The introduction of ENVIRONMENTAL LEARNING IN THE CURRICULUM 36 2. Introduction 38 2. What are resources (media)? 39 2.4. Why are Groups of resources used? 40 2.4. Groups of resources and their use in environmental education 40 2.
The introduction of ENVIRONMENTAL LEARNING IN THE CURRICULUM 36 2. Introduction 38 2. What are resources (media)? 39 2.4. Why are Groups of resources used? 40 2.4. Groups of resources and their use in environmental education 40 2.
The introduction of ENVIRONMENTAL LEARNING IN THE CURRICULUM 36 2. Introduction 38 2. What are resources (media)? 39 2.4. Why are Groups of resources used? 40 2.4. Groups of resources and their use in environmental education 40 2.
Printed and published by the University of South Africa Muckleneuk, Pretoria EDA304-6/1/20072009 97979937 3B2 PRS styl //: //: Study unit Page 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The concept ``environment'' 4 1.2.1 A dictionary definition 4 1.2.2 A holistic representation of the environment 4 1.3 Development of the concept ``environmental education'' 5 1.3.1 Development of the concept in different parts of the world 5 1.3.2 Development of the concept in South Africa: A case study 6 1.3.3 Inclusion of environmental education in formal education in South Africa 6 1.3.4 The concepts ``environmental studies'' and ``environmental education'' 6 1.4 Definitions of the concept ``environmental education'' 6 1.4.1 Values 7 1.4.2 Concepts in environmental education 11 1.4.3 Skills 14 1.4.4 Attitudinal or behavioural change 19 1.4.5 Decision making 21 1.4.6 The role of human needs in environmental education 21 1.5 Paradigms, philosophies and ideologies for environmental education 24 1.5.1 Dominant social paradigm versus new environment-oriented paradigm 25 1.5.2 Ecocentrism versus anthropocentrism 26 1.5.3 Technocentrism versus ecocentrism 26 1.5.4 Empirical versus hermeneutic versus critical sciences 28 1.6 Environmental literacy 31 1.7 Sustainable development and education for sustainability 33 1.8 Principles of environmental education 34 1.8.1 Introduction 34 1.8.2 Principles of the Tbilisi Conference and their implications for environmental education in South Africa 34 1.8.3 Conclusion 35 2 ENVIRONMENTAL LEARNING IN THE CURRICULUM 36 2.1 Introduction 36 2.2 The introduction of environmental learning in the curriculum 36 2.3 Methods, techniques and resources for environmental education 38 2.3.1 Introduction 38 2.3.2 What is a method? 39 (iii) EDA3046/1/20072009 Study unit Page 2.4 Resources for environmental educators 39 2.4.1 What are resources (media)? 39 2.4.2 Why are resources (media) used? 40 2.4.3 Groups of resources (media) and their use in environmental education 40 2.5 Environmental learning 42 2.6 Assessment in environmental education 42 3 INTRODUCTION TO BASIC ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES AND SOME ENVIRONMENTAL THEMES AND ISSUES BASIC ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 43 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 What is ecology? 44 3.3 Interaction between living organisms 44 3.4 Food chains and food webs 45 3.5 Energy 46 3.6 Ecological cycles 48 3.6.1 The carbon cycle 48 3.6.2 The nitrogen cycle 49 3.7 Population ecology 50 3.8 Environmental issues 51 3.8.1 Introduction 51 SOURCES USED IN THE COMPILATION OF THIS WORKBOOK 56 (iv) /1, / /1, / - /:1/ / :-/./ - /:1/ / :-/./ 1./ 1./ a LEARNING OUTCOMES After working through this study unit, you should be able to . evaluate and explain the term ``environmental education'' . explain the origin and attributes of environmental education in South Africa . define, analyse and critically evaluate environmental education in South Africa . describe the events that led to the recognition of environmental education in formal education in South Africa . describe and give examples of some important facets of environmental education, such as values, attitudes and environmental concepts . analyse various philosophies, paradigms and ideologies relating to environmental education and give your views in this regard . define the concept ``environmental literacy'' and make a list of criteria that can be used to assess whether or not a person is environmentally literate . explain the concept ``sustainable development'' . list 12 principles of environmental education . explain the meaning of these principles in a Southern African context . give environment-related examples to which these principles apply . identify the central meaning of each principle and apply it to a specific situation /:1/ /:1/ ``Greenies'', a hobby, an enjoyable relaxation during adventure camps, ecology, nature conservation, outdoor education and environmental studies these are all ideas which people sometimes attach to environmental education. But if this is not environmental education, what then is it? What is its role? Can we change people's attitudes towards the environment in any way? We will attempt to put the concept ``environmental education'' into perspective in this study unit. One way of emphasising the role of conservation in terms of natural resources is through the metaphor of a spaceship: Imagine the earth as a spaceship whose inhabitants, or passengers, have to survive in space for a long period of time. These people will have no contact with their home base during this time. What effect will this have on them? 1 EDA304-6/1 D ACTIVITY 1 What do the people in the spaceship need to survive in space for a long period of time? In terms of food supplies? In terms of their social lives? These supplies are like the earth's resources (eg water, oxygen, plant life, coal and gold). Think about these questions: How will life in space affect these people's personal environment? Does the spaceship have sufficient supplies for them? The people on the spaceship will have to use their supplies carefully. Do you see that this metaphor shows that people have to take great care of their environment? If we do not care for our environment, we may end up with a situation where all the resources have been used up and cannot be replaced as could happen in a spaceship. Icke (in Schreuder sa:4) tries to portray the role of human beings on earth by means of the following analogy: Planet Earth is 4,600 million years old. If we condense this inconceivable time span into an understandable concept, we can liken the Earth to a person of 46 years of age. Nothing is known about the first seven years of this person's life, and whilst only scattered information exists about the middle span, we know that only at the age of 42 did the Earth begin to flower. Dinosaurs and the great reptiles did not appear until a year ago when the planet was 45. Mammals arrived only eight months ago and in the middle of last week man-like apes evolved into ape-like men, and at the weekend the last ice age enveloped the earth. Modern man has been around for four hours. During the last hour Man discovered agriculture. The industrial revolution began a minute ago and during those 60 seconds of biological time man has made a rubbish tip of paradise. He has multiplied his numbers to plague proportions, caused the extinction of 500 species of animals, ransacked the Planet for fuels and now stands like a brutish infant, 2 gloating over his meteoric rise to ascendancy, on the brink of war to end all wars and of effectively destroying this oasis of life in the solar system. D ACTIVITY 2 (1) What is Icke trying to tell us in the first three paragraphs? (2) Do Icke's ideas change the way you think about the earth as you knowit and if so, why? (3) Think about the last paragraph. How does it change your views about the importance of the role that human beings play in the environment? Remember: One year in this person's life is like 100 million years in the life of the earth. So we human beings have been on earth for a very short period of time. Think about the effect human beings can or will have on the environment in the future. After answering these questions, you may realise that human beings have a greater role to play in environmental conservation than we generally realise. Indeed, if we look at Icke's model, it is clear that the earth survived very well without people for a very long period of time. People have become a threat to the earth in the short time they have existed. This tells us that human activities play a very important role in the relationship between human beings and the environment we should, therefore, study the relationship continually. We also need education about how to act positively in our relationship with the environment