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Earth position
Earth position
+
+
-
-
Direction of
Direction of
travel
travel
welding towards earth produces backward arc blow

welding towards earth produces backward arc blow
deep penetration
deep penetration
convex weld profile

convex weld profile
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Earth position
Earth position
+
+
-
-
Direction of
Direction of
travel
travel
welding away earth produces forward arc blow

welding away earth produces forward arc blow
normal penetration depth

normal penetration depth
smooth, even weld profile

smooth, even weld profile
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Weld backing
Weld backing
Backing strip
Backing strip
Backing weld
Backing weld
Copper backing
Copper backing
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Starting/finishing the weld
Starting/finishing the weld
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SAW variants
SAW variants
Twin wire SAW welding
Twin wire SAW welding
two electrodes are feed

two electrodes are feed
into the same weld pool
into the same weld pool
wire diameter usually 1,6 to

wire diameter usually 1,6 to
3,2 mm
3,2 mm
electrodes are connected

electrodes are connected
to a single power source
to a single power source
& a
& a
single arc is established
single arc is established
normally operate with

normally operate with
DCEP
DCEP
offers increased deposition

offers increased deposition
rate by up to 80% compared
rate by up to 80% compared
to single wire SAW
to single wire SAW
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SAW variants
SAW variants
Wires can be oriented
Wires can be oriented
for maximum or
for maximum or
minimum penetration
minimum penetration
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SAW variants
SAW variants
Tandem arc SAW process
usually DCEP on lead

usually DCEP on lead
and AC on trail to
and AC on trail to
reduce
reduce
arc blow
arc blow
requires two separate

requires two separate
power sources
power sources
the electrodes are active

the electrodes are active
in the same puddle BUT
in the same puddle BUT
there are 2 separate arcs
there are 2 separate arcs
increased deposition
increased deposition
rate by up to 100%
rate by up to 100%
compared with single
compared with single
wire SAW
wire SAW
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SAW variants
SAW variants
SAW tandem arc
SAW tandem arc
with two wires
with two wires
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SAW variants
SAW variants
Single pool
Single pool
-
-
highest deposition rate
highest deposition rate
Twin pool
Twin pool
-
-
travel speed limited by undercut;
travel speed limited by undercut;
very resistant to porosity and cracks
very resistant to porosity and cracks
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SAW variants
SAW variants
-
-
multiple wires
multiple wires
only for welding thick

only for welding thick
sections (>30 mm)
sections (>30 mm)
not suitable for use in

not suitable for use in
narrow weld
narrow weld
preparations (root
preparations (root
passes)
passes)
one 4 mm wire at 600 A,

one 4 mm wire at 600 A,
6.8 kg/hr
6.8 kg/hr
tandem two 4 mm wires

tandem two 4 mm wires
at 600 A, 13.6 kg/hr
at 600 A, 13.6 kg/hr Courtesy of ESAB AB Courtesy of ESAB AB
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 340 340 of 691 of 691
SAW variants
SAW variants
Strip cladding needs a
Strip cladding needs a
special welding head
special welding head
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SAW variants
SAW variants
Narrow gap welding
Narrow gap welding
for welding thick

for welding thick
materials
materials
less filler metal required

less filler metal required
requires special groove

requires special groove
preparation and special
preparation and special
welding head
welding head
requires special fluxes,

requires special fluxes,
otherwise problems with
otherwise problems with
slag removal
slag removal
defect removal is very

defect removal is very
difficult
difficult
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SAW variants
SAW variants
Hot wire welding
Hot wire welding
the hot wire is connected to power source

the hot wire is connected to power source
& much
& much
more efficient than cold wire (current is used entirely
more efficient than cold wire (current is used entirely
to heat the wire!)
to heat the wire!)
increase deposition rates

increase deposition rates
up to 100%
up to 100%
requires additional
requires additional
welding equipment,
welding equipment,
additional control of
additional control of
variables, considerable
variables, considerable
set
set
-
-
up time and closer
up time and closer
operator attention
operator attention
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SAW variants
SAW variants
SAW with metal powder addition
increased deposition rates up to increased deposition rates up to
70%; increased welding speed 70%; increased welding speed
gives smooth fusion, improved gives smooth fusion, improved
bead appearance, reduced bead appearance, reduced
penetration and dilution from parent penetration and dilution from parent
metal metal & higher impact strength & higher impact strength
metal powders can modify metal powders can modify
chemical composition of final weld chemical composition of final weld
deposit deposit
does not increase risk of cracking does not increase risk of cracking
do not require additional arc energy do not require additional arc energy
metal powder can be added ahead metal powder can be added ahead
or directly into the weld pool or directly into the weld pool
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SAW variants
SAW variants
magnetic attachment of powder

magnetic attachment of powder
SAW with metal cored wires SAW with metal cored wires
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SAW variants
SAW variants
Storage tank
Storage tank
SAW of circular
SAW of circular
welds
welds
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Advantages of SAW
Advantages of SAW
high current density, high current density, high deposition rates (up to 10 times high deposition rates (up to 10 times
those for MMA), high productivity those for MMA), high productivity
deep penetration allowing the use of small welding grooves deep penetration allowing the use of small welding grooves
fast travel speed, less distortion fast travel speed, less distortion
deslagging is easier deslagging is easier
uniform bead appearance with good surface finish and good uniform bead appearance with good surface finish and good
fatigue properties fatigue properties
can be easily performed mechanised, giving a higher duty can be easily performed mechanised, giving a higher duty
cycle and low skill level required cycle and low skill level required
provide consistent quality when performed automatic or provide consistent quality when performed automatic or
mechanised mechanised
Virtually assured radiographically sound welds Virtually assured radiographically sound welds
arc is not visible arc is not visible
little smoke/fumes are developed little smoke/fumes are developed
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Advantages
Advantages
Low weld Low weld- -metal cost metal cost
Easily automated Easily automated
Low levels of ozone Low levels of ozone
High productivity High productivity
No visible arc light No visible arc light
Minimum cleaning Minimum cleaning
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
Restricted welding Restricted welding
positions positions
Arc blow on DC Arc blow on DC
current current
Shrinkage defects Shrinkage defects
Difficult penetration Difficult penetration
control control
Limited joints Limited joints
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Welding Consumables
Welding Consumables
Section 14
Section 14
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BS EN 499 MMA Covered Electrodes
Covered Electrode
Covered Electrode
Toughness
Toughness
Yield Strength N/mm
Yield Strength N/mm
2 2
Chemical composition
Flux Covering
Flux Covering
Weld Metal Recovery
Weld Metal Recovery
and Current Type
and Current Type
Welding Position
Welding Position
Hydrogen Content
Hydrogen Content
E
E
50
50
3
3
2Ni
2Ni
B
B
7
7
2
2
H10
H10
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Welding consumables are any products that are used up in Welding consumables are any products that are used up in
the production of a weld the production of a weld
Welding consumables may be:
Welding consumables may be:
Covered electrodes, filler wires and electrode wires. Covered electrodes, filler wires and electrode wires.
Shielding or oxy Shielding or oxy- -fuel gases. fuel gases.
Separately supplied fluxes. Separately supplied fluxes.
Fusible inserts. Fusible inserts.
Welding consumables
Welding consumables
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Welding Consumable Standards
Welding Consumable Standards
MMA (SMAW)
MMA (SMAW)
BS EN 499: Steel electrodes BS EN 499: Steel electrodes
AWS A5.1 Non AWS A5.1 Non- -alloyed steel alloyed steel
AWS A5.4 Chromium AWS A5.4 Chromium
AWS A5.5 Alloyed steel AWS A5.5 Alloyed steel
MIG/MAG (GMAW) TIG
MIG/MAG (GMAW) TIG
(GTAW)
(GTAW)
BS 2901: Filler wires BS 2901: Filler wires
BS EN 440: Wire electrodes BS EN 440: Wire electrodes
AWS A5.9: Filler wires AWS A5.9: Filler wires
BS EN 439: Shielding gases BS EN 439: Shielding gases
SAW
SAW
BS 4165: Wire and fluxes BS 4165: Wire and fluxes
BS EN 756: Wire electrodes BS EN 756: Wire electrodes
BS EN 760: Fluxes BS EN 760: Fluxes
AWS A5.17: Wires and fluxes AWS A5.17: Wires and fluxes
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Welding Consumable Gases
Welding Consumable Gases
welding gases
welding gases
GMAW, FCAW, TIG, Oxy GMAW, FCAW, TIG, Oxy- - Fuel Fuel
Supplied in cylinders or Supplied in cylinders or storage storage
tanks for large quantities tanks for large quantities
Colour coded cylinders to minimise Colour coded cylinders to minimise
wrong use wrong use
Subject to regulations concerned Subject to regulations concerned
handling, quantities and positioning handling, quantities and positioning
of storage areas of storage areas
Moisture content is limited to avoid Moisture content is limited to avoid
cold cracking cold cracking
Dew point (the temperature at which Dew point (the temperature at which
the vapour begins to condense) the vapour begins to condense)
must be checked must be checked
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Welding Consumables
Welding Consumables
Each consumable is critical in respect to:
Each consumable is critical in respect to:
Size, (diameter and length)

Size, (diameter and length)
Classification / Supplier
Classification / Supplier
Condition
Condition
Treatments e.g. baking / drying

Treatments e.g. baking / drying
Handling and storage is critical for consumable

Handling and storage is critical for consumable
control
control
Handling and storage of gases is critical for safety

Handling and storage of gases is critical for safety
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The three main electrode covering types used in MMA welding The three main electrode covering types used in MMA welding
Cellulosic
Cellulosic - - deep penetration/fusion deep penetration/fusion
Rutile
Rutile - - general purpose general purpose
Basic
Basic - - low hydrogen low hydrogen
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Welding consumables for MMA:
Welding consumables for MMA:
Consist of a core wire typically between 350

Consist of a core wire typically between 350
-
-
450mm in
450mm in
length and from 2.5mm
length and from 2.5mm
-
-
6mm in diameter
6mm in diameter
The wire is covered with an extruded flux coating

The wire is covered with an extruded flux coating
The core wire is generally of a low quality rimming steel

The core wire is generally of a low quality rimming steel
The weld quality is refined by the addition of alloying

The weld quality is refined by the addition of alloying
and refining agents in the flux coating
and refining agents in the flux coating
The flux coating contains many elements and

The flux coating contains many elements and
compounds that all have a variety of functions during
compounds that all have a variety of functions during
welding
welding
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Function of the Electrode Covering:
Function of the Electrode Covering:
To facilitate arc ignition and give arc stability To facilitate arc ignition and give arc stability
To generate gas for shielding the arc & molten metal from air To generate gas for shielding the arc & molten metal from air
contamination contamination
To de To de- -oxidise the weld metal and flux impurities into the slag oxidise the weld metal and flux impurities into the slag
To form a protective slag blanket over the solidifying and To form a protective slag blanket over the solidifying and
cooling weld metal cooling weld metal
To provide alloying elements to give the required weld metal To provide alloying elements to give the required weld metal
properties properties
To aid positional welding (slag design to have suitable To aid positional welding (slag design to have suitable
freezing temperature to support the molten weld metal) freezing temperature to support the molten weld metal)
To control hydrogen contents in the weld (basic type) To control hydrogen contents in the weld (basic type)
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1: Electrode size (diameter and length) 1: Electrode size (diameter and length)
2: Covering condition: adherence, cracks, chips and concentricit 2: Covering condition: adherence, cracks, chips and concentricit y y
3: Electrode designation 3: Electrode designation
EN 499-E 51 3 B
Arc ignition enhancing materials (optional!) Arc ignition enhancing materials (optional!)
See BS EN ISO 544 for further information See BS EN ISO 544 for further information
Covered electrode inspection
Covered electrode inspection
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Plastic foil sealed cardboard box
Plastic foil sealed cardboard box
rutile electrodes rutile electrodes
general purpose basic electrodes general purpose basic electrodes
Tin can
Tin can
cellulosic electrodes cellulosic electrodes
Vacuum sealed pack
Vacuum sealed pack
extra low hydrogen electrodes extra low hydrogen electrodes
Courtesy of Lincoln Electric Courtesy of Lincoln Electric
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y

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4/23/2007 4/23/2007 359 359 of 691 of 691
Cellulosic
Cellulosic
electrodes:
electrodes:
covering contains cellulose (organic material).
covering contains cellulose (organic material).
produce a gas shield high in hydrogen
produce a gas shield high in hydrogen
raising the arc
raising the arc
voltage.
voltage.
Deep penetration / fusion characteristics
Deep penetration / fusion characteristics
enables
enables
welding at high speed without risk of lack of fusion.
welding at high speed without risk of lack of fusion.
generates high level of fumes and H2
generates high level of fumes and H2
cold cracking.
cold cracking.
Forms a thin slag layer with coarse weld profile.
Forms a thin slag layer with coarse weld profile.
not require baking or drying (excessive heat will
not require baking or drying (excessive heat will
damage electrode covering!).
damage electrode covering!).
Mainly used for stove pipe welding
Mainly used for stove pipe welding
hydrogen content is 80
hydrogen content is 80
-
-
90 ml/100 g of weld metal.
90 ml/100 g of weld metal.
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Cellulosic Electrodes
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:
weld beads have high hydrogen weld beads have high hydrogen
risk of cracking risk of cracking (need to keep joint hot during welding to allow (need to keep joint hot during welding to allow
H to escape) H to escape)
not suitable for higher strength steels not suitable for higher strength steels - - cracking risk too cracking risk too
high high (may not be allowed for Grades stronger than X70) (may not be allowed for Grades stronger than X70)
not suitable for very thick sections not suitable for very thick sections (may not be used on (may not be used on
thicknesses > ~ 35mm) thicknesses > ~ 35mm)
not suitable when low temperature toughness is required not suitable when low temperature toughness is required
(impact toughness satisfactory down to ~ (impact toughness satisfactory down to ~ - -20 20 C) C)
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Advantages:
Advantages:
Deep penetration/fusion
Deep penetration/fusion
Suitable for welding in all
Suitable for welding in all
positions
positions
Fast travel speeds
Fast travel speeds
Large volumes of shielding
Large volumes of shielding
gas
gas
Low control
Low control
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
:
:
High in hydrogen
High in hydrogen
High crack tendency
High crack tendency
Rough weld
Rough weld
appearance
appearance
High spatter contents
High spatter contents
Low deposition rates
Low deposition rates
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Rutile electrodes:
Rutile electrodes:
covering contains TiO covering contains TiO
2 2
slag former and arc stabiliser. slag former and arc stabiliser.
easy to strike arc, less spatter, excellent for positional easy to strike arc, less spatter, excellent for positional
welding. welding.
stable, easy stable, easy- -to to- -use arc use arc can operate in both DC and AC. can operate in both DC and AC.
slag easy to detach, smooth profile. slag easy to detach, smooth profile.
Reasonably good strength weld metal. Reasonably good strength weld metal.
Used mainly on general purpose work. Used mainly on general purpose work.
Low pressure pipework, support brackets. Low pressure pipework, support brackets.
electrodes can be dried to lower H2 content but cannot be electrodes can be dried to lower H2 content but cannot be
baked baked as it will will destroy the coating.
hydrogen content is 25 hydrogen content is 25- -30 ml/100 g of weld metal. 30 ml/100 g of weld metal.
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Rutile electrodes
Rutile electrodes
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:
they cannot be made with a low hydrogen content they cannot be made with a low hydrogen content
cannot be used on high strength steels or thick joints cannot be used on high strength steels or thick joints - -
cracking risk too high cracking risk too high
they do not give good toughness at low temperatures they do not give good toughness at low temperatures
these limitations mean that they are only suitable for general these limitations mean that they are only suitable for general
engineering engineering - - low strength, thin steel low strength, thin steel
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Advantages:
Advantages:
Easy to use
Easy to use
Low cost / control
Low cost / control
Smooth weld profiles
Smooth weld profiles
Slag easily detachable
Slag easily detachable
High deposition
High deposition
possible with the
possible with the
addition of iron powder
addition of iron powder
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:
High in hydrogen
High in hydrogen
High crack tendency
High crack tendency
Low strength
Low strength
Low toughness values
Low toughness values
Rutile Electrodes
Rutile Electrodes
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Rutile Variants
Rutile Variants
High Recovery Rutile Electrodes
Characteristics:
Characteristics:
coating is coating is bulked out bulked out with iron powder with iron powder
iron powder gives the electrode iron powder gives the electrode high recovery high recovery
extra weld metal from the iron powder can mean that weld extra weld metal from the iron powder can mean that weld
deposit from a single electrode can be as high as 180% of deposit from a single electrode can be as high as 180% of
the core wire weight the core wire weight
give good productivity give good productivity
large weld beads with smooth profile can look very similar to large weld beads with smooth profile can look very similar to
SAW welds SAW welds
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Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:
Same as standard rutile electrodes with respect to hydrogen Same as standard rutile electrodes with respect to hydrogen
control control
large weld beads produced cannot be used for all large weld beads produced cannot be used for all - -positional positional
welding welding
the very high recovery types usually limited to PA & PB the very high recovery types usually limited to PA & PB
positions positions
more moderate recovery may allow PC use more moderate recovery may allow PC use
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Basic covering:
Basic covering:
Produce convex weld profile and difficult to detach slag. Produce convex weld profile and difficult to detach slag.
Very suitable for Very suitable for for for high pressure work, high pressure work, thick section steel thick section steel
and for high strength steels. and for high strength steels.
Prior to use Prior to use electrodes electrodes should be baked, typically 350 should be baked, typically 350 C for 2 C for 2
hour plus hour plus to reduce moisture to very low levels and achieve to reduce moisture to very low levels and achieve
low hydrogen potential status. low hydrogen potential status.
Contain calcium fluoride and calcium carbonate compounds. Contain calcium fluoride and calcium carbonate compounds.
cannot be re cannot be re- -baked indefinitely! baked indefinitely!
low hydrogen potential gives low hydrogen potential gives weld metal very good weld metal very good
toughness and YS. toughness and YS.
have the lowest level of hydrogen (less than 5 ml/100 g of have the lowest level of hydrogen (less than 5 ml/100 g of
weld metal). weld metal).
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Basic Electrodes
Basic Electrodes
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:
Careful control of baking and/or issuing of electrodes is Careful control of baking and/or issuing of electrodes is
essential to maintain low hydrogen status and avoid risk of essential to maintain low hydrogen status and avoid risk of
cracking cracking
Typical baking temperature 350 Typical baking temperature 350 C for 1 to 2hours. C for 1 to 2hours.
Holding temperature 120 to 150 Holding temperature 120 to 150 C. C.
Issue in heated quivers typically 70 Issue in heated quivers typically 70 C. C.
Welders need to take more care / require greater skill. Welders need to take more care / require greater skill.
Weld profile usually more convex. Weld profile usually more convex.
Deslagging Deslagging requires more effort than for other types. requires more effort than for other types.
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Basic Electrodes
Basic Electrodes
Advantages
Advantages
High toughness values
High toughness values
Low hydrogen contents
Low hydrogen contents
Low crack tendency
Low crack tendency
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
High cost
High cost
High control
High control
High welder skill
High welder skill
required
required
Convex weld profiles
Convex weld profiles
Poor stop / start
Poor stop / start
properties
properties
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Covered Electrode
Covered Electrode
Toughness
Toughness
Yield Strength N/mm
Yield Strength N/mm
2 2
Flux Covering
Flux Covering
Weld Metal Recovery
Weld Metal Recovery
and Current Type
and Current Type
Welding Position
Welding Position
Hydrogen Content
Hydrogen Content
E
E
50
50
3
3
2Ni
2Ni
B
B
7
7
2
2
H10
H10
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Electrodes classified as follows:
Electrodes classified as follows:
E 35
E 35
-
-
Minimum yield strength 350 N/mm
2 2
Tensile strength 440
-
-
570 N/mm
570 N/mm
2 2
E 38
E 38
-
-
2 2
-
-
600 N/mm
600 N/mm
2 2
E 42
E 42
-
-
2 2
-
-
640 N/mm
640 N/mm
2 2
E 46
E 46
-
-
2 2
-
-
680 N/mm
680 N/mm
2 2
E 50
E 50
-
-
2 2
-
-
720 N/mm
720 N/mm
2 2
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AWS A5.1 Alloyed Electrodes
Covered Electrode
Covered Electrode
Tensile Strength (p.s.i)
Welding Position
Welding Position
Flux Covering
Flux Covering
E
E
60
60
1
1
3
3
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Covered Electrode
Covered Electrode
Welding Position
Welding Position
Flux Covering
Flux Covering
Moisture Control
Moisture Control
Alloy Content
Alloy Content
E
E
70
70
1
1
8
8
M
M
G
G
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TYPES OF ELECTRODES
TYPES OF ELECTRODES
(for C, C
(for C, C
-
-
Mn Steels)
Mn Steels)
BS EN 499
BS EN 499
AWS A5.1
AWS A5.1
Cellulosic
Cellulosic
E XX X
E XX X
C
C
EXX1
EXX1
0
0
EXX1
EXX1
1
1
Rutile
Rutile
E XX X
E XX X
R
R
EXX1
EXX1
2
2
EXX1
EXX1
3
3
Rutile Heavy Coated

