How to Know if the Piston is at Top Dead Center

When checking tappet clearance on marine engines, we have to ascertain that

the piston is at TDC. Though markings are provided on the flywheel, the marine
engineer must know the other methods for this like inspection of the camshaft
and the fuel pump window.
Why Know the TDC Position of the Piston?
During the maintenance of a four stroke marine diesel engine there are times
when we must know whether the particular units piston is at the top dead center
of not. For example when checking the tappet clearances of the engine it is
important to know which unit is at TDC.
Referring to the flywheel would indicate two units, but only one can be at
injection TDC. So which one is it?
In this article the various methods to find out the position of the piston would be
discussed. Some are very simple using conventional methods. Other methods
are a little bit complicated, but nevertheless important whenever you require an
independent method to find TDC.
Flywheel Method
The flywheel is the simplest method to know which unit is at TDC. If the fly
wheel shows two units, simply open the bonnet covers and check visually. The
unit at TDC will have both the inlet and the exhaust valve closed and hence
relaxed springs; the other unit would have both the arms of the rocker arm at
different levels. In addition the push rods of the unit at TDC would be loose and
can be turned by hand because of the release of the clearances. There is a word
of caution however: this method is only useful in a working generator which
you have just stopped to check the tappet clearances. In case you have removed
the rocker arms for any reason the spring height and the push rod freeness check
would lead you nowhere and misguide you.

Flywheel Marking

Fuel Pump Method
The most accurate method to know the position of the piston without opening
up the piston is the fuel pump window. The fuel pumps have a window and as
the plunger goes up and down, so does the mark on the bottom spring holder.
On the body of the fuel pump there are cut marks which show the start of
injection. In a diesel engine the start of injection is the injection TDC where
both the inlet and the exhaust valves are closed. In this injection TDC we can
check the tappet clearance. It must be noted however that the injection TDC is
not the absolute TDC as the piston is still some way down depending on the
design of the engine. An injection TDC may be around 5 degrees before TDC.
Dial Gauge Method
In this method the fuel injector is taken out and from the opening a dial gauge is
put inside. Then the turning gear is engaged and the engine turned over. The
pointer of the dial gauge will move in one direction and then stop and start in
opposite direction. The moment the pointer of the dial gauge stops and changes
its direction of movement is the TDC of the unit. This method is not normally
used in day-to-day practice, but may be used in the calibration of the flywheel if
it is not calibrated, or after some repairs.
Dial Gauge

Camshaft Method
The camshaft window of the engine can be opened up and the camshaft
inspected. The cam of the engine has a base circle, and acceleration and dwell
periods. If the roller of the follower is at the base circle, then the particular
valve is closed by spring action. When both the exhaust valve and the inlet
valve follower are on the base circle, then the unit is also at TDC. It must be
remembered that as a four stroke engine has two rotations of the crankshaft
there is one injection TDC where the injection and the combustion take place.
The second time the piston is at TDC is when the exhausting of the flue gases
take place. It is very important to identify the combustion TDC as tappets have
to be adjusted at that point.
Cam Profile

Crankcase Method
In this method the crankcase doors are opened up and the piston is visually
checked whether is going up or down. This is the surest method, but a bit
cumbersome. It should be used when you have a strong doubt about the other
methods.
Valve Spring Method
This is not an independent method but is used in conjunction with the flywheel
method. In this method if the flywheel is indicating two units, you can check the
springs of both the units. The unit in which the springs are loose is the one at
TDC. The caution is that this method is useful for an engine in use. If you have
removed the rocker arms during the overhaul and thereafter you want to use this
method then it can cause errors.
Push Rod Method
This method is like the spring method and you check that the push rods are free
to turn. The unit at TDC will have loose springs. The care that must be taken is
that it should be used along with the flywheel method and should be used in a
working engine. By a working engine, I mean the engine that was running and
has been stopped for tappets adjustment.
Spill Timing Method
This is a very accurate (and tedious) method generally used to check the start of
injection in the fuel pump. It will also give you the injection TDC. It is used not
in the tappet checking process, but instead to find the start of injection when
you have power or thermal balance problems.
Basically in this method the delivery valve of the fuel pump along with the
delivery valve spring are removed. There after a special "U" shaped pipe is put
in place of the high pressure pipe. After this operation the engine is turned by
the turning gear and slowly brought near the expected TDC.
Soon oil will start spilling out of the pipe because the oil is entering from the
inlet port, which is uncovered by the plunger. Keep turning the engine slowly
and the oil quantity will reduce. The point where the oil flow just stops is the
start of the injection. At this moment the plunger of the fuel pump has closed
the inlet port and if you observe the fuel cam, you will find the follower is no
longer at the base circle.
As this method involves the spilling of fuel, it is called the spill timing method.
How Does An Air Ejector Work?
An air ejector or steam ejector is a device which uses the motion of moving
fluid (Motive Fluid) to transport another fluid (Suction fluid). It is has a wide
range of application in steam ejector in boiler condenser, fresh water generator
and in priming the centrifugal pump.
Air Ejector Theory
It works on the principle of convergent /divergent nozzle as it provides the
venturi effect at the point of diffusion as the tube gets narrows at the throat the
velocity of the fluid increases and because of the venturi affect it pressure
decreases, vacuum will occur in the diffuser throat where the suction line will
be provided.
An air ejector which uses the high pressure motive fluid such as air or steam to
flow through the convergent nozzle the function of the convergent nozzle is to
convert the pressure energy of the motive fluid into the velocity energy.
As in convergent nozzle the following effect takes place,

P1-pressure of the fluid entering the nozzle.
V1- velocity of the fluid entering the nozzle.
P2- pressure of the fluid leaving the nozzle.
V2- velocity of the fluid leaving the nozzle.
y Bernoullis theorem:
P1 V1 = P2 V2.
As the pressure energy before entering the convergent nozzle is greater and the
velocity is less for the fluid. At the point of discharge the pressure energy is
converted into the velocity so the velocity will be greater and the pressure will
be less during the discharge.
Divergent nozzle the opposite effect takes place velocity energy is convert into
pressure energy, at the point of diffusion there is a low pressure or vacuum is
created which is used to suck the other fluid for the motion.
In the fig: C- Convergent Nozzle.
D- Divergent Nozzle.
V- venturi Point or Diffuser Point.

Air Ejector

Appliction of Air Ejectors:
1.Steam Jet Air Ejector:
It is one of the types of air ejector which is used in the steam like near the
condenser to remove the non condensable gases and some vapour entering into
main condenser by an air ejector and it is cooled by the main condensate and
released in the ejector condenser.
A steam is used as the motive fluid to withdraw air and dissolved gases from the
condenser by the ejector action. In each stage of the steam jet ejector, high
pressure steam is expanded in a convergent /divergent nozzle. The steam leaves
the nozzle at a very high velocity in the order of 1220 m/s and a proportion of
the kinetic energy in the steam jet transferred by interchange of momentum to
the body of air which entrained and passes along with the operating steam
through a diffuser in which the kinetic energy of combined steam is re-
converted to pressure energy.
The maximum pressure ratio that can be obtained with a single stage is roughly
5:1 and consequently it is necessary to use two or even three stages in series to
establish a vacuum in the order of 724mm of Hg with reasonable steam
consumption.
Design Feature:
There are a variety of ejectors designed in service which work on the same
principle. Older unit have heavy cast steel which serves as a vapour condenser
and also contains diffusers. These are arranged vertically the steam entering at
the top. More recent design has the diffuser arrangement externally and vapor
condenser shell is some what lighter in construction.
Horizontal singe element two stage air ejectors this unit comprises a stack u-
tubes contained in a fabricated mild steel condenser shell on which is mounted a
single element two stage air ejector.
The condensate from the main or auxiliary condenser is used as the cooling
medium. High velocity operating steam emerging from the 1 st stage ejector
nozzle entrains the non-condensable and vapour from the main condenser and
the mix discharge into the inter condenser.
Most of the steam and vapour is condensed when it comes into contact with the
cool surface of the tubes, falls to the bottom of the shell and drains to the main
or auxiliary condenser.
The remaining air and water vapour are drawn into the second stage ejector and
discharged to the steam drain tank and non-condensable gases are at last
discharged to the atmosphere through vacuum retaining valve.
2.Fresh Water Generator:
The next main application of the air ejector in marine field is in fresh water
generator as it is used to remove the air and non condensable in the evaporator
chamber so as to maintain the vacuum inside the chamber. Thus the efficiency
of the generation increases at low temperature of the sea water.
3. Self Priming of Centifual Pumps:
It is also employed in priming of the centrifugal pumps by the air ejector, which
removes the air inside the casing of the pump by the suction effect created by
the air ejector thus by flooding casing with the liquid so that it helps in stating
of the pump.
Test and Overhaul of Fuel Injection Valves
This article discusses the testing and the overhaul of fuel injectors of marine
engines,the testing of the needle and guide condition of the fuel valve, and the
procedure to overhaul and inspect the injectors taken out of the marine diesel
engines.
Fuel Valve Checks

The fuel valves taken out from the engine must be checked for function and
performance. Even in engines which are stopped on heavy fuel oil in ports the
fuel injector taken out must be immediately tested with diesel oil before they get
cold as this will flush and clean the components. It must be noted that if the fuel
valves taken out are tested after they have cooled, will show bad performance
even if they were performing satisfactorily in service.
In the majority of cases the fuel injectors have a good spray profile but they
open up at a less pressure. The pressure adjustment can be done without
opening up the valve and should be done so. The engine manufacturers also
instruct that unless the fuel injector valve has a major problem like holes choked
or valve dripping, they should not be opened up. The valve should be cleaned
from the outside, pressure checked, pressure adjusted and tagged.
Inspection and Repairs
In the case where the fuel injector valve is not performing as required and has
some defect, then it needs to be opened up and overhauled. The assembly and
the disassembly have to be done as per the instructions given by the engine
manufacturer. However, below is a general guide about what you will most
likely have to do.

After the fuel valve has been disassembled then the following checks have to be
done:
1. The needle guide should be immersed in clean diesel oil and the needle taken
out and checked for free movement. In the case of any resistance which may be
due to the presence of carbon or fuel sludge the needle may be put in and pulled
out in succession many times while keeping it submerged in diesel oil. It is
important to do this in a container full of clean diesel oil so the contaminants
can be flushed away.
2. After the needle guide has been cleaned, the needle should be taken almost
out and then let it fall in with its own weight. A free and smooth movement with
small jerks as the clearance is making way for the oil to come out is an
indication that the clearances are all right and the needle guide is in good
condition. It must be noted that the needle should fall fully into the seat.
3. On the other hand if the needle falls fully in one go, then the clearances have
increased and the fuel will leak past the spindle and less fuel will go in the
cylinder. The needle must be inspected for any wear marks if this happens. The
needle guide can be used but must be changed soon.
4. If the needle does not go down and gets struck then it must be thoroughly
cleaned again. If still there is no improvement then the needle might have
become bent. Check the needle for any signs of overheating.

