Liza Roy Chowdhury 4/23/14

Chemistry Spring Break Assignment

B. Review Sheet: You will create a review sheet with the following topics we have covered in
class

I. Periodic Table

1. Octet Rule
Metals and nonmetals lose and gain ions respectively in order to get a noble gas
configuration, which are eight valence elections.
This gives them stability. This is also known as a stable octet
Nobel gases (Group 18) are inactive because they already have 8 valence electrons.
2. Compare atoms and ions for and nonmetals; include atomic radius and charge
Nonmetals ionic radius is larger due to a gain of electrons. They form negative ions
Metals atomic radius is larger than the ionic radius due to a loss of electrons. In metals,
when it loses an electron, the ion gets smaller. They form positive ions.
3. Compare properties of metals, nonmetals, and metalloids.
-Metals
Are solids at room temperature, with the exception of mercury, which is a liquid
Have densities greater than water, but the alkali metals (Group 1) will float.
Malleable, which means that they can be hammered into a shape.
Ductile, which means that they can be drawn or pulled into a wire.
Luster, which means that they are shiny
Good conductors of heat and electricity. Stems from the mobility of their valnce
electrons.
Low ionization energy and electronegativity values.
Lose electrons to form positive ions with smaller radii
-Nonmetals
Are gases or molecular or network solids at room temperature. Bromine is an exception,
being a liquid at room temperature.
Not malleable or ductile; they tend to be brittle in the solid phase.
Solid nonmetals lack luster, and their surface appears dull.
Have ionization energy and high electronegativity values.
Poor conductors of heat and electricity
Tend to gain electrons to become negative ions with radii larger than their atoms.
-Metalloids
B, SI, Ge, As, Sb, Te
Called also semimetal.
Between the metals and nonmetals.
Found in a stair-like line on the periodic table.
Represented an intermediate type of element, displaying both metallic and nonmetallic
properties
4. Define atomic radius; trend across period and group
Atomic radius: half the distance between two adjacent atoms in a crystal or half the
distance between nuclei of identical atoms bonded together.
In a group, the atomic radius is increasing because each time the shell/energy is being
added when going down.
In a period, the atomic radius is decreasing because we have extra electron being added,
but the nucleus and electrons get close yet do not touch.
5. Define ionization energy; trend across period and group
-Ionization energy the amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron.
The greater the ionization energy, the harder it is to remove an electron.
In a group, the ionization energy decreases because it is adding on a shell which increases
the distance between the nucleus and valence electrons. Thus, it decreases attraction and
makes it easier to pull a looser bond electron.
In a period, the ionization energy increases because of the attractive forces increases and
need more energy to remove the most loosely bound electron. It is not increasing shell,
but the number of protons and electrons are increasing. This increases the attraction
between positive nucleus and the electrons
6. Define electronegativity; trend across period and group
-Electronegativity measure of attraction for electron
As you go across a table (period), the electronegativity increases.
As you go down a group, the electronegativity decreases.
7. General characteristics of Groups 1, 2, 3-12, 15, 16, 17 and 18
-Group 1
Alkali metals
+1 oxidation state; 1 valence electron
-Group 2
Alkali earth metals
+2 oxidation state; 2 valence electron

