1026 IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, Vol. 14, No.

4, December 1999
An Introduction to Electric Machine Modeling by Systems of Non-Integer order.
Application to double-cage induction machine.
N. M. Retiere and M. S . Ivan&
Ldhoratoire dElectrotechnique de Grenoble - UMR CNRS 5529
ENSIEG, Rue de la Houille Blanche, Domaine Universitaire, BP 46
38402 St Martin dHhes, France
Email : Nicolas.Retiere@leg.ensieg.inpg.fr
Abstract: The flowing of induced currents in electric machines,
cspecially in the deep-bars of induction machine cages and the
dampers ol synchronous machines, implies an increase in the order
of thc cquivalent circuits used to model their frequency response.
But, physical meanings of the circuit parameters are often lost.
Thus, thc authors propose to go back over the modeling of skin
cffect in order to define non-integer order equivalent circuits which
would belinked with the conscqnences of induced currents on the
frequcncy response. In this paper, the proposed equivalent circuit is
based on half-order systems. It is used to represent the frequency
response of a 30 kW . 4 pole double-cage induction machineand its
rcsults are compared with measurements.
Keywords: Electric machine. Finite Element method. Equivalent
circuit. Distributed parametcr circuit. Parameter estimation. Skin
effecl. Frequcncy domain analysis. Half-order system. Non-integer
order system.
I. INTRODUCTION
The operating principle of numerous elcctromagnetic
devices, including electric machines, is based on induced
currents flowing in specific electric windings. Electrical
engineers model the coupled windings of electromagnetic
devices using diEferential equations which can he represented
by electric circuits usually including resistances and
induclanccs. Sincc electric machines are supplied by PWM
converters, harmonic frequencies values increase. Hence, in
order to compute the harmonic effects, e.g. on the torque,
equivalent circuits are required to be accurate along a wide
frequency range. Stability studies of synchronous machines
also rcquire accurate nequency representations by equivalent
circuits. These improved equivalent circuits generally include
ladder elements with constant parameters [l]. But, as
PE-173-EC-0-01-1999 A paper recommended and approved by the
IEEE ,Electric Machinery Committeeof the IEEE Power Engineering
Society for publication in the IEEE Transactions on Energy
Conversion. Manuscript submitted April 20, 1998; madeavailablefor
printing Januaty 28, 1999.
frequency increases, skin effect cannot be neglectcd in most
electric machines. This effcct is described by partial
differential equalions. In this case, we show that the improved
equivalent circuit cannot be a lumped and constant
parameters circuit. Thus, we propose to include in electric
machines models some implicit derivative half-order systems
which impedance is expressed by : ZI D =R,, 1 +j - .
c-
It should be noted that the half-order approach has already
been used by J .J . Feeley for the modeling of eddy currents in
a magnetic actuator [22].
In our paper, a theoretical investigation is first proposed on
the links between thc half-order systems and the skin effect
modeling. Then, experimental and simulation results are
discussed for a double-cage induction machine (3 phase - 4
poles ~ 30 kW - 400 V ~ 50 Hz).
11.PRESENTATION OF HALF-ORDER SYSTEMS
Some classcs of linear systems can be represented by
constant parameters differential equations which system order
n is a positive integcr. A representation of these systems can
be given as a Bode diagram. If the DC magnitude is chosen to
be equal to I , the standard representation of a first order
00 is the break angular frequency and u is the p.u. angular
frequency. The gain G and phase cp of the system are then
defined by :
and 9 =-Arctg(u) (3)
It should he noted that the slope rate of the gain asymptote is
equal to -20 dB per decade and the phase asymptote is --n I 2
radians as shown in Fig. 1.
Bode diagram oE a second order system modeled by
IS also given in Fig. 1. The asymptotic slope
(1+j u)
rate and the phase asymptote become respectively -40 dB per
decade and -n radians.
1
-
T I =-
1027
Hence, magnetic field H and current density J in the
conductor are given by Maxwell equations and physical
relations of the conductor. The solving of this problem is
classic [ 9] . I t follows that the magnetic field varies along z
and its variations arc given by :
In the same way, more complex systems can he modeled
I
-
by: T, , =-
(I+j u)
(4)
wherc n is a non-integer number or even a complex number
[Z] - [3] - [4]. Such models are used for complex systems
control 151, non-newtonian fluids [6], fractal structures 171 or
distributed parameters systems which are represented by
partial differential equations [SI. As an example, the Bode
diagram of an implicit derivative half-order system is given in
Fig. I . Its transfer function is defined by :
I
-
Ti n =
(I +ju)*
It should be noted that the gain asymptote decreases by 10 dB
per decade and thephase asymptote is d 4 radians.
0.01 0.1 1 i n inn
Angular speed (P.u.)
...
0.01 0.1 I i n inn
Angular speed (p.u.)
