Modeling the Cooling of the Whin Sill, North England

CHARLIE KENZIE
Department of Earth Science, University of Durham 2013

(1)



(2)



1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Geological setting
The Whin Sill complex is a suite of igneous
basaltic intrusions emplaced during the late
Carboniferous in northern England (Johnson
& Dunham 2001), which stretches on land
around 120km in a north-south direction and
around 80km in an east-west direction. The
Whin Sill, a horizontal body intruded between
stratigraphical successions, is fed by four
major vertical intrusions or feeder dykes
(Anderson 1951 & Goulty et al 2000),
(Fig.1).

The intrusion of the basaltic magma, was at a
sufficient temperature to alter the country
rocks by contact metamorphism (Robinson
1972) generally resulting in spotting of
mudstones, and at higher temperatures, re-
crystallization of pure limestone to marble
and of impure limestone to metamorphic
rocks containing garnet, andausite, cordierite
and wollastonite (Johson & Dunham 2001).

1.2 Setting up the model
The intrusion of a hot layer into cooler
country rock, and the temperature distribution
through the layers over time, can be modeled
numerically using the forward Euler time-
stepping method, found by discretizing the
one-dimensional heat diffusion equation:

Heat diffusion equation

Discretizing the equation yields

The time step formula was implemented into
a MatLab code and can be seen in the
appendix. We start our model assuming that
the magma was intruded with an initial
temperature of approximately 1000C and is
preceded by a further latent heat release
equivalent to 300C due to thermal cooling
[1]
.
Therefore we model the sill as having an
effective intrusion temperature of 1300C.

The sill, which is 70m thick, was intruded
approximately 1.5km below the surface
(Robinson 1972), so we choose to set up the
heat diffusion model in a box with a depth
range between 1000 and 2000m (Fig.2). We
estimate the temperatures of the country rock
at the top and bottom of the box are 30C
and 60C respectively
[2]
and add these to the
initial boundary conditions of the model
appropriately (see appendix code lines 1-19).

1.3 Discretization and time stepping
Since we are modeling a sill with thickness of
70m, we chose a discretization step of 10m,
which allows sensible precision without
overloading the program. Additionally, since
time integration methods are only
conditionally stable, it is important to choose
a time step that is no larger than the critical
time step, otherwise the numerical solution
may become unstable (Askes et al 2011).
Therefore in this case, we used a von
Neumann stability analysis
[3]
to calculate the
stability criterion (equations 3 6) and set the
time step to a fraction of this criterion
(appendix code lines 22 & 23). This stops the
error from increasing as computations in the
model are continued, in other words, it
ensures a stable system.

ABSTRACT
Explicit numerical integration is an effective way of modeling ordinary differential equations. We use a forward Euler time-
stepping method to effectively model heat diffusion through the top 2km of the crust post intrusion of the Whin Sill around 300
Ma. The model proves effective at estimating the 500C isotherm, which coincides with estimates of the metamorphic aureole.
Additionally, the model shows that all the heat from the sill is dissipated between 45,000 and 50,000 years after emplacement
and that there is no temperature flow through the surface during this time. Our model proves accurate over short time periods,
but it is hard to say whether it is as accurate over longer time scales, i.e. thousands of years. Geological evidence and continued
benchmarking with other studies is needed to be sure of the accuracy of our model.
[1] Latent heat release is not explicitly dealt with, instead it is just added to the intrusion temperature. For further reading on latent
heat release the reader is reffered to Turcotte and Schubert (2002).
[2] Temperatures in the country rock were estimated assuming a constant, homogenous thermal gradient of 3C per 100m.
[3] Our analysis is actually a simplified version of the complete Fourier analysis, and such calculation is out of the limits of this paper,
however the reader is referred to Isaacson and Keller (1966) for full numerical analysis.
2
(3)



(4)



(5)



(6)


