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Entomology (entomon: insect, logos: study) is a branch of zoology in which the morphology, physiology
and the biological aspects of insects are studied. In the animal kingdom more than 1 million species of
animals have been described. So far of them arthropods constitute about 80%. About 9 million species
of insects have been identified and described till date. The insect does form about 80% of the total
arthropod population.
The insects evolved from annelid like ancestors. During the Oligocene period, since then they
have been diversified and dominant forms inhabiting almost all habitats even including the ocean. For
example, Halobates the (water strides) is found on the sea surface several kilometers away from the
land. Insects generally inhabit every conceivable habitat from the cold Polar Regions to the hot tropicals.
Tey are free living, parasitic, phytophagus, and predators and so on. The larvae of Psilopa petroli
(dipteran fly) live in the pools of crude petroleum in California. The insect does inhabit every
inhospitable medium. The insects have been man’s chief competitors on earth. Their wonderful
adaptations have made them a serious threat to human existence, because to the insect feeds on his crops
and many of his essential things. The reason for their success on the earth and dominance over the other
animals are the following:
1. Among the invertebrates the insects are gifted with flight. Their capacity for flight enables them
to move quickly from one place to another place for breeding and feeding.
2. Like birds the insects exhibit migration. They migrate in mass to distant places in search of food.
3. since the insects have the ability of flight they can easily escape from their enemies.
4. their exoskeleton is well developed adapted to live even on the dry land environment.
5. they feed on different kinds of food (polyphagous) and their mouth parts are well suited for
different modes of living.
6. the fecundity of insects is highly remarkable. Generally insects with short life cycles produce
more eggs. For example, Jeuya purchase (cottony cushion / fecundity scale) 200 to 1400 eggs at
a time. The eggs of most of the insects are well protected and they can withstand the extremes of
environment conditions, the phenomenon Parthenogenesis is also quite common among the
insects.
7. the insects are economically important animals as they are destructive to crops, grains, stored
products and so on. Some of the insects are responsible for transmitting pathogenic organisms,
causing serious disease such as malaria, yellow fever, filariasis in man. The domestic animals are
also affected by the insects.
MOUTH PARTS:
The mouth parts of cockroach are biting and chewing type. It is the basic and primitive type. The
mouth parts consist of the following parts:
1. LABRUM: it is otherwise called as the upperlip. The mabrum is made up of a single broad
plate attached with the jaws. It heps to store the food into the mouth. In the lower surface of
the labrum, crescent shaped epipharynx is present, in which many taste buds are being
present.
2. LABIUM: it is the lower lip and it consists of many pieces, the labium has a submentum and
mentum. Above the mentum, lies the prementum or para glossa. In between the paraglossa
small glossae are found. A four segmented labial palk arise from each side of the mentum.
3. HYPOPHARYNX (tongue): a cone like structure lies in the centre of the mouth cavity. The
salivary glands open at its base through the salivary duct.
4. MANDIBLES: a pair of mandibles one in each side of the mouth. The mandibles are hard
with many teeth adapted for cutting and chewing.
5. MAXILLAE: the paired maxillae are situated in the lateral side of the mouth. The maxillae
consist of many segments, the cardo and stipes or the basal segments (protopodite). From the
stipes arise maxillary palps (exopodite) with five joints and the inner lacinea and galea
(endopodite) are found. The maxillae aid to hold the food while feeding.
6. THORAX: the thorax is 3 segmented called as the prothorax, the mesothorax and the
metathorax. A small neck is found between the head and the thorax. From each thoracic
segment, paired legs are found ventrally. Each leg consists of a basal coax a stout femur and
a long trochanter and many joined tarsus. The legs are adapted for sartorial or jumping.
Generally two pairs of wings are from the mesothorax and the other from the metathorax
arise dorsally. The wings are membranous with many veins to support them.
Siphoning - Moths and butterflies. When feeding the proboscis is uncoiled and extended.Nectar is
sucked upinto the mouth or oral cavity. The proboscis is a modified maxillae.
Sponging - Found in adults of specialized flies. During feeding the proboscis (modified labium) is
lowered and salivary secretions are pumped onto the food. The dissolved or suspended food then moves
by capillary action into the pseudotracheae (sponge) and is ingested. There may be sharp teeth on the
pseudotracheae to rasp flesh and draw up blood. The labella is the fleshy distal end of the labium that
functions as a sponge-like organ to sop up liquids.
Piercing-Sucking - Found in a variety of insects, such as herbivorous and predacious bugs and
mosquitoes. Mandibles and maxillae are formed into stylets which are enclosed by the labium. Once the
stylets penetrate, a secretion is injected to dissolve tissue, act as a toxin in predacious species, or as
anticoagulant for mosquitoes.
Chewing-Lapping - Adult honeybees and bumble bees. Mouthparts are modified to utilize liquid food,
honey and nectar. A central "tongue" is used to draw liquid into the body. The mandibles are not used
for feeding but function to cut floral tissue to gain access to nectar, for defense, and for manipulating
wax.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: the mouth leads into the buccal cavity. The buccal cavity opens into a long and
narrow pesophagus. On either sides of the oesophagus, lies the salivary glands. The crop is wide and a
long structure in which the food is stored. The crop leads into a wide stomach. In between the two there
are many projections called the Hepatic caeae which secrete the digestive enzymes. The stomach leads
into the ileum. The wall of the ileum has many long hair like projections called the malphigian tubules
which are secretory in function. The ileum opens into the rectum which finally opens out through the
anus.
ABDOMEN: the abdomen is slender and gradually narrowing posteriorly. It consists of 11 segments.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: the respiratory system consists of spiracles, tracheae and tracheoles. There
are totally 10 pairs of spiracles (2 thoracic and 8 abdomen) in their lateral side. Each spiracle opens into
the trachea which branch into minute openings called tracheoles. The tracheoles are connected with the
muscles. Air from the atmosphere reaches the trachea through the spiracles and through the tracheoles
reaches the muscles directly.