First order
Second order
Half order
Fig. I : Bade diagrams.
111. SKIN EFFECT MODELING
A. Expressions of the electromagnetic variables
-
.............
.......
A piece of magnetic, isotropic and linear conductor is
considered. Physical properties of this piece are defined by
the conductivity 0 and the absolute permeability p, In a fixed
reference frame (x, y, z), the piece is limited by the boundary
surface z=O and its length is infinite along the z axis as shown
in Fig. 2.
As boundary condition, a magnetic field directed along the
y axis and sinusoidally time-varying is imposed on the surface
z =0. Thc boundary condition can he expressed as :
H(z =0, t ) =Hoejauy
(6)
(7)
where R is the complex magnitude of H.
A second boundary condition can then he expressed as :
lim Z(z) + o (8)
i-1-
P
7.
Fig. 2 : skin effect problem description.
2
Thus : H(z,t) =Hoe i W e -O+j&, Y (9)
(I0)
I t follows that the current density vector J is directed along
the x axis and varies also sinusoidally in time. The complex
magnitude of J can he deduced from the relation :
where 6 is the skin depth defined by : 6 = -
I
- dz( z)
J(z) =--
dz
The electric field E is therefore given by :
B. Consequences
The Poynting vector is defined by : P = E AH . I t is
oriented along the z axis. Since all time variations are
sinusoidal, the complex magnitude of P can he defined by :
p=IE, H* (14)
2
where * is the complex conjugate of a .
1028
An clcmentary surfacc S,, ol length L and width W is
defined as shown in Fig. 2. The complex power which flows
through S,, can be expressed as :
It follows that : 5 =(1+j ) L I '
(16)
WCT8
whew I is thc rms value of thc total current flowing along the
conductor , I is linked with Ho by Ampere's law so that :
H,,W = I & (17)
I t should also be noted that :
(18)
where P, is the active power and Q, is the reactive power
flowing through S,.
Thus, it follows from (16) and (18) that: Pa= Q, (19)
If thc conductor is modeled by a R-h series circuit, the
equation (19) incans that thc resistance R and the reactance
=P, +j Q,
-
ho are each equal to ~ ' - - - ' PJ w , The influence
woJ
of skin effect in the conductor is thus characteristic of a half-
ordcr model and the admittance of the electric circuit RA is
This is the definition of a half-order integrator
C. Skin ejjeci model of electrical devices
In the field of elcctrical applications, linear devices are
often represented by equivalent circuits including resistances
and inductanccs. These circuits lead to integer order models.
Howcver, if induced currcnts can flow through the device, its
bchavior is similar to the behavior of a half-order system
provided the frequency is high enough to consider that the
skin depth is smaller than the device dimensions. Hence, the
equivalent circuit must include some parts which approach
half-order systems asymptotically.
IV. DEEP-BAR EFFECT MODELING
The deep-bar effect is well known and used by designers of
squirrcl-cage induction machines operating at fixed
frequcncy. They use it to limit thc starting current and
incrcase the starting torquc per ampere at the same time. The
dcep-bar effect is due to the skin cffect in the depth of the
cagc bars. It has already been studied in details in [lo]. This
study leads to thc same calculations as for the skin effect
analysis.
A bar is placed in a slot L meters long, W meters wide and
h meters decp. The bar dimensions are assumed to be the
same as the slot ones.
Lct : - po : bar permeability assumed to be equal to the
permeability of free space,
cs: bar conductivity,
L
UhW
R, =~ : DC bar resistance,
2
U =pooh 2 w - 2 h - 7 . . p.u. angular frequency,
d
Hence, the bar can be modeled at each angular frequency w
by a resistance R(u) in series with a reactance X(u). R(u) and
X(u) are expressed in a p.u. form by :
sinh&+sin&
sinh&-sin&
(21)
cosh& - cos&
cosh&-cos&
The pa. bar admittance is then defined by :
When U + = = , -=-= E. Thus K(U) asymptotically
Rn Ro
approaches - as U increases. 5 ( u ) can he considered to
be identical to its asymptot as soon as U is equal to 2.5. This
means that the bar depth and the skin depth are almost equal.
J ;EI
0.1 1
Angular speed (p.~.)
Angular speed (p.~.)
- Half order
- - Deepbar
Fig. 3 : Bode diagram of half-order and deep-bar admittances.
The Bode diagrams of g ( u ) and the half-order system are
plotted in Fig. 3. Both diagrams are very similar. At this point
of the work thc authors are not able to explain the theoretical
reasons of the similarity obtained between the two diagrams
~
at intermediate p.u, angular frequencies.