Fig.2 Sketch of Whin sill intruded into impure
limestone country rock. Temperatures in the rock at
depth are calculated using the geothermal gradient.
Dashed line shows the boundary box for the model.
Forward euler time step:

Error propagates as:

,which yields
" where
and results in the stability criterion given by


2. MODEL RESULTS

2.1 Running and testing the model
The completed model showing heat diffusion
through the crust post intrusion is shown in
Fig.3i pp 5, and the accompanying MatLab
code is displayed in the appendix. The sill
shows a rapid transfer of energy into the
surrounding rock in the first few decades after
intrusion, and then starts to slow when time
post intrusion progresses into the order of
hundreds of years. It is important to
thoroughly quantitatively test the model, so
my model was benchmarked against an
independent code (Greggs 2013). Exactly the
same parameters were chosen for both models
and they can be compared in Fig.2 (i) and (ii).
2.3 Changing the time step
The time step (dt) is given by a fraction of the
stability criterion (dtmax) see (appendix code
line 23) and can be altered by changing the
fraction as required. Fig.3i is the model
computed using a time step with a value one
tenth of that of the stability criterion. If we
increase the value of the time step so that it is
a significant fraction of the stability criterion,
the model does not show any change, and
remains stable. However, if the time step is
increased to a value equal to that of the
stability criterion, then the model starts to
show signs of instability (Fig.3iii) and the
thermal diffusion isotherm is not as well
defined and becomes stepped. If the time step
is increased to a value greater than that of the
stability criterion, the model becomes
unstable and is unable to complete numerical
time stepping (Fig.3iv).

A lower time step increases the time for the
model to run, and since a higher value does
not seem to inhibit the model in a significant
way, we chose a time step with a value of half
the stability criterion for further investigation
of the model.

2.3 Depth of 500C isotherm
The 500C isotherm is of geological
importance since it is the temperature at
which impure limestone metamorphoses to
wollastonite (Robinson 1972). To model the
depth of the isotherm over time we calculated
between which nodal points the 500C
isotherm is crossed and then linearly
interpolated from the nodal point
temperatures to find the depth of the isotherm

Fig.1 Overview map of the Whin Sill complex and its
associated dykes. Outcrops are shown in black. Taken
from Liss et al (2004).
3
(see appendix). The isotherm depth through
time is shown in Fig. 4 below. The point at
which the isotherm is furthest away from the
sill, or in other words the maximum thickness
of a rim of country rock experiencing
temperatures above 500C, is shown by the
model to be 28m and this is reached at a time
, or approximately 35 years, after
intrusion.

2.4 Extending the model to the surface
To investigate whether heat released from the
intruded sill reached the surface we extend
our model to the surface (Fig.5). If the model
is run for 45,000 years (Fig.6), the heat
energy released from the sill eventually
reaches the geotherm, and its energy
exhausted. Over this time, none of the thermal
energy reaches the surface, and the model
does not record any surface temperature
change.

3. DISCUSSION

3.1 Numerical accuracy
As discussed previously the time step is
chosen to be a fraction of the critical time step
in order to stop errors compiling as the model
continues to carry out computations. This
helps to improve the accuracy of the
numerical analysis. Additionally, when
benchmarked against another model (Greggs
2013), the two models showed to be almost
identical (Fig.2i & Fig.2ii), giving a good
indication that our model is numerically
accurate.

3.2 Width of metamorphic aureole
Investigations into the depth over time of the
500C isotherm reveal that the model
provides an accurate prediction of the
metamorphic aureole described by Robinson
(1972). Robinson states that a maximum
temperature curve after 25 years would give a
contact temperature in the region of 720C,
with a decrease away from the contact at
approximately 17Cm
-1
. Thus, the 500C
isotherm can be calculated to be 30m away
from the sill, which coincides with the results
from our model (Fig.4) that showed a
maximum width of 28m. Additionally, our
model predicts the maximum width of the
500C isotherm to have occurred
approximately 35 years after intrusion, which
again corresponds with Robinsons (1972)
findings. This highlights that our model
results are in agreement with other authors,
and increases our confidence that the model is
numerically accurate.