NERVOUS SYSTEM: the nervous system includes a pair of supra oesophagus ganglion (Brain) and a
sub oesophagal ganglion and connectives that connect the 2 ganglia. The supra oesophagal ganglion
supply nerves to the compound eyes , ocilli and antenna. The sub oesophagal ganglion supplies nerves to
the mouth parts. A ventral nerve part arise from the sub oesophagal ganglion and continues posteriorly.
There are 3 large thoraces ganglia supplying nerves to the wings and the legs. 8 abdominal
ganglia are also lovated in the abdomen. They supply nerves to the digestive organs, trachea, heart and
the reproductive organs.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: the male consist of pair of testes which produes the sperms and the
female consists of a pair of ovaries composed of ovarian follicles.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS: the classification of organism is based on a hierarchy of categories.
The major categories used in the animal classification of phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
The scientific names of a species are binomial and it is composed of 2 names, a genus name and a
species name. The system if binomial nomenclature we use today for classification was advanced by the
Swedish naturalist Carlos Linnaeus in 1758. The binomial of the first species is always printed in Italics
or, if hand written is underlined to indicate italics. The name of a genera and higher categories begin
with a capital letter but the specific name of the species and sub specific names always begin with a
lower case letter.
Brauer (1885) classified the insects under 2 major orders namely wingless insects, Apterygota and
winged insects, Pterygota. He classified insects under 16 orders and at present it is the same
modification of insects classification as 28 orders which was formulated by A.D. Himm.
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS: the classification of insects is written from the most
primitive insects to the most highly evolved.
Class : Insecta
Subclass I : Apterygota ( primitively wingless insects).
Order 1 : Protura e.g. Proturaus
Order 2 : Collembola e.g. springtails
Order 3 : Diplura e.g. Diplurans.
Order 4 : Thysanura e.g. Bristle tails.
7.
ORDER: 19 Phasmida e.g. leaf insect, walking insect etc.
1. the insects are large in size and elongated and in cylindrical forms. E.g. stick insects, flattened
leaf insect, winged or wingless, fore wings when present are usually small.
2. head is movable and antennae are long.
3. mouth parts are of biting and chewing type.
4. compound eyes are well developed and ocilli are absent. These insects exhibit the phenomenon
of camouflage and are plant feeders.
ORDER: 20 e.g. Neuroptera e.g, Alder flies, Dobson flies, owl flies, fish flies, lace flies, antlions, snake
flies.
1. mouth parts are of biting and chewing type.
2. compound eyes are large, ocilli are absent or rarely present.
3. moderate sized, soft bodied wit h 2 pairs of large wings, numerous veins and cross veins.
4. antennae are rather long and thread like.
5. all species are predatory.
6. Antlions are predatory insects, feeding on coccids, aphids and mites.
2.) METABOLA: in the more advanced insects subclass (pterygota) distinct changes in form and
size during growth and development are observed. It is divided into following subtypes.
• Paurometabola (gradual metamorphosis): certain species undergo gradual external stages
during development. The newly hatched or the immature young is called the nymph. It is
active and sticky like the adults except in size and color and absence of wings and genital
organs. It undergoes various modes to reach the adult stages then these stages of
development are present, series of nymphs and then the adult. The growth of the body
wings occur gradually between successive moulds. Paurometabolic are
orthoptera(grasshopper, cockroaches), isopteran(white ants). Dermaptera( earwigs),
hemiptera (aphids). They belong to the division exopterygota of the section.
• Hemimetabola(incomplete metamorphosis): in incomplete metamorphosis, the immature
forms are aquatic and called as naiads. They breed by gills and have other aquatic habits,
where the adults are terrestrial or aerial and respire by trachea. The naiads are similar to
the adults except for the size, body proportion and lack of wings. However, they do not
resemble the adult on much on the nymphs of parametabolous insects. The changes in the
body from one instar to the next are more pronounced then in gradual metamorphosis but
no conspicuous one in the case of complete metamorphosis. Stages of development are
the egg, series of naiads and adult, when ready to leave the water, the naiads crawl upon
some plant or other object, the body becomes dry, the exoskeleton splits along the back
and the imago emerges to assume the aerial habits with tracheal respiration. Hemi
metabolous orders are represented by odonata (dragon flies) ephemeroptera (mayflies)
and plecoptera(stone flies)
PRODUCTVE INSECTS:
The productive insects are those which produce certain substances essential for human beings.
The products of insects have high commercial value. Some of the important productive insects are honey
bees, lac insects, silk moths etc.
Taxonomy: Lac insect.
Sub class: pterygota
Division: exopteryogota
Order: Hemiptera
Sub order: homoptera
Family: Lacciferidae
Sub family: lacciferinae
Genus: Laccifer
Species: lacca.
The lac insect Laccifer lacca secretes a laccinus hard substance called the lac. It is unique since it
is the only one of animal origin. The lac insects secrete a hard encrustation over the body and the
secretion takes the form of a brown resinous substance and it is the true lac cultivation.
HOST PLANTS
The most important host plants on which lac insects secrete encrustation are Zizyphus
mauritiana, Zizypus jujube, Cajanus cajan, Accacia Arabica, Accacia catcher, Butea monosperma, Butea
frondosa, Ficus religiosa.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS
Lac cultivation can be carried out in forest and sub forest areas where suitable host trees grow.
Places with annual rainfall of about 75 cm with moderate temperatures are quite suitable. Dry and arid
places are unsuitable and very hot. Temperature and hot winds soften the lac injuring the female inside
the cells. Therefore, the success of cultivation of lac insects depends on the climatic conditions also.
STRAINS PRESENT
There are two strains of lac insects that emerge. The strain that thrives on (Schleicheria oleosa –
Kusmi) and the one that rouse upon other host plants are known as Rangeni strain because of the deeper
color of the lac it produces. About 90% of the lac produced in India comes from rangeeni strain.
HARVESTING
The cultivators cut the crop in an immature stage. Ari cutting in april and may and also as mature
(kakti crop) and in octoberand November. Aricutting is harmful to the host plants hence it is
discouraged. The lac encrustation are dislodged from the branches by scrapping with the knife. The
scrapping should be done immediately after the harvest.