5. The push rod end should be checked for any abnormal wear.

6. The seating between the nozzle body and the valve body if damaged can be
repaired by lapping with fine lapping paste. It must be noted that the lapping
paste should be thoroughly flushed away with clean diesel oil and thereafter
blown dry with compressed air.

7. Check the nozzle spring for breakage, poor seating and other defects. Change
if required.

8. Check the leak off pipes, shims, packing etc for the condition. If the fuel
valve is water cooled, the cooling pockets should be cleaned with compressed
air.
Tests and Adjustments
1. After the parts are cleaned and inspected the fuel valve is assembled as per
the manufacturers instructions and thereafter tested for function and
performance.

2. The assembled fuel valve is installed on the test stand and after purging the
pipe line the manual handle is operated in quick succession. The nozzle should
start discharging with a sharp crackling noise at the set pressure. The pressure at
which the injector is supposed to fire depends upon the manufacturers engine
design but normally is between 250 to 350 kg/cm2 with an allowance of plus or
minus 10 kg/cm2.

3. In case the lifting pressure is not correct, it can be adjusted by the adjusting
screw.

4. The spray characteristics should be satisfactory and as per the manufacturers
advice.

5. All the holes of the injector should be firing and can be checked by a torch
light or a filter paper can be folded as a cone and then the injector tested. The
holes on the filter paper will show the number of holes firing. In this procedure
you must be careful as the high pressure spray can enter the skin and is toxic for
us.

6. The spray angle should be as stated by the manufacturer. The atomization of
the fuel should take place and solid spray should not come out.
7. Clean diesel oil should be used for the testing purpose.
8. In the case that the fuel valve is dripping the needle guide should be taken out
and repaired.
Caution
The needle and the guide is always a pair and should not be interchanged with
another one. Cleanliness is the most important factor in making fuel valves. A
clean fuel valve lasts a longer time. The fuel under pressure can enter the skin
and the blood stream and is toxic for humans. Take care that you stay away
from the spray. The fine mist can catch fire and in inflammable. Do not smoke
or use naked lights where the fuel injectors are being tested.
A Guide to Grinding and Lapping Paste
Grinding pastes are used for controlled removal of metal, polishing, and fitting
applications. They are used in various applications like fuel injector and exhaust
valve overhaul, globe valve overhaul, and threading and tapping applications,
among others.
Grinding Paste
Lapping paste is a mixture of hard abrasive particles in a suitable base. The base
can be oil-based like grease or water soluble lubricant. The hard particles used
are carborandum, aluminum oxide, silica or silicon carbide, glass, boron
carbide, etc.
Lapping pastes are used for controlled removal and are used for the close
mating of surfaces and for removing rust and the brightening of a metal surface.
They are used for lapping of the exhaust and the inlet valves of engines, seat
repairs of globe valves, the overhaul of reciprocating compressor valves, etc.
The lapping paste are graded from extra coarse to extra fine. In extra coarse
there are few grits of larger size abrasives, and it is used for rough lapping. In
extra fine grinding paste, there are a very large number of grits of very fine
particles and it is used for fine lapping. The larger the grit rating of the lapping
paste, the finer is the paste.
Correct Methods of Manual Lapping
When using hand lapping there are two methods of lapping used, the first is the
figure of eight lapping and the other is circular. In case a guide is available, like
the nozzle nut in a fuel injector the circular method can be used. The figure of
eight lapping needs a mature hand and best not left to novices. It should be
remembered that if you can stop that leakage with a minimum amount of
lapping then over lapping should be avoided. Under lapping is always preferred
to over lapping and lapping must not be done just for lapping sake but the
advice of the manufacturers must be sought.
In a figure of eight method a numeric shape of eight is made on the
surface plate by the operator. In a circular method the job piece is rotated
circularly in place.
The exposed metal should give a uniform polished look and the quality of the
lapping can be made out by the patterns. Any stray scratches on the lapped
surface should be avoided as under high pressure they can become channels for
leakage.
Role of Lubricants in Lapping Paste
Oil and grinding paste have contrary functions, while abrasive increases the
rubbing and cutting the oil seeks to reduce it. However oil is used to control the
abrasive and cutting action. It also is the base in which the abrasive particles
float and move under the action of the mating surfaces. Oil or grease is
However used in a certain measured amount.
Some people like to use additional lubricant during lapping process. However it
must be remembered that the addition of more oil is reducing the effort and the
cutting action of the abrasive particles. The abrasive particles are also washed
away if extra lubricant is added.
During lapping if you want fast removal of the metal you must lap till the effort
to move the mating parts reduces. The reduction of the force indicates that the
abrasives have broken down to harmless paste and are now acting like a
lubricant. Therefore you must remove the old lapping paste and put fresh paste.
If sufficient care is not taken during this time then metal to metal contact would
take place and the effect of spot welding and scuffing would spoil the finish
desired.
Taking Care of lapping Paste
Lapping is an art and a master machinist would work down from a coarse to a
very fine grade in a proper sequence to get the desired finish and precision as
required. Each grade has carefully controlled similar sizes of abrasive particles
suspended in the base. Any alien particle of a coarse abrasive in an extra fine tin
can create frustration especially when you are on your final finish.
It is a good practice to keep all the lapping and the grinding paste cans closed
when not in use. Also when a fresh charge of lapping paste is taken it should be
rubbed thoroughly between the fingers to make out for any contaminants. This
is very beneficial when you are doing fine lapping.
Cleanliness in Precision Lapping
Cleanliness is one of the most important factors in precision lapping as is the
quality of the lapping paste and the skill of the operator. It is a good practice
that the work table is cleaned with clean rags and blown dry with compressed
air before the lapping. If a surface plate is being used then it should be washed
with clean kerosene and then blown dry with compressed air.
Also when removing used lapping paste from items being lapped, they should
be
How to Take Accurate Readings Using Micrometer Screw Gauge?
Micrometer screw gauge is used for measuring small dimensions with acute
precision. Screw gauge is used for dimensions smaller than those measured by
vernier calipers. Learn how to take accurate measurements using a screw gauge
in the article inside.
Introduction
A micrometer screw gauge is used for measuring dimensions smaller than those
measured by the vernier calipers. A micrometer screw gauge is a small
measuring device which works on the screw principle. To more about the
different parts and the working principle of the micrometer screw gauge
read here.
Having a U shaped metallic frame, a micrometer screw gauge measures even
the minutest length with acute precision. In the following article we will learn
how to read a micrometer with utmost accuracy.

Using Micrometer Screw Gauge
Just like a vernier calipers, a micrometer screw gauge also carries two scales - a
main scale and an auxiliary scale. The main scale is a millimeter scale graduated
to 0.5 mm, whereas the auxiliary scale is divided into 50 equal divisions. The
auxiliary scale is on the thimble of the screw gauge and measures hundredth of
the measurement. The jaws of the gauge are moved rotating the thimble. The
auxiliary scale on the thimble is also known as the vernier rotating scale.
Moreover, the thimble is so adjusted that 2 revolutions of the thimble will allow
the jaws to move by 1 mm. This means that a single rotating will move the jaws
only by 0.50 mm. The main scale lies on the part of the screw gauge known as
the sleeve.
wiped with soft tissue paper and cleaned with compressed air.

How is the Reading Taken?
In order to take the reading using a screw gauge, the object is placed between
the jaws which are moved by the thimble. The ratchet knob is used to adjust the
object firmly between the jaws. For accurate reading, the thimble should be
moved until three clicks are heard from the ratchet. The ratchet ensures
accuracy and also prevents the object from getting damaged. The main scale
reading is taken by considering that marking on the sleeve which is visible just
to the left of the thimble. It is also to note that the 0.5 mm divisions that are
provided below the main scale should also be considered while taking the
reading. The auxiliary scale reading is taken by observing the marking on the
thimble that coincides with the main scale on the sleeve. The auxiliary reading
figures will follow the main scale reading figures in the final reading. Lets take
an example to understand this.
Example 1
Imagine that the scales have come to the positions as shown in the figure below,
after the jaws are kept around the object. The lock can be used to assure that
readings dont change due to the movement of the thimble. In the figure, it can
be seen that the marking on the main scale which is just to the left of the
thimble is 7 mm. However, the half scale division that is visible below the main
scale shouldnt be neglected and thus the reading on the main scale will be
7.5mm. For the auxiliary scale reading, it is noted that the 22
nd
division on the
thimble scale matches with the main scale. Thus the thimble scale reading
would be 0.22 mm. The final reading will be the addition of these two readings
i.e. 7.5 + 0.22 = 7.72 mm.

Example 2
Lets take one more example to understand it properly. Suppose the scales came
to the positions shown in the figure. The main scale reading would be the
marking that is fully visible immediately to the left of the thimble, i.e. 5.5 mm.
For the auxiliary reading, the 30
th
division of the thimble matches with the main
scale and thus its reading will be 0.30 mm. The final reading will be the
addition of the readings of both the scale i.e. 5.5 + 0.30 = 5.80 mm.