V. STANDSTILL FREQUENCY RESPONSE METHOD
The obtention of machine parameters from frequency
responses has become essential since accurate models were
required to study system stability or transient performances
[l I] - [12]. Derivation of machine parameters from frequency
response tests was first introduced for synchronous machines
[13] - [I41 - [15] and has been described in IEEE Standard
Procedure Std 115A-1987 [16]. This procedure has also been
applied to squirrel cage induction motor modeling [17] ~ [18].
It is known as StandStill Frequency Response (SSFR)
method. Its principle and application are reminded in the next
section for an induction machine.
A. Equivalent circuit of an induction machine
Thc induction machine equations can he represented by a
constant parameter equivalent circuit if the following
assumptions are respected :
I - Both core and mechanical losses are neglected.
2- There is no saturation and skin effect.
The equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 4. It includes four
Constant parameters :
- R, : stator winding resistance
- L,,, : magnetizing inductance
- 1, : total leakage inductance
- R, rotor winding resistance.
The rotor parameter values are referred to the stator. The
induced clectromotive force is noted ep.
If the parameter values are known, the equivalent circuit
enables to compute the steady-state and transient
performances. The parameter values are generally computed
from no-load and blocked-rotor tests. They can also be
computed Cram the standstill frequency response. Indeed, it
can he shown that, if the machine is at standstill, the stator
phasc impedance is expressed by :
R, =Iirn(lZ;( j w+
L, =I n+( j w$ (26)
UJ-0
UJ-0
w is the stator voltage angular frequency, Td is the rotor
transient time constant when the stator is an open circuit, and
T, is the rotor transient time constant when the stator is short-
circuited. Their expressions are :
-
Z, , ( j w) is called operational impedance. If the stator
resistance is known, an operational inductance is defined by :
-
- Z , V ( ~ ~ ) - R , ~ 1+j T p
j w 1+jTr,,w
L( j w) = =L,
Hence, it is possible to obtain all the equivalent circuit
The value of the rotor resistance is then deduced from the
operational inductance magnitude value at a given angular
frequency.
I
V
Fig. 4 : equivalent circuit of u balanced polyphase induction machine.
E. SSFR Method
The frequency responses of the operational impedance
Z, ( j w) and the operationnal inductance E( j w) can he
provided by the application of a single phase and variable
frequency voltage to the machine. This is the principle of the
SSFR method.
According to the standard procedure [16], the following
conditions must he respected to apply the SSFR method.
1- Owing to saturation, the machine is a non-linear system
and its frequency response is given from the small-signal
form of motor equations. Hence, test voltages are chosen
so that the small-signal assumption is respected.
2- Test frequencies are chosen between some millihertz to
about one kilohertz.
3- In order to block the rotor without slresses, the machine
is supplied in single phase mode with low current levels.
As the fixed single phase field can be split between two
fields rotating in inverse directions, fiequency response is
given by 2. 2, .
Then, equations (26) yield the numerical values of machine
parameters.
-
-
It should he noted that SSFR method application to
the rotor is not symmetrical so that identification of
direct and quadrature axis operational inductances is
required,
synchronous machines is more complex because [I 71 :
-
1030
there are field windings and thus transfer functions
related with them have to be identified.
Owing to skin effect, the rotor parameters are not constant.
However, it is still possible to take into account the frequency
variations of the motor parameters by a constant parameters
model. In this case, the order of the equivalent circuit must be
incrcased so that [I ]:
where n and i are constant integers. The value of n is chosen
according to the required accuracy of the equivalent circuit.
The values of L,, T,oi and T,' are computed from the
Crequency response of the operational inductance by curve
fitting techniques.
C. Derivation of hay-order model
The SSFR method is used to investigate the frequency
response of a double-cage induction machine. The machine is
representcd, at standstill, by the half-order equivalent circuit
shown in Fig. 5. The constant circuit parameters are assumed
to bc :
-
- L, : magnetizing inductance
-
Rs : resistance of the stator winding
h : part of the total leakage inductance which value
is not influenced by skin effect.
zr is the part of the rotor impedance which value depends
on the frequency of the induced currents flowing in the cage.
z, should approach a half-order impedance asymptotically.
Fig. 5 : half-order equivalent circuit
of n balanced polyphase cage induction machine at standstill.
The SSFR method is applied to identify the equivalent
circuit parameters. R, and L., are identified from DC values
of 2, and magnitudes. Moreover, as the frequency
increascs, hw becomes much larger than the magnitude of
z, . . Hence, h can be obtained from the high frequency limit
of the operational inductance :
The values of z, are then computed from the standstill
frequency response :
Z,(ju)= j w
-
L(jwxL, +~] - L, A
L, - L( j w)
It should be noted that the DC rotor resistance Ro is given by :
R, =l i m(l q( ju$ (30)
0 4 0
VI. APPLICATION
This method is applied to a 4 pole - 30 kW double-cage
induction motor. In order to avoid any effect of magnetic
saturation, the test conditions are chosen so that the levels of
current and voltage are about 10% of the rated values.