This is to avoid damage by the predators. There are 5 types of lac
1. Erilac: the immature stage of the lac which is harvested before reaching maturity.
2. Stick lac: matured lac in the form of sticks are obtained on maturity of the crop.
3. Seed lac: the lac in the stick is obtained by scrapping and after washing.
4. dust lac: it is obtained by grinding the crystals of the lac.
5. Shell lac: it is obtained by heating both the seed and dust lac together.
6. Button lac: the molten lac is poured into dyes in a zinc sheet. Button’s lac is 7 cm long and 0.6
cm thick.
Preparation of the market lac is marketed as shell lac. It is manufactured manually and involves 3
stages that is the production of crushed lac, seed lac and shell lac. The lac encrustations are dislodged
from the branches either by twisting them with hand, scrappin with a knife or by folding the branches
through rollers as in a cotton gin. The space between 2 rollers is adjusted that only the encrustation gets
dislodged. The scrapping should be done as immediately as possible after to avoid damage by predators.
The scrapped material is known as raw lac, scrapped or stick lac and it should be left in the sun for long.
It is necessary that fumigation with sulfur must be done for storage the stick lac is disintegrated
and the powdery material is called as the crushed lac. It is then immersed in water in a stone or cement
tubs for 3 days and often stirred well. The supernatant, crimson colored liquid is drained off, the material
is then transferred to large oven to which lime is added. Now, the lac dye settles down and is collected,
the suspended lac is filtered though the cloth. The process is repeated thrice or four times. The material
is spread in the cement floor and allowed to dry. It is called as the seed lac or grain lac. From seed lac,
shell lac is manufactured by large scale solvent extraction process by hot melting method. Coloring is
given by addition of arsenic sulfide.
Preparation of Shell lac: Shell lac is the purest form of lac. Crude lac which is obtained by scrapping the
encrustation over the twigs is called as stick lac. Stick lac is not used for any purpose without being
processed; the process of refining stick lac can be divided into 2 phases:
1st phase: it consists of stick lac being treated to the following process of crushing, sieving, washing,
drying, clearing by winnowing in order to obtain the seed lac.
• Crushing: to expose the inner surface of the lac shell, the stick lac is crushed by hand or by
power driven grooved roll mills.
• Sieving: te crushed lac is sieved though the proper mesh before washing and bigger sizes are
recrushed for some factories. Sieving is done by mechanical sieves.
• Washing: in some factories, washing of the lac is done by putting the crushed lac into the
cupshaped stone wells mixing with water and rubbing the wet lac by feet against the sites of wax
in order to remove the dye from the resin particle. The colored water is drained out and wasted
lac is known as sed lac which is then dried in shade. The lac dye was formerly used which was
retained from the colored water by precipitating with lime, but it has now lost its market. The
colored water is at present allowed to flow out into the neighboring fields. in the bigger factories
the washing is done by churning the crushed lac in a horizontal steel barrel fitted with agitators
and through which a continuous flow of water is maintained after washing the lac to the desired
extent. The washed material is then transferred to the stone wax, where the lac grains are
separated from the sand and the product is given a final wash. The sand can also be separated by
the use of sand separating machine developed at the Indian lac research institute and then
subjected to drying.
• Winnowing: dry seed lac still contains very small particles of sand, some woody matter and oter
impurities and these are removed by winnowing and in this operation seed lac is also graded into
dofferent fractions according to the particle size.
2nd phase: the impurities which are loosely present in the lac in the first phase were removed along with
water soluble material. The impurities which are still sticking to the lac grains are to be removed in the
phase of refining. This is done by hot filtration of moulting the lac or by sissolving the seed lac in a
suitable solvent.
• Indigenous method: the present method of indigenous manufacture is based on the principle of
hot filtration. For this purpose, seed lac is poured in long cloth bags of about 62.5 mm in
diameter. One end of the bad is tied to the axel of the wheel which is rotated during the operation
by labor and is held lightly by a welter on a plat from nearer to the other side of the specially
designed charcoal oven. The lac resin is fused or melted by the heat and squeezed by the twisting
of the bag oozed out through the pores of the cloth. The melter scrapes out the molten mass and
places it on a porcelain cylinder filled with hot water. Another labor then spreads the molten
mass with a palm leaf on the other surface of the cylinder, polishes with a piece of cloth and then
removes the stretched sheets. From the surface of the porcelain cylinder, we can pbtain sheets of
shellac after cooling and is broken up into small pieces which is the hand made shell lac.
Sometimes, the molten masses are poured on a metal sheet to form small circular disc and is
called the button lac. The other methods followed in the 2nd phase are hydraulic press method and
solvent method.
SILK WORM
Class: insecta
Subclass: pteryogta
Division: Endopterygota
Order: Lepidoptera
Sub order: Frenate
Family: Satumioidea
Sub family: Bombycidae
Saturnidae.
Family Saturnidae
INTRODUCTION
Silk is a valuable natural protein produced by certain insects. Various insects like Lepidoptera in
their larval stages, wasp in adult, from the salivary gland, Embioptera from their tarsal gland and
coleopteran and Neuroptera from malphigian tubules produce silk. Of them, the caterpillar of silk moth
secretes the silk threads which are of the commercially important raw silk.
HISTORY the Chinese first knew the art of producing silk from the cocoons of the silk moths as early as
2600 B.C. by knowing the immense value and the beauty of the silk rearing from silk worm spread over
the world. The main centres in India producing silk are Karnataka, Bengal, assam, Punjab, Tamil Nadu
and Kashmir.
SILK GLANDS:
The silk worm has a pair of salivary glands. It is situated in the latero ventral side of the
alimentary canal. It is about 20 – 25 cm in each gland and anterior is a narrow duct. The middle enlarged
part and the posterior narrow part are present. The 2 anterior ducts unite with each other to form a short
common duct. The common duct opens out at the apex of the median cylindrical structure. The spinnart
opens out on the anterior margin of the labium. The sides in the common duct paired “fillipits of the
lyonnets” gland. An accessory structure is also found. The caterpillar are actively feedinf on the
mulberry leaves. They have cutting and chewing type of mouth parts. In which the mandibles are well
developed. At the time of cocoon formation, the caterpillar becomes sluggish and stops feeding. The
salivary glands secrete a vicious secretion which becomes a fine filament on contact with the air. The
filament contains 75% of tough elastic protein. The fibroin and 25% of a gelatinous protein Sericin. The
former is made up of amino acids like Glycine, Alanine, Tyrosine and the latter of serine, the outer
gummy layer of the silk thread. The silk thread is elastic, resistant and a non conductor of heat and
electricity. It has a good tensile strength nearly as great as steel and is used in textile industry for
surgical sutures, parachutes etc A single caterpillar is capable of producing 650 – 1300 meters of silk
thread.