3.3 Heat flow at the surface
We can run the model until all the heat
released from the sill is exhausted, and to the
point that heat distribution in the crust returns
to the normal geothermal gradient. Although
running the model for long periods of time is
less accurate (this is discussed more
thoroughly in section 3.4) it is still unlikely
that any surface heat flow occurred because
our model shows that the intrusion
temperature of the sill would have to be
significantly larger in order to cause heat flow
at the surface. Additionally, other authors
such as Sayer (2013) ran a similar model for
over 30,000 years and saw no evidence of
surface heat flow.

3.4 Assumptions of the model and error

Hydrothermal convection
In areas of the crust that experience high
temperatures, it is not uncommon for
convective heat transport to dominate over
conduction (Loosveld and Etheridge 1990). In
such cases steam production can cause a
massive temperature depression in
comparison to pure heat transfer by
conduction (Berner & Georg, 2010).
Hydrothermal processes are not accounted for
in our model but it seems unlikely that this
caused any errors when the model was run
over a short time period since our model
proves accurate over the first few decades due
to cross-referencing with other authors
(Robinson 1972)
[4]
, (see section 3.2).

Additionally, in cases where a sill is intruded
into rocks with a low permeability,
hydrothermal convection can be reasonably
ignored (Wang et al) and since impure
limestone is commonly argillaceous, it is less
likely that hydrothermal activity occurred,
and it seems reasonable to ignore the effects
of hydrothermal convection in our model.

[4]Yes, we cross-referenced our results against a model from Robinson (1972) and found that our models agreed.
However, it is possible that his model also lacked any consideration of hydrothermal activity. Unfortunately, a
discussion of Robinsons model is out of the limits of this paper.
4
Homogeneous country rock and sill
Although we see it reasonable to ignore
hydrothermal processes in our model when
run over short time periods, we have no
evidence that suggests that hydrothermal
convection remained inactivate after longer
periods of time. Sudden activation seems
unlikely if we assume a homogenous and
continuous layer of country rock however;
such an ideal homogenous layer is unlikely to
exist in reality where stratigraphy changes
both laterally and vertically. Such an
assumption is another limitation of our model
and highlights that our model becomes
increasingly inaccurate as it is run over longer
time periods.

Additionally, we assume that the sill is
intruded as a concordant tabular horizontal
body, although in reality, the sill is seldom
concordant over wide areas and usually falls
in the stratigraphical succession in gentle
transgressions and abrupt jumps to new levels
(Johnson and Dunham 2001). This
assumption will have caused error in our
model from the start and will have carried
through the computation. Again, the longer
the model is run for the more inaccurate it
will become.

3.5 Conclusion and need for further study
Uncertainties such as those highlighted above
indicate the need for external constraints, such
as geological data, in order to be sure of the
accuracy of our model. The model provides a
relatively crude estimate of heat diffusion
through the crust post intrusion, because the
model assumes a homogenous crust and a
perfectly horizontal sill. Additionally, the
model assumes that heat is transferred purely
by conduction, which is not realistic
especially if the crust contains more
stratigraphy than just impure limestone. As
there is no way of testing the models accuracy
over longer time periods, it would be useful to
try to benchmark this model against one that
effectively models diffusion over hundreds of
years. Additionally, it would have been good
to test the numerical stability of the model
against an analytical solution, but such a
solution is out of the limits of this paper.
More generally the model may have been
more successful if it didnt try to model the
whole of the Whin sill but rather a specific
section, where more informed geological
constraints could be implemented into the
model.