Calculating the Stoichiometric Air-Fuel Ratio
Achieving fuel-efficiency in Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) is crucial to
operation. In order to efficiently burn fuel in an ICE, you need the correct air-
fuel ratio.
Internal combustion engines burn fuel to create
kinetic energy. The burning of fuel is basically the reaction of fuel with
oxygen in the air. The amount of oxygen present in the cylinder is the
limiting factor for the amount of fuel that can be burnt. If theres too
much fuel present, not all fuel will be burnt and un-burnt fuel will be
pushed out through the exhaust valve.
When building an engine, its very important to know the air-fuel ratio at which
exactly all the available oxygen is used to burn the fuel completely or atleast to
the best possible value. This ratio is called the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio.
Theoretically, this ratio will exist only for a stoichiometric mixture, which is an
ideal mixture and in practice this mixture has never been formed for any
machine so far. As every combustion cycle in an ICE is short lived, so it
becomes almost impossible to achieve the ideal ratio. However, air-fuel ratios
close to it can be achieved by modifying engine design and making use of
proper admixtures and catalysts to keep a check on the pressure and temperature
of the fuel.
The fuel combustion process takes place under very hot and pressurized
conditions and to avoid any unsafe consequences, excess air operations are
carried out. Excess air level keeps a check on the various factors like fuel
composition variation, oxygen availability and pressure, that can lead to an
explosion.
Air fuel meters or air fuel gauges are used to measure the air to fuel ratio of
engines. Wideband oxygen sensors are used to measure the air-fuel ratio of
ICEs. Mainly there are two types of band sensors, depending upon the purpose
and type of engine. For heavy-duty and multi-purpose engines, using a wide
sensor is advisable. For general diagnostic purposes, a narrow band sensor is
most suitable. Advanced fuel ratio analyzers and gauges help a great way in
monitoring the performance of an engine and tune it up according to the
requirements.
Calculating the Ratio
The air to fuel ratio is the property of fuel and chemical composition of the fuel
that defines the value for this ratio. Most of the fuels we use in internal
combustion engines are hydrocarbons, and their burning will obviously result in
the release of hydrogen and carbon as residuals, along with heat and pressure.
Below is an example of the oxidation reaction of methane (natural gas) as a
fuel.
CH4 + 2(O2) CO2 + 2(H20)
If we look up the atomic weights of the atoms that make up octane and oxygen,
we get the following numbers:
Carbon (C) = 12.01
Oxygen (O) = 16
Hydrogen (H) = 1.008
So 1 molecule of methane has a molecular weight of: 1 * 12.01 + 4
* 1.008 = 16.042
One oxygen molecule weighs: 2 * 16 = 32
The oxygen-fuel mass ratio is then: 2 * 32 / 1 * 16.042 = 64 /
16.042
So we need 3.99 kg of oxygen for every 1 kg of fuel
Since 23.2 mass-percent of air is actually oxygen, we need : 3.99 *
100/23.2 = 17.2 kg air for every 1 kg of methane.
So the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio of methane is 17.2.
When the composition of a fuel is known, this method can be used to
derive the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio. For the most common fuels, this,
however, is not necessary because the ratios are known:
Natural gas: 17.2
Gasoline: 14.7
Propane: 15.5
Ethanol: 9
Methanol: 6.4
Hydrogen: 34
Diesel: 14.6
You may find it interesting that methanol and ethanol both have a very low air-
fuel ratio, while the carbon chain length is comparable to methane and ethane.
The reason for this is that alcohols like methanol and ethanol already carry
oxygen themselves, which reduces the need for oxygen from the air.
The Bottom Line
In order to be able to judge if an air-fuel mixture has the correct ratio of air to
fuel, the stoichiometric air fuel ratio has to be known. If the composition of a
fuel is known, this ratio can be calculated rather easily.
How to Take Accurate Readings Using Vernier Calipers?
Vernier calipers are small mechanical devices used for taking precision
measurement. Though a bit complex to use it in the first place, a vernier caliper
is supposed to be known as the most widely used instrument in the engineering
field. Find out how to take measurements using vernier calipers
Introduction
Vernier caliper is used for measuring length of objects with acute precision. An
important measuring device for engineers, vernier calipers consists of two
scales a main scale and a sliding or vernier scale. It is important to know the
different parts of the vernier calipers before using it. Know more about Vernier
calipers and its various parts in here.
The main scale of the Vernier calipers shows reading in millimeters, whereas
the sliding vernier scale is divided into ten equal parts and has a least count of
0.1 mm. Readings of both the scales are important for reaching the final
reading.

Reading Vernier Calipers
Using vernier calipers in the first place might seem a bit difficult; however with
practice one can easily gain the expertise. It is to note that reading vernier
calipers requires a bit of calibration to be done by the user. Reading of each
scale is taken with respect to the other scale. This means that the reading of the
main scale is taken using the markings on the vernier scale and vise-versa. Let
us now understand how the readings of objects are taken using Vernier calipers
Order directly at the specialist. A huge range of measuring tools.

How the Readings are Taken?
A Vernier Calipers allows readings up to a precision of 0.02 mm. The object
whose outer diameter is to be measured is kept between the main jaws, whereas
the object whose inner diameter is to be measured is placed around the smaller
jaws. The jaws are so kept that they just touch the surface of the object softly.
This is done by moving the vernier scale.
The reading of the main scale is taken where the patch just on the left of the
vernier scale coincides with the marking on the main scale. Whereas the
measurement of the vernier scale is taken by observing the division on the
vernier scale that lines up exactly with that of the main scale. We will see how
this is done taking with the help of examples.
Example 1
Imagine that the scales, after placing the object in between the jaws, came to the
position as shown in the figure below. Make sure that the screw clamp is
tightened to prevent the scales from moving. If you observe the vernier scale
carefully, you will notice that the small patch immediately to the left of 0
coincides with the 4
th
marking after 3 of the main scale. This means that the
main scale reading is 34 mm. This main scale reading is the first significant
figure of the measurement. The vernier readings will be kept after 34 mm to
form the final reading.
Again observing the figure carefully, it is observed that the 60
th
division exactly
coincides with one of the divisions on the main scale. Thus the vernier reading
is 60 and it will be placed right after the main scale reading, i.e. 34.60 mm.
Thus, the final reading of the vernier is 34.60mm.

Example 2
Lets take one more example. In the figure below, the main scale reading, just
left to the zero on the vernier scale is 37 mm. Thus the main scale reading is
37mm. For the vernier reading, it is observed that the 46
th
division exactly
coincides with one of the main scale readings. Thus the vernier scale reading is
46 and thus the final reading comes to 37.46mm.
While taking the main scale reading, in case the small division on the left of 0
on the vernier scale, doesnt match any of the markings on the main scale and
lies exactly in the center of two divisions than the smaller reading is taken as the
main scale reading. Also, many people complain that there are instances when
more than two divisions of the vernier scale coincide with those of the main
scale. However, in reality such situation is not possible, and if observed
carefully, only one division would be found coinciding exactly with one on the
main scale.

Impressed Current Cathodic Protection System


Corrosion:
The ships hull is corroding in sea water. Generally this is electro-chemical
reaction in which the metal combines with an oxygen, to form a metal oxide or
other compound. This depends upon the nature of the environment. Different
metals have different tendencies to corrode, activity or potential.
Some metals and alloys have two positions in the series, marked Active and
Passive.
The active position is when the corrosion is occurring and approaches the
electro-chemical series position for the material. The passive position relates to
a non-corroding situation where the material is protected by a self forming
surface film.
If two metals are placed in an electrolyte (e.g. sea water or damp soil) and are in
direct electrical contact, a current will pass through the electrolyte from the
more active metal onto the least active metal.


The least active metal does not corrode and is termed the cathode. The more
active metal, the anode, passes into solution and the flow of electrical current
increases. This is a metal ion and electron transfer process i.e., it corrodes

Cathodic Protections:
The anodic and cathodic areas in a corrosion cell may be due to the electrical
contact of two dissimilar metals, galvanic corrosion. Anodic and cathodic areas
may be formed on a single metal surface as micro-cells for instance by rain
drops on uncoated steel. Alternatively, they may be close but discrete cells
found when accelerated corrosion occurs at uncoated anodic areas on a
generally coated cathodic structure.
Large currents can occur at small anodic areas and lead to rapid corrosion of
marine structures such as ship's internal tanks, external hull plates, sheet steel
piling in harbours and tubular structures common in jetties and petrochemical
drilling and production platforms.
Cathodic Protection is a system of preventing corrosion by forcing all surfaces
of a structure to be cathodes by providing external anodes.

Sacrificial anode cathodic protection achieves corrosion prevention on a
particular structure or component by forming galvanic cell where an additional
anode of zinc, magnesium or aluminium corrodes in preference to the structure.
The galvanic corrosion current (see simple cell before) available from this
anode / electrolyte / structure combination should be sufficient to overcome the
local surface corrosion currents on the structure until no current flows from
anodic areas of the structure i.e the structure is entirely cathodic or under
complete cathodic protection As indicated previously, a metal can be made
cathodic by electrically connecting it to a more anodic metal within the
electrolyte. The most commonly used anodic metals are alloys of aluminium,
zinc and magnesium. Anodes of these metals corrode preferentialy, the
corrosion current of the anode achieving cathodic protection of the structure to
which they are connected.
The anodes deteriorate as an essential part of their function and they are
therefore termed sacrificial

Introduction of ICCP
A metal also can be made cathodic by electrically connecting it to another
metallic component in the same electrolyte through a source of direct electric
current. The current flow from this metallic component must be sufficient to
overcome the natural corrosion current. Thus we will direct the current flow to
occur off the surface of added metallic component (anode), into the electrolyte
and onto the metal (cathode).
All we need is to measure what the natural corrosion current is. So we add one
more electrode reference cell completely passive metal. The potential
difference between the hull and reference cell will form the natural corrosion
current. So another electrode anode - with a power source is introduced so that
the current flow from this electrode is sufficient to overcome the natural
corrosion current.
Because an external current source is employed, this type of protection is
termed 'IMPRESSED CURRENT CATHODIC PROTECTION'.

Cathodic Protection

A source of direct current is required, this is generally obtained from mains
power units that contain a transformer and rectifier.
The magnitude of this current may be automatically controlled in response to a
continuous monitor of the cathode / electrolyte potential or may be manually
controlled after intermittent measurement.
The impressed current anode material is ideally non-consumed by the passage
of current from it into the electrolyte, in practice the materials used are a
compromise between this ideal and the cost and physical properties of available
materials. Impressed current anodes are made from graphite, silicon iron, lead
alloys some with platinum dielectrodes, platinised titanium or more exotic
combinations such as platinum clad niobium. The selection of the correct anode
material is critical in the formulation of an effective and economic cathodic
protection scheme
Generally, for a given current demand, less impressed current anodes than
sacrificial anodes are required for protection, as high anode currents are
feasible.
Impressed current systems of cathodic protection are more sophisticated in
design than sacrificial systems.



The tipycal elements of ICCP


Control Panel Anodes Reference cell

The interconnection is similar to given picture below:

Although modern hull coatings can provide some protection against corrosion
they seldom offer a complete solution. For this reason, most operators choose to
protect their vessels with a purpose designed impressed current cathodic
protection system.
Using an arrangement of hull mounted anodes and reference cells connected to
a control panel(s), the system produces a more powerful external current to
suppress the natural electro-chemical activity on the wetted surface of the hull.
This eliminates the formation of aggressive corrosion cells on the surface of
plates and avoids the problems which can exist where dissimilar metals are
introduced through welding or brought into proximity by other components
such as propellers.
An essential feature of ICCP system is that they constantly monitor the
electrical potential at the seawater/hull interface and carefully adjust the output
to the anodes in relation to this.
Therefore, the system is much more effective and reliable.



Blow-Down Procedure for Marine Boilers


Boiler blow down is done to remove carbon deposits and other impurities from
the boiler. Blow down of the boiler is done to remove two types of impurities
scum and bottom deposits. This means that blow down is done either for scum
or for bottom blow down. Moreover, the reasons for boiler blow down are:
1. To remove the precipitates formed as a result of chemical addition to the
boiler water.
2. To remove solid particles, dirt, foam or oil molecules from the boiler
water. This is mainly done by scum valve and the procedure is known as
scumming.
3. To reduce the density of water by reducing the water level.
4. To remove excess water in case of emergency.