MORICULTURE: the mulberry silk worm feeds on the larvae of the mulberry plants. The cultivation ok
mulberry plats for rearing the silk worm is known as moriculture.
The fertilized eggs are available from the grainage (where eggs are produced). The eggs must be
disease free. The eggs are incubated under the optimum temperature of 25 – 30 C. the humidity must be
between 70 and 80%.
The hatched out larvae are transferred to bamboo trays, in which the paddy husk is spread and
the chopped mulberry leaves are kept. The leaves are changed for every 3 hours for the first 3 days.
From the 4th day, the caterpillar can be fed with full leaves. The caterpillars are voracious feeders and the
consumption of leaves increase corresponding with age. The unused leaves and the excreta must be
removed periodically. This process is known as cleaning.
The fully grown caterpillars are uniformly spread on the chandraki for pupation. The cocoons
formed are found attached on chandraki. The pupae must be killd 2 or 3 days before the complete
emergence of the moths. Otherwise, the silk thread is cut into pieces. The cocoons are exposed in
sunlight or hot air is blown over them or by fumigating with toxic chemicals. This process is known as
stilling.
The stilled cocoons are soaked with water to soften the gum that binds the silk threads. The
threads from 400 – 500 cocoons are put in a spoon on wheeling machine and this a single thread is
made. This raw silk which forms about 60% and the remaining 40% is the coarse silk. The raw silk is
further processed and marketed.
4. Grasseire: the last instar of the caterpillar is affected. They become swollen and test like a bag of
granules. The body fluid becomes thickened and cloudy and they die. The curvature agent is
nuclear. A kind of virus is responsible for this disease. The symptoms of this disease are:
• The formation of polyhydral bodies on the skin.
• The tissues are diseased.
5. Court’s disease: (Jachcinid parasite). Sometimes, pupa is formed without cocoon. The cocoon
formed is very small in size. This disease may be due to malnutrition of food.
6. Grating disease: the anterior region of the caterpillar becomes translucent due to the infection of
the bacteria Streptococcus bombycis. The ultra violet rays are also responsible for this disease.
CONTROL MEASURES:
1. everyday, the skin of the caterpillar should be carefully observed whether any worm is infested
with the disease.
2. if any worm is infested, it should be immediately removed from the batches.
3. eggs should be selected from the healthy moths. The Pebrine disease can be thus prevented.
4. proper spacing and the periodical changing of silkworm beds with paddy husks will also prevent
the spreading of the disease.
5. proper ventilation in hygienic conditions are necessary for rearing healthy silkworms.
HONEY BEES
Apis dorsata (the rock bee).
It is the largest of the honey bees. It builds a single open comb in the branches of the tree. Along
the sides of the step rocks in the forest and even in the walls of ratters and other parts of buildings. They
produce plenty of honey and the annual honey from a colony is 37 kg. it is impossible to domesticate it
because of its irritable and ferocious nature, peculiar hives and its habit of deserting the hives often but
professional honey gatherers collect honey and wax from wild colonies often killing the entire colony in
the process.
Cutting and sponging type of mouth parts: here the mandibles are produced into the sharp balde and the
maxillae push it in to long probing styles. E.g. Diptera.
Sponging type: this type of mouth parst is similar to cutting and sponging type but in this case the
mandible and maxillae are non functional, the remaining parts from a probus with the sponge like apex
or lamella. E.g. non biting flies including the housefly. Certain solid food like sugar are eaten by the fly
with this type of mouth parts. The insect extrudes a droplet of saliva on the food which dissolves in the
saliva, the solution is then drawn up by the mouth as a liquid.
Chewing and lapping type of mouth parts: here the mandible and the labellum are of chewing type and
are used for grasping prey or moulding wax as nest material. The maxillae and labium are developed
into flattened, elongated structures called as the glossa. The maxillae and labium fit up against the glossa
from which the saliva is discharged and food is drawn. E.g. bees and wasps.
Piercing and sucking type: the mouth parts of many groups are modified to pierce and suck the juice. In
this case, the labium, mandible and maxillae are slender, long and fit to form a hollow needle. To feed,
the insect inserts the needle into the host tissue and sucks the host tissue through the needle. E.g. aphids,
leaf hoppers, scale insects, strideri, mosquitoes, bed bugs, lice and fleas.
Siphoning and tube type: here the liquid food is sucked up by means of long proboscis composed of only
of the united gallia of each maxillan and forms the tubes which opens into the oesophagus e.g.
Lepidoptera feed on liquid food.
Grub: larvae of an insect especially beetles, maggots or small caterpillar.
Ear head: the seed bearing head of spice of a cereal plant.
Gluree: membranous back surrounding the spikelet of grass/ floret of sedges.
Panicle: the lose branching of cluster of flowers.
Apis indica: it is the common Indian bee found both in the forest as well as in plains through ought our
country. It is smaller than rock bee but longer than little bee. It builds combs in the cavities and hollows
of trees, caves and hidden sides. The annual yield of honey is 2 – 5 kg / colony.
Apis florae: it is known as the little bee, since it is the smallest of the 3 species of Apis. It is seen only in
plans. It also builds single, but small combs on bushy plants and corners of roofs. It yields very little
honey about 0.5 – 1 kg per year from a colony and so it is not domesticated and reared.
Apis mellifera: the malicious bees reared in Europe and USA. It shows a very high annual yield of 50 –
180 kgs per year. In India, the species are reared in aperies of Kashmir and Punjab.