so that we can conserve our environment. D ACTIVITY 3 Think about your relationship with the environment today. Are you more aware of the environment than you were ten years ago? 3 EDA304-6/1 Consider the following questions: What is your contribution to the environment? How did you become more aware of environmental issues and what role do you play in the environment? Nowadays, educators are paying far more attention to environmental issues than they did in the past. Written and visual media are used to present environmental education programmes. People today probably know a great deal more about environmental issues than they did ten years ago. The numbers of learners at school level are increasing steadily. It is, therefore, important that educators understand the principles of environmental education. In this study unit, we will look at the meaning of the term ``environmental education''. In order to understand it, however, you first need to understand the term ``environment''. As we explain the terms, we will introduce you to philosophies on environmental education and indicate how environmental education can be included in formal education. . ./ o/ :-/ . ./ o/ :-/ Various authors have written about the concept ``environment''. They do not, however, all define the concept in the same way. An author's definition of the environment usually depends on his or her point of view. We are going to examine a few of these definitions so that you can see how one author emphasises certain things, while another emphasises others. 1.2.1 A dictionary definition Chamber's Etymological Dictionary (1939:156) described the environment long ago as a surrounding. D ACTIVITY 4 This description refers to a circle or ring. What do you think this circle or ring includes? What does your personal environment include? 1.2.2 A holistic representation of the environment Various authors have made holistic representations of the environment. The following diagram is a model of such a representation: 4 DIAGRAM 1 Sustainable existence (Adapted from O'Donoghue 1994:19) D ACTIVITY 5 Indicate which of the following are environmental elements and which are not: dams, savannas, tarred roads, schools, mines, art festivals, cultivated fields, rock formations and human fellowship. Remember to consider environments other than your own. You should have highlighted each of the elements listed above, for it should be clear by now that the environment is more than just nature. Everything around us is part of our environment. We must decide how important it is for us to conserve it and whether we want to conserve it. Even the last item on the list (human fellowship) forms a part of our human (personal) environment. The space created by personalities influences perceptions, attitudes and behaviour in the environment. Aggression, love, helpfulness, et cetera influence people's attitudes towards the environment and others. According to diagram 1, we can add politically-related issues, economic issues, and more to the list above. Remember: The environment is not just nature! 2/o-/ // o/ :-/./ 1./ 2/o-/ // o/ :-/./ 1./ 1.3.1 Development of the concept in different parts of the world Study sections 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5 in chapter 2 of your textbook for information on this section. 5 EDA304-6/1 1.3.2 Development of the concept in South Africa: A case study Study sections 2.7 and 2.8 in chapter 2 of your textbook for information on this section. D ACTIVITY 6 Find other examples of environmental projects and list at least three of them. Consult environmental journals for this activity. 1.3.3 Inclusion of environmental education in formal education in South Africa Study section 2.8 in chapter 2 of your textbook for information on this section. 1.3.4 The concepts ``environmental studies'' and ``environmental education'' The concepts ``environmental education'' and ``environmental studies'' are often (and incorrectly) used interchangeably. The easiest way to explain the differences between the two concepts is to regard environmental studies as studies ABOUT the environment and environmental education as education FOR the environment. In environmental studies, aspects of the environment such as geography, biology, nature conservation, physics, chemistry, and so on are studied as fields of study. Environmental education, however, deals with education, that is, creating positive attitudes towards the environment. It is concerned with actions taken or skills learned to prevent environmental problems. It cannot, however, be separated from environmental studies, because it is essential to influence individual's attitudes towards the environment. Now study the attempts to define the concept ``environmental education''. - - 2/: // o/ :-/./ 1./ 2/: // o/ :-/./ 1./ There are different views on how environmental education ought to be defined. We quote only three definitions. Decide for yourself which definition you find most acceptable or whether you agree with any of them at all. (a) Stapp (1969:3031) Environmental education is aimed at producing a citizenry that is knowledgeable concerning the biophysical environment and its associated problems, aware of how to help solve these problems, and motivated to work toward their solution. (b) Brennan (1970:2) Environmental education is that education which develops in man a 6 recognition of his responsibility to maintain the environment in a manner fit for life and fit for living an environment of beauty and bounty, in which man lives in harmony. The first part of environmental education involves development of attitudes a conservation ethic. (c) IUCN (1972) It seems as though the majority of environmental educators who do accept a definition, agree with the definition of the International Union for the Conservation of Natural Resources (IUCN 1972). This definition reads as follows: Environmental education is a process during which values are discovered and concepts explained in order to develop skills and attitudes pertaining to an appreciation of the relationship between man, his culture and his biophysical environment. Environmental education also includes the practice of decision-making and the formulation of a personal code of conduct on matters affecting the quality of the environment. D ACTIVITY 7 Read these definitions carefully and indicate six key concepts which environmental educationists should study. These are probably not the only concepts that relate to environmental education, but they give you a fair idea of the most important ones. One such concept is skills. We shall now discuss some of the key concepts in the IUCN definition, as well as the concepts ``human needs'', ``environmental literacy'' and ``sustainability''. 1.4.1 Values D ACTIVITY 8 Which of the following statements, in your opinion, represent your community's values as regards the environment? (1) People who put their own welfare first should not affect the satisfaction of everybody's needs. (2) Exhaustible resources must be recycled unless alternative resources can replace them. (3) Military budgets must be cut in favour of environmental security and sustainable development. (4) Nature reserves must be used for farming activities. Write down your chosen responses. How would you react if some people were to disagree with you? Are your values different to those of others? Some people say that values give rise to observable 7 EDA304-6/1 behaviour, while others believe that values are synthetic, metamorphic and symbolic pictures of our world. Here are some other views of values: Values are . internalised standards and criteria that can be used to direct and develop actions, maintain attitudes and take moral decisions. . highly integrated sets of attitudes. . a collection of views on abstract things, often classified as good or bad, and indicating preferred behavioural norms and standards. . what an individual would like to be true. . broad motivating factors in people's lives. Values may also be classified according to the following categories: . intrinsic, unchanging values necessary for human existence, universal values (eg responsible behaviour towards the environment) . inferred, relative, instrumental, special, extrinsic, ephemeral values . universal values . specific values . group values . personal values D ACTIVITY 9 Give an example related to the environment for each of these types of values. This should make you realise that people have different values even as regards environmental issues. The following ethical, ecological and social environmental rules may serve as guidelines for possible universal values: (a) Ethical rules We need to consider why environmental problems exist. The heart of the matter is that there are usually some people whose harmful actions spoil other people's lives. Pieters (1993:12) gives the following list of ethical rules: . We should always behave towards the environment in a way that satisfies our own needs. . We should always behave towards the environment in a way that satisfies the needs of other people. . In our treatment of the environment, we should always consider the needs of future generations. . We should always treat the environment in a way that the needs of species other than humans are satisfied. . Adequate nutrition, hygiene, a safe habitat, shelter and medical care are basic requirements for need satisfaction. . Satisfaction of the needs of other species, populations and ecosystems should not interfere with the satisfaction of basic human needs. 