Rutile Heavy Coated
E XX X
E XX X
RR
RR
EXX2
EXX2
4
4
Basic
Basic
E XX X
E XX X
B
B
EXX1
EXX1
5
5
EXX1
EXX1
6
6
EXX1
EXX1
8
8
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Electrode efficiency
Electrode efficiency
75
75
-
-
90% for usual electrodes
90% for usual electrodes
up to 180% for iron powder electrodes
up to 180% for iron powder electrodes
Mass of weld metal deposited
Mass of weld metal deposited
Electrode
Electrode
Eficiency
Eficiency
=
=
Mass of core wire melted
Mass of core wire melted
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Covered electrode treatment
Cellulosic
Cellulosic
electrodes
electrodes
Rutile
Rutile
electrodes
electrodes
Use straight from the Use straight from the
box box - - No baking/drying! No baking/drying!
If necessary, dry up to If necessary, dry up to
120 120 C C- - No baking! No baking!
Vacuum
Vacuum
packed basic
packed basic
electrodes
electrodes
Use straight from the pack Use straight from the pack
within 4 hours within 4 hours - - No No
rebaking! rebaking!
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After baking, maintain in After baking, maintain in
oven at 150 oven at 150 C C
Basic electrodes Basic electrodes
Baking in oven 2 hours Baking in oven 2 hours
at 350 at 350 C! C!
Use from quivers at Use from quivers at
75 75 C C
If not used within 4 If not used within 4
hours, return to oven hours, return to oven
and rebake! and rebake!
Weld Weld
Limited number of Limited number of
rebakes! rebakes!
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TIG Consumables
TIG Consumables
Welding Consumables
Welding Consumables
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 379 379 of 691 of 691

-
-
consumable).
consumable).



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Welding rods:
Welding rods:
supplied in cardboard/plastic tubes

supplied in cardboard/plastic tubes
must be kept clean and free from oil and dust

must be kept clean and free from oil and dust
might require degreasing

might require degreasing
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Fusible Inserts
Fusible Inserts
Before Welding Before Welding
Pre Pre- -placed filler material placed filler material
After Welding After Welding
Other terms used include: Other terms used include:
EB inserts (Electric Boat Company) EB inserts (Electric Boat Company)
Consumable socket rings (CSR) Consumable socket rings (CSR)
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Fusible Inserts
Fusible Inserts
Consumable inserts: Consumable inserts:
used for root runs on pipes used for root runs on pipes
used in conjunction with TIG welding used in conjunction with TIG welding
available for carbon steel, Cr available for carbon steel, Cr- -Mo steel, austenitic stainless Mo steel, austenitic stainless
steel, nickel and copper steel, nickel and copper- -nickel alloys nickel alloys
different shapes to suit application different shapes to suit application
Radius
Radius
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Fusible Inserts
Fusible Inserts
Application of consumable inserts
Application of consumable inserts
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Shielding gases for TIG welding
Argon
Argon
low cost and greater availability
low cost and greater availability
heavier than air
heavier than air
-
-
lower flow rates than Helium
lower flow rates than Helium
low thermal conductivity
low thermal conductivity
-
-
wide top bead profile
wide top bead profile
low ionisation potential
low ionisation potential
-
-
easier arc starting, better arc
easier arc starting, better arc
stability with AC, cleaning effect
stability with AC, cleaning effect
for the same arc current produce less heat than
for the same arc current produce less heat than
helium
helium
-
-
reduced penetration, wider HAZ
reduced penetration, wider HAZ
to obtain the same arc arc power, argon requires a
to obtain the same arc arc power, argon requires a
higher current
higher current
-
-
increased undercut
increased undercut
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Helium
Helium
costly and lower availability than Argon
costly and lower availability than Argon
lighter than air
lighter than air
-
-
requires a higher flow rate compared
requires a higher flow rate compared
with argon (2
with argon (2
-
-
3 times)
3 times)
higher ionisation potential
higher ionisation potential
-
-
poor arc stability with AC,
poor arc stability with AC,
less forgiving for manual welding
less forgiving for manual welding
for the same arc current produce more heat than
for the same arc current produce more heat than
argon
argon
-
-
increased penetration, welding of metals with
increased penetration, welding of metals with
high melting point or thermal conductivity
high melting point or thermal conductivity
to obtain the same arc arc power, helium requires a
to obtain the same arc arc power, helium requires a
lower current
lower current
-
-
no undercut
no undercut
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Hydrogen
Hydrogen
not an inert gas
not an inert gas
-
-
not used as a primary shielding gas
not used as a primary shielding gas
increase the heat input
increase the heat input
-
-
faster travel speed and
faster travel speed and
increased penetration
increased penetration
better wetting action
better wetting action
-
-
improved bead profile
improved bead profile
produce a cleaner weld bead surface
produce a cleaner weld bead surface
added to argon (up to 5%)
-
-
only for austenitic
only for austenitic
stainless steels and nickel alloys
stainless steels and nickel alloys
flammable and explosive
flammable and explosive
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Nitrogen
Nitrogen
not an inert gas
not an inert gas
high availability
high availability
-
-
cheap
cheap
-
-
only for back purge for
only for back purge for
duplex stainless, austenitic stainless steels and copper
duplex stainless, austenitic stainless steels and copper
alloys
alloys
not used for mild steels (age embritlement)
not used for mild steels (age embritlement)
strictly prohibited in case of Ni and Ni alloys (porosity)
strictly prohibited in case of Ni and Ni alloys (porosity)
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MIG / MAG Consumables
MIG / MAG Consumables
(Gases Covered previously)
(Gases Covered previously)
Welding Consumables
Welding Consumables
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MIG/MAG Welding Consumables
Welding consumables for MIG/MAG
Welding consumables for MIG/MAG
Spools of Continuous electrode wires and shielding

Spools of Continuous electrode wires and shielding
gases
gases
variable spool size (1

variable spool size (1
-
-
15Kg) and Wire diameter (0.6
15Kg) and Wire diameter (0.6
-
-
1.6mm) supplied in random or orderly layers
1.6mm) supplied in random or orderly layers
Basic Selection of different materials and their alloys

Basic Selection of different materials and their alloys
as electrode wires.
as electrode wires.
Some Steel Electrode wires copper coating purpose

Some Steel Electrode wires copper coating purpose
is corrosion resistance and electrical pick
is corrosion resistance and electrical pick
-
-
up
up
Gases can be pure CO

Gases can be pure CO
2 2
, CO
, CO
2 2
+Argon mixes and
+Argon mixes and
Argon+2%O
Argon+2%O
2 2
mixes (stainless steels).
mixes (stainless steels).
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Welding wires: Welding wires:
carbon and low alloy wires may be copper coated carbon and low alloy wires may be copper coated
stainless steel wires are not coated stainless steel wires are not coated
wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust
flux cored wires does not require baking or drying flux cored wires does not require baking or drying
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Flux Core Wire Consumables
(Not in training manual)
(Not in training manual)
Welding Consumables
Welding Consumables
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provide form stability
to the wire
serves as current
transfer during
welding
Functions of metallic sheath: Function of the filling powder:
stabilise the arc
add alloy elements
produce gaseous
shield
produce slag
add iron powder
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Types of cored wire
Types of cored wire
not sensitive to moisture not sensitive to moisture
pick pick- -up up
can be copper coated, can be copper coated,
better current transfer better current transfer
thick sheath, good form thick sheath, good form
stability, 2 roll drive stability, 2 roll drive
feeding possible feeding possible
difficult to manufacture difficult to manufacture
good resistance to good resistance to
moisture pick moisture pick- -up up
can be copper can be copper
coated coated
thick sheath thick sheath
difficult to seal the difficult to seal the
sheath sheath
Seamless Seamless
cored wire cored wire
Butt joint Butt joint
Overlapping Overlapping
sensitive to sensitive to
moisture pick moisture pick- -
up up
cannot be cannot be
copper coated copper coated
thin sheath thin sheath
easy to easy to
manufacture manufacture
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Core elements and their function
Core elements and their function
Aluminium
Aluminium
-
-
deoxidize & denitrify
deoxidize & denitrify
Calcium
Calcium
-
-
provide shielding & form slag
provide shielding & form slag
Carbon
Carbon
-
-
increase hardness & strength
Manganese
Manganese
-
-
deoxidize & increase strength and toughness
deoxidize & increase strength and toughness
Molybdenum
Molybdenum
-
-
Nickel
Nickel
-
-
improve hardness, strength, toughness & corrosion
improve hardness, strength, toughness & corrosion
resistance
resistance
Potassium
Potassium
-
-
stabilize the arc & form slag
stabilize the arc & form slag
Silicon
Silicon
-
-
deoxidize & form slag
deoxidize & form slag
Sodium
Sodium
-
-
stabilize arc & form slag
stabilize arc & form slag
Titanium
Titanium
-
-
deoxidize, denitrify & form slag
deoxidize, denitrify & form slag
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SAW Consumables
SAW Consumables
Welding Consumables
Welding Consumables
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SAW Consumables
SAW Consumables
Welding fluxes:
Welding fluxes:
are granular mineral compounds mixed according to various are granular mineral compounds mixed according to various
formulations formulations
shield the molten weld pool from the atmosphere shield the molten weld pool from the atmosphere
clean the molten weld pool clean the molten weld pool
can modify the chemical composition of the weld metal can modify the chemical composition of the weld metal
prevents rapid escape of heat from welding zone prevents rapid escape of heat from welding zone
influence the shape of the weld bead (wetting action) influence the shape of the weld bead (wetting action)
can be fused, agglomerated or mixed can be fused, agglomerated or mixed
must be kept warm and dry to avoid porosity must be kept warm and dry to avoid porosity
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SAW Consumables
SAW Consumables
Fused fluxes are normally not hygroscopic but particles can Fused fluxes are normally not hygroscopic but particles can
hold surface moisture hold surface moisture so only drying so only drying
Agglomerated fluxes contain chemically bonded water. S Agglomerated fluxes contain chemically bonded water. Similar imilar
treatment as basic electrodes treatment as basic electrodes
If flux is too fine it will pack and not feed properly. It canno If flux is too fine it will pack and not feed properly. It cannot be t be
recycled indefinitely recycled indefinitely
Welding flux:
Welding flux:
might be fused or agglomerated might be fused or agglomerated
supplied in bags supplied in bags
must be kept warm and dry must be kept warm and dry
handling and stacking requires care handling and stacking requires care
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SAW Consumables
SAW Consumables
Fused Flux:
Fused Flux:
Baked at high temperature, glossy, hard and black in colour,
cannot add ferro-manganese, non moisture absorbent and
tends to be of the acidic type
Fused Flux Fused Flux
Flaky appearance Flaky appearance
Lower weld quality Lower weld quality
Low moisture intake Low moisture intake
Low dust tendency Low dust tendency
Good re Good re- -cycling cycling
Very smooth weld Very smooth weld
profile profile
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SAW Consumables
SAW Consumables
TYPES OF FLUX TYPES OF FLUX
FUSED (ACID TYPE) FUSED (ACID TYPE)
name indicates method of manufacture name indicates method of manufacture
minerals are fused (melted) and granules produced by minerals are fused (melted) and granules produced by
allowing to cool to a solid mass and then crushing or by allowing to cool to a solid mass and then crushing or by
spraying the molten flux into water spraying the molten flux into water
flux tends to be flux tends to be glass glass- -like like (high in Silica) (high in Silica)
granules are hard and may appear shiny granules are hard and may appear shiny
granules do not absorb moisture granules do not absorb moisture
granules do not tend break down into powder when being granules do not tend break down into powder when being
re re- -circulated circulated
are effectively a low hydrogen flux are effectively a low hydrogen flux
welds do not tend to give good toughness at low welds do not tend to give good toughness at low
temperatures temperatures
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SAW Consumables
SAW Consumables


composition
composition

easy storage and
easy storage and
handling
handling
readily recycled without significant change in

readily recycled without significant change in
particle size or composition
particle size or composition