Meliponna irridipennis: the dammer bee is tiny with a vestigial sting. It inhabits the cervices in walls an
hallow trunks of trees. The comb is made up of dark material called cerumbin it is a mixture of wax,
earth ir resin, it is a very poor honey gatherer and yields only 60 – 180 ml /colony/ year.
MORPHOLOGY OF HONEY BEES:
The body of the honey bee is divided into the head, thorax and the abdomen.
Head: the head of the honey bee is triangular with 2 large compound eyes and 3 ocilli. The number of
ommatidia in an eye are about 4000 in queen, 5000 in worker and 8000 in drone. Bees recognize objects
with their compound eyes, precise movement and distinguish color and forms. They can distinguish only
yellow, blue, and green and cannot see black red or grey colors. The mouth parts are of chewing and
lapping type. The mandible and labrum are well developed for chewing type. The labium and maxilla re
integrated to form a lapping tongue, proboscis, the labial glossa is modified into long, elongate, hairy,
extensible sucking organ which can be protracted or retracted to reach deep into the nectarines of tubular
flowers. The glossa is followed by labellum / bauton at its apex. The length of the proboscis is 6mm in
worker, 3- 5 mm in queen and 4 mm in drone, the accessory like labial palp, maxillary palp, the
prementum, sub mentum, galea, are all well developed; also the stipes. The mandibles in honey bees are
not mainly concerned with feeding, but are put into various other uses. In the worderbee, apart from
serving as grasping organs, they help in the injection of pollen grains, in manipulation of wax in the
comb, mainly in building, in supporting the proboscis when the latter is not in use.
The thorax: thorax consists of prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax. From meso and meta thorax,
haired wings are developed. Each thoracic segment consists of 2 legs. The legs of the honey bee consists
of 6 segments, the coax, femur, trochanter, tibia, tarsus and pre tarsus. In the first pair of legs, there is an
antenna cleaner. To this, the antenna is drawn and cleaned. The third pair of legs are modified for
collecting pollen from the flower. Each of the 3rd pair has the pollen basket, the pollen pocket and the
pollen comb.
Abdomen: it has 9 segments. The first abdominal segment is fused with the metathorax to from
propodium. In the segment, 4 – 7 pairs of wax glands are present. In wax glands, secreted the fluid
secretion which hardens and deposition on the surface of the wax plates. The workers collect the wax
from the wax plates and construct the combs. In the last segment of the abdomen of the workers and
queen, a pointed sting is present. A poison gland lies in the 7th segment. It is a modified gland of the
reproductive organ. The poison gland is an organ of defense, royal jelly
INTERNAL ANATOMY
Alimentary canal: mouth cavity deeps into the pharynx and then into the esophagus, which is a long
narrow tube, which leads to the dilated sac like crop called the honey stomach. It serves as a reservoir
for the liquid required. The crop is followed by a neck like proventriculus which is long and broad. At
its junction with the crop, it has a x like aperture provided with 4 triangular lips. The opening of the
proventriculus into the true stomach or ventriculus, is guarded by a well developed valve. The function
of the proventriculus is to pump the food from the crop into the ventriculus and to prevent regurgitating
from the latter. Pro ventriculus is ‘U’ shaped and forms the larges part of the alimentary canal. At the
junction of the ventricules with the ileum, there are about 100 malphigian tubules. The ileum is a looped
simple tube. The rectum is large, broad and its anterior end has six papillae.
Salivary glands: there are 2 pairs situated in the head and the thorax region. They are vestigial or absent
in the drones, but developed in the queens and workers. The thoracic glands are present in all the three
castes of the honey bees. The secretion of the salivary gland has the enzyme invertase which reduces the
sucrose of the nectar in to levulose and dextrose of honey in the crop. The crop has no gland. In the
head, there is a pair of lateral pharyngeal gland whose secretion makes up the royal jelly used for
feeding the young ones of the bees.
Circulatory system: consists of the heart located in the dorsal apex of the abdomen and all aorta
extending through the thorax into the head where it opens beneath the brain.
Respiratory system: the tracheal system has two pairs of spiracles opening in the meso and meta thorax,
propodium and the next of abdominal segments the trachea in honey bees are characterized by the
development into the elaborate air sac.
Nervous system: the brain consists of proto cerebral and deuterocerebral. The brain is also followed by
some esophagal ganglion and the ventral nerve code consists of ganglia. The size of the brain differs
considerably in the 3 pairs of honey bees. The head of the drone is the largest. The brain of the drone
appears to the largest, but is due to the greater development of the optic lobes.
Reproductive system: the male reproductive organ consists of a paired testes, vasa deferntia, casicular
seminacles and paired accessory gland. The female reproductive organ includes a par of ovary, oviducts,
alkaline glands. Each ovary is made up of numerous ovarian follicles.
Lateral pharyngeal gland: there is a pair of lateral pharyngeal gland situated in the anterior dorsal region
of the head. The glands are well developed in workers, vestigial in queens and absent in drones. They
produce nutritive food called the royal jelly or bee milk, which is used for feeding the queen, larvae,
drones and the workers. Workers in the second week of their life produce royal jelly and these bees are
called as feeders. The feeding bees obtain royal jelly by threshing the end of their proboscis over the
base of the glossa of the feeder bee. However in feeding the larvae, the royal jelly, gets discharged
between the mandibles into the brood cells of the combs containing the larvae. The glands are fully
functional and active in young workers which serve as nurse bees. But the glands cells are seen emptied
or atrophied in older bees which go on foraging.
Legs: in the forelegs of all 3 castes of bees, the brushes of stiff hairs are present on the inner surfaces.
These hairs are useful for drawing pollen and other particles from the head, eyes and the mouth parts.
The most important feature of the foreleg is the antenna cleaner. There are 3 pairs of legs in honey bees
(foreleg, middleleg and hindleg). Since the antenna have important sense organs, insects are careful to
keep their antenna clean of all dirt. The antenna cleaner is situated in the inner margin of each foreleg.
The different pair in legs are: 1.) tarsal brush 2.) antenna cleaner 3.) Basitarsus 4.) Clasp and tibia.