8 D ACTIVITY 10 Could you live with these ethical rules? Give a reason for your answer. Name those ethical rules with which you do not agree. There is nothing wrong with disagreeing with these ethical rules. It could lead to an interesting debate. (b) Ecological rules A combination of ethical rules and knowledge of the characteristics of the environment could help us to work out a set of ecological rules, such as the following (Pieters 1993:1011): . The use of exhaustible resources should be stopped entirely. . We should not harvest more agricultural products and other products from an ecosystem than the ecosystem can produce. . We should not tax ecosystems that process waste products naturally (eg the sea) beyond their capacity. . The production of waste products that are harmful to life, such as nuclear waste, should be prohibited. . Industrial activities should not be permitted in places where they interfere with human needs. If a factory is erected next to an informal settlement, for example, it will cause pollution that will be harmful to the people in the settlement. . We should conserve as many kinds of organisms as possible, but not artificially (eg by artificially saving them from extinction). . We should manage technological systems carefully and only replace them if we find another system that is more economical in terms of materials, energy and space. When, for examples, a new coal mine is planned, measures to limit pollution should be planned simultaneously. . Ecosystems should be continuously monitored. . Population growth should be limited. D ACTIVITY 11 Write down a few examples of ecological rules that could help to improve your community's environment. (c) Social rules Pieters (1993:11) gives some social rules that represent a combination of political, economic, cultural and ecological considerations. The following are examples of these rules: . Economic policy should give guidelines for preserving the quality of the environment. (What role can funding play in the improvement of the environment?) . The per capita consumption of resources should be reduced, that is, each individual should use less of the scarce resources. 9 EDA304-6/1 . Prices should reflect ecological realities. In other words, products that are unfriendly to the environment should be more expensive than those that are more environmentally friendly. . The use of private motor transport in urban areas should be restricted. . Cars should be designed to use less energy. . People should not buy products in disposable packaging. . People should not dump garbage in vacant areas. . People should be forbidden to have more than two children per family. D ACTIVITY 12 Write down a few examples of how social rules could help to improve your community's environment. How do your values fit in with these rules? We must recognise that not all people's personal rules and values will be in line with these rules. We must, therefore, realise that not all rules will apply to everybody; rather, we should all develop a set of rules by which we live and which will be beneficial to the environment. The following points about values may help to clear up problems in this regard: Values and culture Le Roux and Schreuder (1988:75) maintain that different cultural groups have different environmental values. In their study of different views of nature and nature conservation, they conclude that ``the identification of perceptions about nature and wildlife are clearly influenced by value systems associated with ethnic, cultural and socio-economic background''. From this observation, we can conclude that if environmental education is to influence people's values as regards the environment, we need to research the social, economic, cultural and political factors that affect communities. One could also argue that a more positive approach to the environment will often develop once a community discovers for itself how important its environment is. Ruckleshaus (1989:116) observes: ``The maintenance of a liveable global environment depends on the sustainable development of the entire human family.'' This means that the poor, for example, cannot live according to the standards of the rich and that the rich will sometimes have to help the poor for the sake of their own survival. In the interests of the environmental cause, therefore, we need to pay attention to the delicate balance between the roles of individuals and communities. How to transmit values Indirectly, the creation of circumstances that promote good values implies that when we plan a teaching strategy or even a teaching method, we have to include content that will promote positive values. Iozzi (1989:7) agrees with this view: ``Various types of teaching methods seem to be effective in improving 10 environmental attitudes and values.'' This statement is based on the fact that values, like attitudes, have to do with feelings and are influenced by education. Teaching of specific values can, however, be seen as indoctrination. Learners can be taught techniques for value clarification so that they will become aware of the many different kinds of values. Educators could, for example, get their learners to debate the desirability of the steel plant at Saldanha Bay or mining close to the Blesbokspruit. Values and decision making Experience in relation to the environment can play a major role in the making of either positive or negative environmental decisions. Part of the task of environmental educators is to provide decision makers at all levels with suitable experiences regarding environmental matters. Decision makers such as managers of firms and government officials can help greatly to establish environmental education in the non-formal sector. Decisions on how to promote environmental education are crucial for the attainment of environmental education goals. More important though are the day-to-day decisions of ordinary officials (sometimes even more important than high-level decisions), as these decisions may contribute to establishing positive values towards the environment. One's personal value system will influence one's behaviour towards the environment. D ACTIVITY 13 Mention some teaching strategies that you or an environmental educator could use to teach positive environmental values. Use your field of interest or the learning area/subject that you teach as the basis for your answer. 