-
-
alloys (due to
alloys (due to
high temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit

high temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit
the range of flux compositions
the range of flux compositions
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Agglomerated Flux:
Baked at a lower temperature, dull, irregularly shaped, friable,
(easily crushed) can easily add alloying elements, moisture
absorbent and tend to be of the basic type
SAW Consumables
SAW Consumables
Agglomerated Flux Agglomerated Flux
Granulated appearance Granulated appearance
High weld quality High weld quality
Addition of alloys Addition of alloys
Lower consumption Lower consumption
Easy slag removal Easy slag removal
Smooth weld profile Smooth weld profile
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SAW Consumables
SAW Consumables
Agglomerated fluxes advantages: Agglomerated fluxes advantages:
easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements
usable with thicker layer of flux when welding usable with thicker layer of flux when welding
colour identification colour identification
Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages: Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages:
tendency to absorb moisture tendency to absorb moisture
possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to
porosity porosity
possible change in flux composition due to segregation or possible change in flux composition due to segregation or
removal of fine mesh particles removal of fine mesh particles
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SAW Consumables
SAW Consumables
TYPES OF FLUX TYPES OF FLUX
AGGLOMERATED (BASIC TYPE) AGGLOMERATED (BASIC TYPE)
name indicates method of manufacture name indicates method of manufacture
basic minerals are used in powder form and are mixed with a basic minerals are used in powder form and are mixed with a
binder to form individual granules binder to form individual granules
granules are soft and easily crushed to powder granules are soft and easily crushed to powder
granules will absorb moisture and it is necessary to protect granules will absorb moisture and it is necessary to protect
the flux from moisture pick the flux from moisture pick- -up up - - usually by holding in a usually by holding in a
heated silo heated silo
granules tend to break down into powder when being re granules tend to break down into powder when being re- -
circulated circulated
are a low hydrogen flux are a low hydrogen flux - - if correctly controlled if correctly controlled
welds give good toughness at low temperatures welds give good toughness at low temperatures
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SAW Consumables
SAW Consumables
Mixed fluxes advantages:
Mixed fluxes advantages:
several commercial fluxes may be mixed for highly

several commercial fluxes may be mixed for highly
critical or proprietary welding operations
critical or proprietary welding operations
Mixed fluxes disadvantages:
Mixed fluxes disadvantages:
segregation of the combined fluxes during

segregation of the combined fluxes during
shipment, storage and handling
shipment, storage and handling
segregation occurring in the feeding and recovery

segregation occurring in the feeding and recovery
systems during welding
systems during welding
inconsistency in the combined flux from mix to mix

inconsistency in the combined flux from mix to mix
Mixed fluxes
Mixed fluxes
-
-
two or more fused or bonded fluxes are
two or more fused or bonded fluxes are
mixed in any ratio necessary to yield the desired
mixed in any ratio necessary to yield the desired
results
results
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SAW filler material
SAW filler material
Welding wires can be used to weld:
Welding wires can be used to weld:
carbon steels
carbon steels
low alloy steels

low alloy steels
creep resisting steels

creep resisting steels
stainless steels
stainless steels
nickel
nickel
-
-
base alloys
base alloys
special alloys for surfacing applications

special alloys for surfacing applications
Welding wires can be:
Welding wires can be:
solid wires
solid wires
metal
metal
-
-
cored wires
cored wires
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SAW filler material
SAW filler material
Welding wires:
Welding wires:
carbon and low alloy wires are copper coated

carbon and low alloy wires are copper coated
wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust
wires must be kept clean and free from oil and dust
stainless steel wires are not coated

stainless steel wires are not coated
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SAW filler material
SAW filler material
Copper coating functions:
Copper coating functions:
to assure a good electric contact between wire

to assure a good electric contact between wire
and contact tip
and contact tip
to assure a smooth feed of the wire through the

to assure a smooth feed of the wire through the
guide tube, feed rolls and contact tip (decrease
guide tube, feed rolls and contact tip (decrease
contact tube wear)
contact tube wear)
to provide protection against corrosion

to provide protection against corrosion
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Non Destructive Testing
Non Destructive Testing
Section 15
Section 15
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Non
Non
-
-
Destructive Testing
Destructive Testing
A welding inspector should have a working knowledge of
A welding inspector should have a working knowledge of
NDT methods and their applications, advantages and
NDT methods and their applications, advantages and
disadvantages.
disadvantages.
Four basic NDT methods
Four basic NDT methods
Radiographic inspection (RT)

Radiographic inspection (RT)
Ultrasonic inspection (UT)

Ultrasonic inspection (UT)
Magnetic particle inspection (MT)

Magnetic particle inspection (MT)
Dye
Dye
penetrant
penetrant
inspection (PT)
inspection (PT)
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Non
Non
-
-
Destructive Testing
Destructive Testing
Surface Crack Detection
Surface Crack Detection
Liquid Penetrant (PT or Dye Liquid Penetrant (PT or Dye- -Penetrant) Penetrant)
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT or MPI) Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT or MPI)
Volumetric & Planar Inspection
Volumetric & Planar Inspection
Ultrasonics (UT) Ultrasonics (UT)
Radiography (RT) Radiography (RT)
Each technique has advantages & disadvantages with respect Each technique has advantages & disadvantages with respect
to: to:
Technical Capability and Cost Technical Capability and Cost
Note: Note: The choice of NDT techniques is based on consideration The choice of NDT techniques is based on consideration
of these advantages and disadvantages of these advantages and disadvantages
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Radiographic Testing (RT)
Radiographic Testing (RT)
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The principles of radiography
The principles of radiography

X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object
X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object

Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
dependant upon the density of the material through
dependant upon the density of the material through
which it is travelling
which it is travelling

Thinner areas and materials of a less density show as
Thinner areas and materials of a less density show as
darker areas on the radiograph
darker areas on the radiograph

Thicker areas and materials of a greater density show
Thicker areas and materials of a greater density show
as lighter areas on a radiograph
as lighter areas on a radiograph

Applicable to metals,non
Applicable to metals,non
-
-
metals and composites
metals and composites
Radiographic Testing
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X
X
Rays
Rays
Electrically generated
Electrically generated
Gamma Rays
Gamma Rays
Generated by the decay
Generated by the decay
of unstable atoms
of unstable atoms
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Source
Source
Radiation beam
Radiation beam
Image quality indicator
Image quality indicator
Radiographic film with latent image after exposure
Radiographic film with latent image after exposure
1
0
f
e
1
6
1
0
f
e
1
6
Test specimen
Test specimen
1
0
f
e
1
6
1
0
f
e
1
6
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Density Density - - relates to the degree of darkness relates to the degree of darkness
Contrast Contrast - - relates to the degree of difference relates to the degree of difference
Definition Definition - - relates to the degree of sharpness relates to the degree of sharpness
Sensitivity Sensitivity - - relates to the overall quality of the radiograph relates to the overall quality of the radiograph
Densitometer
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7FE12 7FE12
Step / Hole type IQI
Step / Hole type IQI Wire type IQI
Wire type IQI
Radiographic Sensitivity
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Wire Type IQI
Wire Type IQI
Step/Hole Type IQI
Step/Hole Type IQI
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Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
film inside, source outside

film inside, source outside
panoramic
panoramic
film outside, source inside (internal exposure)

film outside, source inside (internal exposure)
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)
film outside, source outside (external exposure)

film outside, source outside (external exposure)
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)
film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)

film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)
Radiographic Techniques
Radiographic Techniques
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IQI
IQI
s
s
should be placed source side
should be placed source side
Film
Film
Film
Film
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IQI
IQI
s
s
are placed on the film side
Source inside film outside (single exposure)

Source inside film outside (single exposure)
Film
Film
Single Wall Single Image Panoramic
Single Wall Single Image Panoramic
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IQI
IQI
s
s
Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)

Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
This technique is intended for pipe diameters

This technique is intended for pipe diameters
over 100mm
over 100mm
Film
Film
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Radiograph
Radiograph
Identification
Identification
ID ID
MR11
MR11
Unique identification
EN W10 EN W10
IQI placing
IQI placing
A
A
B
B
Pitch marks indicating

readable film length
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Radiograph
Radiograph
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Film
Film
IQI IQI s s are placed on the source or film side are placed on the source or film side
Source outside film outside (multiple exposure) Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
A minimum of two exposures A minimum of two exposures
This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than 100mm This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than 100mm
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Shot A Radiograph
Shot A Radiograph
Identification
Identification
ID MR12
EN W10
IQI placing
IQI placing
1
2

4
3
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Elliptical Radiograph
Elliptical Radiograph
1
1
2
2
4
4
3
3
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Radiography
Radiography
PENETRATING POWER
PENETRATING POWER
Question:
Question:
What determines the penetrating power of an X What determines the penetrating power of an X- -ray ? ray ?
the kilo the kilo- -voltage applied voltage applied (between anode & cathode) (between anode & cathode)
Question:
Question:
What determines the penetrating power of What determines the penetrating power of a gamma ray ? a gamma ray ?
the type of isotope the type of isotope (the wavelength of the gamma rays) (the wavelength of the gamma rays)
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Radiography
Radiography
GAMMA SOURCES
GAMMA SOURCES
Isotope
Isotope
Typical Thickness Range
Typical Thickness Range
Iridium 192
Iridium 192 10 to 50 mm 10 to 50 mm (mostly used) (mostly used)
Cobalt 60
Cobalt 60 > 50 mm > 50 mm
Ytterbium Ytterbium < 10 mm < 10 mm
Thulium Thulium < 10 mm < 10 mm
Cesium Cesium < 10 mm < 10 mm
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Advantages Advantages
Permanent record Permanent record
Little surface preparation Little surface preparation
Defect identification Defect identification
No material type limitation No material type limitation
Not so reliant upon operator Not so reliant upon operator
skill skill
Thin materials Thin materials
Disadvantages Disadvantages
Expensive consumables Expensive consumables
Bulky equipment Bulky equipment
Harmful radiation Harmful radiation
Defect require significant Defect require significant
depth in relation to the depth in relation to the
radiation beam (not good radiation beam (not good
for planar defects) for planar defects)
Slow results Slow results
Very little indication of Very little indication of
depths depths
Access to both sides Access to both sides
required required
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Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination
ADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES
good for non good for non- -planar defects planar defects
good for thin sections good for thin sections
gives permanent record gives permanent record
easier for 2nd party interpretation easier for 2nd party interpretation
can use on all material types can use on all material types
high productivity high productivity
direct image of imperfections direct image of imperfections
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Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination
Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination
DISADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
health & safety hazard
health & safety hazard
not good for thick sections
not good for thick sections
high capital and relatively high running costs
high capital and relatively high running costs
not good for planar defects
not good for planar defects
X
X
-
-
ray sets not very portable
ray sets not very portable
requires access to both sides of weld
requires access to both sides of weld
frequent replacement of gamma
frequent replacement of gamma
source needed (half life)
source needed (half life)
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Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
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Main Features:
Main Features:
Surface and sub Surface and sub- -surface detection surface detection
This detection method uses high frequency sound waves, This detection method uses high frequency sound waves,
typically above 2MHz to pass through a material typically above 2MHz to pass through a material
A probe is used which contains a A probe is used which contains a piezo piezo electric crystal to electric crystal to
transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses and display the transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses and display the
signals on a cathode ray tube or digital display signals on a cathode ray tube or digital display
The actual display relates to the time taken for the The actual display relates to the time taken for the
ultrasonic pulses to travel the distance to the interface and ultrasonic pulses to travel the distance to the interface and
back back
An interface could be the back of a plate material or a defect An interface could be the back of a plate material or a defect
For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be
introduced between the probe and specimen introduced between the probe and specimen
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
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Digital Digital
UT Set, UT Set,
Pulse echo Pulse echo
signals signals
A scan A scan
Display Display
Compression probe Compression probe checking the material checking the material Thickness Thickness
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
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defect defect
0 0 10 10
20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50
defect defect
echo echo
Back wall Back wall
echo echo
CRT Display
CRT Display
Compression Probe
Compression Probe
Material Material Thk Thk
initial pulse initial pulse
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
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Angle Probe
Angle Probe
UT Set
UT Set
A Scan
A Scan
Display
Display
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
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initial pulse
defect echo
defect defect
defect
0 10 20 30 40 50
CRT Display
0 10 20 30 40 50
initial pulse
defect echo
CRT Display
Skip
Full Skip
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
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Rapid results Rapid results
Both surface and Both surface and
sub sub- -surface detection surface detection
Safe Safe
Capable of measuring the Capable of measuring the
depth of defects depth of defects
May be battery powered May be battery powered
Portable Portable
Trained and skilled operator Trained and skilled operator
required required
Requires high operator skill Requires high operator skill
Good surface finish required Good surface finish required
Defect identification Defect identification
Couplant Couplant may contaminate may contaminate
No permanent record No permanent record
Calibration Required Calibration Required
Ferritic Material (Mostly) Ferritic Material (Mostly)
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
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Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography Comparison with Radiography
good for planar defects good for planar defects
good for thick sections good for thick sections
instant results instant results
can use on complex joints can use on complex joints
can automate can automate
very portable very portable
no safety problems no safety problems ( ( parallel parallel working is possible) working is possible)
low capital & running costs low capital & running costs
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Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography
Comparison with Radiography
DISADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
no permanent record
no permanent record
(with standard equipment)
not suitable for very thin joints <8mm
not suitable for very thin joints <8mm
reliant on operator interpretation
reliant on operator interpretation
not good for sizing Porosity
not good for sizing Porosity
good/smooth surface profile needed
good/smooth surface profile needed
not suitable for coarse grain materials (e.g., castings)
not suitable for coarse grain materials (e.g., castings)
Ferritic Materials
Ferritic Materials
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Magnetic Particle testing (MT)
Magnetic Particle testing (MT)
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Magnetic Particle Testing
Main features:
Main features:
Surface and slight sub
Surface and slight sub
-
-
surface detection
surface detection
Relies on magnetization of component being tested
Relies on magnetization of component being tested
Only Ferro
Only Ferro
-
-
magnetic materials can be tested
magnetic materials can be tested
A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen being
A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen being
tested
tested
Methods of applying a magnetic field, yoke, permanent
Methods of applying a magnetic field, yoke, permanent
magnet, prods and flexible cables.
magnet, prods and flexible cables.
Fine particles of iron powder are applied to the test area
Fine particles of iron powder are applied to the test area
Any defect which interrupts the magnetic field, will create
Any defect which interrupts the magnetic field, will create
a leakage field, which attracts the particles
a leakage field, which attracts the particles
Any defect will show up as either a dark indication or in
Any defect will show up as either a dark indication or in
the case of fluorescent particles under UV
the case of fluorescent particles under UV
-
-
A light a
A light a
green/yellow indication
green/yellow indication
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Electro-magnet (yoke) DC or AC
Prods DC or AC
Collection of ink Collection of ink
particles due to particles due to
leakage field leakage field
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A crack like
A crack like
indication
indication
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Alternatively to contrast inks, fluorescent inks may be used Alternatively to contrast inks, fluorescent inks may be used
for greater sensitivity. These inks require a UV for greater sensitivity. These inks require a UV- -A light source A light source
and a darkened viewing area to inspect the component and a darkened viewing area to inspect the component
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Typical sequence of operations to inspect a weld
Typical sequence of operations to inspect a weld
Clean area to be tested Clean area to be tested
Apply contrast paint Apply contrast paint
Apply magnetisism to the component Apply magnetisism to the component
Apply ferro Apply ferro- -magnetic ink to the component during magnetic ink to the component during
magnatising magnatising
Iterpret the test area Iterpret the test area
Post clean and de Post clean and de- -magnatise if required magnatise if required
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Simple to use Simple to use
Inexpensive Inexpensive
Rapid results Rapid results
Little surface preparation Little surface preparation
required required
Possible to inspect through Possible to inspect through
thin coatings thin coatings
Surface or slight sub Surface or slight sub- -surface surface
detection only detection only
Magnetic materials only Magnetic materials only
No indication of defects No indication of defects
depths depths
Only suitable for linear Only suitable for linear
defects defects
Detection is required in two Detection is required in two
directions directions
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Comparison with Penetrant Testing Comparison with Penetrant Testing
much quicker than PT much quicker than PT
instant results instant results
can detect near can detect near- -surface imperfections surface imperfections (by current flow (by current flow
technique) technique)
less surface preparation needed less surface preparation needed
DISADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
only suitable for ferromagnetic materials only suitable for ferromagnetic materials
electrical power for most techniques electrical power for most techniques
may need to de may need to de- -magnetise (machine components) magnetise (machine components)
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Penetrant Testing (PT)
Penetrant Testing (PT)
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Penetrant Testing
Penetrant Testing
Main features:
Main features:
Detection of surface breaking defects only.
Detection of surface breaking defects only.
This test method uses the forces of capillary action
This test method uses the forces of capillary action
Applicable on any material type, as long they are non
Applicable on any material type, as long they are non
porous.
porous.
Penetrants
Penetrants
are available in many different types:
are available in many different types:
Water washable contrast