Both show typical metallic characteristics
Members of both groups lose their electrons and are never found in nature
alone in their state.
Found always in compounds
Can be reduced to their free states by electrolysis of their computers
All of these elements have low ionization energies and electronegativity
values
Achieve stable octet by losing electrons to form ionic bonds
Reactivity increases from top to bottom.
Group 1 elements are more reactive than Group 2 elements.
-Groups 3-12
These are transition elements or transition metals.
Transition elements in each period represent a series of elements in which the outermost
d orbitals are being filled.
Hard solids with high melting points, with the notable exception of mercury.
Have multiple oxidation states.
When reacted, they can use electron from both s and d sublevels.
Ionization energies of the d-orbital electron have values close to those of their s electrons,
and different numbers of electrons can be removedleads to different oxidation states.
Less reactive than Group 1 and 2.
Form ions that have color.
-Group 15
Change from nonmetallic to metallic properties from top to bottom of the group
-Group16
Show a progression from nonmetal to metal with increasing atomic number.
Oxygen is the most important element in this group because 1) it is a diatomic molecule
at room temperature 2) sharing two pairs of electrons between the two atoms.
-Group 17
Are also halogens in its free state
Atoms of elements from this group gain an electron, they become an ion with a 1- charge,
and the salts formed are called halides.
All the members of this group are nonmetals, but the normal trend of nonmetallic to
metallic characteristics is seen in this group too
Halogens are the only group of the table containing all three states of matter at room
conditions.
Are held in the solid and liquid phases by weak van der Waals forces. These forces are a
result of temporary dipoles caused by the movement of electronsfollows that the more
electrons a molecule possesses, the higher its melting and boiling points.
Because they are highly reactive, halogens occur in nature only in their combined form.
Can be prepared by electrolysis or chemical means.
-Group 18
These are noble gases.
Do not combine to form diatomic molecules, but rather exist as monatomic molecules.
Each of these atoms has a complete outer energy level of electrons and therefore is
chemically unreactive.
The outer energy level of helium has two electrons, while each of the remaining noble
gases has eight.
Are nonpolar, thus held in the liquid and solid phases by van der Waals forces.
Because they do not require any more valence levels, they do not need to add any other
electrons.
II. Bonding
1. Define ionic bond; type of elements; difference in electronegativity;
-ionic bond: a bond formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another
-Transfer from metal to nonmetals.
-The difference in electronegativity is greater than or equal to 1.7It will be ionic bonding.
The greater the difference of ENthe more ionic the bond
2. Show bonding between Mg and S; Li and Cl; Mg and Cl





3. Define covalent bond; types of elements; difference in electronegativity; polar and non-polar;
symmetry and polarity
-Covalent bondforms between nonmetallic atoms by the sharing of electrons.
-The difference in electronegativity is less than <1.7
-Electron sharing always occurs in pairs.
-Two atoms may have one, two or three pairs of electrons and bond together because of the
shared pair or pairs belong to both atoms.

-Two types of covalent bonding

Non-polar
Same at both ends.
#1-4
Equal sharing
0 to 1.3 EN
Symmetrical models/shapes
Polar
Unequal sharing of electrons
#5-6
Not same at both ends
0.4 to 1.6 EN
Non/asymmetrical shape/models

Symmetry is more important than EN when determining bond type!
4. Show bond and bond type: polar or nonpolar (based on symmetry and difference in
electronegativity) for H and O; N and H; C and O; C and H; H and Cl.




