1.4.2 Concepts in environmental education Marsh (1994:180) defines concepts as a group of specific things with certain characteristics in common. Slabbert (1988:120) defines concepts as the classification of facts into categories so that the interrelationships between these categories can help us make general statements. D ACTIVITY 14 After reading these two definitions, compile a list of concepts which relate to the environment. We have included some examples of concepts below and we suggest that you compare your answer with the one provided. Educators should understand what concept formation is all about, since concepts are important for communication and help to make the complex world in which we 11 EDA304-6/1 live more meaningful. Concepts also promote learners' cognitive development and use of language. The following five steps may be followed when teaching concepts: (1) Introduce the concept. (2) Define the concept. (3) Identify distinctive features. (4) Provide examples. (5) Practise the recognition and utilisation of the concept. Some concepts are very complex. In a case where a concept is complex, first teach some sub-concepts before teaching the concept itself. D ACTIVITY 15 Compare your list of concepts with the following concepts that the Ontario Ministry of Education (Smith 1992) considers necessary for environmental literacy. Which of these concepts did you leave out? Note how these concepts relate to the characteristics of concepts given above. Concept 1 The earth as a closed system: the concept ``ecosystem'' . factors: sunlight, rain, temperature, wind, energy, soil, plants, animals and fungi . everything interrelates with everything else . renewable and non-renewable resources The factors given here correspond with the major components of the environment (see section 1.2.2 of this study unit). Concept 2 Human interaction with the environment; every action (however small) has an effect on the environment . personal awareness of impact . effect of consumer and market influences (economics) . energy needed to maintain people's current standards of living Concept 3 Cycles . natural cycles: water, minerals, life-death, growth-decomposition, carbon- oxygen, et cetera . relationship between cycles . circulation of consumer products, manufacturing, et cetera 12 . competition, adaptation and succession as natural relations . energy flow is no longer cyclic once the energy has been lost (see study unit 3 for more information about ecological concepts) Concept 4 Management of the environment and resources for long-term sustainability . effective use of resources: plants and animals, domesticated and wild . population control and carrying capacity . relationship between predator and prey . farming and wildlife conservation as examples of simplified ecosystems or shortened food chains . high productivity, modern technology and economic development that have to harmonise with a healthy environment How do the sub-concepts of this concept (eg high productivity) relate to sustainability? Concept 5 Interaction of economics, science (biology, chemistry, physics) and politics in environmental issues: integration of learning about our world. Concept 6 Habitat . importance of food, water, shelter, space for personal, human and animal survival . availability of food cannot be taken for granted: determine the source of each food type . availability of water cannot be taken for granted: determine the source(s) of the water supply . garbage and sewage form spontaneously; trace their course . a healthy, beautiful environment is a human need Consider how well your environment meets all these requirements. How polluted is it? Concept 7 Food webs and food chains . principle of interdependence; effect of biological spread of contamination (eg pesticides) Concept 8 Complexity of decision making in terms of environmental issues 13 EDA304-6/1 . shortage of exact information and knowledge on how the world functions . invisibility of many of the things that cause damage (eg water pollution) . long-term and/or unintentional effects (see section 1.4.5 of this study unit for more information) Concept 9 Hope: natural rehabilitation and regeneration of environmental damage . the environment shows resistance but has limitations . individuals can make a difference: success stories In South Africa, the mountain zebra, bontebuck, marsh rose, rhinoceros and other creatures have been saved from extinction, but many other species have become extinct. Concept 10 Personal commitment to care for and to respect the environment . economising, re-using, recycling, rethinking as a way of life . environmental ethics in your home and workplace . reduce the use of substances that are harmful to the environment: chemicals, insecticides, insect repellents, CFCs, domestic products, indigenous firewood, coal . respect all living things Consider your own role in the environment. Example of how a concept can be taught: It has often been shown that people do not understand concept 3 (cycles) too well. Consider what we said at the beginning of this section: it might help if you first discussed sub-concepts such as the circulation of consumer products, competition, adaptation and succession, and energy flow. This would help to explain the complex concept of cycles. Once this has been grasped, you could expand the concept to include the interrelationship between cycles. From your study of these ten concepts you may have gathered that concepts contain important generalisations about ecology, cycles and energy about the environment. They therefore indicate what you have to know about the environment. 1.4.3 Skills A major distinction can be made between mental (intellectual, cognitive) skills (Puhl 1990:422) and physical skills (Montague 1987:7). There are also a number of other skills that we will discuss briefly. 14 (a) Physical skills Physical skills have to do with psychomotor abilities. Montague (1987:7) refers to ``simple motor skills like typing or more complex skills like talking and writing''. Environmental educators must be able to teach learners certain motor skills (eg techniques for making a compost heap) so that they can apply them in practice. Stapp (in Hawkins & Vinton 1973:106) observes: ``Learning takes place through the active behaviour of the student. It is what he does that he learns, not what the teacher does.'' Clearly, learning from experience is important in environmental education. (b) Cognitive skills A leading scientist in the field of cognitive skills, De Bono (1976:33), defines thought as the operating skill through which intelligence acts on experience. Puhl (1990:422) draws the important conclusion that a person who uses cognitive skills to solve problems will not simply accept the first solution that comes to mind as the correct one, but will apply energy to justify the choice of that solution. D ACTIVITY 16 List some examples of where cognitive skills have been used to solve environmental problems in South Africa. Look for good examples in magazines, newspapers or television programmes. We will now look at some of the other skills that need to be mastered: (c) Communication skills Some of the important communication skills that need to be mastered include . conveying ideas and views on the environment via various media (see study unit 2 for examples of activities) . presenting clear and succinct solutions to environmental problems . investigating environmental issues and communicating the results with relevant stakeholders . presenting information orally and in writing (ie via diagrams, graphs and sketches) Please note that many of these skills can be learnt in language and communication courses and the learning area: Language. 15 EDA304-6/1 (d) Numeracy skills Some of the important numeracy skills that need to be mastered include . collecting, classifying and analysing data . interpreting statistics (eg on the weather) These techniques are typically taught in the Natural Sciences learning area. (e) Study skills Some of the important study skills that need to be mastered include . searching for, analysing, interpreting and evaluating information about the environment from different sources . planning a project (eg landscaping part of the school grounds) . studying environmental issues from different angles These skills can be learnt in various disciplines. (f) Problem-solving skills Some of the important problem-solving skills that need to be mastered include . identifying the causes and results of environmental problems . forming considered opinions and making balanced judgments on environmental issues . developing divergent thinking . considering and predicting the effects (ecological, social, political, economic, etc) of certain actions relating to the environment . selecting, designing and implementing appropriate actions relating to the environment . evaluating, clarifying and adapting values in the light of fresh information . taking decisions on actions relevant to environmental issues . evaluating action taken in terms of how it affects the attainment and/or preservation of a dynamic balance between quality of life and quality of environment These skills can be learnt in various disciplines. 