Water washable contrast
Solvent removable contrast

Solvent removable contrast
Water washable fluorescent

Water washable fluorescent
Solvent removable fluorescent

Solvent removable fluorescent
Post
Post
-
-
emulsifiable
emulsifiable
fluorescent
fluorescent
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Step 1. Pre Step 1. Pre- -Cleaning Cleaning
Ensure surface is very Clean normally with the use of a solvent Ensure surface is very Clean normally with the use of a solvent
Penetrant Testing
Penetrant Testing
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Step 2. Apply penetrant Step 2. Apply penetrant
After the application, the penetrant is normally left on the After the application, the penetrant is normally left on the
components surface for approximately 15 components surface for approximately 15- -20 minutes (dwell 20 minutes (dwell
time). time).
The penetrant enters any defects that may be present by The penetrant enters any defects that may be present by
capillary action. capillary action.
Penetrant Testing
Penetrant Testing
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Step 3. Clean off penetrant Step 3. Clean off penetrant
the penetrant is removed the penetrant is removed after sufficient penetration time (dwell after sufficient penetration time (dwell
time). time).
Care must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off any Care must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off any
defects present defects present
Penetrant Testing
Penetrant Testing
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Step 3. Apply developer Step 3. Apply developer
After the penetrant has be cleaned sufficiently, a thin layer of After the penetrant has be cleaned sufficiently, a thin layer of
developer is applied. developer is applied.
The developer acts as a contrast against the penetrant and The developer acts as a contrast against the penetrant and
allows for reverse capillary action to take place. allows for reverse capillary action to take place.
Penetrant Testing
Penetrant Testing
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Step 4. Inspection / development time Step 4. Inspection / development time
Inspection should take place immediately after the developer Inspection should take place immediately after the developer
has been applied. has been applied.
any defects present will show as a bleed out during any defects present will show as a bleed out during
development time. development time.
After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning is After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning is
generally required. generally required.
Penetrant Testing
Penetrant Testing
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Colour
Colour
contrast Penetrant
contrast Penetrant
Fluorescent Penetrant
Fluorescent Penetrant
Bleed out viewed
Bleed out viewed
under a UV
under a UV
-
-
A light
A light
source
source
Bleed out viewed
Bleed out viewed
under white light
under white light
Penetrant Testing
Penetrant Testing
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Penetrant Testing
Penetrant Testing
Advantages
Advantages
Simple to use
Simple to use
Inexpensive
Inexpensive
Quick results
Quick results
Can be used on any non
Can be used on any non
-
-
porous material
porous material
Portability
Portability
Low operator skill required
Low operator skill required
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
Surface breaking defect
Surface breaking defect
only
only
little indication of depths
little indication of depths
Penetrant may
Penetrant may
contaminate component
contaminate component
Surface preparation critical
Surface preparation critical
Post cleaning required
Post cleaning required
Potentially hazardous
Potentially hazardous
chemicals
chemicals
Can not test unlimited
Can not test unlimited
times
times
Temperature dependant
Temperature dependant
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Penetrant Testing
Penetrant Testing
Comparison with Magnetic Particle Inspection Comparison with Magnetic Particle Inspection
easy to interpret results easy to interpret results
no power requirements no power requirements
relatively little training required relatively little training required
can use on all materials can use on all materials
DISADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
good surface finish needed good surface finish needed
relatively slow relatively slow
chemicals chemicals - - health & safety issue health & safety issue
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Weld Repairs
Weld Repairs
Section 16
Section 16
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Weld Repairs
Weld Repairs
Weld repairs can be divided into 2 specific
Weld repairs can be divided into 2 specific
areas:
areas:
Production repairs
Production repairs
In service repairs
In service repairs
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A weld repair can be a relatively straight forward
A weld repair can be a relatively straight forward
activity, but in many instances it is quite complex, and
activity, but in many instances it is quite complex, and
various engineering disciplines may need to be involved
various engineering disciplines may need to be involved
to ensure a successful outcome.
to ensure a successful outcome.
Analysis of the defect types may be carried out by

Analysis of the defect types may be carried out by
the Q/C department to discover the likely reason for
the Q/C department to discover the likely reason for
their occurrence, (Material/Process or Skill related).
their occurrence, (Material/Process or Skill related).
In general terms, a welding repair involves
In general terms, a welding repair involves
What!
What!
Weld Repairs
Weld Repairs
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Weld Repairs
Weld Repairs
A weld repair may be used to improve weld profiles or
A weld repair may be used to improve weld profiles or
extensive metal removal:
extensive metal removal:
Repairs to fabrication defects are generally easier

Repairs to fabrication defects are generally easier
than repairs to service failures because the repair
than repairs to service failures because the repair
procedure may be followed
procedure may be followed
The main problem with repairing a weld is the

The main problem with repairing a weld is the
maintenance of mechanical properties
maintenance of mechanical properties
During the inspection of the removed area prior to

During the inspection of the removed area prior to
welding the inspector must ensure that the defects
welding the inspector must ensure that the defects
have been totally removed and the original joint
have been totally removed and the original joint
profile has been maintained as close as possible
profile has been maintained as close as possible
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Weld Repairs
Weld Repairs
In the event of repair, it is required:
In the event of repair, it is required:
Authorization and procedure for repair
Authorization and procedure for repair
Removal of material and preparation for repair
Removal of material and preparation for repair
Monitoring of repair Weld
Monitoring of repair Weld
Testing of repair
Testing of repair
-
-
visual and NDT
visual and NDT
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There are a number of key factors that need to be
There are a number of key factors that need to be
considered before undertaking any repair:
considered before undertaking any repair:
The most important
The most important
-
-
is it financially worthwhile?
is it financially worthwhile?
Can structural integrity be achieved if the item is repaired?
Can structural integrity be achieved if the item is repaired?
Are there any alternatives to welding?
Are there any alternatives to welding?
What caused the defect and is it likely to happen again?
What caused the defect and is it likely to happen again?
How is the defect to be removed and what welding process
How is the defect to be removed and what welding process
is to be used?
is to be used?
What NDE is required to ensure complete removal of the
What NDE is required to ensure complete removal of the
defect?
defect?
Will the welding procedures require approval/re
Will the welding procedures require approval/re
-
-
approval?
approval?
Weld Repairs
Weld Repairs
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Weld Repairs
Weld Repairs
Cleaning the repair area, (removal of paint, grease, etc)
Cleaning the repair area, (removal of paint, grease, etc)
A detailed assessment to find out the extremity of the
A detailed assessment to find out the extremity of the
defect. This may involve the use of a surface or sub surface
defect. This may involve the use of a surface or sub surface
NDE method.
NDE method.
Once established the excavation site must be clearly
Once established the excavation site must be clearly
identified and marked out.
identified and marked out.
An excavation procedure may be required (method used
An excavation procedure may be required (method used
i.e. grinding, arc
i.e. grinding, arc
-
-
air gouging, preheat requirements etc).
air gouging, preheat requirements etc).
NDE should be used to locate the defect and confirm its
NDE should be used to locate the defect and confirm its
removal.
removal.
A welding repair procedure/method statement with the
A welding repair procedure/method statement with the
appropriate welding process, consumable, technique,
appropriate welding process, consumable, technique,
controlled heat input and interpass temperatures etc will
controlled heat input and interpass temperatures etc will
need to be approved.
need to be approved.
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Use of approved welders.
Use of approved welders.
Dressing the weld and final visual.
Dressing the weld and final visual.
A NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out to
A NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out to
ensure that the defect has been successfully removed and
ensure that the defect has been successfully removed and
repaired.
repaired.
Any post repair heat treatment requirements.
Any post repair heat treatment requirements.
Final NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out
Final NDT procedure/technique prepared and carried out
after heat treatment requirements.
after heat treatment requirements.
Applying protective treatments (painting etc as required).
Applying protective treatments (painting etc as required).
(*Appropriate
(*Appropriate
means suitable for the alloys being repaired

means suitable for the alloys being repaired
and may not apply in specific situations)
and may not apply in specific situations)
Weld Repairs
Weld Repairs
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What will be the effect of welding distortion and
What will be the effect of welding distortion and
residual stress?
residual stress?
Will heat treatment be required?
Will heat treatment be required?
What NDE is required and how can acceptability of the
What NDE is required and how can acceptability of the
repair be demonstrated?
repair be demonstrated?
Will approval of the repair be required
Will approval of the repair be required
if yes, how
if yes, how
and by whom?
and by whom?
Weld Repairs
Weld Repairs
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Production Weld Repairs
Before the repair can commence, a number of elements need Before the repair can commence, a number of elements need
to be fulfilled: to be fulfilled:
If the defect is surface breaking and has occurred at the fusion If the defect is surface breaking and has occurred at the fusion
face the problem could be cracking or lack of sidewall fusion. face the problem could be cracking or lack of sidewall fusion.
If the defect is found to be cracking the cause may be If the defect is found to be cracking the cause may be
associated with the material or the welding procedure associated with the material or the welding procedure
If the defect is lack of sidewall fusion this can be apportioned If the defect is lack of sidewall fusion this can be apportioned
to the lack of skill of the welder. to the lack of skill of the welder.
In this particular case as the defect is open to the surface, MP In this particular case as the defect is open to the surface, MPI I
or DYE or DYE- -PEN may be used to gauge the length of the defect and PEN may be used to gauge the length of the defect and
U/T inspection used to gauge the depth. U/T inspection used to gauge the depth.
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Weld Repairs
Weld Repairs
The specification or procedure will govern how the
The specification or procedure will govern how the
defective areas are to be removed. The method of
defective areas are to be removed. The method of
removal may be:
removal may be:
Grinding
Grinding
Chipping
Chipping
Machining
Machining
Filing
Filing
Oxy
Oxy
-
-
Gas gouging
Gas gouging
Arc air gouging