Pollen constitutes an important part of the food to both the larva and adult bees and it’s the
principle source of protein to the bees. Propolis is a resinous substance available in the heads of the trees
and issued by the bees for reparing the crack in the hives and also for strengthening the wax in comb
building. Both pollen and proboscis are collected and carried to the hives by the bees in the back in hind
tibia. In the worker bees, the hind legs are larger in size than in the other 2 castes. The smooth outer
surface of tibia is fringed with long curved hairs forming the pollen brush or slopa and which is followed
by pollen basket and corbicula. When the basitarsal brushes of the hind leg are loaded with the pollen.
The leg of one side is scrapped on the other in such a manner that the bunch of hairs on the enf of the
tibia scrap out a small mass of pollen from the tarsal brush of the opposite legs. By repeating the
process, the little masses of pollen are pushed into the corbicula which ultimatelybecomes fully loaded
with pollen. With fully loaded pollen basket, the foraging bee returns to the hive, goes into the comb,
where the pollen is to be stored, sits over the cell resting the forelegs on the cell edge with the abdomen
curved and the hind leg stretch into the cell. The basitarssy of middle leg move out over the pollen
basket and dislodge the pollen into the cell.
Wax glands: 4 pairs of wax glands are present in the ventral side of the abdominal segment 4 – 7. below
these glands are the wax plates or wax mirror being present. The secretion of the gland is carried
through the cuticle and the wax hardens on the outer surface of the wax proteins. The wax is removed by
the basitarsi where it is taken off by the mandibles and masticated. The bee then deposits it on the comb
under construction.
Sting: this is the modified oviposition supplied with poison and serves as an instrument of defence. The
poison gland consists of a pair of arid gland which meets inside the poison sac. The arid gland mainly
consists of formic acid and it’s the venom of the bee’s sting. There is also another gland, the alkaline
gland and its secretion is not known.
The bee colony: in a bee colony of an average size, there are about 30,000 – 50,000 of bees. It consists
of normally of a queen, and a few hundred drones and the remaining 90% of the population of the
workers. Each time has certain specific function showing the phenomenon of division of labour.
hind leg of worker
Queen: the queen is the functional and a mature female of the colony and one is found in a normal
colony. The queen is larger than the drone and workers but the head is smaller. She has no wax plates,
wax glands and a pollen basket. A conspicuous oviposture functions as the sting. The queen is raised in
the special cell constructed at the lower border of the comb and the cell is much larger than the other.
The egg hatches in 3 days. The larva is fed with royal jelly, a nutritious good rich in protein 40 – 43% by
workers. The larval stage lasts for 5 days. The pupal stage lasts for 7 days and finally the adult emerges
out. An ectodermal exudates or hormone commonly called as queen sub is being secreted by the queen.
When the pheromone is plenty, it is being licked by the workers and this inhibits the workers from
proceeding to the queens and only workers are produced. This type of control of caste is known as
ectodermal control.
The queen is the mother of the colony and the centre of the activities and binding forces. The
function of queen is to take part in nuptial flight and to reproduce and maintain the colony strong. The
spermatozoa received during mating are sufficient to last for the entire life period of 2 – 3 years. Once
she sits for egg laying, she does not take up anymore nuptial flight. She lays about 500 eggs in
prosperous section and she lacks the motherly instinct of rearing the larva which is done by the nurse
bees. When the queen becomes old and is unable to fertilize the egg, another queen is reared and the old
one is discarded.
Workers: the worker is the imperfectly developed female and the smallest member in the colony. The
workers are selfless members of the colony and dedicate the time and attention to the service of the
colony ever since the time they emerged as adult. Young workers do all the domestic activities inside the
colony like secretion (feeder bees) and feeding young ones with royal jelly (nurse bees) building and
repairing combs with wax secreted by them, attending on the queen, keep the hives warm, clean,
defending the colony from enemies. Many of the experienced old workers go out on foraging for the
collection of pollen, nectar and propolis. The workers are raised in the cell situated in the lower part of
the comb. The workers head are hexagonal in shape and covered with flat caps the queen lays fertilized
eggs each in a cell and the eggs hatches in 3 days, the larval stage for 4 days and the larva is fed by the
young nurse bees with royal jelly and the bee bread and partially digested pollen. The adult worker on
emergence lives about 45 to 80 days and is confined with the hive for three weeks attending various
duties. They are called as household bees or nurse bees. They attending in cleaning the hive and
incubate first 3 days of their life cycle and feeding the larva for next 3 or 4 days. They secrete the royal
jelly, wax for comb building during 2 weeks and receive honey from the foraging bees and store it in
combs in the third week.
Foraging of the bees: the field bees get activated in the morning by about 7 or 8 o clock depending upon
the sunshine and temperature they go out on foraging and then collect pollen, nectar propolis and water
and carry them to the hive by making a number of trips. The bees that go out first find out sources of
these materials and are called as searcher bees and scout bees, they return to the hive and communicate
the message to young foraging bees by means of definite patterns of dancing. They perform a round
dance (in circles) clockwise and anti clock wise alternatively every one or 2 circles. If the source is
nearby, a wag tail dance that is making a straight run and then a semicircle back to the beginning of the
straight line, moving up the top of the run and a semi circle in the opposite direction and back to the
beginning of the straight line indicating the direction of the food source. The honey bees usually forage
within about 100 m distance from the hive and can go upto 1.5 km. they are capable of flying at a speed
of 25 – 30 km/hr and the bees are most active in foraging within a temperature range of 25 – 27C. a bee
carries upto 35% of the body weight of the pollen in one trip. The bee returns to the hive and pollen
pellets are pushed down to appropriate cells by means of the middle leg. The workers make about 6000
trips to collect 500 – 1000 g of pollen. The nectar is being collected from the flowers and stored in the
crop and contents are regurgitated and are stored in the combs and after natural ripening is capped. A
worker makes about 1900 trips a day for collection of nectar. In addition to pollen and nectar, bees also
collect propolis, a resinous substance exuded by buds, leaves of trees and shrubs and it is carried in the
pollen basket by the workers and the house bees make use of this propolis by cementing into the
cervices in the comb.