16 (g) Personal and social skills Some of the important personal and social skills that need to be mastered include the ability to . cooperate with others (eg group projects) to improve the environment . take individual and group responsibility for the environment . use all the different sense organs for the study of all kinds of environments . identify, analyse and make value judgments about the environment . develop the political qualities needed for active citizenship (eg to demonstrate peacefully, organise petitions and delegations, write letters to the press) . promote responsible individual and collective behaviour towards the local community, the world community and the biophysical environment . bring about and accept change These skills relate to the affective (emotional) domain. (h) Information and technical skills Some of the important information and technical skills that need to be mastered include . collecting data and feeding the data into a data base (eg recording details of all birds in the school grounds) . simulating or duplicating a study in which information technology is used Learners may learn these skills in learning areas such as Natural Sciences, Social Sciences and Mathematics. 17 EDA304-6/1 D ACTIVITY 17 Which skills are essential for the conditions where you will be doing environmental education? In the formal education system, educators should possess certain skills in order to make learners aware of the importance of the environment. The following are examples of skills and knowledge that an environmental educator should possess (adapted from Opie 1, Department of Education, Queensland 1993:11): Environmental educators should be able to . select material relating to the environment from a curriculum, programme, learning area or subject . identify basic environmental problems and motivate people to explore and solve them . cultivate individual awareness of the environment . share the learners' learning process . encourage critical thinking . deal with groups in an outdoor environmental situation . integrate different learning areas/subjects . cultivate positive values and attitudes . bring about a supportive and democratic learning process in the classroom or learning situation D ACTIVITY 18 Assess yourself. How many of these skills do you possess. Write down examples of occasions when you used these skills to teach learners about the environment. Consider the way in which you teach or deal with groups in the course of environmental education programmes. 18 1.4.4 Attitudinal or behavioural change It is commonly accepted that environmental education is meant to change people's attitudes and behaviour towards the environment (Goals of environmental education are discussed in study unit II.) Swanepoel (1986:130) studied different definitions of attitudes and arrived at the following conclusions: . Attitudes have a cognitive (knowledge), volitional (the will) and an affective (emotion) component. . Attitudes can be general or specific. . Attitudes vary in intensity or depth depending on the depth or intensity of the person's convictions. . Attitudes may be individual or belong to a group. . Attitudes are largely subconscious. . Attitudes create a state of tension or readiness to act. . Attitudes play a role in a person's mental processes or thoughts. . Attitudes develop partly from personal experience and thought, and partly from education and influence. D ACTIVITY 19 What do these statements tell you about the environment? Describe in one or two sentences what the implications of these statements could be for your work situation. Here are some general remarks about these statements: . These statements indicate the importance of attitudes when one has to convince an individual or group that a cause is worthwhile. If you wanted to persuade a group not to erect a factory in a certain locality, for example, you would need to have a very positive personal attitude towards that environment. . It would appear that attitudes are abstract and that, like values, they are difficult to assess. One cannot see an attitude and it is difficult to describe a positive attitude towards, say, soil conservation. . Knowledge and attitudes relate to behaviour. It is more important what people do in their environment than what they feel or believe. People may, for example, recognise the danger of destroying the ozone layer and protest against the use of substances that destroy it, yet continue to use sprays containing these destructive substances. . In the last statement, Swanepoel admits that attitudes are influenced by education to a certain extent (probably by teaching). Young people's attitudes to the environment may, therefore, be indirectly influenced by good education. There is a positive correlation between attitudes and interest. By teaching the history of an area to learners in an interesting way, one may cultivate their interest in history and give them a positive attitude towards history as a school subject. In 19 EDA304-6/1 this way, educators can make a real contribution by cultivating interest in a particular environment and thus exert a positive influence on learners' attitudes towards that environment. Although it is difficult to evaluate attitudinal change, there are some tests that determine (measure) people's attitudes. According to Brooks (1978:41), the value of measuring attitudes is that it enables one to predict and control human behaviour. This means that one can try to predict and control people's behaviour on the basis of their attitudes towards the environment and so prevent continued damage to the environment. Anti-behaviourists and anti-positivists object to the so-called measurement and prediction of behaviour. Nowadays, case studies are used more frequently to determine people's attitudes towards various environmental problems. All these aspects of attitude formation and the influence of attitudes on human behaviour are extremely important to educators, since virtually all their actions are aimed at changing attitudes towards the environment. Agnihotri (in Ruhela 1986:41) suggests a way to change attitudes: ``Both attitude and behaviour, being the functional aspects of one's personality, are apt to be greatly influenced by education.'' Although attitudes can be changed through formal education, environmental educators in the non-formal sector have just as important role to play as educators in the formal education sector. They sometimes act as role models and can do much to instil a positive attitude towards the environment. Traditional thinking has been that making an individual more knowledgeable about the environment will change his or her behaviour. Research, however, does not bear out the validity of this thinking. Being better informed about the environment does not necessarily make people more favourable towards the environment. Pettus (1976), however, contends that some basic knowledge of the environment is needed to promote the development of desirable attitudes and to enable people to make sound environmental decisions. In a study to determine the effect of an outdoor experience on self-concept, knowledge and attitude towards the environment, Gillett, Thomas, Skok and McLaughlin (1991) found that outdoor experiences result in changes in knowledge, but not necessarily changes in attitude. This is not, however, consistent with the findings of other researchers (eg Gifford, Hay & Boros 1982). Further research in this field is, therefore, necessary. Iozzi (1989:5) sums up the difficulty of changing attitudes: ``The relationship between environmental knowledge and positive attitudes is unclear.'' Iozzi is probably saying that someone can know a lot about the environment, but still not have a positive attitude towards it. So a person who has done environmental studies has not necessarily received environmental education. 20 Even though attitudes are complex (especially because they are subconscious), strategies devised for environmental education programmes must always strive to change attitudes. When trying to change attitudes, one must always consider the importance of communicating knowledge and information. 1.4.5 Decision making Decisions that affect environmental education whether in a formal education setting or a less formal one are taken at the following levels: . Government level: Documents are published (eg the White Paper on Environmental Education [South Africa 1989]) and laws are passed (eg on environmental issues such as the conservation of marshlands) (Vosloo 1987:24). . Education Department level: A decision was made, for example, to include environmental education in the school curriculum (eg the Environmental Policy Initiative). . Management level: Decisions are made in the private sector and trade unions and the general public influence decisions. D ACTIVITY 20 How can decisions made by organisations benefit the environment? Give some examples. Look for good examples in magazines, newspapers or television programmes. You should note the role of evaluation in decision making. Decisions relating to actions that affect the environment are often determined by the outcome of evaluation exercises (eg municipal environmental studies). Some issues, such as dune mining in KwaZulu-Natal, are controversial and can cause great uproar (ie has advantages and disadvantages for all parties concerned) (Cooper 1989:118 121; Goedhals 1989:176177). In these cases, careful evaluation and correct decision making are vitally important. Environmentally-sensitive people will probably make the best decisions. 