[dentified unsaturated parameters values nre given in Table 1.
Table 1 : Equivalent circuit parameters.
Parameter Rs (ma) h. (ma) Ro (ma) h (mH)
Value 86.8 31 64 1.64
1 I0 inn 1.10~
frequency (Hz)
0
-20
t?
P
-40
-60
0. I 1 10 inn 1.10~
frequency (Hz)
fff Measurements
Half order model
-
Fig. 6 : Bode diagrams of the rotor
The gain G and the phase cp of the rotor can then be
1031
The authors have not tried to optimize the values of Rn and
an in this introductory paper. This partly explains the
differences around 10 Hz. However, it should be noted that
this model is very interesting since it provides a frequency
response along a widc range of frequencies with only 5
electric parameters whereas classical equivalent circuits often
use multiple parallel rotor branches which leads to a large
number of paramcters [ 191. Moreover, these parameters often
have no physical meaning (they can even be negative !).
VII. SIMULATION STUDY OF ROTOR CAGE
In order to verify the relevance of thc half-order
representation, the frequency response of the 30 kW motor
has heen computed by a finite element method under
unsaturated conditions.
defined by :
where vr is the phase of z, ,
As it can be shown in Fig. 6, the slope of the gain
asymptote is -10 dB per decade and the phase asymptote is
equal to -45". The value of the break angular frequency of
the rotor i also deduced from the gain G. It is equal to 26
radls.
For comparison purpose, the Bode diagram of a half-order
modcl defined by : Y , J 2 = I is also represented in
1
-
Fig. 6 by a solid line. The comparison confirms that when
skin depth is small in comparison with the cage dimensions,
the rotor admittance approaches a half-order system
admillance asymptotically.
It is also possible to compute the operational inductance of
the half-order equivalent circuit. Its variations along the
frcquency are compared with the measurements as shown in
Fig. 7
n
-in
6
3
c
d
-20
-
n. I I in ino 1.10'
frequency (Hz)
n.1 I 10 I no 1.103
frequency (Hz)
fff Measurements
Half order model
-
Fig. 7 : Bade diagrams of the measured and half-order operational
inductance.
0
8 -in
El
El
- 20
0. I I IO inn 1.103
frequency (Hz)
n.I I in in0 1.10~
freqiiency (Hc)
fff Measurements
Finite element computations
-
Fig. 8 : Bode diagrams of the measured and finite element model
admittances.
The rotor cage geometry is known from standard motor
data sheets given by the manufacturer. Actually, the geometry
of the finite element problem is made of one rotor slot pitch
[201. I t should he noted that this model does not include the
slot bridge since only the cage frequency response is on
focus. Electromagnetic equations are solved by a complex
magnetodynamic finite element method for which all time
1032
variations are assumed to be sinusoidal [21]. Boundary
conditions are chosen so that the magnetic vector potential is
equal to zero (i.e. Dirichlet condition).The aluminium double
bar is fed by a variable frequency voltage source. Thus,
depending on the frequency, the current distribution varies
along the bar depth. The frequency response is then computed
from the ratio between the total current and voltage
magnitudes (i.e. admittance magnitude) and the phase shift
between the current and voltage (i.e. admittance phase).
The 4 pole - 30 kW cage frequency response is shown in
Fig. 8. The comparison with the experimental response
clearly confirms that the half-order representation is relevant
for an induction motor cage.
VIII. CONCLUSION
It follows from this work that the equivalent circuit of cage
induction machines must include one half-order system at
least. Then, the model provides an accurate frequency
response along a wide range of frequencies with only 5
clcctric parameters whereas classical equivalent circuits often
usc multiple parallel rotor branches yielding a large number
of paramcters. However, it should be noted that many
problems have still to be solved before the proposed approach
becomes really effective. But, the authors think that the first
results which have been reached encourage to further
investigatc non-integer order representations of electric
machines.
IX. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully thanks Pr. M. Poloujadoff, Fellow
IEEE with whom they discussed about the paper and Dr. E.
Vassent from the Lcroy-Somer Company who provided the
30 kW motor data sheets.
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XI. BIOGRAPHIES
Nicolas M. Retiere was born in
Nantes (France) in 1969. He received
the Eng. Degree in 1993 and the
Ph.D. in 1997 from the Polytechnic
Institute of Grenoble (France). He is
currently serving as an assistant
professor of Electrical Engineering at
the Institute. His principal research
interests are modeling and analysis of
electric drives and power systems.
Marcel S. Ivan& was born in 1940.
He received the Eng. Degree in 1963
and the Ph.D. in 1967 from The
Polytechnic Institute of Grenoble
(France). He served as an invited
professor at The Lava1 University
(Canada). Since 1969, he has been a
on rotating machinery and power electronics modeling and
analysis.