Arc air gouging
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Defect Excavation
Defect Excavation
Arc
Arc
-
-
air gouging
air gouging
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Arc
Arc
-
-
air gouging features
air gouging features
Operate ONLY on DCEP Operate ONLY on DCEP
Special gouging Special gouging copper copper
coated carbon electrode coated carbon electrode
Can be used on carbon Can be used on carbon
and low alloy steels, and low alloy steels,
austenitic stainless steels austenitic stainless steels
and non and non- -ferrous materials ferrous materials
Requires CLEAN/DRY Requires CLEAN/DRY
compressed air supply compressed air supply
Provides fast rate of metal removal Provides fast rate of metal removal
Can remove complex shape defects Can remove complex shape defects
After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory
Gouging doesn Gouging doesn t require a qualified welder! t require a qualified welder!
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Production Repairs
Production Repairs
are usually identified during production
are usually identified during production
inspection
inspection
evaluation of the reports is usually carried out
evaluation of the reports is usually carried out
by the Welding Inspector, or NDT operator
by the Welding Inspector, or NDT operator
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Plan View of defect
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Side View of defect excavation
D
W
Side View of repair welding
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In Service Weld Repairs
In service repairs
In service repairs
Can be of a very complex nature, as the component is
Can be of a very complex nature, as the component is
very likely to be in a different welding position and
very likely to be in a different welding position and
condition than it was during production
condition than it was during production
It may also have been in contact with toxic, or
It may also have been in contact with toxic, or
combustible fluids hence a permit to work will need to
combustible fluids hence a permit to work will need to
be sought prior to any work being carried out
be sought prior to any work being carried out
The repair welding procedure may look very different
The repair welding procedure may look very different
to the original production procedure due to changes in
to the original production procedure due to changes in
these elements.
these elements.
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Other factors to be taken into consideration:
Other factors to be taken into consideration:
Effect of heat on any surrounding areas of the
Effect of heat on any surrounding areas of the
component i.e. electrical components, or materials that
component i.e. electrical components, or materials that
may become damaged by the repair procedure.
may become damaged by the repair procedure.
This may also include difficulty in carrying out any
This may also include difficulty in carrying out any
required pre or post welding heat treatments and a
required pre or post welding heat treatments and a
possible restriction of access to the area to be
possible restriction of access to the area to be
repaired.
repaired.
For large fabrications it is likely that the repair must
For large fabrications it is likely that the repair must
also take place on site and without a shut down of
also take place on site and without a shut down of
operations, which may bring other elements that need
operations, which may bring other elements that need
to be considered.
to be considered.
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Is welding the best method of repair?
Is welding the best method of repair?
Is the repair really like earlier repairs?
Is the repair really like earlier repairs?
What is the composition and weldability of the base metal?
What is the composition and weldability of the base metal?
What strength is required from the repair?
What strength is required from the repair?
Can preheat be tolerated?
Can preheat be tolerated?
Can softening or hardening of the HAZ be tolerated?
Can softening or hardening of the HAZ be tolerated?
Is PWHT necessary and practicable?
Is PWHT necessary and practicable?
Will the fatigue resistance of the repair be adequate?
Will the fatigue resistance of the repair be adequate?
Will the repair resist its environment?
Will the repair resist its environment?
Can the repair be inspected and tested?
Can the repair be inspected and tested?
Weld Repairs
Weld Repairs
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Weld repair related problems
Weld repair related problems
heat from welding may affect dimensional stability
heat from welding may affect dimensional stability
and/or mechanical properties of repaired assembly
and/or mechanical properties of repaired assembly
due to heat from welding, YS goes down,
due to heat from welding, YS goes down,
danger of
danger of
collapse
collapse
filler materials used on dissimilar welds may lead to
filler materials used on dissimilar welds may lead to
galvanic corrosion
galvanic corrosion
local preheat may induce residual stresses
local preheat may induce residual stresses
cost of weld metal deposited during a weld joint
cost of weld metal deposited during a weld joint
repair can reach up to 10 times the original weld
repair can reach up to 10 times the original weld
metal cost!
metal cost!
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Residual Stress & Distortion
Residual Stress & Distortion
Section 17
Section 17
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Residual stress
Residual stress
Residual stresses are undesirable because:
Residual stresses are undesirable because:
they lead to distortion
they lead to distortion
they affect dimensional stability of the
they affect dimensional stability of the
welded assembly
welded assembly
they enhance the risk of brittle fracture
they enhance the risk of brittle fracture
they can facilitate certain types of
they can facilitate certain types of
corrosion
corrosion
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The heating and subsequent cooling from welding produces The heating and subsequent cooling from welding produces
expansion and contractions which affect the weld metal and expansion and contractions which affect the weld metal and
adjacent material. adjacent material.
If this contraction is prevented or inhibited residual stress wi If this contraction is prevented or inhibited residual stress wi ll ll
develop. develop.
The tendency to develop residual stresses increases when the The tendency to develop residual stresses increases when the
heating and cooling is localised. heating and cooling is localised.
Residual stresses are very difficult to measure with any real Residual stresses are very difficult to measure with any real
accuracy. accuracy.
Residual stresses are self balancing internal forces and not Residual stresses are self balancing internal forces and not
stresses induced whilst applying external load stresses induced whilst applying external load
Stresses are more concentrated at the surface of the Stresses are more concentrated at the surface of the
component. component.
The removal of residual stresses is termed stress relieving. The removal of residual stresses is termed stress relieving.
Residual Stresses
Residual Stresses
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Normal Stress
Normal Stress
Stress arising from a force perpendicular to
Stress arising from a force perpendicular to
the
the
cross
cross
sectional area
sectional area
Compression
Compression
Tension
Tension
Stresses
Stresses
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Shear Stress
Shear Stress
Stress arising from forces which are parallel to, and
Stress arising from forces which are parallel to, and
lie
lie
in
in
the plane of the cross sectional
the plane of the cross sectional
area.
area.
Shear Stress
Shear Stress
Stresses
Stresses
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Hoop Stress
Hoop Stress
Internal stress acting on the wall a pipe or cylinder
Internal stress acting on the wall a pipe or cylinder
due to internal pressure.
due to internal pressure.
Hoop Stress
Hoop Stress
Stresses
Stresses
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Longitudinal Longitudinal
Along the weld Along the weld longitudinal residual stresses longitudinal residual stresses
Transverse Transverse
Across the weld Across the weld transverse residual stresses transverse residual stresses
Short Transverse Short Transverse
Through the weld Through the weld short transverse residual stresses short transverse residual stresses
Residual stresses occur in welds in the following directions Residual stresses occur in welds in the following directions
Residual Stresses
Residual Stresses
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Residual stress
Residual stress
Heating and
Heating and
cooling causes
cooling causes
expansion and
expansion and
contraction
contraction
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Residual stress
Residual stress
In case of a heated
In case of a heated
bar, the resistance
bar, the resistance
of the surrounding
of the surrounding
material to the
material to the
expansion and
expansion and
contraction leads
contraction leads
to formation of
to formation of
residual stress
residual stress
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1. 1. Residual stresses are locked in elastic strain, which is Residual stresses are locked in elastic strain, which is
caused by local expansion and contraction in the weld caused by local expansion and contraction in the weld
area. area.
2. 2. Residual stresses should be removed from structures Residual stresses should be removed from structures
after welding. after welding.
3. 3. The amount of contraction is controlled by, the volume of The amount of contraction is controlled by, the volume of
weld metal in the joint, the thickness, heat input, joint weld metal in the joint, the thickness, heat input, joint
design and the materials properties design and the materials properties
4. 4. Offsetting may be used to finalise the position of the joint. Offsetting may be used to finalise the position of the joint.
5. 5. If plates or pipes are prevented from moving by tacking, If plates or pipes are prevented from moving by tacking,
clamping or jigging etc (restraint), then the amount of clamping or jigging etc (restraint), then the amount of
residual stresses that remain will be higher. residual stresses that remain will be higher.
Summary
Summary
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6. 6. The movement caused by welding related stresses is The movement caused by welding related stresses is
called distortion. called distortion.
7. 7. The directions of contractional stresses and distortion is The directions of contractional stresses and distortion is
very complex, as is the amount and type of final distortion, very complex, as is the amount and type of final distortion,
however we can say that there are three directions: however we can say that there are three directions:
a. a. Longitudinal Longitudinal b. b. Transverse Transverse c. c. Short transverse Short transverse
8. 8. A high percentage of residual stresses can be removed by A high percentage of residual stresses can be removed by
heat treatments. heat treatments.
9. 9. The The peening peening of weld faces will only redistribute the of weld faces will only redistribute the
residual stress, and place the weld face in compression. residual stress, and place the weld face in compression.
Summary
Summary
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Types of distortion
Types of distortion
Angular distortion
Angular distortion
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Angular Distortion
Angular Distortion
Bowing Distortion
Bowing Distortion
Longitudinal Distortion
Longitudinal Distortion
Transverse Distortion
Transverse Distortion
Distortion
Distortion
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Factors which affect distortion Factors which affect distortion
Material properties and condition Material properties and condition
Heat input Heat input
The amount of restrain The amount of restrain
The amount of weld metal deposited The amount of weld metal deposited
Distortion
Distortion
Control of distortion my be achieved in the following way: Control of distortion my be achieved in the following way:
The used of a different joint design The used of a different joint design
Presetting the joints to be welded Presetting the joints to be welded so that the so that the metal distorts metal distorts
into the required position. into the required position.
The use of a balanced welding technique The use of a balanced welding technique
The use of clamps, jigs and fixtures. The use of clamps, jigs and fixtures.
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Distortion will occur in all welded joints if the material Distortion will occur in all welded joints if the material are are
free to move i.e. not restrained free to move i.e. not restrained
Restrained materials result in low distortion but high Restrained materials result in low distortion but high
residual stress residual stress
More than one type of distortion may occur at one time More than one type of distortion may occur at one time
Highly restrained joints also have a higher crack Highly restrained joints also have a higher crack tendency tendency
than joints of a low restraint than joints of a low restraint
The action of residual stress in welded joints is to cause The action of residual stress in welded joints is to cause
distortion distortion
Distortion
Distortion
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Distortion
Distortion
Factors affecting distortion:
Factors affecting distortion:
parent material properties
parent material properties
amount of restrain
amount of restrain
joint design
joint design
fit
fit
-
-
up
up
welding sequence
welding sequence
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Factors affecting distortion
Parent material properties:
Parent material properties:
thermal expansion coefficient
thermal expansion coefficient
-
-
the greater the value, the
the greater the value, the
greater the residual stress
greater the residual stress
yield strength
yield strength
-
-
the greater the value, the greater the
the greater the value, the greater the
residual stress
residual stress
Young
Young
s modulus
s modulus
-
-
the greater the value (increase in
the greater the value (increase in
stiffness), the greater the residual stress
stiffness), the greater the residual stress
thermal conductivity
thermal conductivity
-
-
the higher the value, the lower the
the higher the value, the lower the
residual stress
residual stress
transformation temperature
transformation temperature
-
-
during phase
during phase
transformation, expansion/contraction takes place. The
transformation, expansion/contraction takes place. The
lower the transformation temperature, the lower the
lower the transformation temperature, the lower the
residual stress
residual stress
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J oint design:
J oint design:
weld metal volume
weld metal volume
type of joint
type of joint
-
-
butt vs. fillet, single vs. double side
butt vs. fillet, single vs. double side
Amount of restrain:
Amount of restrain:
thickness
thickness
-
-
as thickness increase, so do the stresses
as thickness increase, so do the stresses
high level of restrain lead to high stresses
high level of restrain lead to high stresses
preheat may increase the level of stresses (pipe
preheat may increase the level of stresses (pipe
welding!)
welding!)
Fit
Fit
-
-
up:
up:
misalignment may reduce stresses in some cases
misalignment may reduce stresses in some cases
root gap
root gap
-
-
increase in root gap increases shrinkage
increase in root gap increases shrinkage
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Welding sequence:
Welding sequence:
number of passes
number of passes
-
-
every pass adds to the total
every pass adds to the total
contraction
contraction
heat input
heat input
-
-
the higher the heat input, the greater
the higher the heat input, the greater
the shrinkage
the shrinkage
travel speed
travel speed
-
-
the faster the welding speed, the
the faster the welding speed, the
less the stress
less the stress
build
build
-
-
up sequence
up sequence
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Distortion prevention
Distortion prevention by pre
-
-
setting
setting
a) pre
a) pre
-
-
setting of fillet joint to
setting of fillet joint to
prevent angular distortion
b) pre
b) pre
-
-
setting of butt joint to
setting of butt joint to
c) tapered gap to prevent
c) tapered gap to prevent
closure
closure
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Pre Pre- -set or Offsetting: set or Offsetting:
The amount of offsetting required is generally a function of The amount of offsetting required is generally a function of
trial and error. trial and error.
Distortion
Distortion
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-
-
bending
bending
using strongbacks and wedges
using strongbacks and wedges
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Clamping and jigging: Clamping and jigging:
The materials to be welded are prevented from moving by the The materials to be welded are prevented from moving by the
clamp or jig the main advantage of using a jig is that the clamp or jig the main advantage of using a jig is that the
elements in a fabrication can be precisely located in the elements in a fabrication can be precisely located in the
position to be welded. Main disadvantage of jigging is high position to be welded. Main disadvantage of jigging is high
restraint and high levels of residual stresses. restraint and high levels of residual stresses.
Distortion
Distortion
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Distortion prevention by restraint techniques
a) use of welding jigs
a) use of welding jigs
b) use of flexible
b) use of flexible
clamps
clamps
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c) use of strongbacks
c) use of strongbacks
with wedges
with wedges
d) use of fully welded
d) use of fully welded
strongbacks
strongbacks
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Distortion prevention by design
Consider eliminating the welding!!
Consider eliminating the welding!!
a) by forming the plate
a) by forming the plate
b) by use of rolled or extruded sections
b) by use of rolled or extruded sections
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consider weld placement
consider weld placement
reduce weld metal volume
reduce weld metal volume
and/or number of runs
and/or number of runs
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The volume of weld metal in a joint will affect the amount of The volume of weld metal in a joint will affect the amount of
local expansion and contraction, hence the more weld local expansion and contraction, hence the more weld
deposited the higher amount of distortion deposited the higher amount of distortion
Preparation angle 60 Preparation angle 60
o o
o o
o o
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use of balanced welding
use of balanced welding
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-
-
Transverse Shrinkage
Transverse Shrinkage
Fillet Welds
Fillet Welds
0.8mm per weld where the leg length
0.8mm per weld where the leg length
does not exceed 3/4 plate thickness
does not exceed 3/4 plate thickness
Butt weld
Butt weld
1.5 to 3mm per weld for 60
1.5 to 3mm per weld for 60
V joint,
V joint,
depending on number of runs
depending on number of runs
-
-
Longitudinal Shrinkage
Longitudinal Shrinkage
Fillet Welds
Fillet Welds
0.8mm per 3m of weld
0.8mm per 3m of weld
Butt Welds
Butt Welds
3mm per 3m of weld
3mm per 3m of weld
Allowances to cover shrinkage
Allowances to cover shrinkage
Distortions prevention by design
Distortions prevention by design
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Distortion prevention by fabrication techniques
tack welding
tack welding
a) tack weld straight through
a) tack weld straight through
to end of joint
to end of joint
b) tack weld one end, then use
b) tack weld one end, then use
back
back
-
-
step technique for
step technique for
tacking the rest of the joint
tacking the rest of the joint
c) tack weld the centre, then
c) tack weld the centre, then
complete the tack welding
complete the tack welding
by the back
by the back
-
-
step technique
step technique
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back to back assembly
back to back assembly
a)
a)
assemblies tacked together
assemblies tacked together
before welding
before welding
b) use of wedges for
b) use of wedges for
components that distort on
components that distort on
separation after welding
separation after welding
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use of stiffeners
use of stiffeners
control welding process by:
control welding process by:
-
-
deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible
deposit the weld metal as quickly as possible
-
-
use the least number of runs to fill the joint
use the least number of runs to fill the joint
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Distortion prevention by welding procedure
reduce the number of
reduce the number of
runs required to make a
runs required to make a
weld (e.g. angular
weld (e.g. angular
distortion as a function
distortion as a function
of number of runs for a
of number of runs for a
10 mm leg length weld)
10 mm leg length weld)
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control welding techniques by use
control welding techniques by use
balanced welding about the neutral axis
balanced welding about the neutral axis
control welding techniques by keeping
control welding techniques by keeping
the time between runs to a minimum
the time between runs to a minimum
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control welding techniques by
control welding techniques by
a) Back
a) Back
-
-
step welding
step welding
b) Skip welding
b) Skip welding
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Back
Back
-
-
skip welding technique
skip welding technique
Back
Back
-
-
step welding technique
step welding technique
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3.
4.
4.
5.
5. 6.
6.
1.
1.
2.
2.
3.
3. 6.
6.
4.
4.
5.
5.
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Distortion
Distortion
-
-
Best practice for fabrication corrective techniques
Best practice for fabrication corrective techniques
using tack welds to set up and maintain the joint gap
using tack welds to set up and maintain the joint gap
identical components welded back to back so welding can be
identical components welded back to back so welding can be
balanced about the neutral axis
balanced about the neutral axis
attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal
attachment of longitudinal stiffeners to prevent longitudinal
bowing in butt welds of thin plate structures
bowing in butt welds of thin plate structures
where there is choice of welding procedure, process and
where there is choice of welding procedure, process and
technique should aim to deposit the weld metal as quickly as
technique should aim to deposit the weld metal as quickly as
possible; MIG in preference to MMA or gas welding and
possible; MIG in preference to MMA or gas welding and
mechanised rather than manual welding
mechanised rather than manual welding
in long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one
in long runs, the whole weld should not be completed in one
direction; back
direction; back
-
-
step or skip welding techniques should be used
step or skip welding techniques should be used
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Distortion corrective techniques
Distortion
Distortion
-
-
mechanical corrective techniques
mechanical corrective techniques
Use of press to correct bowing in T butt joint
Use of press to correct bowing in T butt joint
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Distortion
Distortion
-
-
Best practice for mechanical corrective techniques
Best practice for mechanical corrective techniques
Use packing pieces which will over correct the distortion so
Use packing pieces which will over correct the distortion so
that spring
that spring
-
-
back will return the component to the correct shape
back will return the component to the correct shape
Check that the component is adequately supported during
Check that the component is adequately supported during
pressing to prevent buckling
pressing to prevent buckling
Use a former (or rolling) to achieve a straight component or
Use a former (or rolling) to achieve a straight component or
produce a curvature
produce a curvature
As unsecured packing pieces may fly out from the press, the
As unsecured packing pieces may fly out from the press, the
following safe practice must be adopted:
following safe practice must be adopted:
-
-
bolt the packing pieces to the platen
bolt the packing pieces to the platen
-
-
place a metal plate of adequate thickness to intercept the
place a metal plate of adequate thickness to intercept the
'missile'
'missile'
-
-
clear personnel from the hazard area
clear personnel from the hazard area
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Distortion
Distortion
-
-
thermal corrective techniques
Localised heating to
Localised heating to
correct distortion
correct distortion
Spot heating for
Spot heating for
correcting buckling
correcting buckling
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Distortion
Distortion
-
-
Line heating to correct angular
Line heating to correct angular
distortion in a fillet weld
distortion in a fillet weld
Use of wedge shaped heating
Use of wedge shaped heating
to straighten plate
to straighten plate
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Distortion
Distortion
-
-
Wedge shaped heating to correct distortion
Wedge shaped heating to correct distortion
a)
a)
standard rolled
standard rolled
steel section
steel section
b)
b)
buckled edge of
buckled edge of
plate
plate
c)
c)
box fabrication
box fabrication
General guidelines:
Length of wedge = two-thirds of the plate width
Width of wedge (base) = one sixth of its length (base to apex)
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Distortion
Distortion
-
-
use spot heating to remove buckling in thin sheet structures
other than in spot heating of thin panels, use a wedge-shaped
heating technique
use line heating to correct angular distortion in plate
restrict the area of heating to avoid over-shrinking the component
limit the temperature to 60 to 650C (dull red heat) in steels to
prevent metallurgical damage
in wedge heating, heat from the base to the apex of the wedge,
penetrate evenly through the plate thickness and maintain an even
temperature
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Heat Treatment
Heat Treatment
Section 18
Section 18
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Heat Treatment
Heat Treatment
Why?
Why?
Improve mechanical properties
Improve mechanical properties
Change microstructure
Change microstructure
Reduce residual stress level
Reduce residual stress level
Change chemical composition
Change chemical composition
How?
How?
Flame oven
Flame oven
Electric oven/electric heating blankets
Electric oven/electric heating blankets
induction/HF heating elements
induction/HF heating elements
Where?
Where?
Local
Local
Global
Global
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Heat Treatments
Heat Treatments
Many metals must be given heat treatment before and
Many metals must be given heat treatment before and
after welding.
after welding.
The inspector
The inspector
s function is to ensure that the treatment

s function is to ensure that the treatment
is given correctly in accordance with the specification or
is given correctly in accordance with the specification or
as per the details supplied.
as per the details supplied.
Types of heat treatment available:
Types of heat treatment available:
Preheat
Preheat
Annealing
Annealing
Normalising
Normalising
Quench Hardening
Quench Hardening
Temper
Temper
Stress Relief
Stress Relief
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Heat Treatments
Heat Treatments
Pre
Pre
-
-
heat treatments
heat treatments
are used to increase weldability, by reducing sudden
are used to increase weldability, by reducing sudden
reduction of temperature, and control expansion and
reduction of temperature, and control expansion and
contraction forces during welding
contraction forces during welding
Post weld heat treatments
Post weld heat treatments
are used to change the properties of the weld metal,
are used to change the properties of the weld metal,
controlling the formation of crystalline structures
controlling the formation of crystalline structures
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Post Weld
Post Weld
-
-
Heat Treatments
Heat Treatments
Post Hydrogen Release
Post Hydrogen Release
(according to BS EN1011
(according to BS EN1011
-
-
2)
2)
Temperature:
Temperature:
Approximately 250
Approximately 250
C hold up to 3 hours
C hold up to 3 hours
Cooling:
Cooling:
Slow cool in air
Slow cool in air
Result:
Result:
Relieves residual hydrogen
Relieves residual hydrogen
Procedure:
Procedure:
Maintaining pre
Maintaining pre
-
-
heat / interpass temperature
heat / interpass temperature
after completion of welding for 2 to 3 hours.
after completion of welding for 2 to 3 hours.
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Post Weld Heat Treatments
(A) Normalised
(B) Fully Annealed
(C) Water-quenched
(D) Water-quenched & tempered
A B
C D
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The inspector, in general, should ensure that:
The inspector, in general, should ensure that:
Equipment is as specified
Equipment is as specified
Temperature control equipment is in good condition
Temperature control equipment is in good condition
Procedures as specified, is being used e.g.
Procedures as specified, is being used e.g.
o o Method of application Method of application
o o Rate of heating and cooling Rate of heating and cooling
o o Maximum temperature Maximum temperature
o o Soak time Soak time
o o Temperature measurement (and calibration) Temperature measurement (and calibration)
DOCUMENTATION AND RECORDS
DOCUMENTATION AND RECORDS
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Post Weld Heat Treatment Cycle
Post Weld Heat Treatment Cycle
Time Time
Temperatur Temperatur
e e Soaking SoakingTemperature Temperature
and time at the and time at the
attained temperature attained temperature
Heating
Heating
Soaking
Soaking Cooling
Cooling
heating rate heating rate Cooling rate Cooling rate
Variables for heat treatment process must be carefully controlle Variables for heat treatment process must be carefully controlled d
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Post Weld Heat Treatment
Post Weld Heat Treatment
Removal of Residual Stress Removal of Residual Stress
Temperature ( Temperature ( C) C)
100 100 200 200 300 300 400 400 500 500 600 600 700 700
Yield Yield
Strength Strength
(N/mm (N/mm
2 2
) )
100 100
200 200
300 300
400 400
500 500
Cr Cr- -Mo steel Mo steel - - typical typical
C C- -Mn steel Mn steel - - typical typical
At PWHT temp. the yield At PWHT temp. the yield
strength of steel reduced strength of steel reduced
so that it it is not strong so that it it is not strong
enough to give restraint. enough to give restraint.
Residual stress reduced Residual stress reduced
to very low level by to very low level by
straining straining (typically < ~ (typically < ~
0.5% strain) 0.5% strain)
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Heat Treatment
Heat Treatment
Recommendations
Recommendations
Provide adequate support (low YS at high temperature!)
Provide adequate support (low YS at high temperature!)
Control heating rate to avoid uneven thermal expansions
Control heating rate to avoid uneven thermal expansions
Control soak time to equalise temperatures
Control soak time to equalise temperatures
Control temperature gradients
Control temperature gradients
-
-
NO direct flame
NO direct flame
impingement!
impingement!
Control furnace atmosphere to reduce scaling
Control furnace atmosphere to reduce scaling
Control cooling rate to avoid brittle structure formation
Control cooling rate to avoid brittle structure formation
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Post Weld Heat Treatment Methods
Gas furnace heat treatment
Gas furnace heat treatment
Advantages:
Advantages:
Easy to set up
Easy to set up
Good portability
Good portability
repeatability and
repeatability and
temperature uniformity
temperature uniformity
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:
Limited to size of parts
Limited to size of parts
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HF (Induction) local heat treatment HF (Induction) local heat treatment
Advantages:
Advantages:
High heating rates
High heating rates
Ability to heat a
Ability to heat a
narrow band
narrow band
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:
High equipment
High equipment
cost
cost
Large equipment,
Large equipment,
less portable
less portable
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Local heat treatment using
Local heat treatment using
electric heating blankets
electric heating blankets
Advantages:
Advantages:
Ability to vary
Ability to vary
heat
heat
Ability to
Ability to
continuously
continuously
maintain heat
maintain heat
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:
Elements may
Elements may
burn out or arcing
burn out or arcing
during heating
during heating
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Cutting Processes
Cutting Processes
Section 19
Section 19
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Use of gas flame
Use of gas flame
Welding
Welding
Gouging
Gouging
Brazing
Brazing
Heating
Heating
Straightening
Straightening
Cutting
Cutting
Blasting
Blasting
Spraying
Spraying
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Oxygen regulator
Oxygen regulator Fuel gas regulator
Fuel gas regulator
Regulators
Regulators
Regulator
Regulator
type
type
Single stage
Single stage
Two stage
Two stage
used when slight rise in delivery
used when slight rise in delivery
pressure from full to empty cylinder
pressure from full to empty cylinder
condition can be tolerated
condition can be tolerated
used when a constant delivery
used when a constant delivery
pressure from full to empty
pressure from full to empty
cylinder condition is required
cylinder condition is required
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Flashback arrestors
Flashback arrestors
Flashback
Flashback
-
-
recession of the flame into or back of the mixing chamber
recession of the flame into or back of the mixing chamber
Flashback
flame
quenched
at the
flashback
barrier
Flame
barrie
r
Built-
in
check
valve
Normal
flow
Reverse
flow
Flashback
Built-in
check
valve
stops
reverse
flow
SAFETY SAFETY SAFETY
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A jet of pure oxygen reacts with iron, that has been
A jet of pure oxygen reacts with iron, that has been
preheated to its ignition point, to produce the
preheated to its ignition point, to produce the
oxide Fe
oxide Fe
3 3
O
O
4 4
by exothermic reaction.This oxide is
by exothermic reaction.This oxide is
then blown through the material by the velocity of
then blown through the material by the velocity of
the oxygen stream
the oxygen stream
Different types of fuel gases may be used for the
Different types of fuel gases may be used for the
pre
pre
-
-
heating flame in oxy fuel gas cutting: i.e.
heating flame in oxy fuel gas cutting: i.e.
acetylene, hydrogen, propane. etc
acetylene, hydrogen, propane. etc
By adding iron powder to the flame we are able
By adding iron powder to the flame we are able
to cut most metals
to cut most metals
-
-
Iron Powder Injection