1.4.6 The role of human needs in environmental education Humans have different needs and the satisfaction of these needs may have an enormous impact on the environment. D ACTIVITY 21 Identify your needs and try to determine those of a colleague. Compare those needs you listed with the needs that will now be discussed. 21 EDA304-6/1 This discussion does not necessarily include all possible needs, so you will possibly want to add other needs. Try to predict what impact the satisfaction of each of these needs will have on the environment. (a) Physiological needs From birth, humans try to satisfy physiological needs such as hunger and thirst. Think about how a baby cries when he or she is hungry. Humans utilise the environment in various ways to satisfy their needs. Farming activities, for instance, are aimed at providing humans with food, but these activities have a definite impact on the environment. D ACTIVITY 22 What other types of activities will influence the environment? (b) Need for self-preservation and security Apart from physical security, humans nowadays also focus on health. Shelter, whether in a squatter camp or in an upmarket neighbourhood, serves as a means to protect oneself from the assaults of nature and other humans. This need also relates to the aim of some individuals to conserve plants, animals, soil and natural resources. The satisfaction of these needs may, as already indicated, have a considerable impact on the environment. D ACTIVITY 23 How does the need for self-preservation and security influence the environment? (c) The need for self-respect, pride and praise Humans have a tendency to see themselves as more important than others and this may cause them to do things for their own gain. In making others aware of their presence, they bolster their self-image and pride in themselves. Activities may also be directed towards achieving prestige and self-esteem. Think about why you registered for this module. Do they not relate to pride and self-respect? It is important for environmental educators to keep these needs in mind when dealing with people. D ACTIVITY 24 People generally participate in projects so that they can feel good about themselves and so that they can make a contribution to their community. How 22 would you use these needs to motivate a group of young people to keep a recreation area clean? (d) The need for material wealth and the aesthetic Material wealth relates to the need for safety as well as to ego needs. Members of a community usually have a high regard for people who are wealthy. Suppose, for instance, that decisions have to be made about the mining of minerals purely for financial reasons. This could compete with the aesthetic that which is beautiful to people. People, however, have different aesthetic needs some like beautiful paintings, while others place a high premium on the beauty of nature. D ACTIVITY 25 What are your personal aesthetic needs? Would the satisfaction of these needs compete with your need for material wealth? (e) Need for affection, love and the emotional Love and affection can be coupled with the need for security, because people will protect their relatives and friends out of love. Demographic circumstances also play a role a teenager may be more concerned about a first love than about biodiversity. Organisations that collect money, say for conservation purposes or for a community fund, call on the emotional side of humans. Consider the strategies which are sometimes used to convince people to sign petitions. D ACTIVITY 26 How would you utilise the need for affection, love and the emotional in your profession? (f) Need for information People want to know what is happening around them irrespective of whether it is an environmental, political or financial issue. The new trend of ``transparency'' is related to this. The media are often used to provide information to people and the environmental educator also has an important role to play in this regard. D ACTIVITY 27 What information do you consider important enough to share with those around you? Why would you like to provide them with this information? 23 EDA304-6/1 (g) The need for entertainment and adventure People have different needs for entertainment some like to read, some find watching television more rewarding, while others like to relax in nature. Identify some entertainment needs of people you come into contact with. Most people have a desire for adventure, because it satisfies their curiosity. People usually like new experiences and ideas. Hikers, for example, visit new wilderness areas not just for the physical activity, but also for adventure. The need for the aesthetic also plays a role. D ACTIVITY 28 How would you, as an environmental educator, build adventure into your environmental education programmes? Name a number of activities. (h) Ideological needs Each person has his or her own opinions and views about matters, and these may concur or differ from those of others. A person should make allowances for differences in ideological needs and be sensitive about those differences. Consider the different opinions regarding the utilisation of resources. D ACTIVITY 29 What is your opinion about the culling of game? Does it concur or differ from the views of others? Which reasons may be given for this? .:.1,-: o//:o/: .1 1/,: : .:.1,-: o//:o/: .1 1/,: : :-/./ 1./ :-/./ 1./ This section should be read in close conjunction with section A (paragraphs 3A.1 3A.5) in chapter 3 of your textbook. In order to understand the different interpretations of the concept ``environmental education'', it is important to take note of the paradigms, philosophies and ideologies that are used in this field. There is no agreement, even amongst specialists, about what the terms ``paradigm'', ``philosophy'' and ``ideology'' actually mean. Sometimes the same concept is described as both a paradigm and a philosophy. Nevertheless, we are introducing you to some current paradigms, philosophies and ideologies in the field of environmental education. We do not classify these trends in this workbook, as it is better for you to form your own opinions. 24 1.5.1 Dominant social paradigm versus new environment-oriented paradigm Fien (1993:2325) uses the term ``paradigms'' and contrasts ``social paradigm'' and `'new environment-oriented paradigm'' as follows: TABLE 1 Contrasting values and beliefs of the dominant social and new environment-oriented paradigm Dominant social paradigm New environment-oriented paradigm 1 Low valuation on nature 1 Great emphasis on nature . uses nature to produce goods . human domination of nature . economic growth important (sometimes more important than environmental conservation) . worshipful love of nature . holistic relations between humans and nature . environmental conservation takes priority over economic growth 2 Restricted compassion for those near and dear 2 Universal passion for . exploitation of other species for human needs . lack of concern for other people . concern for this generation only . other species . other people . other generations 3 Risk acceptable to maximise wealth 3 Careful planning to avoid risk . science and technology a great boon to humans . swift development of nuclear power . emphasis on hard technology . de-emphasis on regulation: use of the market; individual responsibility for risk . science and technology not always good . halt to further development of nuclear power . development and use of soft technology . government regulation to protect nature and humans 4 No limits to growth 4 Limits to growth . no resource shortages . no problem with population . production and consumption . resource shortages . increased needs of an exploding population . conservation 5 Present society satisfactory 5 Completely new society needed . no serious damage to nature by humans . hierarchy and efficiency . emphasis on market . competition . complex and fast labels . emphasis on jobs for economic needs . serious damage by humans to nature and themselves . openness and participation . emphasis on public goods . cooperation . simple lifestyles . emphasis on worker satisfaction 6 Current politics satisfactory 6 New politics needed . determination by exports . emphasis on market control . opposition to direct action; use of normal channels . left-right party axis; argument over ownership of means of production . consultation and participation . emphasis on foresight and planning . willingness to use direct action . new party structure along a new axis (Adapted from Milbroth [1984:119]) D ACTIVITY 30 Compare the points provided in the table with your views. Compare, for example, 25 EDA304-6/1 your views on science and technology as mentioned in point 3. With which paradigm do you identify? Weigh up the elimination of power stations against the convenience of electricity. 