Procedure for Scumming and
Bottom Blow Down
Below is the procedure for
boiler blow down using the
blow down valve located at
the bottom of the boiler. In
order to do scumming, instead
of bottom blow down, the
scum valve is to be opened.
**WHY TO OPEN V/V 1 FIRST??
TO AVOID THE FULL LINE COMONIG
INTO PR OF BOILER WATER AND
HENCE CHANCE OF FAILURE BCOZ THIS
LINE WITH TIME CORRODES DUE TO
THE NATURE OF SERVICEAND ALSO WE CAN USE A LOW SCHEDULE NO. PIPE LEADING TO
ECONOMICAL SAVING
**2.N/R V/V,,,,3.RETURN TYPE V/V
WHY 2 V/VS 2AND3..2SHOULD BE OPENED FULL TO PREVENT WIRE DRAWING OF ITS SEAT BCOZ
OF HIGH VELOCITY OF WATER(THE PR. HEAD ON WATER CONVERTING INTO VELOCITY DUE TO
THROTTLING OR EXPANSION).HENCE WE ARE NOW LEFT WITH NO OPTION TO FIT A OTHER V/V TO
CONTROL THE QUANTITY OF BLOW DOWN OR RATE OF BLOW DOWN.

Steps for blow down procedure are as follows:
Kindly refer the diagram to understand the blow down procedure properly.
1. Open the overboard or ship side valve(1) first.
2. Open the blow down valve (2), this valve is a non-return valve.
3. The blow down valve adjacent to the boiler (2) should be opened fully so
as to prevent cutting of the valve seat.
4. The rate of blow down is controlled by the valve (3).
5. After blow down close the valve in reverse order.
6. A hot drain pipe even when all valves are closed indicates a leaking blow
down valve.
BOILER NOTES
Economizers are heat exchangers which are fitted in a boiler to increase the
efficiency of the boiler. This is done by extracting the heat from the exiting gas
and using it to heat the feed water entering the boiler.
INTRODUCTION
To obtain an acceptable degree of efficiency and reduce fuel consumption as
much as possible by introducing further heat recovery surface so that the gas
temperature at the funnel may be as low as practicable, the gas temperature
leaving a boiler cannot be reduced much below 30
o
C above the saturation
temperature. In radiant types a much higher exit gas temperature is usually
found. To carry out this further heat exchange, surfaces such as economizers
and air heaters are commonly used.
In many radiant boiler types, economizers are also found arranged integrally
within the boiler unit. In this location they consist of a number of multi-loop
elements of plain tubes connected at their ends to inlet and outlet headers.
Since are situated in a hot gas temperature zone and are required to perform a
considerable heat exchange duty, a portion of the water pumped through
them may be converted into steam. These steaming economizers are arranged
so that water enters the lower header and the steam and water mixture leaves
from the top header to the steam drum where the steam and water separate.
Economizers are used externally to boilers for further heat recovery.
Economizers are found in the cooler gas zone and are fed with water
temperatures around 116
o
C or 185
o
C depending upon whether the feed cycle
includes high pressure feed heaters after the de-aerator.
BOILER WITH THE ECONOMIZER
INSPECTION ON GAS SIDE:
Before going into economizer inspection, first inspect the gas side of the boiler.
It gives you a clear picture of boiler working condition and the efficiency of
heat transfer surfaces.
1. Check exterior of drums for sign of tube roll, leakage, corrosion, soot
erosion and overheating.
2. Condition of outside drum insulation.
3. Drum seals for signs of air leakage.
4. Inspect drum support for cracks and expansion clearance.
5. Check all the blow-down connection for expansion and flexibility of
support.
6. Inspect all piping and valves for leaks.
7. Visually check water wall tubes and fins for cracks.
8. Check exterior of all tubes for corrosion, carbon-build up, erosion,
blisters and sagging.
9. Inspect tubes at soot blower for sign of steam impingement.
10. Check header seals for signs of air leakage.
11. Examine exterior of headers for corrosion, erosion, thermal cracking and
condition of insulation.
12. Condition of refractory.
13. Around the burner assembly check refractory, tube condition and
accumulation of soot or carbon.
14. Check soot blowers for distortion, worn bearings, rubbing of tubes,
condition of nozzle cracks, freedom of movement and effective
lubrication.
INSPECTION ON ECONOMIZER:
1. The major problem at the economizer section is low temperature
corrosion and problems from gas side deposits.
2. Sliding and leaky expansion joints at the casing may allow accumulation
of soot with severe acid attack.
3. Inspection of tubes bends by opening the inspection covers needs to be
carried out to check these.
4. Uptake area may show cracked expansion bellows sign of acid corrosion.
General cleanliness of these areas indicates the combustion performance in
boiler.
Design and Setting of the Marine Boiler Safety Valve
Safety valves are fitted to protect the boiler from the effect of over pressure.
At least two safety valves are fitted to each boiler steam drum, but if there is a
super heater, another safety valve should be fitted on it.
Introduction: Marine Boiler Safety Valves
The pressure setting of the superheater safety valve should be less that the
designed pressure of the boiler, i.e. less than that of the steam drum safety
valve, to ensure flow of steam through the superheater under blow off
conditions. The pressure setting of one steam drum safety valve should be
same as the design pressure of the boiler. The pressure setting of another
safety valve should be 2-3 % more than the designed pressure of the boiler.
Classification of Boiler Safety Valves
There are three types of safety valves used in marine boilers:
1. Improved high lift safety valve
2. Full lift safety valve
3. Full bore safety valve
Boiler Safety Valve
Improved High Lift Safety Valve:
1. Wingless valve improves steam flow and reduces risk of seizure.
2. Waste steam pressure acting on the piston gives increasing valve lift.
3. Special shaped seat deflects steam towards lip on valve and increases
valve lift.
4. The valve lifts, the force to compress the spring increases, so the higher
valve lifts the greater the increasing in boiler pressure.
5. Waste steam pressure keeps cylinder in place while piston moves, also
by having a floating cylinder, seizure risk is reduced.
6. A lip is placed around the valve seat so that when the valve lid lifts,
escaping steam is trapped in the annular space around the valve face,
the resultant buildup of pressure acting upon the greater valve lid area
causes the valve to lift sharply. This arrangement gives another
advantage to close the valve cleanly and sharply with very little blow
down effect.
7. The improved high lift safety valve makes use of waste steam pressure
to increase the valve lift; this is done by allowing the pressure to act
upon the lower spring carrier which fits within a floating ring so forming
in effect a piston. The pressure acts upon this piston causing it to move
up, helping to compress the spring and so increasing the valve lift.
8. Loose fitting key or pad lock is provided to ensure proper closing of
valve.
9. Loose pin is provided to secure valve lid and allow thermal expansion.
10. Adjustment of the valve is carried out by means of a compression nut
screwing down on to the top spring plate.
11. A compression ring is fitted after the final adjustment to ensure no
further movement takes place.
12. A cap is then fitted over the compression nut and the top of the valve
spindle, a cotter is passed through and padlocked to prevent tampering
by unauthorized person.
13. Clearance between this cap, the valve spindle and cotter are such as to
prevent the valve being held down externally.
14. Easing gear is fitted so that in the event of an emergency the valve can
be opened by hand to a full lift D to release the boiler pressure.
Valve Area: As = A (1 + Ts / 555)
As- Aggregate area through the seating of valve (mm2) for superheated
steam.
A-Aggregate area through the seating of valve (mm2) for saturated
steam.
Ts- Degree of superheated steam in
o
C.
15. Valve Area (As) greater than (A) due to specific volume of steam increases
with increases of temperature at constant pressure and more escape area is
required to avoid accumulation of pressure.
16. The area of valve chest must be at least (1/2) A.
17. The waste steam pipe and steam passage must be at least 1.1 A.
Manual Hand Trying of Boiler Safety Relief Valve:
To check the proper working condition of the boiler safety valve we carry out
the Hand trying out the Boiler Safety valve at regular intervals. The safety
valve is provided with the easing gear which manually lifts the safety valve and
releases the excess pressure in the boiler. When the easing gear is pulled, the
valve will be opened by hand to a full lift of D to release the boiler pressure.
Before carrying out the process the boiler safety valve has to be drained.