Iron Powder Injection
The high intensity of heat and rapid cooling will

The high intensity of heat and rapid cooling will
cause hardening in low alloy and medium/ high C
cause hardening in low alloy and medium/ high C
steels
steels
they are thus pre
they are thus pre
-
-
heated to avoid the
heated to avoid the
hardening effect
hardening effect
Oxyfuel gas cutting process
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Oxyfuel gas cutting equipment
The cutting torch
The cutting torch
Neutral cutting flame Neutral cutting flame
Neutral cutting flame with Neutral cutting flame with
oxygen cutting stream oxygen cutting stream
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Oxyfuel gas cutting related terms
Oxyfuel gas cutting related terms
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Oxyfuel gas cutting quality
Good cut
Good cut
-
-
sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines,
little oxide and a sharp bottom edge
Cut too fast
Cut too fast
-
-
pronounced break in
pronounced break in
the drag line,
the drag line,
irregular cut edge
irregular cut edge
Cut too slow
Cut too slow
-
-
top edge is
top edge is
melted, deep groves in the
melted, deep groves in the
lower portion, heavy scaling,
lower portion, heavy scaling,
rough bottom edge
rough bottom edge
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Good cut
Good cut
-
-
Preheat flame too high
Preheat flame too high
-
-
top edge is melted,
top edge is melted,
irregular cut, excess of
irregular cut, excess of
adherent dross
adherent dross
Preheat flame too low
Preheat flame too low
-
-
deep groves in the lower
deep groves in the lower
part of the cut
part of the cut
face
face
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Good cut
Good cut
-
-
Irregular travel speed
Irregular travel speed
-
-
uneven
uneven
space between drag lines,
space between drag lines,
irregular bottom with adherent
irregular bottom with adherent
oxide
oxide
Nozzle is too high above
Nozzle is too high above
the works
the works
-
-
excessive
excessive
melting of the top edge,
melting of the top edge,
much oxide
much oxide
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Mechanised oxyfuel cutting
Mechanised oxyfuel cutting
can use portable carriages or gantry type machines
can use portable carriages or gantry type machines
and obtain
and obtain
high productivity
high productivity
accurate cutting for complicate shapes
accurate cutting for complicate shapes
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OFW/C advantages/disadvantages
Disadvantages:
Disadvantages:
2) Wide HAZ
2) Wide HAZ
4) Slow process
4) Slow process
5) Limited range of
5) Limited range of
consumables
consumables
3) Safety issues
3) Safety issues
Advantages:
Advantages:
1) No need for power
1) No need for power
supply,
supply,
portable
portable
3) Low equipment cost
3) Low equipment cost
4) Can cut carbon and low
4) Can cut carbon and low
alloy steels
alloy steels
5) Good on thin materials
5) Good on thin materials
2) Versatile: preheat,
2) Versatile: preheat,
brazing, surfacing, repair,
brazing, surfacing, repair,
straightening
straightening
6) Not suitable for reactive
6) Not suitable for reactive
& refractory metals
& refractory metals
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Special oxyfuel operations
Gouging
Gouging
Rivet cutting
Rivet cutting
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Thin sheet cutting
Thin sheet cutting
Rivet washing
Rivet washing
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Cutting Processes
Cutting Processes
Plasma arc cutting
Plasma arc cutting
Uses high velocity jet of ionised gas
Uses high velocity jet of ionised gas
through a constricted nozzle to remove the
through a constricted nozzle to remove the
molten metal
molten metal
Uses a tungsten electrode and water
Uses a tungsten electrode and water
cooled nozzle
cooled nozzle
High quality cutting
High quality cutting
High intensity and UV radiation
High intensity and UV radiation
EYES !
EYES !
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Cutting Processes
Cutting Processes
Air
Air
-
-
arc for cutting or gouging
arc for cutting or gouging
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Air
Air
-
-
arc gouging features
arc gouging features
Operate ONLY on DCEP Operate ONLY on DCEP
Special gouging Special gouging copper copper
coated carbon electrode coated carbon electrode
Can be used on carbon Can be used on carbon
and low alloy steels, and low alloy steels,
austenitic stainless steels austenitic stainless steels
and non and non- -ferrous materials ferrous materials
Requires CLEAN/DRY Requires CLEAN/DRY
compressed air supply compressed air supply
Provides fast rate of metal removal Provides fast rate of metal removal
Can remove complex shape defects Can remove complex shape defects
After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory
Gouging doesn Gouging doesn t require a qualified welder! t require a qualified welder!
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Arc Welding Safety
Arc Welding Safety
Please discuss
Please discuss
Section 20
Section 20
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Safety
Safety
Electrical safety
Electrical safety
Heat & Light
Heat & Light
Visible light Visible light
UV radiation UV radiation - - effects on effects on
skin and eyes skin and eyes
Fumes & Explosive
Fumes & Explosive
Gasses
Gasses
Noise levels
Noise levels
Fire Hazards
Fire Hazards
Scaffolding & Staging
Scaffolding & Staging
Slips, trips and falls
Slips, trips and falls
Protection of others from
Protection of others from
exposure
exposure
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Weldability Of Steels
Weldability Of Steels
Section 21
Section 21
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Weldability of Steels
Definition
Definition
It relates to the ability of the metal (or alloy) to be welded w
It relates to the ability of the metal (or alloy) to be welded w
ith
ith
mechanical soundness by most of the common welding
mechanical soundness by most of the common welding
processes, and the resulting welded joint retain the
processes, and the resulting welded joint retain the
properties for which it has been designed.
properties for which it has been designed.
is a function of many inter
is a function of many inter
-
-
related factors but these may be
related factors but these may be
summarised as:
summarised as:
Composition of parent material
Composition of parent material
J oint design and size
J oint design and size
Process and technique
Process and technique
Access
Access
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The weldability of steel is mainly dependant on carbon & other a The weldability of steel is mainly dependant on carbon & other alloying lloying
elements content. elements content.
If a material has limited weldability, we need to take special m If a material has limited weldability, we need to take special measures easures
to ensure the maintenance of the properties required to ensure the maintenance of the properties required
Poor weldability normally results in the occurrence of cracking Poor weldability normally results in the occurrence of cracking
A steel is considered to have poor weldability when: A steel is considered to have poor weldability when:
an acceptable joint can only be made by using very narrow range an acceptable joint can only be made by using very narrow range
of welding conditions of welding conditions
great precautions to avoid cracking are essential great precautions to avoid cracking are essential (e.g., high pre (e.g., high pre- -
heat etc) heat etc)
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The Effect of Alloying on Steels
The Effect of Alloying on Steels
Elements may be added to steels to produce the
Elements may be added to steels to produce the
properties required to make it useful for an application.
properties required to make it useful for an application.
Most elements can have many effects on the properties
Most elements can have many effects on the properties
of steels.
of steels.
Other factors which affect material properties are:
Other factors which affect material properties are:
The temperature reached before and during welding

The temperature reached before and during welding
Heat input
Heat input
The cooling rate after welding and or PWHT

The cooling rate after welding and or PWHT
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Iron (Fe): Iron (Fe): Main steel constituent. On its own, is relatively soft, ductile Main steel constituent. On its own, is relatively soft, ductile, with low , with low
strength. strength.
Carbon (C): Carbon (C): Major alloying element in steels, Major alloying element in steels, a strengthening element with a strengthening element with
major influence on HAZ hardness major influence on HAZ hardness. Decreases weldability. . Decreases weldability.
typically < ~ 0.25% typically < ~ 0.25%
Manganese (Mn): Manganese (Mn): Secondary only to carbon for strength, toughness and Secondary only to carbon for strength, toughness and
ductility, secondary de ductility, secondary de- -oxidiser oxidiser and also reacts with and also reacts with sulphur sulphur to form to form
manganese manganese sulphide sulphide. .
< ~0.8% is residual from steel de < ~0.8% is residual from steel de- -oxidation oxidation
up to ~1.6% (in C up to ~1.6% (in C- -Mn steels) improves strength & toughness Mn steels) improves strength & toughness
Silicon (Si): Silicon (Si): Residual element from steel de Residual element from steel de- -oxidation. oxidation.
typically to ~0.35% typically to ~0.35%
Steel Alloying Elements
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Phosphorus (P): Phosphorus (P): Residual element from steel Residual element from steel- -making minerals. making minerals. difficult to difficult to
reduce below < ~ 0.015% brittleness reduce below < ~ 0.015% brittleness
Sulphur (S): Sulphur (S): Residual element from steel Residual element from steel- -making minerals making minerals
< ~ 0.015% in modern steels < ~ 0.015% in modern steels
< ~ 0.003% in very clean steels < ~ 0.003% in very clean steels
Aluminium (Al): Aluminium (Al): De De- -oxidant and grain size control oxidant and grain size control
typically ~ 0.02 to ~ 0.05% typically ~ 0.02 to ~ 0.05%
Chromium (Cr): Chromium (Cr): F For creep resistance & oxidation (scaling) resistance for or creep resistance & oxidation (scaling) resistance for
elevated temperature service. elevated temperature service. Widely used in stainless steels for Widely used in stainless steels for
corrosion resistance, increases hardness and strength but reduce corrosion resistance, increases hardness and strength but reduces s
ductility. ductility.
typically ~ 1 to 9% in low alloy steels typically ~ 1 to 9% in low alloy steels
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Nickel (Ni)
Nickel (Ni)
:
: Used in stainless steels, high resistance to corrosion from Used in stainless steels, high resistance to corrosion from
acids, increases strength and toughness acids, increases strength and toughness
Molybdenum (Mo)
Molybdenum (Mo)
:
: Affects Affects hardenability hardenability. Steels containing . Steels containing
molybdenum are less susceptible to temper brittleness than molybdenum are less susceptible to temper brittleness than
other alloy steels. other alloy steels. Increases the high temperature tensile and Increases the high temperature tensile and
creep strengths of steel. typically ~ 0.5 to 1.0% creep strengths of steel. typically ~ 0.5 to 1.0%
Niobium (Nb)
Niobium (Nb)
:
: a grain refiner, typically~ 0.05% a grain refiner, typically~ 0.05%
Vanadium (V)
Vanadium (V)
:
: a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05% a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05%
Titanium (Ti)
Titanium (Ti)
:
: a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05% a grain refiner, typically ~ 0.05%
Copper (Cu)
Copper (Cu)
:
: present as a residual, (typically < ~ 0.30%) present as a residual, (typically < ~ 0.30%)
added to added to weathering steels weathering steels (~ 0.6%) to give better resistance (~ 0.6%) to give better resistance
to atmospheric corrosion to atmospheric corrosion
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Classification of Steels
Classification of Steels
Mild steel (CE < 0.4)
Mild steel (CE < 0.4)
Readily weldable, preheat generally not required if low hydrogen Readily weldable, preheat generally not required if low hydrogen
processes or electrodes are used processes or electrodes are used
Preheat may be required when welding thick section material, Preheat may be required when welding thick section material,
high restraint and with higher levels of hydrogen being high restraint and with higher levels of hydrogen being
generated generated
C C- -Mn, medium carbon, low alloy steels (CE 0.4 to 0.5) Mn, medium carbon, low alloy steels (CE 0.4 to 0.5)
Thin sections can be welded without preheat but thicker sections Thin sections can be welded without preheat but thicker sections
will require low preheat levels and low hydrogen processes or will require low preheat levels and low hydrogen processes or
electrodes should be used electrodes should be used
Higher carbon and alloyed steels (CE > 0.5) Higher carbon and alloyed steels (CE > 0.5)
Preheat, low hydrogen processes or electrodes, post weld Preheat, low hydrogen processes or electrodes, post weld
heating and slow cooling may be required heating and slow cooling may be required
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Process Cracks
Process Cracks
Hydrogen Induced
Hydrogen Induced
HAZ
HAZ
Cracking
Cracking
(C/Mn steels)
(C/Mn steels)
Hydrogen Induced
Hydrogen Induced
Weld Metal
Weld Metal
Cracking
Cracking
(HSLA steels).
(HSLA steels).
Solidification or Hot Cracking

Solidification or Hot Cracking
(All steels)
(All steels)
Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar Tearing
(All steels)
(All steels)
Re
Re
-
-
heat Cracking
heat Cracking
(All steels, very susceptible Cr/Mo/V
(All steels, very susceptible Cr/Mo/V
steels)
steels)
Inter
Inter
-
-
Crystalline Corrosion or Weld Decay
Crystalline Corrosion or Weld Decay
(stainless
(stainless
steels)
steels)
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Cracking
Cracking
When considering any type of cracking mechanism, three
When considering any type of cracking mechanism, three
elements must always be present:
elements must always be present:
Stress
Stress
Residual stress is always present in a weldment,
Residual stress is always present in a weldment,
through unbalanced local expansion and
through unbalanced local expansion and
contraction
contraction
Restraint
Restraint
Restraint may be a local restriction, or through
Restraint may be a local restriction, or through
plates being welded to each other
plates being welded to each other
Susceptible microstructure
Susceptible microstructure
The microstructure may be made susceptible to
The microstructure may be made susceptible to
cracking by the process of welding
cracking by the process of welding
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Cracks
Cracks
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May occur:
May occur:
up to 48 hrs after completion
up to 48 hrs after completion
In weld metal, HAZ, parent
In weld metal, HAZ, parent
metal.
metal.
At weld toes
At weld toes
Under weld beads
Under weld beads
At stress raisers.
At stress raisers.
Also know as:
Cold Cracking, happens when
the welds cool down.
HAZ cracking, normally occurs
in the HAZ.
Delayed cracking, as it takes
time for the hydrogen to
migrate. 48 Hours normally but
up to 72,
Under-bead cracking, normally
happens in the HAZ under a
weld bead
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There is a risk of hydrogen cracking when all of the 4
There is a risk of hydrogen cracking when all of the 4
factors occur together:
factors occur together:
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
More than 15ml/100g of weld metal
More than 15ml/100g of weld metal
Stress
Stress
More than
More than
the yield stress

the yield stress
Temperature
Temperature
Below 300
Below 300
o o
C
C
Hardness
Hardness
Greater than 400HV Vickers
Greater than 400HV Vickers
Susceptible Microstructure
Susceptible Microstructure
(Martensite)
(Martensite)
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Precautions for controlling hydrogen cracking
Precautions for controlling hydrogen cracking
Pre heat, removes moisture from the joint preparations,
Pre heat, removes moisture from the joint preparations,
and slows down the cooling rate
and slows down the cooling rate
Ensure joint preparations are clean and free from
Ensure joint preparations are clean and free from
contamination
contamination
The use of a low hydrogen welding process and correct
The use of a low hydrogen welding process and correct
arc length
arc length
Ensure all welding is carried out is carried out under
Ensure all welding is carried out is carried out under
controlled environmental conditions
controlled environmental conditions
Ensure good fit
Ensure good fit
-
-
up as to reduced stress
up as to reduced stress
The use of a PWHT
The use of a PWHT
Avoid poor weld profiles
Avoid poor weld profiles
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Hydrogen is the smallest atom known
Hydrogen is the smallest atom known