BEE KEEPING: honey bees are reared in artificial hives for the honey, bee wax as they provide and for
the help they render in pollinating crops. The practice of rearing bees is called as apiculture or bee
keeping and the place where hives are maintained is called as an apiary. Different types of bee hives
were in use in various parts of the country. They are pot hives, book hive, house hive, nucleus hive,
daunt hive, British hive, Langstroth hive of all of these types, the one designed by Newton is the most
popular one in south India. Renereut L.L. Langstroth in 1857 was the first to design a movable artifical
bee hive.
Newtons bee hive consists of the following parts:
1. Floor board: it is the board in which the entire hive rests. It is otherwise called as the alighting
board and it has openings in the front with removable panels at the sides. The size of the floor
board is 14” x 9 ½”.
2. brood chamber: both the bottom and the top of the sides of the brood chamber are the size in
9 ¾ “ x 8 ¼ x 6 ¾ with and entrance slit of 3 ½ x 3/8. there are 8 wooden frames which are fixed
inside the chamber measuring about 25.4 x 14 cm and space provided between the frames are 0.6
cm. each wooden frame measures as 8 ¼ x 5 ¾ x 6. (Brood chamber: between the floor board
and the super chamber).
3. Super chamber: it is placed between the brood chamber and top cover. The super chamber is
open both in the top and the bottom and measures about ¾ x 8 ¼ x 3 ½. Eight separate wooden
frames are being placed in the super chamber and measures about 8 ¼ x 5 ¾ x 2.
4. top cover: it has the same measurement as that of the brood and super chamber. The top cover is
placed above the super chamber and consists of opening closed with wire gauze.
5. Roof: the roof is open at the bottom and is closed above by zinc sheets. 2 holes are situated for
ventilation and holes are covered with wire gauze. The hives are usually painted yellow, light
blue, green/pink. The hive has to be fixed over the termite proof stand a meter height, kept in
shady place under the trees. It has to be protected from ants by providing oil bands on the stand
or water troughs under them. Other accessories required are
• comb foundation unit: it is made up of pure wax and its artificially provided for colonies.
During honey flow season, by attracting them to the super frames by means of thread or
fiber.
• Dummy division board: it is an alternate to brood chamber and hence the bees can be
confined to the limited space when population in hive is low.
• Porter bee escape board or super cleaner: it is a board covering the brood chamber with
one way opening in the centre. It is used to clean the super of the bees by keeping them in
between super and brood chamber.
• Drone excluder or drone trap: drone trap is fixed in front of hive entrance. In the
afternoon when the drones and workers come out for play flights the bigger groove at the
back of the trap allows the drones to come up to front entrance. By finding difficult to
escape through, they enter the combs which act as one way lanes. The workers can freely
go out through the groove and the drones are this trapped and removed next morning and
killed.
• Swarm trap: it is a rectangular box open at one of its border side and wire gauze fixed to
about 2/3rd of its height on the other side. The 1/3rd portion on this side is fitted to a queen
excluder sheet made up of zinc and placed in a slanting position. This box is placed close
to the opening on the floor board and is tightly secured with a piece of string. One or two
frames with comb foundation sheets are placed inside the box. When swarm issues, the
queen along with few workers are trapped which can now be transferred to a hive at a
desired place.
• Queen excluder: a queen excluder is placed over the loop of brood chamber sheet present
that prevents the queen from having access to the upper chamber which results in the
construction of queen cells in the upper hive.
• Smoker: it’s a small tin with an elastic bulb at one side and rag of cloth or any material to
be burnt inside and the smoke is expelled at the desired spot.
• Honey extractor: it is equipment which consists of a cylindrical drum containing a rack or
a box to hold super frames. The box is fixed to a rod at the centre and it is rotated with
the help of 2 gear wheels. The frames with honey cells are decapped by a sharp knife,
after dipping in hot water and fixed to the slots provided in the box which is rotated by
the handle. The honey in the cells is forced out in the droplets by the action of centrifugal
force and can be collected through the exit in the drum. As cells are constructed on both
sides of the comb by changing the side of handles and again rotating, the honey can be
drained out from other side.
LOCATION OF AN APIARY:
An apiary should be located where there is abundance of nectar or pollen yielding plants. The
site should not be exposed to strong winds. The site should be flat, but with good drainage facility.
Clean and fresh running water should be available to the bees in or near the apiary. Should not be
located near the highway. A good bartered wire fence or a hedge may be provided to keep out intruders.
The site should be free from termites and black ants’ infestation.
Bee pasturage: bees collect the nectar and pollen from plants. Nectar, a sweet solvent secretion from the
floral and extract floral nectarines of flowers, is the raw material for honey. Pollen is a protein rich food.
For the bees propolis which is obtained from the barks of the trees and buds are used for filling crevices
in the honey comb. The plants that yield these materials are collectively known as pasturage. The period
when a good number of plants have nectar is called honey flow period. The season when there is no
honey flow is called dearth period.
Plants yielding nectar to honey bees: the plants which are visited only for nectar by the honey bees are:
tamarind (Tamarindus indicus), Neem (Azadirachtra indica), Suprent tree (Sapindus spp.), Eucalyptus
spp, Pongum (Pongamia glabra), Horinda tindoria, Prosopis spicigera, Quisqualis indica, Segarea moths,
Tribulus turestus, Gryqicidia maculate etc. of these, tamarind provides rich supply of nectar.
Plants yielding nectar to honey bees: bananas, citrus, apple, peas, plum, peach, guava, mango, coconut,
sesamum, safflower, mustard, cruciferous. Vegetables: bendi, onions, clover, casmos, hollyhock, aster
species, acacia, cassafistula, polygonum spp, antigonon and cotton supply both nectar and pollen to the
trees. Out of these cotton is a very rich source. The bee keeper has to cultivate a variety of crops in order
to get plenty of honey in rotation.
honey extractor
Brood frame
Super frame
Swarm trap
Queen excluder sheet
Insects play an important role in transmission of viral diseases among plants and animals. Most of
the insect vectors are from the order Homoptera which mainly includes sucking insects. Some
diseases are also transmitted by chewing insects. Vectors of the yellow group of viruses are leaf
hoppers, while mosaic group of viruses are transmitted in general by aphids. This shows that
mechanically transmitted viruses are aphid from and the other viruses are leaf hopper from.