5. Compare ionic, covalent and metallic solids

Ionic substances
Ex. NaCl
Bonds ionically
Metals transfer electrons to non-metals
Crystal structure
Strong ionic bonds hold cations (+) and anion (-) together by electrostatic attraction.
Highly melting point
Easily dissolved in water
Conduct electricity in water
Covalent molecules
Ex. O2, H2O, CO2, C6H12O6
Nonmetals only
Covalently bonded (through the sharing of electrons)
Can be in the solid, liquid or gas phase at room temperature
Are usually soft
Are usually poor conductors of electricity
Low melting point
Metallic Bonds
Have high melting and boiling points
Have few valence electrons
These valence electrons are very mobile
Gives metals good electrical and thermal conductivity and allows them to be malleable
and ductile
The bond occurs between the attraction of the valence electrons which are mobile and the
positively charged kernel
Due to the freedom of these electrons, metallic bonding is known as a sea of mobile
electrons.
III. Mathematics of Chemistry/Solutions
1. Properties of a solution
They are homogenous mixtures
They are also clear because the particles are so small
The particles in a solution are either atoms, molecules or ions and are evenly distributed
on the molecular level.
Particles of a solution do not settle upon standing
A sample of one part of a solution is exactly the same as a sample of any other part of a
solution.
They can have color.
-Solvent is the substance that does the dissolving; it is usually in greater quantity
-Soluteis the substance that is being dissolved by the solvent; usually in smaller quantity.
2. Types of solutions: saturated, unsaturated, and supersaturated
Unsaturated solutions
Have not yet hit their saturation points
Contains less solute than they can hold
Can dissolve more solute up to the point of saturation.
Rate of dissolving > rate of crystallization
Saturated solutions
Rate of crystallization=rate of dissolving
Equilibrium
When a solution has dissolved of all the possible solute will drop to the bottom
(crystallize) because no more can dissolve
Supersaturated solution
Unstable conditions
Contains a greater amount of solute than needed to form a saturated solution
Prepared by preparing a saturated solution at a high temperature and then cooled.
Excess solute will crystallize and then fall to the bottom.
3. What information do Table F and G give us? Give examples
Table F gives us the solubility guidelines for aqueous solutions.
Example
1. K2Co3soluble
Table G tells us the solubility curves at standard pressure
Example
1. At 40 degrees C, how much potassium nitrate can be dissolved in 300 g of water?
126g
4. Define solubility. What factors affect solubility? Compare solids, liquids, and gases (i.e.
temperature and pressure)
Solubility of a solute is the maximum quantity of solute that can be dissolved by a certain
amount of solvent or solution of a specific temperature.
We can increase solubility by
For solids and liquids: increasing temperature increases the quantity of solute which
dissolves in the solvent or solution
For gases: increasing decreases solubility because gases are removed from the solution.
As temperature increases, solubility increases. As temperature decreases, solubility decreases.
Pressure: increases pressure has virtually no effect on liquids
For gases:
Increasing pressure increases solubility.
Decreasing pressure decreases solubility
5. Find the GFM of NH4Cl, NaNO3 and the percent of each element.













6. What is a hydrate? An anhydrous compound? How do we find the percent of water in a
hydrated crystal? Give an example.
Hydrate: are cyrstals that contain attached water molecules.
Anhydrous: are substances without water. It treats the water molecules as one unit.

Find the % of H2O in
1) Na2CO3 * 10H2O

Na 2 X 23=46
C 1 X 12=12
O 3 X 16=48
H2O 10 X 18=180

Total: 286 g

% of H2O= 180/286 *100= 63%
7. Compare empirical and molecular formulas. Give examples of each.
Empirical
A formula in which the elements are present in the smallest whole number ratio.
Molecular
Lists the number of atoms present.
Examples:
1) SO2 empirical
2) C4H18molecular
8. What is a mole? How many moles are in 125 of NaCl? How many grams in 3.2 moles of
NaCl?
Moleis the number of atoms present in 12g of C-12
1 moles of NaCl has 58 grams
125 moles of NaCl has 7250 grams
3.2 moles of NaCL has 185.6
9. What is the relationship between a mole and a coefficient in balanced chemical equation?
It gives us the ratio which moles react with each other. Also allows us to predict the number of
moles of reactant to produce any number of mole products.
10. What are the formulas for molarity, ppm, and percent by mass? Give one example of each.
Molarity:

Calculate the new molarity that results when 250mL of water is added.

a) 5.25 L of 0.101M HNO3

Answer:
5.25 L of 0.101M HNO3
250mL = 0.250L
Final vol. = 5.25 + 0.25 = 5.50L
Final Molarity = 5.25L x 0.101M/5.50L = 0.096M
PPM (parts per million)


A gas has concentration in H2O of 0.0002 grams per 100 grams of H2O. Wha tis the
concentration of the gas in ppm?

=.0002g/100g
=.00002*10
6
= 20ppm

Percent by mass

What is the percent by mass of NaHCO3 in a solution containing 20 grams NaHCO3 in 600 mL
H2O?
The mass of the NaHCO3 is 20 g. Divide this by the total mass of the solution (20 g + 600 g)
then * 100 to get percent by mass.