Hydrogen enters the weld via the arc
Hydrogen enters the weld via the arc

Source of hydrogen mainly from moisture pick
Source of hydrogen mainly from moisture pick
-
-
up on
up on
the electrodes coating, welding fluxes or from the
the electrodes coating, welding fluxes or from the
consumable gas
consumable gas
H H
2 2
H H
2 2
H H
2 2
H H
2 2
H H
2 2
Moisture on Moisture on
the electrode the electrode
or grease on or grease on
the wire the wire
Water vapour Water vapour
in the air or in the air or
in the in the
Oxide or grease on Oxide or grease on
the plate the plate
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Hydrogen absorbed
in a long, or
unstable arc
Hydrogen introduced in
weld from consumable,
oils, or paint on plate
Cellulosic electrodes
produce hydrogen as a
shielding gas
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
crack
crack
Martensite forms from
H
2
diffuses to in HAZ
H
2
H
2
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Hard brittle structure
Hard brittle structure
MARTENSITE Promoted by:

MARTENSITE Promoted by:
A)
A)
High Carbon Content, Carbon Equivalent (CE)
High Carbon Content, Carbon Equivalent (CE)
Heat input (Kj/mm)
Heat input (Kj/mm)
= Amps x Volts x arc time
= Amps x Volts x arc time
Run out length x 10
Run out length x 10
3 3
(1000)
(1000)
CEV = %C +
CEV = %C +
Mn
Mn
+
+
Cr+Mo+V
Cr+Mo+V
+
+
Ni+Cu
Ni+Cu
6 5 15
6 5 15
B) B) high alloy content high alloy content
C) C) fast cooling rate: fast cooling rate: Inadequate Pre Inadequate Pre- -Heating Heating
Cold Material Cold Material
Thick Material Thick Material
Low Heat Input. Low Heat Input.
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Typical locations for Cold Cracking
Typical locations for Cold Cracking
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HSLA or Micro HSLA or Micro- -Alloyed Steels are high strength steels Alloyed Steels are high strength steels
(800MPa/N/mm2) that derive their high strength from small (800MPa/N/mm2) that derive their high strength from small
percentage alloying (over percentage alloying (over- -alloyed Weld metal to match the alloyed Weld metal to match the
strength of parent metal) strength of parent metal)
Typically the level of alloying is in the elements such as Typically the level of alloying is in the elements such as
vanadium molybdenum and titanium, vanadium molybdenum and titanium, nickel and chromium nickel and chromium
Strength Strength. are used. It would be impossible to match this micro . are used. It would be impossible to match this micro
alloying in the electrode due to the effect of losses across an alloying in the electrode due to the effect of losses across an
electric arc (Ti burn in the arc) electric arc (Ti burn in the arc)
It is however important to match the strength of the weld to It is however important to match the strength of the weld to
the strength of the plate, Mn 1.6 Cr Ni Mo the strength of the plate, Mn 1.6 Cr Ni Mo
HICC in HSLA steels
HICC in HSLA steels
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Hydrogen Scales
Hydrogen Scales
List of hydrogen scales from BS EN 1011:part 2.
List of hydrogen scales from BS EN 1011:part 2.
Hydrogen content related to 100 grams of weld
Hydrogen content related to 100 grams of weld
metal deposited.
metal deposited.
Scale
Scale
A
A
High:
High:
>
>
15 ml
15 ml
Scale
Scale
B
B
Medium:
Medium:
10 ml
10 ml
-
-
15 ml
15 ml
Scale
Scale
C
C
Low:
Low:
5 ml
5 ml
-
-
10 ml
10 ml
Scale
Scale
D
D
Very low:
Very low:
3 ml
3 ml
-
-
5 ml
5 ml
Scale
Scale
E
E
Ultra
Ultra
-
-
low:
low:
<
<
3 ml
3 ml
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Potential Hydrogen Level Processes
Potential Hydrogen Level Processes
list of welding processes in order of potential lowest
list of welding processes in order of potential lowest
hydrogen content with regards to 100g of deposited weld
hydrogen content with regards to 100g of deposited weld
metal.
metal.
TIG
TIG
< 3 ml
< 3 ml
MIG
MIG
< 5 ml
< 5 ml
ESW
ESW
< 5 ml
< 5 ml
MMA (Basic Electrodes)
MMA (Basic Electrodes)
< 5 ml
< 5 ml
SAW
SAW
< 10ml
< 10ml
FCAW
FCAW
< 15 ml
< 15 ml
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Weldability
Weldability
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Usually Occurs in Weld Centerline
Usually Occurs in Weld Centerline
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Also referred as
Also referred as
Hot Cracking:
Hot Cracking:
Occurring at high temperatures while the weld is hot
Occurring at high temperatures while the weld is hot
Centerline cracking:
Centerline cracking:
cracks appear down the centre line of the bead.
cracks appear down the centre line of the bead.
Crater cracking:
Crater cracking:
Small cracks in weld centers are solidification cracks
Small cracks in weld centers are solidification cracks
Crack type:
Crack type:
Solidification cracking
Solidification cracking
Location:
Location:
Weld centreline (longitudinal)
Weld centreline (longitudinal)
Steel types:
Steel types:
High sulphur & phosphor concentration in steels.
High sulphur & phosphor concentration in steels.
Susceptible
Susceptible
Microstructure:
Microstructure:
Columnar grains In direction
Columnar grains In direction
of solidification
of solidification
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Factors for solidification cracking
Factors for solidification cracking
Columnar grain growth with impurities in weld metal ( Columnar grain growth with impurities in weld metal (sulphur sulphur, ,
phosphor and carbon) phosphor and carbon)
The amount of stress/restraint The amount of stress/restraint
J oint design high depth to width ratios J oint design high depth to width ratios
Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying grains. Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying grains.
High contractional strains are present High contractional strains are present
High dilution processes are being used. High dilution processes are being used.
There is a high carbon content in the weld metal There is a high carbon content in the weld metal
Most commonly occurring in sub Most commonly occurring in sub- -arc welded joints arc welded joints
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Sulphur
Sulphur
in the parent material may dilute in the weld
in the parent material may dilute in the weld
metal to form iron sulphides (low strength, low
metal to form iron sulphides (low strength, low
melting point compounds)
melting point compounds)

During weld metal solidification, columnar crystals
During weld metal solidification, columnar crystals
push still liquid iron sulphides in front to the last place
push still liquid iron sulphides in front to the last place
of solidification, weld centerline.
of solidification, weld centerline.

The bonding between the grains which are
The bonding between the grains which are
themselves under great stress and may now be very
themselves under great stress and may now be very
poor to maintain cohesion and a crack will result,
poor to maintain cohesion and a crack will result,
weld centerline.
weld centerline.
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Deep, narrower weld bead Deep, narrower weld bead
On solidification the On solidification the
bonding between the grains bonding between the grains
may now be very poor to may now be very poor to
maintain cohesion and a maintain cohesion and a
crack may result crack may result
Shallow, wider weld bead Shallow, wider weld bead
On solidification the On solidification the
bonding between the bonding between the
grains may be adequate to grains may be adequate to
maintain cohesion and a maintain cohesion and a
crack is unlikely to occur crack is unlikely to occur
Avoidance
Avoidance
HAZ HAZ HAZ HAZ
Intergranular liquid film Intergranular liquid film
Columnar Columnar
grains grains
Columnar Columnar
grains grains
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Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to choose a The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to choose a low low
dilution process, and change the joint design dilution process, and change the joint design
Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further dilution???? Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further dilution????
Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S which form Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S which form
between the grain and maintain grain cohesion between the grain and maintain grain cohesion
As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required increases As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required increases
exponentially and is a major factor. Carbon content % should be exponentially and is a major factor. Carbon content % should be a a
minimised by careful control in electrode and dilution minimised by careful control in electrode and dilution
Limit the heat input, hence low contraction, & minimise restrain Limit the heat input, hence low contraction, & minimise restraint t
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The use of high manganese and low carbon content

The use of high manganese and low carbon content
fillers
fillers
Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the

Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the
joint during welding
joint during welding
The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of

impurities (Phosphor &
impurities (Phosphor &
sulphur
sulphur
)
)
Clean joint preparations contaminants (oil, grease, paints

Clean joint preparations contaminants (oil, grease, paints
and any other
and any other
sulphur
sulphur
containing product)
containing product)
J oint design selection depth to width ratios

J oint design selection depth to width ratios
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 585 585 of 691 of 691
Solidification cracking in Austenitic Stainless Steel
Solidification cracking in Austenitic Stainless Steel
particularly prone to solidification cracking particularly prone to solidification cracking
large grain size gives rise to a reduction in grain boundary are large grain size gives rise to a reduction in grain boundary area a
with high concentration of impurities with high concentration of impurities
Austenitic structure very intolerant to contaminants ( Austenitic structure very intolerant to contaminants (sulphur sulphur, ,
phosphorous and other impurities). phosphorous and other impurities).
High coefficient of thermal expansion /Low coefficient of therma High coefficient of thermal expansion /Low coefficient of thermal l
conductivity, with high resultant residual stress conductivity, with high resultant residual stress
same precautions against cracking as for plain carbon steels same precautions against cracking as for plain carbon steels
with extra emphasis on thorough cleaning and high dilution with extra emphasis on thorough cleaning and high dilution
controls. controls.
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Cracks
Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar Tearing
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Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar Tearing
Factors for lamellar tearing to occur
Factors for lamellar tearing to occur
Cracks only occur in the rolled plate !
Cracks only occur in the rolled plate !
Close to or just outside the HAZ !
Close to or just outside the HAZ !
Cracks lay parallel to the plate surface and the fusion
Cracks lay parallel to the plate surface and the fusion
boundary of the weld and has a stepped aspect.
boundary of the weld and has a stepped aspect.
Low quality parent materials, high levels of impurities

Low quality parent materials, high levels of impurities
J oint design, direction of stress

J oint design, direction of stress
The amount of stress acting across the joint during

The amount of stress acting across the joint during
welding
welding
Note: very susceptible joints may form lamellar tearing

Note: very susceptible joints may form lamellar tearing
under very low levels of stress
under very low levels of stress
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Tee fillet weld Tee fillet weld
Tee butt weld Tee butt weld
(double (double- -bevel) bevel)
Corner butt weld Corner butt weld
(single (single- -bevel) bevel)
Susceptible joint types combined with susceptible rolled plate
Susceptible joint types combined with susceptible rolled plate
used to make a joint.
used to make a joint.
High stresses act in the through thickness direction of the plat
High stresses act in the through thickness direction of the plat
e
e
(know as the short transverse direction).
(know as the short transverse direction).
T, K & Y joints normally end up with a tensile residual stress
T, K & Y joints normally end up with a tensile residual stress
component in the through thickness direction.
component in the through thickness direction.
Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar Tearing
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Critical area Critical area
Critical Critical
area area
Critical area Critical area
Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar Tearing
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Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar tearing
Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar tearing
Susceptible Susceptible Non Non- -Susceptible Susceptible
Prior welding both Prior welding both
plates may be grooved plates may be grooved
to avoid lamellar tearing to avoid lamellar tearing
An open corner joint An open corner joint
may be selected to may be selected to
avoid lamellar tearing avoid lamellar tearing
Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar Tearing
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Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing
Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing

impurities
impurities

The use of buttering runs
The use of buttering runs

A gap can be left between the horizontal and vertical
A gap can be left between the horizontal and vertical
members enabling the contraction movement to take place
members enabling the contraction movement to take place

J oint design selection
J oint design selection

Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on
Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on
the
the
joint
joint
during welding
during welding

Hydrogen precautions
Hydrogen precautions
Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar Tearing
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Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar Tearing
Crack type:
Crack type:
Lamellar tearing
Lamellar tearing
Location:
Location:
Below weld HAZ
Below weld HAZ
Steel types:
Steel types:
High sulphur & phosphorous steels
High sulphur & phosphorous steels
Microstructure:
Microstructure:
Lamination & Segregation
Lamination & Segregation
Occurs when:
Occurs when:
High contractional strains are through the short
High contractional strains are through the short
transverse direction. There is a high sulfur content in
transverse direction. There is a high sulfur content in
the base metal.
the base metal.
There is low through thickness ductility in the base
There is low through thickness ductility in the base
metal.
metal.
There is high restraint on the work
There is high restraint on the work
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The short tensile test or through thickness test is a
The short tensile test or through thickness test is a
test to determine a materials susceptibility to
test to determine a materials susceptibility to
lamellar tearing
lamellar tearing
Friction Welded Caps Friction Welded Caps
Short Tensile Specimen Short Tensile Specimen
Through Through
Thickness Thickness
Ductility Ductility
Sample of Parent Material Sample of Parent Material
The results are given as a The results are given as a STRA STRA value value
Short Transverse Reduction in Area Short Transverse Reduction in Area
Short Tensile (Through Thickness) Test
Short Tensile (Through Thickness) Test
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High contractional
strains
Lamellar tear
Restraint
Lamellar Tearing
Lamellar Tearing
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Practical Visual Inspection
Practical Visual Inspection
Section 22
Section 22
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Leg Length Gauge
Leg Length Gauge
G.A.L.
S.T.D.
10mm
1
2
m
m
16mm
3
m
m
6
m
m
9
m
m
5
m
m
4
m
m
L
Throat Thickness Gauge
Throat Thickness Gauge
G.A.L.
S.T.D.
10mm
1
2
m
m
16mm
3
m
m
6
m
m
9
m
m
5
m
m
4
m
m
T
Fillet Weld Gauges
Fillet Weld Gauges
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H
I
-
L
O

S
i
n
g
l
e

P
u
r
p
o
s
e

W
e
l
d
i
n
g

G
a
u
g
e
1
2
3
4
5
6
Root gap
Root gap
dimension
dimension
Internal
Internal
alignment
alignment
HI
HI
-
-
LO Welding Gauge
LO Welding Gauge
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Plate / Pipe Inspection
Plate / Pipe Inspection
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Remember in the CSWIP 3.1 Welding Inspectors
examination your are required to conduct a practical
examination your are required to conduct a practical
examination of a plate test weld, complete a thumb
examination of a plate test weld, complete a thumb
print sketch and a final report on your findings
print sketch and a final report on your findings
Time allowed 1 hour and 15 minutes

The code is provided

The code is provided
Plate Inspection Examination
Plate Inspection Examination
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1)
1)
Use a pencil for the arrow lines, but make all
Use a pencil for the arrow lines, but make all
written comments and measurements in
written comments and measurements in
ink
ink
only
only
3)
3)
Do not forget to
Do not forget to
compare and sentence
compare and sentence
your
your
report
report
2) Report
2) Report
everything
everything
that you can observe
that you can observe
4) Do not forget to
4) Do not forget to
date & sign
date & sign
your report
your report
5)
5)
Make any observations, such as
Make any observations, such as
recommendations for further investigation for
recommendations for further investigation for
crack
crack
-
-
like imperfections.
like imperfections.
Plate Inspection Points
Plate Inspection Points
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After you have observed an imperfection and
After you have observed an imperfection and
determined its type, you must be able to take
determined its type, you must be able to take
measurements and complete the thumb print report
measurements and complete the thumb print report
sketch
sketch
The first thumb print report sketch should be in the
The first thumb print report sketch should be in the
form of a repair map of the weld. (i.e.
form of a repair map of the weld. (i.e.
All
All
observations are Identified Sized and Located)
observations are Identified Sized and Located)
The thumb print report sketch used in CSWIP exam
The thumb print report sketch used in CSWIP exam
will look like the following example.
will look like the following example.
Plate Thumb Print Report
Plate Thumb Print Report
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After you have completed your thumb print report
After you have completed your thumb print report
sketch of your test plate the next step is to complete
sketch of your test plate the next step is to complete
your final report again the report must be
your final report again the report must be
completed in
completed in
ink (no pencil).
ink (no pencil).
The report must be completed to your thumb print
The report must be completed to your thumb print
sketch, do not leave any boxes empty,
sketch, do not leave any boxes empty,
every box must
every box must
be completed or dashed out
be completed or dashed out
. You must also make any
. You must also make any
comments you feel are necessary regarding any
comments you feel are necessary regarding any
defects observed.
defects observed.
The report form used in CSWIP will look like the
The report form used in CSWIP will look like the
following example.
following example.
Plate Inspection Final Report
Plate Inspection Final Report
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examination your are required to conduct a
examination your are required to conduct a
practical examination of a pipe test weld, complete
practical examination of a pipe test weld, complete
a thumb print sketch and a final report on your
a thumb print sketch and a final report on your
findings
findings