1.5.2 Ecocentrism versus anthropocentrism Some authors divide environmental ideologies into two categories: ecocentric (nature is the focal point, humans are equal to all other forms of life) and anthropocentric (human beings are the focal point, the rulers or owners of nature). 1.5.3 Technocentrism versus ecocentrism Supporters of technocentrism want the status quo to remain, but feel that it should be regulated by planned political and economic structures. This ideology is subdivided into the Cornucopian and the Accommodative Management light green ideologies (see table 2). Technocentrism wants to combat environmental problems by developing technical apparatus, such as taller chimney stacks on factories. Ecocentrism, on the other hand, focuses on . redistribution of power, decentralisation and a federated economy . informal economics and social transactions . striving for participatory justice This ideology is subdivided into Communal Ecosocialism and the Gaia or Utopian dark green ideologies. Fien (1993:27) summarises the main features of these ideologies as follows: TABLE 2 A pattern of environmental ideologies Technocentric Ecocentrism Cornucupian Accommodative Ecosocialist Gaian/Utopian 1 Optimistic about human ability to improve the human lot and find a way out of any scientific, political and tech- nological problems 2 Believes that all economic growth is good, sets goals in advance and formulates policy and developmental decisions 1 Reformist belief that economic growth and resource exploitation can continue, provided (a) appropriate econo- mic adjustments are made via taxes, fees, etc (b) right to minimum level of environmental quali- ty is legislated (c) compensation arrangements are made to those who experience adverse environmental and/ or social affects 1 Does not believe in large-scale technology and its relationship with elitist expertise, central government control and anti- democratic institutions 2 Rejects materialism; believes that economic growth should cater for everybody's basic needs 26 3 Believes that all problems can be overcome given the will, insight and sufficient resources that can be obtained from economic growth and technological development 2 Acceptance of development appraisal techniques and decision- making arrangements to allow for wide discussion or genuine search for consensus among representative groups of interested parties 3 Believes in the intrinsic importance of nature for defining and sustaining humanity 4 Emphasises less is more beautiful in community identity, work and leisure 4 Confident that science and technology will provide a basis for economic growth and public health, and will solve environmental pro- blems 3 Provision of effective environmental manage- ment agencies at national and local levels 5 Believes in the rights of nature and the importance of co- evolution of natural and human systems 5 Believes in the cooperative ability of communities to establish self- reliant communi- ties based on sus- tainable resource utilisation and appropriate tech- nology 5 Suspicious of attempts to promote participation in social and environmental recognition and policy reviews 6 Believes that ecological (and other natural) laws should dictate human morality 6 Integration of the concepts of work and recreation through a process of personal and community devel- opment 7 Upholds bio-rights and the rights of threatened species and unique natural regions 7 Importance of participation in community affairs and guarantees of minority rights; sees participation as an ongoing educational and political function D ACTIVITY 31 Which of these paradigms or ideologies, in your opinion, prevail in your community? Are you happy with these paradigms? You could decide that a technocentric approach is best. If spray cans containing ozone, for example, were filled with other substances, it would solve the problem of ozone layer destruction. You might, however, feel that an ecosocialist approach is better, that is, that it would be better to change people's attitudes towards the environment. 27 EDA304-6/1 1.5.4 Empirical versus hermeneutic versus critical sciences Fien (1993:62) considers these sciences to be philosophies and summarises the characteristics of each. (a) Empirical sciences Empirical means to be based on experience; empiricism means to learn through experience, that is, experiential learning. Characteristics . Function in the experiential sphere. . Accept a positivist philosophy. . People get to know the world through observation. . People should critically evaluate the world and classify observations to discover common features and general laws in order to predict future events. Importance for human beings . Empirical sciences allow for technical checks and the control of people and society. Experts monitor things like health care, nature conservation and agriculture in communities. . There is great support for the empirical sciences, because they make it possible to manage environmental and societal problems. Related ideologies Empirical sciences relate to a conservative ideology. Conservative ideology takes the present structure and functioning of society as a given and tries to determine and manipulate its direction. Empirical sciences and environmental education Environmental educators who support the approach of the empirical sciences try to inform managers, professionals and youths about their own vision of the environment. The curricula and programmes compiled by these educators are meant to ``green'' society without changing its present structure and functioning. The actions of supporters of the empirical sciences are based mainly on empirical and technological knowledge of the environment and environmental education. One could call their approach education for environmental management and control. Some people describe the empirical scientists' environmental education as education about the environment. 28 (b) Hermeneutic sciences Hermeneutic relates to explanation and interpretation. Characteristics . Focuses on individuals in society, their actions and the implications of those actions. . Want to appreciate people and what they do. Importance for human beings Hermeneutic sciences promote mutual understanding and interpersonal accommodation. These sciences enrich society by making people aware of one another, the environment and themselves. Related ideologies Hermeneutic sciences are conservative in that they are not necessarily associated with social change. Supporters of these sciences are liberal in the sense that they champion individual freedom, with due regard for the freedom of other people. Hermeneutic sciences and environmental education These sciences use environmental education to try and make people understand their behaviour in the environment. This helps people to evaluate and share the beliefs, attitudes and values that lead to a non-sustainable lifestyle. Some people regard the type of environmental education that supporters of the hermeneutic sciences provide as education for environmental awareness and interpretation. (c) Critical sciences Critical refers to, inter alia, value judgments of scientific and artistic views and human behaviour. Characteristics . Tries to explain the world in terms of the underlying structures, mechanisms and events that activate it. . Demands not just analysis of reality (empiricism) and explanation (hermeneutic understanding), but also theoretical explanations of actions. . Works out valid theories of the abstract world and uses these theories to explain actual events and experience. Importance for human beings The aim of the critical sciences is to free people from the restrictions or constraints imposed on them by ideologies. Self-determination and development of people's full potential requires knowledge not just empirical and hermeneutic knowledge, but also critical knowledge. The critical sciences