Boiler Safety Valve Drain:
Draining of the boiler safety valve is necessary as to prevent any build-up of
water in the pipe line causing head of water to form over the valve lid so
increasing the blow off pressure. So at regular intervals the boiler safety valve
should be drained.
1. Drain pipe must be fitted to the lowest part of the valve chest on the
discharge side of the valve.
2. The pipe should be led clear of the boiler.
3. The pipe must have no valve or cock fitted through its length.
4. The open drain of the pipe should be regularly checked.
5. If the pipe becomes chocked, there is possibility of overloading the valve
due to hydraulic head, or damage due to water hammer.
6. The waste steam pipe of the boiler safety valve should be well secured
so that no load of the pipe is on the safety valve, which can be the cause
of additional stress on the valve.
Pressure Setting of the Boiler Safety Valve:
If it is found that the boiler safety relief valve is not lifting at the designed
lifting pressure, manual pressure setting of the boiler safety valve has to be
done for the proper and safe operation of the boiler. The adjustment can be
carried out on this type of valve to give the desired discharge and blow down
characteristic.
1. Safety valve pressure setting can be done from high to low pressure or
vice versa.
2. Take necessary personal safety precaution and arrange tools i.e. gagging
tool and master gauges.
3. Slowly raise the boiler pressure and blow off the safety valves manually
few times for thermal expansion and to reduce the thermal stress on the
valves.
4. Then screw down all the safety valves higher than the setting pressure at
which you are going to set.
5. Raise the boiler steam pressure 2-3 % more than the designed pressure
of the boiler, then stop firing and unscrew the first valve slowly, when it
blows off at 2-3 % more than the designed pressure then note this
opening and closing pressure of the valve and finally gag it.
6. Raise the boiler pressure at the designed pressure of the boiler and
unscrew the 2nd valve, when it blows off at designed pressure then note
this opening pressure and check the closing pressure also. Recheck the
setting pressure and gag the valve.
7. Then set the superheater safety valve lower than the designed pressure
of the boiler in same procedure.
8. Finally take out the gagging tools. Pressure setting should be done in
presence of surveyor
Boiler Inspection or Survey Carried Out at Regular Intervals
The boiler is vital equipment on ships. It is used as main propulsion (in steam
ships) and for auxiliary heating in other ships. It is very sensitive and dangerous
equipment, where there should be regular inspections and surveys carried out
to avoid accidents and outages.
BOILER INSPECTION
Introduction
Normally boiler inspection will be carried out onboard the ship by a port state
control and during the dry dock. They are used to carry out the inspection and
see the working condition of the boiler. During the inspection they will conduct
an in-depth analysis of the boiler condition considering various factors to find
the working condition of the boiler. If necessary they will replace damaged
parts of the boiler needed for continued safe operation.
NEED FOR BOILER SURVEY OR INSPECTION
1. Boilers are inspected to maintain the Class requirement.
2. Regular internal inspection and external examination during such survey
constitute the preventive maintenance schedule the boiler goes through
to have a safe working condition.
FREQUENCY OF BOILER SURVEY
1. Water tube high pressure boilers are surveyed at two year intervals.
2. All other boilers, including exhaust gas boilers, are surveyed at two
yearly intervals until they are eight years old and then surveyed
annually.
PLANNING FOR BOILER SURVEY
1. Confirm time available, manpower, and time required.
2. Check before shutting down boiler.
3. Check for spares e.g. manhole door joints, gauge glass, packing and
steam joints.
4. Check the tools required e.g. gagging tool, torque spanner, rope, chain
block etc.
5. Check manual for special instruction and past records.
6. Steam requirement for the next port should be considered e.g. Tankers
require steam in discharged Port.
7. Briefing to other engineers of work involved.
SHUTTING DOWN THE BOILER FOR INSPECTION
Before inspection is to be carried out, the boiler which is firing should be shut
down. These are the steps to be followed before shutting down the boiler for
inspection.
1. Inform the chief engineer and inform the duty officer in the bridge.
2. Change over M/E, A/E, and Boiler to diesel oil.
3. Top up diesel oil service tank, stop heavy oil and lube oil purifiers.
4. Stop all tank and tracing steam heating and carry out soot blowing.
5. Change over from automation to manual firing of boiler.
6. Stop the firing of the boiler and purge boiler for three to five minutes.
7. Switch off power and off the circuit breaker for forced draught fan, FO
pump, feed pump, and combustion control panel. Hang necessary
notices.
8. Shut main steam-stop valve and shut all fuel valves to boiler.
9. Let the boiler cool down, do not blow down now.
10. When the boiler pressure is about 4 bars, carry out blow down.
11. When boiler pressure is slightly higher than atmospheric pressure, open
the vent cock to prevent formation of vacuum.
12. Let the boiler cool down.
13. Once sufficient cooled, open top manhole door first with all safety
precaution.
14. Mark the nut on the top manhole, slacken the dog-nut, and secure it
with a rope.
15. Knock the manhole door gently, but do not open it as it may contain
steam or hot water.
16. Conform nothing coming out; open the door fully with the help of
securing rope.
17. Do not open immediately open the bottom door, since the boiler is still
hot and if opened relatively cool current of air will pass through the
boiler causing a thermal shock.
18. Allow further cool down before opening bottom manhole door.
19. Open the bottom manhole door with the same precautions and open
the furnace side door also.
20. Ventilate foe period of 12 to 24 hours.
21. Then check for oxygen, flammable vapour, and toxic gasses.
22. If it is safe, prepare for entry.
PREPARATION FOR ENTRY
These are the steps to be carried out before entering the boiler for inspection.
1. Prepare a long rope, wooden plank oxygen analyzer, safety hand lamp,
and safety torch attached with rope.
2. Get a pouch to carry tools and keep track of the number of tools to be
brought into boiler.
3. Personnel safety protection wear, e.g. helmet, safety shoes, hand gloves,
etc.
4. No extra instruments to be brought in and clear pocket contents as it
may fall into boiler.
5. Keep an emergency breathing apparatus ready.
6. Remain in communication and ensure proper lighting.
7. Check boiler internals before making an entry, e.g. foothold and
handhold.
Inspection Carried Out In Boiler Superheater and In Steam Drum
SUPER HEATERS
The superheater is a device which converts saturated steam or wet steam to
dry steam, and it is used in driving the lager turbines in the marine propulsion
system. In the superheating process the temperature of the steam is only
raised, keeping the pressure at a constant level.
Superheating process can be done by three methods:
1. Radiant superheating: In this type, the superheating tubes are placed
directly in the combustion chamber.
2. Convention superheating: In this type of super heaters the superheating
tubes are placed outside the combustion chamber on the path of the hot
gases.
3. Separately fired: In this type the superheater tubes are placed in the
separate combustion chamber outside the boiler. This is separately fired
to maintain the required temperature of the superheated steam outlet.
In the superheater zone the products of combustion were still at a high
temperature and deposits from impurities in the fuel condensed out on the
tubes, reducing heat transfer and steam temperature. Eventually gas passages
between the tubes would become so badly blocked that the forced draught
fans would be unable to supply sufficient air to the burners, combustion
become impaired and the fouling condition accelerated. Sodium and vanadium
compounds present in the deposits proved very corrosive to superheater tube
causing frequent repeated failure. Due to the fouled conditions there was a
loss of efficiency and expensive time consuming cleaning routines were
required.
Inspection on Superheater
1. Internal and external examination of heaters.
2. Thermal crack at the headers due to high stresses set up across the thick
welded section is possible.
3. Super heater safety valve and stop valve.
4. Super heater drains and vents valves and manhole openings to check.
5. Efficiency of the screen plates to ascertain these protect headers
from direct heat of furnace.
6. Superheater tubes are also prone to high temperature creep failures and
thermal fatigue cracking sudden quenching can cause fatigue failure.
7. Check for deposit accumulation in header.
8. Drain valve from headers to examine.
Super Heater Walk-In Spaces:
1. Supports of horizontal super heater tubes to check for burning away and
leave the unit unsupported and cause drainage problems.
2. Super heater support tubes may also crack due to effect of bending
fatigue stresses due to misalignment of tubes in the tube holes.
3. Build-up of deposit is most troublesome defect in super heater. These
may result in high furnace pressure, loss of super heater and poor
combustion.
4. Special attention and suspicion to be reserved for tubes through which
there still exist gas paths as they operate under excessive metal
temperature.
5. Oxide scaling inside or outside may cause tube failure and worst case
hydrogen fire when iron burns in steam at above 700*C in exothermic
reaction, and destroys all boiler, economizer and air heater.
Now you have a clear picture on the various inspections carried out on the
marine boiler parts for the safe and efficient working of the boiler.
Inspection carried out in Boiler Superheater and in Steam Drum
Learn how inspection is carried out in boiler steam drum, headers and super-
heater tubes.
INTRODUCTION
The steam drum is one of the important parts of the boiler which acts as the
reservoir for the steam generated and for water required for the boiler. Mainly
all the boiler mountings are mounted on the steam drum and it should possess
sufficient strength to withstand the high temperature and pressure of the
steam generated.
As before, in inspecting the generating tubes, headers, and superheater tubes
of the boiler, the inspection has to be carried out in the boiler steam drum.
Check the steam drum for corrosion, scaling, and pitting:
1. Manhole seats and surface condition.
2. Condition of all feed, chemical feed, blow down lines and inside pressure
parts or chocking, security, and leaks.
3. Check for freedom of expansion of drums and headers.
4. Inspect tubes for corrosion, excessive deposits, flare-cracking, and
pitting.
5. Inspect hand-hole plates and stud threads.
6. Make a complete waterside examination and check for scale build up as
necessary.
7. Measure thickness of scales by using commercially available gauges.
OUTSIDE STEAM DRUM:
1. All internal (removed from drum) checked and tested.
2. Feed regulator, feed check valve, water gauge fittings, and drum safety
valves examined. Attention to securing arrangement of seats in valves
covers to valve chest to drum nozzles.
3. Welded connection of drum to casing to check for any possible damage
creating gas leakages.
4. Areas of drum not protected by tubes from heat radiation and shielded
refractory. Thermal cracking of the refractory material to be checked.
STEAM DRUM
HEADERS
Boiler headers are the water feeders to the generating tubes in boiler. The
headers are connected in between the steam drum and the water drum.
Normally the water from the water drum enters the main headers from there
and many generating tubes are connected where the steam is generated.
Rear and Side Wall Headers:
1. Sufficient doors or handhole plugs to remove for assessment of internal
condition of headers and tubes.
2. Check for pitting and corrosion of headers, rear walls, floors, roofs, and
side wall tubes.
3. Check for casing defects for possible gas or air leakage.
Bottom Header:
This contains the furnace tubes and the down comer tubes. A number of
handhole doors is provided for internal inspection and repair to the tubes.
Inspection for deposits of sludge must be carried out during the survey.
Regular blowing down from this header will be necessary to keep it clear
of sludge deposits.
Repairs in Marine Boilers
This article discusses the general repairs needed in the marine boiler and how
to repair them directly on board. Some common repairs are leaking of tubes in
both smoke tube and water tube boilers, busting of tubes, and leakages in the
manhole joints.
Introduction
Some of the common repair work carried out on the marine boiler while on
board the ship is plugging of the tubes and replacing the leaky manhole joints.
Other major repairs like the renewal of the damaged tubes and furnace
rebuilding must be carried out in the dry dock. The plugging of the boiler leaky
tube is a temporary repair which must be carried out in order to fire the boiler.
Whatever the situation, and in any condition the boiler must run to supply the
working steam.
When the gasket becomes damaged or gets old, smoke starts to come out of
the boiler in the case of the water tube boiler. In the smoke tube boiler, the
water starts to leak outside the boiler. This must be repaired on board by
replacing the leaky manhole joints.
Replacement of a Leaky Manhole Joint
1. Maintain proper spigot clearance- 1.5 mm to position the door centrally
for evenly loading the gasket.
2. Never use an old gasket.
3. Do not over strain the door studs, which may stretch.
4. Pull-up studs by re-tightening the nut after steam rising or warming up.
5. Avoid causing damage to door by holding it by a rope and gently
lowering it inside or taking it out.
6. Mark the dogs and nuts to fit back correctly in the same door.
7. Check for wear and tear on the studs and nuts.
8. Carefully check the matting/ landing surface for corrosion and erosion
on the door and boiler before reassembling.
Repairs in Smoke Tube Boilers
Procedure for Plugging of a Damaged / Busted Smoke Tube:
1. Hydrostatic testing to mark the leaky tubes.
2. Cut the tubes on one end and clear of the tube plate. At the other end
the tube is collapsed inside the tube plate.
3. Pull out the tube from the collapsed end.
4. Insert a short tube into the tube plate and weld it in place.
5. Lap the spare tapered plugs on both stud ends in the tube plates.
6. Insert the tube plugs and tack weld it.
7. Alternatively, the plugs can be held in place by a long steel bar threaded
and bolted at both ends.
8. Hydrostatic pressure test to confirm no leaks.
9. Flush up the boiler and re-inspect the plugs for leaks under full steam
pressure.
Temporary Repairing Procedure to Rectify the Leakage in Smoke Tube:
1. Stop the burner, allow the boiler to cool and remove the soot.
2. Allow boiler to depressurize, and open the blow down valve to drain the
boiler.
3. Enter the boiler flue box and cut a hole in the side of the relevant smoke
tube.
4. Clean the rim of the smoke tube with a wire brush.
5. Cut a circular plate (15 mm thick) of the same diameter as the smoke
tube and chamfer the top edge to 30 degrees by grinding.
6. Fit the plate into the top of the smoke tube and weld it in position as
shown.
7. Enter the boiler furnace and cut a similar hole in this end of the relevant
smoke tube.
8. Repeat steps 4 to 6 for lower plate.
9. Refill boiler and check for leaks before start-up.
10. Start-up boiler and check for leaks when pressurized.
Note: Any temporary repair to smoke tubes or boiler tubes should receive
more permanent attention as soon as conveniently possible.
Repairs in Water Tube Boiler
Instruction for Plugging / Repair of Water Tube Boiler & Economizer:
1. In case of tube failure, steam pressure has to be removed and the oil
burner dismantled.
2. If the leakage is readily visible from the burner hole, the boiler can be
emptied and repairs commence.
3. Otherwise, the boiler is given pressure by means of the feed pump. The
position of the leakage will be indicated by the water flow.
4. This flow may not be visible from the burner hole. If it is not visible,
remove the inspection door and enter the furnace. If the tube failure is
still not found, then enter the generating tube section. From here the
bottom of the membrane walls and generating tubes can be inspected
for leakage.
5. If the leakage has resulted from the membrane walls or generating tube,
the inspection door at the smoke connection pipe must be removed, and
the generating tube/ membrane tube in which the failure has occurred is
pointed out.
6. The leakage may also result from economizer.
7. By removing the inspection door at the bottom of the economizer, it can
be determined which uptake has caused the leakage?
8. If necessary other inspection doors should be removed to point out the
damage register.
9. When a damaged tube or convection register has been removed, and
the remaining tube studs have been repaired/ plugged a new tube or
register should be mounted as soon as possible.
10. Operation for longer periods with one or more registers missing involves
the risk of further damage to the boiler due to increasing heat leads on
the parts next to the ones removed.
Scope of Inspection of a Ships Boiler
The boiler is one of the items of equipment on a ship which continuously keeps
on running during sailing and in port. As it is running continuously, it has to be
cleaned and inspected to check the condition of all internal working parts at
regular intervals.
SCOPE OF INSPECTION
The scope of inspection is to clean the boilers internal surfaces and to check
for corrosion and scale formation in the boiler. As the boiler normally runs
continuously, there are few chances to open the boiler. Thus, during the
inspection all the important checks will be carried out and it will be made sure
that the boiler will safely work without any problems until the next inspection.
Routine inspection is important because salt formation and scaling inside the
boiler tubes will reduce the heat transfer rate and ultimately damage the tubes
due to overheating.
1. The inspection should include finding reasons for any abnormality found
and should also ensure that any repair carried out does not affect that
safe working order of the boiler.
2. A complete inspection means full internal and external examination of
all parts of the boiler and accessories such as super-heaters, air heaters,
and all mountings.
3. The examination may lead the inspector to require hydraulic testing of
pressure parts or thickness gauging of plate or tubs that appear to be
checked for good working condition.
The Inspection is not completed until the boiler has been examined under
steam and the following items dealt with:
a) Pressure gauge checking against a test gauge.
b) Testing of water level indicators and protective devices.
c) Safety valves adjusted under steam to blow off at the required pressures.
d) The oil fuel burning system examined.
e) Testing of remote control gear for fuel shut off valves.
For a gas fired boiler, the chief engineer floats the safety valve at sea at the
first opportunity. Survey record is not assigned until a statement is received
from chief engineer about the pressure at which the safety valves were set.
Inspection Consists Of:
a) Examination of the items.
b) Statement whether a problem / defect exist.
c) Determining the cause of problem.
d) Define the repair and whether temporary / permanent.
The Main Benefits of Doing Inspection:
By doing the inspection, we are manually cleaning the boiler scales and
chemical cleaning of the salt formation in the boiler parts and making the
boiler safe for operation. It also helps in checking the redundancy of the stand-
by boiler. During the inspection the newly signed in crew members and the
ships engineer will also have a chance to see the internal parts of boiler.
1. Boiler must be sufficiently cleaned and dried to make a thorough
examination possible.
2. Boiler should be manually wire-brushed to clean the internal surfaces.
3. In case of difficulty in manual cleaning, chemical cleaning with
hydrochloric acid plus inhibitor to prevent acid attacking the metal
without affecting removal of deposits is the best procedure.
4. For oil contamination, alkali boil-out using tri-sodium phosphate solution
is essential prior to acid cleaning. Through water flushing must be
carried out after acid cleaning to avoid acid concentration in crevices
and captive spaces.
5. All internals that may interfere with the inspection have to be removed.
6. Wherever adequate visual examination is not possible, surveyor may
have to resort to drilling, ultrasonic, or hydraulic testing.
7. All manhole doors and other doors must be opened for reasonable time
previous to survey for ventilation.
8. If another boiler is under steam arrangement of locking bar and other
security devices must be in position preventing the admission of steam
or hot water to the boiler under survey. The smoke trunking, exhaust gas
shut-off etc., must be in position and in proper working condition.
9. Plants staff or repairers staff should stand by the manhole in case of
emergency and to take note for defects/ repairs required.
Before survey, the surveyor should acquaint himself with the boiler type in
question (drawings carried on board) and during the survey it is advisable to
follow a planned routine in order not to miss parts of the boiler or important
items.
SAFETY VALVES
At least two safety valves have to be fitted to the boiler. They may be both
mounted on a common manifold with a single connection to the boiler. The
safety valve size must not be less than 38mm in diameter and the area of the
valve can be calculated from the following formula C x A x P = 9.81 x H x E
where
H= Total heating surface in m
3