The code is nominated e.g API 1104

The code is nominated e.g API 1104
Pipe Inspection
Pipe Inspection
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Application & Control of Pre heat
Application & Control of Pre heat
Section 23
Section 23
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Welding Temperatures
Definitions
Definitions
Preheat temperature
Preheat temperature
is the temperature of the workpiece in the weld zone immediately is the temperature of the workpiece in the weld zone immediately
before before any any welding operation (including tack welding!) welding operation (including tack welding!)
normally expressed as a minimum normally expressed as a minimum Interpass temperature Interpass temperature
is the temperature in a multi is the temperature in a multi- -run weld and adjacent parent metal run weld and adjacent parent metal
immediately prior to the application of the next run immediately prior to the application of the next run
normally expressed as a maximum normally expressed as a maximum
Minimum interpass temperature = Preheat temperature
Minimum interpass temperature = Preheat temperature
Pre heat maintenance temperature = the minimum temperature in the
weld zone which shall be maintained if welding is interrupted and shall be
monitored during the interruption.
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Pre
Pre
-
-
heat Application
heat Application
Furnace
Furnace
-
-
Heating entire component
Heating entire component
-
-
best
best
Electrical elements
Electrical elements
-
-
Controllable; Portable; Site use; Clean;
Controllable; Portable; Site use; Clean;
Component cannot be moved.
Component cannot be moved.
Gas burners
Gas burners
-
-
direct flame impingement; Possible local
direct flame impingement; Possible local
overheating; Less controllable;Portable; Manual operation
overheating; Less controllable;Portable; Manual operation
possible; Component can be moved.
possible; Component can be moved.
Radiant gas heaters
Radiant gas heaters
-
-
capable of automatic control; No flame
capable of automatic control; No flame
impingement; No contact with component; Portable.
impingement; No contact with component; Portable.
Induction heating
Induction heating
-
-
controllable; Rapid heating (mins not hours);
controllable; Rapid heating (mins not hours);
Large power supply; Expensive equipment
Large power supply; Expensive equipment
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Measuring pre heat in Welding
Measuring pre heat in Welding
Parameters to be measured:
Parameters to be measured:
welding current
welding current
arc voltage
arc voltage
travel speed
travel speed
shielding gas flow rate
shielding gas flow rate
The purposes
The purposes
of measuring
of measuring
Demonstration of
Demonstration of
conformance to
conformance to
specified requirements
specified requirements
preheat/interpass
preheat/interpass
temperature
temperature
force/pressure
force/pressure
humidity
humidity
Welding
Welding
process
process
control
control
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Pre
Pre
-
-
heat Application
heat Application
Application Of Preheat
Application Of Preheat
Heat either side of joint
Heat either side of joint
Measure temp 2 mins after heat removal
Measure temp 2 mins after heat removal
Always best to heat complete component rather than
Always best to heat complete component rather than
local if possible to avoid distortion
local if possible to avoid distortion
Preheat always higher for fillet than butt welds due to
Preheat always higher for fillet than butt welds due to
different combined thicknesses and chill effect factors.
different combined thicknesses and chill effect factors.
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Manual Gas Operation
Manual Gas Operation
Pre
Pre
-
-
Heat Application
Heat Application
Electrical Heated
Electrical Heated
Elements
Elements
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 610 610 of 691 of 691
Point of Measurement
BS EN ISO 13916
BS EN ISO 13916
t
t
< 50 mm
< 50 mm
A = 4 x t but max. 50 mm
A = 4 x t but max. 50 mm
the temperature shall be
measured on the surface
measured on the surface
of the workpiece facing the
of the workpiece facing the
welder
welder
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BS EN ISO 13916
BS EN ISO 13916
t > 50mm
t > 50mm
A = 75mm minimum
A = 75mm minimum
measured on the face
measured on the face
opposite to that being
opposite to that being
heated
heated
allow 2 min per every 25
allow 2 min per every 25
mm of parent metal
mm of parent metal
thickness for temperature
thickness for temperature
equalisation
equalisation
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Combined Thickness
Combined Thickness
The Chilling Effect of the J oint
The Chilling Effect of the J oint
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Combined Thickness
Combined Thickness
The Chilling Effect of the Joint
The Chilling Effect of the Joint
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 614 614 of 691 of 691
Combined Thickness
Combined Thickness
Combined chilling effect of joint type and
Combined chilling effect of joint type and
thickness.
thickness.
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The Chill Effect of the Material
The Chill Effect of the Material
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Heating Temperature Control
Heating Temperature Control
TEMPILSTICKS
TEMPILSTICKS
-
-
crayons, melt at set temps. Will not
crayons, melt at set temps. Will not
measure max temp.
measure max temp.
Pyrometers
Pyrometers
-
-
contact or remote, measure actual temp.
contact or remote, measure actual temp.
Thermocouples
Thermocouples
-
-
contact or attached, very accurate,
contact or attached, very accurate,
measure actual temp.
measure actual temp.
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Temperature Test Equipment
Temperature sensitive
Temperature sensitive
materials:
materials:
crayons, paints and

crayons, paints and
pills
pills
cheap
cheap
convenient, easy to
convenient, easy to
use
use
doesn
doesn
t measure the
t measure the
actual temperature!
actual temperature!
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 618 618 of 691 of 691
Contact thermometer
Contact thermometer
Accurate Accurate
Easy to use Easy to use
Gives the actual temperature Gives the actual temperature
Requires calibration Requires calibration
suitable for moderate suitable for moderate
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Thermocouple
Thermocouple
based on measuring the thermoelectric potential difference based on measuring the thermoelectric potential difference
between a hot junction (on weld) and a cold junction between a hot junction (on weld) and a cold junction
accurate method accurate method
measures over a wide range of temperatures measures over a wide range of temperatures
gives the actual temperature gives the actual temperature
need calibration need calibration
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Thermistors
Thermistors
temperature temperature- -sensitive resistors sensitive resistors
whose resistance varies inversely whose resistance varies inversely
with temperature with temperature
used when high sensitivity is used when high sensitivity is
required required
gives the actual temperature gives the actual temperature
need calibration need calibration
can be used up to 999 can be used up to 999 C C
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Temperature test equipment
Temperature test equipment
Devices for contactless measurement
Devices for contactless measurement
IR radiation and optical IR radiation and optical
pyrometer pyrometer
measure the radiant energy measure the radiant energy
emitted by the hot body emitted by the hot body
contactless method, contactless method, can be can be
used for remote measurements used for remote measurements
very complex very complex
for measuring high for measuring high
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Calibration
Calibration
Section 24
Section 24
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Calibration, validation and monitoring
Calibration, validation and monitoring
Definitions:
Definitions:
Measurement
Measurement
= set of operations for determining a value of a
= set of operations for determining a value of a
quantity
quantity
Repeatability
Repeatability
= closeness between successive measuring
= closeness between successive measuring
results of the same instrument carried out under the same
results of the same instrument carried out under the same
conditions
conditions
Accuracy class
Accuracy class
= class of measuring instruments that are
= class of measuring instruments that are
intended to keep the errors within specified limits
intended to keep the errors within specified limits
Calibration
Calibration
= checking the errors in a meter or measuring
= checking the errors in a meter or measuring
device
device
Validation
Validation
= checking the control knobs and switches provide
= checking the control knobs and switches provide
the same level of accuracy when returned to a pre
the same level of accuracy when returned to a pre
-
-
determined
determined
point
point
Monitoring
Monitoring
= checking the welding parameters (and other
= checking the welding parameters (and other
items) are in accordance with the procedure or specification
items) are in accordance with the procedure or specification
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Calibration and validation
Calibration and validation
Frequency
Frequency
-
-
When it is required?
When it is required?
once a year unless otherwise specified
once a year unless otherwise specified
whenever there are indications that the
whenever there are indications that the
instrument does not register properly
instrument does not register properly
whenever the equipment has been
whenever the equipment has been
damaged, misused or subject to severe
damaged, misused or subject to severe
stress
stress
whenever the equipment has been rebuild
whenever the equipment has been rebuild
or repaired
or repaired
See BS EN ISO 17662 for details!
See BS EN ISO 17662 for details!
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 625 625 of 691 of 691
Welding parameter calibration/validation
Welding parameter calibration/validation
Which parameters need calibration/validation?
Which parameters need calibration/validation?
depends on the welding process
depends on the welding process
see BS EN ISO 17662 and BS 7570 for details
see BS EN ISO 17662 and BS 7570 for details
How accurate?
How accurate?
depends on the application
depends on the application
welding current
welding current
-
-
2,5%
2,5%
arc voltage
arc voltage
-
-
5%
5%
wire feed speed
wire feed speed
-
-
2,5%
2,5%
gas flow rate
gas flow rate
-
-
20% (
20% (
25% for backing gas flow rate)

25% for backing gas flow rate)
temperature (thermocouple)
temperature (thermocouple)
-
-
5%
5%
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PAMS (Portable Arc Monitor System)
What does a PAMS measure?
What does a PAMS measure?
Welding
Welding
current (Hall
current (Hall
effect
effect
device)
device)
Arc voltage
Arc voltage
(connection
(connection
leads)
leads)
Temperature
Temperature
(thermocouple)
(thermocouple)
Wire feed
Wire feed
speed
speed
(tachometer)
(tachometer)
Gas flow
Gas flow
rate
rate
(heating
(heating
element
element
sensor)
sensor)
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The purposes of
The purposes of
a PAMS
a PAMS
For calibrating
For calibrating
and validating
and validating
the welding
the welding
equipment
equipment
For measuring
For measuring
and recording
and recording
the welding
the welding
parameters
parameters
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Use of PAMS
Use of PAMS
Wire feed speed
Wire feed speed
monitoring
monitoring
Incorporated pair of
Incorporated pair of
rolls connected to a
rolls connected to a
tachogenerator
tachogenerator
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Use of PAMS
Use of PAMS
Shielding gas flow
Shielding gas flow
rate monitoring
rate monitoring
Heating element
Heating element
sensor
sensor
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Summary
Summary
a welding power source can only be calibrated if it
a welding power source can only be calibrated if it
has meters fitted
has meters fitted
the inspector should check for calibration stickers,
the inspector should check for calibration stickers,
dates etc.
dates etc.
a welding power source without meters can only be
a welding power source without meters can only be
validated that the control knobs provide repeatability
validated that the control knobs provide repeatability
the main role is to carryout
the main role is to carryout
in process monitoring
in process monitoring
to
to
ensure that the welding requirements are met during
ensure that the welding requirements are met during
production
production
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Welding Inspector
Welding Inspector
Macro/Micro Examination
Macro/Micro Examination
Section 25
Section 25
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Macro Preparation
Macro Preparation
Purpose Purpose
To examine the weld cross To examine the weld cross- -section to give assurance that: section to give assurance that: - -
The weld has been made in accordance with the WPS The weld has been made in accordance with the WPS
The weld is free from defects The weld is free from defects
Specimen Preparation Specimen Preparation
Full thickness slice taken from the weld Full thickness slice taken from the weld (typically ~10mm thick) (typically ~10mm thick)
Width of slice sufficient to show all the weld and HAZ on both Width of slice sufficient to show all the weld and HAZ on both sides sides
plus some unaffected base material plus some unaffected base material
One face ground to a progressively fine finish One face ground to a progressively fine finish (grit sizes 120 to ~ 400) (grit sizes 120 to ~ 400)
Prepared face heavily etched to show all weld runs & all HAZ Prepared face heavily etched to show all weld runs & all HAZ
Prepared face examined at up to x10 Prepared face examined at up to x10 (& usually photographed for records) (& usually photographed for records)
Prepared face may also be used for a hardness survey Prepared face may also be used for a hardness survey
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Micro Preparation
Micro Preparation
Purpose Purpose
To examine a particular region of the weld or HAZ in order to: To examine a particular region of the weld or HAZ in order to: - -
To examine the microstructure To examine the microstructure
Identify the nature of a crack or other imperfection Identify the nature of a crack or other imperfection
Specimen Preparation Specimen Preparation
A small piece is cut from the region of interest A small piece is cut from the region of interest
(typically up to ~ 20mm x 20mm) (typically up to ~ 20mm x 20mm)
The piece is mounted in plastic mould and the surface of intere The piece is mounted in plastic mould and the surface of interest st
prepared by progressive grinding (to grit size 600 or 800) prepared by progressive grinding (to grit size 600 or 800)
Surface polished on diamond impregnated cloths to a mirror fini Surface polished on diamond impregnated cloths to a mirror fini sh sh
Prepared face may be examined in as Prepared face may be examined in as- -polished condition & then lightly polished condition & then lightly
etched etched
Prepared face examined under the microscope at up to ~ x 600 Prepared face examined under the microscope at up to ~ x 600
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Macro / Micro Examination
Object:
Object:
Macro / microscopic examinations are used to give a

Macro / microscopic examinations are used to give a
visual evaluation of a cross
visual evaluation of a cross
-
-
section of a welded joint
section of a welded joint
Carried out on full thickness specimens

Carried out on full thickness specimens
The width of the

The width of the
specimen
specimen
should include HAZ, weld
should include HAZ, weld
and parent plate
and parent plate
They maybe cut from a stop/start area on a welders

They maybe cut from a stop/start area on a welders
approval test
approval test
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Will
Will
Reveal:
Reveal:
Weld soundness
Weld soundness
Distribution of inclusions
Distribution of inclusions
Number of weld passes

Number of weld passes
Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion zone and HAZ

Metallurgical structure of weld, fusion zone and HAZ
Location and depth of penetration of weld

Location and depth of penetration of weld
Fillet weld leg and throat dimensions

Fillet weld leg and throat dimensions
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Visual examination for Visual examination for
defects defects
Cut transverse from the Cut transverse from the
weld weld
Ground & polished P400 Ground & polished P400
grit paper grit paper
Acid etch using 5 Acid etch using 5- -10% 10%
nitric acid solution nitric acid solution
Wash and dry Wash and dry
Visual evaluation under 5x Visual evaluation under 5x
magnification magnification
Report on results Report on results
Visual examination for Visual examination for
defects & grain structure defects & grain structure
Cut transverse from a Cut transverse from a
weld weld
Ground & polished P1200 Ground & polished P1200
grit paper, 1 grit paper, 1 m paste m paste
Acid etch using 1 Acid etch using 1- -5% 5%
nitric acid solution nitric acid solution
Wash and dry Wash and dry
Visual evaluation under Visual evaluation under
100 100- -1000x magnification 1000x magnification
Report on results Report on results
Macro
Macro Micro
Micro
4/23/2007 4/23/2007 637 637 of 691 of 691
Metallographic Examination
Metallographic Examination
Macro examination
Macro examination Micro examination
Micro examination

Welding Inspector Duties and Responsibilities

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Welding Inspector Duties and Responsibilities

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4/23/2007 4/23/2007 1 1 of 691 of 691

Duties and Responsibilities

Excessive back purge

Hardened steel ball of given diameter is subjected for

Load divided by area of indentation gives Brinell

More suitable for on site hardness testing

Specimens are cut transverse to the weld

A saw cut approximately 2mm in depth is applied

Fracture is usually made by striking the specimen with

Visual inspection for defects

by detailed sketches, showing every dimension

indicates the depth of penetration

approx. 35 A/mm of diameter

governed by thickness, type of joint and welding

cathodic cleaning effect

cathodic cleaning effect

Back Purging to prevent

Filler wires, Shielding gases, tungsten electrodes (non

Filler wires of different materials composition and

Steel Filler wires of very high quality, with copper

shielding gases mainly Argon and Helium, usually of

uniformly distributed arc energy; parabolic profile; high

delayed current cut

depends on WFS (set as short as possible!)

smaller residual stress and distortions

4/23/2007 4/23/2007 294 294 of 691 of 691

wires operates in DCEN

controls depth of penetration and the amount of

Usually DCEP, deep

good chemical homogeneity

easy removal of fines without affecting flux

normally not hygroscopic

readily recycled without significant change in particle

difficult to add deoxidizers and ferro

high temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit the

too high current: excessive excess weld metal

excessively high current:

too low current:

excessively low current:

low voltage produce a

arc & improves

excessive low voltage

excessively high voltage

excessively high voltage

excessively high voltage

increase in travel speed: decrease heat input

excessively high speed

excessively low speed

excessively low speed produce rough beads and

at the same current, small electrodes have higher

depth of flux layer influence the appearance of weld

usually, depth of flux is 25

if flux layer is to deep

if flux layer is to deep the gases cannot escape & the

if flux layer is too shallow, flashing and spattering will

welding towards earth produces backward arc blow

convex weld profile

welding away earth produces forward arc blow

normal penetration depth

smooth, even weld profile

two electrodes are feed

wire diameter usually 1,6 to