4. REFERENCES

ANDERSON, E. M. (1951). The Dynamics of Dyke
Formation. In E. M. Anderson, The dynamics of
faulting and dyke formation with applications
to Britain (pp. 40-44). Edinburgh: Oliver and
Boyd.
ASKES, H., Nguyen, D. C., & Tyas, A. (2011,
June). Increasing the critical time step: micro-
inertia, inertia penalties and mass scaling.
Computational Mechanics, 47(6), 657-667.
BERNER, U., & Georg, D. (2010). Influence of sill
intrusions on the hydrology and thermal
maturity of sediments - Modelling heat flow
and organic geochemical alterations. EGU
General Assembly (p. 13089). Vienna, Austria:
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory,
NASA.
GREGGS, E. (2013) Numerical modelling of the
cooling of the Whin sill Department of Earth
Sciences, University of Durham
GOULTY, N. R., Peirce, C., Flatman, T. D., Home,
M., & Richardson, J. H. (2000). Magnetic
survey of the Holy Island Dyke on Holy Island,
Northumberland. Proceedings of the Yorkshire
Geological Society, 53(2), 111-118.
ISAACSON, E., & Keller, H. B. (1966). The von
Neumann Stability Test. In E. Isaacson, & H.
B. Keller, Analysis of Numberical Methods (pp.
523-531). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
JOHNSON, G. A., & Dunham, K. C. (2001).
Emplacement of the Great Whin Dolerite
Complex and the Little Whin Sill in relation to
the structure of northern England . Proceedings
of the Yorkshire Geological Society, 53(3), 177-
186.
LOOSVELD, R. J. H. & Etheridge, M. A. (1990) A
model for low-pressure facies metamorphiscm
during crustal thickening. Journal of
Metamorphic Geology, 8(3) 257-267.
ROBINSON, D. (1972). Metamorphic Rocks. In G.
A. Johnson, & G. Hickling, Geology of
Durham County (pp. 119 - 123). Durham:
Natural History Society of Northumberland.
SAYER, M. J. (2013). Numerical modelling of the
cooling of the Whin sill. Department of
Earth Sciences, University of Durham.
TURCOTTE, D. L., & Schubert, G. (2002).
Geodynamics. Geodynamics (2nd Edition).
WANG, S., Zhao, M., & Qi, T. (2012). Heat-
Transfer-Model Analysis of the Thermal Effect
of Intrusive Sills on Organic-Rich Host Rocks
in Sedimentary Basins. In I. Ahmad, Earth
Sciences (pp. 91-98). InTech Sciences.
5