E = Evaporative rate in Kg steam per m
2
of heating surface per hour
P = Working pressure of safety valves in MN/m
2
absolute
A = Aggregate area through the seating of the valves in mm
2

C = the discharge coefficient whose value depends upon the type of valve.
C=4.8 for ordinary spring loaded valves
C=7.2 for high lift spring loaded valves
C= 9.6 for improved high lift spring loaded valves
C= 19.2 for full lift safety valves
C= 30 for full bore relay operated safety valves


LIFT PRESSURE
The safety v/v must be set at a pressure not exceeding 3% of the approved
boiler working pressure. It is normal to set the suphtr safety below that of the
drum to ensure an adequate flow of stm for cooling purposes under fault
conditions. Similarly the superheater should be set to close last.

10% ACCUMULATION OF PRESSURE RULE.
With all the flames in full firing the stm stop is closed, the boiler pressure must
not increase by more than 10% in 7 minutes for water tube of 15 mins for tank
boilers with the safety lifted. this is normally waivered for superheater boilers.
Instead calculations and previous experience used.

BLOWDOWN
The pressure drop below the lifting pressure for a safety v/v is set at 5% by
regulation although it is more normal to set v/v's at 3% to prevent excessive
loss of stm. For boilers with a superheater it is important that the superheater
v/v not only lifts first but closes last. Adjustement of the blowdown may be
necessary following adjustment of the popping setpoint (Increaseing set point
lengthens blowdown). Adjustment is achieved by altering the height of the
'adjusting guide ring' on the full lift safety valve design shown below. Over
raise adjustment of this ring can lead to mal-operation with the valve not fully
opening

SETTING
Must be set with the surveyor present except when on the waste heat unit. A
chief engineer with three years experience may then set the safety valve but
must submit information to surveyor for issue of certificate.
Superheated steam safety valves should be set as close to operating
temperature as possible as expansion can alter the relationships between
valve trim and guide/nozzle rings which can effect the correct operation of the
valve.
1. Two safety valves- each set independently
2. Each safety valve must release entire steam flow in pressure
accumulation test
3. Surveyor uses specially checked gauge
4. One valve gagged
5. valve initially set to approximately the correct position then steam
pressure increased to set pressure
6. adjust valve to lift
7. raise and lower pressure to check
8. fit locks to both valves on completion
Easing gear to be checked free before setting valves. Steam should not be
released as this can damage seat.

Improved high lift safety valve
Differences in the ordinary and high lift designs
Ordinary High Lift Improved high lift
Winged valve Winged valve Wingless valve
No waste piston Waste piston Waste piston

No floating ring Floating ring



For superheated steam the aggregate area through the seating of the valves is
increased, the formula is
As = A(1 + Ts/555)
where
As = Aggregate area through the seating of the valves in mm
2
for superheated
steam
A = Aggregate area through the seating of the valves in mm
2
for sat steam
Ts = degrees of superheat in
o
C
As is greater than A due to the higher specific volume of superheated steam
requiring more escape area.
The manifold pipe must have an area equal to at least of A, the exhaust must
have a diameter dependent on the type of valve but up to 3 x A for a full bore
relay operated valve.
A drain pipe must be fitted to the lowest part of the valve, it should have no
valve or cock and should be checked clear on regular occasions.
Materials
Materials for all parts must be non corrodible. Common materials are Bronze,
Stainless steel or Monel metal, depending on the conditions of service. The
valve chest is normally made of cast steel.
Full lift safety valve


This is a modern version of the high lift safety valve incorporating the piston
and reaction force effects to improve valve lift. In addition the inlet pipe is
tapered to give a nozzle effect increasing the reaction on the lid.
The initial lift is produced when the steam pressure under the disc exceeds the
spring pressure. As the valve begins to open a thin jet of steam escapes and is
deflected by a small angle on the nozzle ring. As the lift increase the steam
begins to react against upper guide ring increasing to 'full bore'lift. Full Bore lift
is defined as that point where the area of the nozzle, rather than the lift, limits
the discharge capacity of the valve. The form of the valve offers an increased
area to the steam jet stream and the design allows for a piston effect of the
valve trim assembly as it enters in the guide ring cylinder, both these effects
increase lift and improve action of the valve
The guide sleeve is adjustable allowing alteration of the blowdown.
With boiler pressure dropping the valve begins to close. When the lid just exits
the guide sleeve there is a loss of the reaction and piston effect and the valve
tends to snap shut cleanly.
Blowdown adjustment is achieved by altering the height of the adjusting Guide
Ring. On some designs a second adjustable ring is mounted on the nozzle, this
allows adjustment of the 'warn' or 'simmering'period and increases the
popping power. Adjustment of this ring is critical to operation, after factory
setting it is generally unnecessary and no attempt should be made to remove
slight 'warn'
Full lift safety valve

Seen fitted to large high pressure boilers.
This design offers sveral advantages over simple high lift valves
Complicated design to achieve high lift is obviated
Pilot valve may be mounted on the drum and the main valve
maounted on the superheater thus making the system more
sensitive to load changes (over pressurisation will first be seen in
the steam drum before the superheater. In addition the pilot valve
and main valve piston arrangements are subject to lower steam
temperatures
Boiler pressure will assist to close the main valve rapidly leading to
very small blowdown
Easing gear
This is fitted to safety valves to allow manual operation of the valve in an
emergency.
Types of Lifeboat Release Mechanisms & SOLAS Requirements for Lifeboats

There are different types of lifeboats used on board a ship on the basis of the
type of ship and other special requirements. Not all the lifeboats have the
same type of releasing mechanisms, for the launching of a lifeboat depends on
several other factors. In this article we will take a look at the main types of
lifeboat releasing mechanisms and also learn about the SOLAS requirements
for lifeboats.
Types of lifeboat releases: On load and off load release.
There are two types of lifeboat releasing mechanisms- on load and off load.
These mechanisms release the boat from the davit, which is attached to a wire
or fall by means of a hook. By releasing the hook the lifeboat can be set free to
propel away from the ship.
Off load mechanism:
The off load mechanism releases the boat after the load of the boat is
transferred to water or the boat has been lowered fully into the sea. When the
boat touches the surface of water, the load on the fall and hence the hook
releases and due to its mechanism the hook detaches from the fall. If the
detachment dose not takes place, any of the crew members can remove the
hook from the fall. Most of the times the offload mechanism is manually
disengaged in case of malfunction; however, in case of fire, it is dangerous to
go out and release the hook.