There are differences among vectors in relationto the virus that they transmit. Some of the
viruses remain viruliferous only for a short time of few minutes to a few hours in the vector and such
viruses are called stylet – bone viruses while in others , the virus stays in the vector for a number of
hours and finally the ingested virus is transmitted through the saliva of the vector. Such viruses are
called propagative viruses.
Viruses are previously grouped into 2 categories as
a.) non persistent viruses: A vector can transmit this virus soon after feeding on a diseased plant.
The ability to transmit the virus is lost soon after the vector feeds on a healthy / immune plant. If
the vector is
b.) persistent viruses: the virus is consumed by vector along with its food and undergoes a period of
maturation in the vectors body before it becomes infective. Insect vectors can now transmit the
disease for lifetime.
Importance of insects and their role in transmission of virus diseases in plants is to be
emphasized in order to understand the vectors potential and disease caused, so as to develop
control measures.
Insect vector Virus
Pentalonia migronerosa Banana bunchy top, Caudamon mosaic (marbled
‘katle’ disease)
Aphis gossypii Papaya mosaic, cucumber mosaic, chilli mosaic.
Myzus persicae Cucumber mosaic.
INTERNAL FEEDERS:
Rice weevil: Sitophilus oryzae
Family: Curculonidae
Order: Coleoptera.
This weevil has a world wide distribution and it is the one of the important pests of stored
products especially paddy and rice. The adult is dark brown with a cylindrical body and conspicuously
curved beak. The elyptera has four light reddish or yellowish spots. Both adults and larvae attack the
grain on which they feed voraciously. As a result, the grain becomes useless for human consumption as
well as for sieve purposes. If the infestation is heavy, the grain becomes the mass of broken vegetable
matter. The attack of this pest is sudden and irregular and is more common in warm places with a humid
climate.
The adult female makes small holes in the soft part of the grains and the eggs are deposited
inside the small hallowed out grooves and entry holes are covered with a gelatinous fluid. The eggs are
whitish and oval in shape. A single female lays about 60 – 400 eggs in 4 – 5 months and they hatch in 4
days in summer and 4 – 6 days in winter. The apodous tiny grub is whitish in color with a yellowish
brown head. They bore into the grain kernel and feed on the stacky content. Generally a grub is seen in
each grain, but occasionally 2 – 3 grubs are also noticed. The pupation is inside the grain, the pupa is
dirty white in color, but later changes into dark brown. The adult weevil lives for 4 – 5 months and starts
breeding immediately after emergents, the life cycle ranges from 26 – 28 days and generally 4 – 5
generations are observed in a year. The adults hibernate during winter in the cracks and crevices of the
godowns. This pest also attacks wheat, barley, maize, sorghum and other grains.
Pulse beetle
b.n. Callousobruchus chinensis.
Family: Bruchidae
Order: Coloeptera.
It is distributed all over the world and recorded in all parts of India. It is considered to be a minor pest in
all other countries but in India, it is a major pest of stored products. (Pulses).
The grub causes the damage by feeding on the contents of the pul;ses leaving behind the shell
and the adults escape by cutting a round hole in the grain. The infestations start in the field itself and get
established in the store houses.
The adult beetle is small, chocolate or dark brown in color with abruptly rounded posterior and
the antennae are serrated and there are 2 characterisitc white spots near the middle of the body. The eggs
are elongate laid singly on the pulses and several eggs are laid on the single pulse grain. A single female
lays more than 100 eggs and incubation period is 4 – 7 days. The grubs bore into the pulse and develop
inside and complete their development in 2 – 3 weeks. The grubs are whitish in color, cylindrical in
shape, fleshy and strongly wrinkled. Pupation takes place inside the pulse itlsef and lasts for 4 – 28 days
depending on the temperature and moisture. During winter, the larvae hibernate and adults come out
during march. There are 7 – 8 overlapping generations per year. The adult’s life span is short, lives only
for 2 days. It causes severe damage to stored cowpea grams, lub lub niger, soyabeans ,pigeon pea, etc. it
is also known to infest red gram pods in the field.
Control measures:
• Farmers are advised to grow tolerant varieties.
• Early plantation with wide spacing will reduce the multiplication of the pest.
• Use of high level of nitrogenous fertilizers favors multiplication of the pest and thus be used
judiciously.
• Once infestation is observed, water from the field should be drained and reduce the pest
population.
• Natural enemies like predatory bugs, Cayrterhious limidiperious, spiders like Dyeosa
pseudoannulata exercise natural control of BPH.
• Recently, Mucor spp. has been found to infect BPH.
• Dusting BHC 10% or Carabryl 10% towards the base of the tillers is effective in controlling the
BPH.
• If infestation is observed in the late stages of the crop, spraying of monocrotophos 2ml,
quinalphos 2ml and phosolane 2 ml in a liter of water is found to be very effective.
Control measures:
• Dusting BHC 10% or Carbaryl 5% controls the pest.
Control Measures:
• Sowing of sorghum seeds should be done soon after the onset of monsoon, since later sowing
suffers heavy attack by the shoot fly.
• Application of Phorate 10% granito or Carbofuran 30% granules in furrows at the time of sowing
is effective.
• Resistant varieties IS 1054, IS 5613, IS 5639, may be grown.
• Rainfed sorghum crop is savaged by many sucking pests. One such is the ear head bug
• Pest was first reported from TN in 1891 and is now considered to be a serious pest of cholam in
the state.
• The nymphs and adults suck the sap from the developing mains and then turn them chally.
• Loss of grain raises from 13 to 30%.
• Conmpact heads are affected more severely.
• The greenish femal bug insects the light source. Coloured, cigar shaped eggs under the or into
the middle of the florets , at the rate of 16 eggs per floret.
• Female lays 150 to 200 eggs in a fortnight.
• Life cycle from egg to adult occupies 15 days and the insect completes 2 generations on cholam
in a year.
Control
• Dusting of carboryl 10% at 10 days intervals at the milky white stage of the crop controls the
pests effectively.
• A reduvid bug (reduvidae spp) is predatory on this ear head bug.