Fig. 6 Model extended to the surface when run for 45,000 years,
thermal energy released from sill reaches geotherm and is exhausted.
Fig. 4: Graph showing the depth of the 500C isotherm through
time. The sill has a depth of 1500m, and the dotted lines show
the point in time at which the isotherm is furthest away from the
sill, in other words. The model shows a maximum width of 28m
at a time of around 35 years post intrusion.
Fig. 5 Same model of heat diffusion through the crust, after 319
years post intrusion of a sill at 1300C, but this time the model is
extended to the surface.
Fig. 3(i): Graph of the model when run for 317 years showing the temperature distribution through time after the intrusion of the
Whin sill. The time step for the model is one tenth of that of the stability criterion.(ii) Model provided by Greggs (2013) for the
purpose of benchmarking the models. (iii) The model is run again until 317 years, but the time step is the same value as the
stability criterion. The model shows signs of instability. (iv) Attempted run of the model when time step is just over the value of
the stability criterion. Instability reached the model fails to continue to numerically compute time steps.
iii iv
ii i
APPENDIX
function Whin_Sill #
$
%Writing initial parameters, constants and defining boundary conditions %
h=2000; % Height of boundary box is 2km &
z1=0000; % Depth to top of boundary box '
z2=2000; % Depth to bottom of boundary box (
)
kappa = 1e-6; % Thermal Diffusivity *
Tsill=1300; % Sill temperature in ^oC +
Ttop = 0; % Temperature at surface in ^oC #,
Tbottom=60; % Temperature at base of box ##
Tisotherm=500 %Temperature of 500^o isotherm #$
dz = 10; % Discretization step in meters #%
nz=h/dz+1; #&
#'
z=z1:dz:z2; % Array for the finite difference mesh #(
t=0; % Set time to zero #)
#*
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------- #+
$,
% Time equations $#
dtmax=(dz^2)./(2.*kappa);% Stability criterion $$
dt=0.5*dtmax; % Time step as a fraction of the stability criterion $%
tmax=1e10; $&
$'
% Number of time steps to reach maximum temperature (tmax) in years $(
nt=ceil(tmax/dt)+1; $)
time=zeros(1,nt); $*
$+
% Array of NaN for 500 degree isotherm %,
Itherm=NaN(1,nt); %#
%$
% Initial and boundary conditions: %%
% Initial temperature %&
Told=z.*3./100; %'
Told(1)=Ttop; %(
% Except at sill, where temperature=1300 %)
Told(150:157)=Tsill; %*
zMP=(z(1,1:end-1)+z(1,2:end))/2; %+
&,
% Start time stepping &#
for it=1:nt &$
%Update time in seconds &%
t=t+dt; &&
time(it)=t; &'
tyears=floor(t./(60*60*24*365)); &(
&)
% Initial boundary conditions: &*
% Initial temperature at depth z &+
Tinitial=z.*3./100; ',
Tinitial(1)=Ttop; '#
% Except at sill, where the temperature = 1300 '$
Tinitial(150:157)=Tsill; '%
'&
% Numerical solution ''
Tnew = oneDdiff(Told, z, zMP, kappa, dt); '(
')
% 500 degree isotherm '*
Ttherm(it)= MYinterp (Tnew,z,Tisotherm); '+
(,
(#
7
% Plot solution: ($
figure(1), clf (%
plot (Tnew,-z,'b',Tinitial,-z,'k') (&
xlabel('T [^oC]') ('
ylabel('z [m]') ((
title([' T after ',num2str(tyears),'Years']) ()
axis([0,1400,-2000,-0000]) (*
(+
% Prepare for next time step: ),
Told = Tnew; )#
)$
end )%
)&
tyrs = floor(t./(60*60*24*365)); % In years )'
)(
% Plot 500 degree isotherm ))
figure(2), clf )*
plot(time,Ttherm) )+
xlabel('Time (Seconds)') *,
ylabel('z [m]') *#
title(['Depth of 500 degree isotherm']) *$
axis([0,4e9,-1450,-1550]) *%
*&
%---------------------------------------------------------------------------- *'
*(
%Subfunction to solve 1 dimensional diffusion *)
**
function fout = oneDdiff (fin,z,zMP,kappa,dt) *+
% Performs 1 diffusion time step on finite difference array (fin) of size nz, +,
discretization dz, using timestep dt, and diffusion coefficent kappa (line 9). +#
Additionally, fixed essential b.c. used. +$
dfdz=diff(fin,1,2)./diff(z,1,2); +%
d2fdz2=diff(dfdz,1,2)./diff(zMP,1,2); +&
dfdt=kappa.*d2fdz2; +'
%Applying fixed f boundaries +(
dfdt=[0 dfdt 0]; +)
fout=fin+dfdt*dt; +*
++
%-------------------------------------------------------------------------- #,,
#,#
% Sub function to find depth of 500^oC isotherm #,$
function finterp = MYinterp(f,x,f0) #,%
% Find interval where f-f0 changes sign: #,&
larger=f>f0; #,'
if sum(larger) == 0; #,(
finterp = NaN; #,)
else ix=find(diff(larger)==1)+1; #,*
% Interpolate to find where exactly on this interval f=f0: #,+
finterp=-(x(ix)-(f(ix)-f0)/(f(ix)-f(ix-1))*(x(ix)-x(ix-1))); ##,
end ###