On load mechanism:
On load mechanism can release the lifeboat from the wire, with the ship above
the water level and with all the crew members inside the boat. The load will be
still on the fall as the boat would not have touched the water. Normally the
height of about 1 m is kept for the on load release, so that the fall is smooth
without damaging the boat and harming the crew inside. A lever is provided
inside the boat to operate this mechanism. As the lever is operated from
inside, it is safe to free the boat without going of the out lifeboat, when there
is a fire on ship.

Free Fall life boat release:
In Free fall life boat, the launching mechanism is similar to on load release. the
only difference is that the free fall lifeboat is not lowered till 1m above water
level, it is launched from the stowed position by operating a lever located
inside the boat which releases the boat from rest of the davit and boat slides
through the tilted ramp into the water.

SOLAS and LSA code Requirements for lifeboat:
-The size, number and the capacity of the lifeboat for a merchant vessel is
decided by the type of the ship and number of ships crew, but it should not be
less then 7.3 m in length and minimum two lifeboats are provided on both side
of the ship (port and starboard).
-The requirement for lifeboat of a cargo ship with 20,000 GT is that the boat
must be capable of launching when the ship is heading with a speed of 5 knots.
-The lifeboat must carry all the equipments described under SOLAS which can
be used in survival at sea. It includes rations, fresh water, first aid, compass,
distress signalling equipments like rocket etc.
-The ship must carry one rescue boat for rescue purpose along with other
lifeboats. One lifeboat can be designated as a rescue boat if more then one
lifeboat is present onboard ship.
-The gravity davits must be hold and slide down the lifeboat even when the
ship is heeled to an angle of 15 degree on either side. Ropes are used to hold
the lifeboat in stowed position with cradle. These ropes are called gripes.
-The wires which lift or lower the lifeboat are known as falls and the speed of
the lifeboat descent should not be more then 36m/ min which is controlled by
means of centrifugal brakes.
-The hoisting time for the boat launching appliance should not be less then 0.3
m/sec with the boat loaded to its full capacity.
-The Lifeboat must be painted in international bright orange color with the
ships call sign printed on it.
-The lifeboat station must be easily accessible for all the crew members in all
circumstances. Safety awareness posters and launching procedures must be
posted at lifeboat station.
-Regular drills must be carried out to ensure that the ships crew members are
capable of launching the boat with minimal time during real emergency.

1. Sufficient buoyant oars
2. 2 boat hook.
3. 2 Buckets
4. 6 Hand Flares
5. 2 Rocket parachutes
6. 2 smoke signals.
7. EPIRB
8. SART
9. Food Ration.
10. 1 knife and 3 tin opener.
11. Hand Pump
12. Tow line
13. Anti-sea sickness tablets
14. 1 set of fishing tackles.
15. Waterproof torch
16. Day light signalling lamp.
17. Radar reflector
18. First Aid Kit
19. Tools
20. Compass
21. Sea Anchor
22. 1 Whistle
23. Portable fire extinguisher
24. Thermal Protective aid

1.
1. Minimum of 5 persons are required to lower the L/B.
2. One person goes inside the L/B and passes the end of toggle painter and
plugs the drain.
3. Check all lifeline and falls are clear of L/B.
4. Make fast the other end of toggle painter on a strong point forward of the
ship.
5. Remove forward and aft gripes and both person stand by for passing
bowing tackle and tricing pendant.
6. Remove harbour safety pin.
7. Make sure the ships side is free of everything, no water or garbage is
there.
8. Now, one person lifts the dead mans handle slowly which releases the
brake.
9. The boat along with cradle sides downward till it comes to the
embarkation deck.
10. By pulling tricing pendant , bring it alongside the embarkation deck.
11. Persons embark inside the boat.
12. Now, tricing pendant is removed and the whole load comes on falls.
13. Now, boat is further lowered with deadmans handle.
14. As soon as the boat comes around 1meter above the sea-water, it can be
released.
Davit- The metal arms and track that hold and helps launch the lifeboat.
Jacobs ladder- a rope ladder with wooden planks every half a foot, long
enough to reach the water and 10 extra feet after that.
Manropes- a rope suspended from a wire running between the davit heads,
used to hold on to when the boat is being lowered.
Seapainter- a rope attached to the front of the lifeboat used to move the
lifeboat away from the ship when the boat is in the water.
Gripes- An adjustable hook, painted red, used to secure the boat when it is
stowed on board the ship.
Tricing Pendant- A hook that help pull the boat alongside the ship when it is
being lowered to the embarkation deck.
Falls-Cable used to lower and raise the boat.
Rottermer Releasing Lever- A lever synchronized to release the forward and aft
hooks at the same time to prevent one end from coming loose early.
Frapping Lines- A rope with two hooks that help hold the falls close to the
boat, so the lifeboat will rock side to side when it is being lowered.
Coxswain- Also known as the PIC (Person in Charge) give the command what to
do and also assigns positions for everyone to do.
Back to Nautical Maritime Law Law Of Sea I Law of Sea II Law of Sea III Load Lines
SOLAS Genl. Prov. SOLAS Sub. Division SOLAS Fire Safety SOLAS LSA SOLAS GMDSS
SOLAS Grain
SOLAS Dangerous
Goods
ISM STCW Athens Conv.
Tonnage Rules

Legislative Requirements


International Convention on Load Lines, 1966 (LL 1966), as amended
General provisions
No ship to which the present Convention applies shall proceed to sea on an
international voyage after the date on which the present Convention comes
into force unless it has been surveyed, marked and provided with an
International Load Line Certificate (1966) or, where appropriate, an
International Load Line Exemption Certificate in accordance with the
provisions of the present Convention.
Nothing in this Convention shall prevent an Administration from assigning a
greater freeboard than the minimum freeboard determined in accordance
with Annex I.
Application
The present Convention shall apply to:
(a) ships registered in countries the Governments of which are Contracting
Governments;
(b) ships registered in territories to which the present Convention is extended
under Article 32; and
(c) unregistered ships flying the flag of a State, the Government of which is a
Contracting Government.
The present Convention shall apply to ships engaged on international voyages.
The Regulations contained in Annex I are specifically applicable to the new
ships.
Existing ships which do not fully comply with the requirements of the
Regulations contained in Annex I or any part thereof shall meet at least such
lesser related requirements as the Administration applied to ships on
international voyages prior to the coming into force of the present Convention;
in no case shall such ships be required to increase their freeboards. In order to
take advantage of any reduction in freeboard from that previously assigned,
existing ships shall comply with all the requirements of the present
Convention.
The Regulations contained in Annex II are applicable to new and existing ships
to which the present Convention applies.
Duration of certificates
An International Load Line Certificate (1966) shall be issued for a period
specified by the Administration, which shall not exceed five years from the
date of issue.
If, after the periodical survey, a new certificate cannot be issued to the ship
before the expiry of the certificate originally issued, the person or organization
carrying out the survey may extend the validity of the original certificate for a
period which shall not exceed five months. This extension shall be endorsed on
the certificate, and shall be granted only where there have been no alterations
in the structure, equipment, arrangements, material or scantlings which affect
the ships freeboard.
An International Load Line Certificate (1966) shall be cancelled by the
Administration if any of the following circumstances exist:
(a) material alterations have taken place in the hull or superstructures of the
ship such as would necessitate the assignment of an increased freeboard;
(b) the fittings and appliances mentioned in sub-paragraph (c) of paragraph (1)
of Article 14 are not maintained in an effective condition;
(c) the certificate is not endorsed to show that the ship has been inspected
(d) the structural strength of the ship is lowered to such an extent that the ship
is unsafe.
The duration of an International Load Line Exemption Certificate issued by an
Administration to a ship shall not exceed five years from the date of issue. Such
certificate shall be subject to a renewal, endorsement and cancellation
procedure similar to that provided for an International Load Line Certificate
(1966) under this Article.
The duration of an International Load Line Exemption Certificate issued to a
ship shall be limited to a single voyage for which it is issued.
A certificate issued to a ship by an Administration shall cease to be valid upon
the transfer of such a ship to the flag of another State.
Control
Ships holding a certificate are subject, when in the ports of other Contracting
Governments, to control by officers duly authorized by such Governments.
Contracting Governments shall ensure that such control is exercised as far as is
reasonable and practicable with a view to verifying that there is on board a
valid certificate under the present Convention. If there is a valid International
Load Line Certificate (1966) on board the ship, such control shall be limited to
the purpose of determining that:
(a) the ship is not loaded beyond the limits allowed by the certificate;
(b) the position of the load line of the ship corresponds with certificate; and
(c) the ship has not been so materially altered that the ship is manifestly unfit
to proceed to sea without danger to human life.
If there is a valid International Load Line Exemption Certificate on board, such
control shall be limited to the purpose of determining that any conditions
stipulated in that certificate are complied with.
If such control is exercised, it shall only be exercised in so far as may be
necessary to ensure that the ship shall not sail until it can proceed to sea
without danger to the passengers or the crew.
In the event of the control provided for in this Article giving rise to intervention
of any kind, the officer carrying out the control shall immediately inform in
writing the Consul or the diplomatic representative of the State whose flag the
ship is flying of this decision and of all the circumstances in which intervention
was deemed to be necessary.
Definitions
Freeboard. The freeboard assigned is the distance measured vertically
downwards amidships from the upper edge of the deck line to the upper edge
of the related load line.
Freeboard deck. The freeboard deck is normally the uppermost complete deck
exposed to weather and sea, which has permanent means of closing all
openings in the weather part thereof, and below which all the openings in the
sides of the ship are fitted with permanent means of watertight closing. In a
ship having a discontinuous freeboard deck, the lowest line of the exposed
deck and the continuation of that line parallel to the upper part of the deck is
taken as the freeboard deck. At the option of the owner and subject to the
approval of the Administration, a lower deck may be designated as the
freeboard deck, provided it is a complete and permanent deck continuous in a
fore and aft direction at least between the machinery space and peak
bulkheads and continuous athwartships. When this lower deck is stepped the
lowest line of the deck and the continuation of that line parallel to the upper
part of the deck is taken as the freeboard deck. When a lower deck is
designated as the freeboard deck, that part of the hull which extends above
the freeboard deck is treated as a superstructure so far as concerns the
application of the conditions of assignment and the calculation of freeboard. It
is from this deck that the freeboard is calculated.
Superstructure
(a) A superstructure is a decked structure on the freeboard deck, extending
from side to side of the ship or with the side plating not being inboard of the
shell plating more than 4 per cent of the breadth (B). A raised quarter deck is
regarded as a superstructure.
(b) An enclosed superstructure is a superstructure with:
(i) enclosing bulkheads of efficient construction;
(ii) access openings, if any, in these bulkheads fitted with doors complying with
the requirements of Regulation 12;
(iii) all other openings in sides or ends of the superstructure fitted with
efficient weathertight means of closing.
A bridge or poop shall not be regarded as enclosed unless access is provided
for the crew to reach machinery and other working spaces inside these
superstructures by alternative means which are available at all times when
bulkhead openings are closed.
(c) The height of a superstructure is the least vertical height measured at side
from the top of the superstructure deck beams to the top of the freeboard
deck beams.
(d) The length of a superstructure (S) is the mean length of the part of the
superstructure which lies within the length (L).
Deck line
The deck line is a horizontal line 300 millimetres in length and 25 millimetres in
breadth. It shall be marked amidships on each side of the ship, and its upper
edge shall normally pass through the point where the continuation outwards
of the upper surface of the freeboard deck intersects the outer surface of the
shell, provided that the deck line may be placed with reference to another
fixed point on the ship on condition that the freeboard is correspondingly
corrected. The location of the reference point and the identification of the
freeboard deck shall in all cases be indicated on the International Load Line
Certificate (1966).
Load Line Mark
The Load Line Mark shall consist of a ring 300 millimetres in outside diameter
and 25 millimetres wide which is intersected by a horizontal line 450
millimetres in length and 25 millimetres in breadth, the upper edge of which
passes through the centre of the ring. The centre of the ring shall be placed
amidships and at a distance equal to the assigned summer freeboard
measured vertically below the upper edge of the deck line.
Lines to be used with the Load Line Mark
The lines which indicate the load line assigned in accordance with these
Regulations shall be horizontal lines 230 millimetres in length and 25
millimetres in breadth which extend forward of, unless expressly provided
otherwise, and at right angles to, a vertical line 25 millimetres in breadth
marked at a distance 540 millimetres forward of the centre of the ring.
The following load lines shall be used:

(a) The Summer Load Line indicated by the upper edge of the line which passes
through the centre of the ring and also by a line marked S.
(b) The Winter Load Line indicated by the upper edge of a line marked W.
(c) The Winter North Atlantic Load Line indicated by the upper edge of a line
marked WNA.
(d) The Tropical Load Line indicated by the upper edge of a line marked T.
(e) The Fresh Water Load Line in summer indicated by the upper edge of a line
marked F. The Fresh Water Load Line in summer is marked abaft the vertical
line. The difference between the Fresh Water Load Line in summer and the
Summer Load Line is the allowance to be made for loading in fresh water at
the other load lines.
(f) The Tropical Fresh Water Load Line indicated by the upper edge of a line
marked TF, and marked abaft the vertical line.
If timber freeboards are assigned in accordance with these Regulations, the
timber load lines shall be marked in addition to ordinary load lines. These lines
shall be horizontal lines 230 millimetres in length and 25 millimetres in breadth
which extend abaft unless expressly provided otherwise, and are at right
angles to, a vertical line 25 millimetres in breadth marked at a distance 540
millimetres abaft the centre of the ring.
The following timber load lines shall be used:
(a) The Summer Timber Load Line indicated by the upper edge of a line marked
LS.
(b) The Winter Timber Load Line indicated by the upper edge of a line marked
LW.
(c) The Winter North Atlantic Timber Load Line indicated by the upper edge of
a line marked LWNA
(d) The Tropical Timber Load Line indicated by the upper edge of a line marked
LT.
(e) The Fresh Water Timber Load Line in summer indicated by the upper edge
of a line marked LF and marked forward of the vertical line.
The difference between the Fresh Water Timber Load Line in summer and the
Summer Timber Load Line is the allowance to be made for loading in fresh
water at the other timber load lines.
(f) The Tropical Fresh Water Timber Load Line indicated by the upper edge of a
line marked LTF and marked forward of the vertical line.
Where the characteristics of a ship or the nature of the ships service or
navigational limits make any of the seasonal lines inapplicable, these lines may
be omitted.
Where a ship is assigned a greater than minimum freeboard so that the load
line is marked at a position corresponding to, or lower than, the lowest
seasonal load line assigned at minimum freeboard in accordance with the
present Convention, only the Fresh Water Load Line need be marked.
On sailing ships only the Fresh Water Load Line and the Winter North Atlantic
Load Line need be marked.
Where a Winter North Atlantic Load Line is identical with the Winter Load Line
corresponding to the same vertical line, this load line shall be marked W.
Additional load lines required by other international conventions in force may
be marked at right angles to and abaft the vertical line specified in paragraph
(1) of this Regulation.
Mark of assigning authority
The mark of the Authority by whom the load lines are assigned may be
indicated alongside the load line ring above the horizontal line which passes
through the centre of the ring, or above and below it. This mark shall consist of
not more than four initials to identify the Authoritys name, each measuring
approximately 115 millimetres in height and 75 millimetres in width.
Details of marking
The ring, lines and letters shall be painted in white or yellow on a dark ground
or in black on a light ground. They shall also be permanently marked on the
sides of the ships to the satisfaction of the Administration. The marks shall be
plainly visible and, if necessary, special arrangements shall be made for this
purpose.
Verification of marks
The International Load Line Certificate (1966) shall not be delivered to the ship
until the officer or surveyor acting under the provisions of Article 13 of the
present Convention has certified that the marks are correctly and permanently
indicated on the ships sides.
Position of hatchways, doorways and ventilators
For the purpose of the Regulations, two positions of hatchways, doorways and
ventilators are defined as follows:
Position 1 - Upon exposed freeboard and raised quarter decks, and upon
exposed superstructure decks situated forward of a point located a quarter of
the ships length from the forward perpendicular.
Position 2 - Upon exposed superstructure decks situated abaft a quarter of the
ships length from the forward perpendicular.
Where covers are made of mild steel the strength shall be calculated with
assumed loads not less than 1.75 metric tons per square metre on hatchways
in position 1, and not less than 1.30 metric tons per square metre on
hatchways in position 2, and the product of the maximum stress thus
calculated and the factor 4.25 shall not exceed the minimum ultimate strength
of the material. They shall be so designed as to limit the deflection to not more
than 0.0028 times the span under these loads.
The assumed loads on hatchways in position 1 may be reduced to 1 metric ton
per square metre for ships or 24 metres in length and shall be not less than
1.75 metric tons per square metre for ships 100 metres in length. The
corresponding loads on hatchways in position 2 may be reduced to 0.75 metric
tons per square metre and 1.30 metric tons per square metre respectively. In
all cases values at intermediate lengths shall be obtained by interpolation.
Ventilators
Ventilators in position 1 or 2 to spaces below freeboard decks or decks of
enclosed superstructures shall have coamings of steel or other equivalent
material, substantially constructed and efficiently connected to the deck.
Where the coaming of any ventilator exceeds 900 millimetres in height it shall
be specially supported.
Ventilators passing through superstructures other than enclosed
superstructures shall have substantially constructed coamings of steel or other
equivalent material at the freeboard deck.
Ventilators in position 1 the coamings of which extend to more than 4.5
metres above the deck, and in position 2 the coamings of which extend to
more than 2.3 metres above the deck, need not be fitted with closing
arrangements unless specifically required by the Administration.
Ventilator openings shall be provided with efficient weathertight closing
appliances. In ships of not more than 100 metres in length the closing
appliances shall be permanently attached; where not so provided in other
ships, they shall be conveniently stowed near the ventilators to which they are
to be fitted. Ventilators in position 1 shall have coamings of a height of at least
900 millimetres above the deck; in position 2 the coamings shall be of a height
at least 760 millimetres above the deck.
In exposed positions, the height of coamings may be required to be increased
to the satisfaction of the Administration.
Air pipes
Where air pipes to ballast and other tanks extend above the freeboard or
superstructure decks, the exposed parts of the pipes shall be of substantial
construction; the height from the deck to the point where water may have
access below shall be at least 760 millimetres on the freeboard deck and 450
millimetres on the superstructure deck. Where these heights may interfere
with the working of the ship, a lower height may be approved, provided the
Administration is satisfied that the closing arrangements and other
circumstances justify a lower height. Satisfactory means permanently attached,
shall be provided for closing the openings of the air pipes.
Protection of the crew
The strength of the deckhouses used for the accommodation of the crew shall
be to the satisfaction of the Administration.
Efficient guard rails or bulwarks shall be fitted on all exposed parts of the
freeboard and superstructure decks. The height of the bulwarks or guard rails
shall be at least 1 metre from the deck, provided that where this height would
interfere with the normal operation of the ship, a lesser height may be
approved if the Administration is satisfied that adequate protection is
provided.
The opening below the lowest course of the guard rails shall not exceed 230
millimetres. The other courses shall be not more than 380 millimetres apart. In
the case of ships with rounded gunwales the guard rail supports shall be placed
on the flat of the deck.
Satisfactory means (in the form of guard rails, life lines, gangways or
underdeck passages etc) shall be provided for the protection of the crew in
getting to and from their quarters, the machinery space and all other parts
used in the necessary work of the ship.
Deck cargo carried on any ship shall be so stowed that any opening which is in
way of the cargo and which gives access to and from the crews quarters, the
machinery space and all other parts used in the necessary work of the ship, can
be properly closed and secured against the admission of water. Effective
protection for the crew in the form of guard rails or life lines shall be provided
above the deck cargo if there is no convenient passage on or below the deck of
the ship.