try to show people 29 EDA304-6/1 30 ! ! ! how and why their society works in a particular way. This helps them to participate fully in changing it into the kind of society that they want. Related ideologies The critical sciences are basically radical. Critical scientists oppose the dominance of the empirical sciences in capitalist society, because the empirical sciences do nothing about the basic inequalities on which societies are based. Critical scientists also reject the hermeneutic sciences because they teach a false ideology of human self-determination. Critical sciences and environmental education Critical sciences want to use environmental education to empower people to become agents of social change and sustainable development. They want to enable people to shape the structures and mechanisms that regulate society's use of nature in such a way that a future democracy and sustainable society can come about. One could call this environmental education towards sustainability. Each of the three ideologies that we have discussed here has its supporters. D ACTIVITY 32 Reread the section on these ideologies. Try and decide which one you find most acceptable. Give reasons for your answer. Do not let one-sided statements influence you. We shall now describe two models that reflect the views of these three ideologies. DIAGRAM 2 A reflection model Reflection Empirical Critical sciences sciences Hermeneutic sciences (Adapted from Van Rensburg 1995) This model indicates that one should think about the meaning of the three ideologies in order to make decisions about environmental education. 31 EDA304-6/1 The next model indicates that the best characteristics of each ideology should be selected. Characteristics of all these ideologies are used in different situations. DIAGRAM 3 A selection model Empirical Critical sciences sciences Hermeneutic sciences D ACTIVITY 33 How do these two models compare with the opinion you formed in the previous activity? Write it down. Has it changed your ideas about ideologies in relation to environmental education? Is it possible to support just one ideology? Also study chapter 2 about philosophies and values, such as religious values. D ACTIVITY 34 Name three major religions in the world. Now compare their ideas about the environment. : :-/./ //:., : :-/./ //:., One of the aims of environmental education is to guide people towards responsible and active environmental literacy. Environmental literacy can be defined as follows: In essence, environmental literacy is the ability to observe and interpret the relative healthiness of environmental systems and to take appropriate action to maintain, restore or improve the state of these systems. D ACTIVITY 35 Would you consider yourself an environmentally literate person? Consider each of the points mentioned in the definition. The following activity is meant to establish (a) how you measured up to the criteria of environmental literacy before you started with this module and (b) how environmentally literate you are at the end of the module. This activity should only be used for your own purposes. Please do not submit it! Answer all the questions as honestly as possible Indicate your position on all the aspects using the following sliding scale (Circle your answers): (1) Very good (2) Good (3) Average (4) Bad (5) Very bad Statement My assessment 1 I am sensitive to environmental issues 1 2 3 4 5 2 I become involved in actions to improve my 1 2 3 4 5 environment 3 I can think critically about environmental 1 2 3 4 5 problems 4 I am able to organise information about the 1 2 3 4 5 environment logically 5 I can forecast environmental problems 1 2 3 4 5 6 I am able to see the relationship between the 1 2 3 4 5 causes and outcomes of environmental problems 7 I understand environmental concepts 1 2 3 4 5 8 I am involved at many levels in the search for 1 2 3 4 5 solutions for environmental problems 9 I understand the outcomes that community 1 2 3 4 5 decisions will have on the environment 10 I understand the outcomes that businesses 1 2 3 4 5 decisions will have on the environment 11 I understand the difference between renewable 1 2 3 4 5 and non-renewable sources 12 I am aware that everybody should save electricity 1 2 3 4 5 13 I recycle certain materials 1 2 3 4 5 14 There ought to be a harmony between conserva- 1 2 3 4 5 tion and development 15 Scientific knowledge is necessary to solve 1 2 3 4 5 environmental problems 32 16 I try to improve the appearance of my environ- 1 2 3 4 5 ment by planting natural plants 17 I am aware that certain insect poisons can be 1 2 3 4 5 dangerous for other organisms 18 I am aware that the emission of harmful gasses 1 2 3 4 5 can cause damage far away from its source 19 I believe that certain environmental problems can 1 2 3 4 5 be solved 20 My personal life is organised in such a way that 1 2 3 4 5 I can prevent damage to the environment Add the numbers you circled and write it down: ..................... You can repeat this exercise after you have completed this module and determine whether or not you have improved your environmental literacy. :/..// 1/o-/ .1 1./ : :/..// 1/o-/ .1 1./ : ::/..///, ::/..///, Read this section in conjunction with chapter 5 of your textbook. Sustainable development is a relatively new, confusing and controversial concept. If it is to become a reality on a local, national and global scale, new priorities must be set, new decisions made and new programmes and policies created (World Resources Institute 1993:1). D ACTIVITY 36 What is your view of sustainable development? Describe in a sentence or two what you understand by the term. Do not be afraid to voice your opinions. Did you know that 2005 to 2014 has been designated the official United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development? D ACTIVITY 37 How has your country reacted to the Decade for Sustainability? Name any activities that have been launched to promote the Decade for Sustainability in your country. One can argue that it is important for educators to focus on sustainability in the 33 EDA304-6/1 Decade for Sustainability and that they should know what education for sustainability entails. D ACTIVITY 38 In a paragraph, describe what education for sustainability means. How will you include sustainability during your lessons. Sustainability is not an easy concept to understand or implement. Sustainable development may, therefore, be thought of as a process requiring simultaneous progress in four dimensions: economic, human, environmental and technological. There are close links between these dimensions and actions in one area can reinforce goals in another. :o/: :-/./ 1./ :o/: :-/./ 1./ 1.8.1 Introduction In general terms, principles are conditions that something or someone has to meet. One of the great challenges of environmental education is the application of the principles of environmental education to a modern world with its special environmental problems. Damage to the ozone layer, for example, affects people all over the world. For this reason, there are continual attempts to apply certain principles in environmental programmes, both locally and internationally. It is important to lay down uniform principles for environmental education worldwide. The emphasis on conservation of the natural environment has also shifted to issues like the prevention of squatting, fair and responsible land ownership, combating poverty and the proper utilisation of resources. In these circumstances, it is important to take note of the principles according to which environmental education should be taught. 1.8.2 Principles of the Tbilisi Conference and their implications for environmental education in South Africa Two international conferences, the Tbilisi Conference and the Moscow Conference, laid down some important principles for environmental education. The Tbilisi Conference (UNESCO 1980:6970) produced 12 principles for environmental education, which were endorsed at the Moscow Conference (UNESCO 1988): Recommendations of the Tbilisi Conference (1977) on environmental education: Goals, objectives and guiding principles are to be considered as providing the basic framework for environmental education at all levels, inside or outside the school system (UNESCO 1988:6). 34 D ACTIVITY 39 In view of the statement made at the Moscow Conference, it is essential to examine these principles in a South African context. Study section 2.4 in chapter 2 of your textbook for a list of guiding principles for environmental education. Ask yourself the following questions: Do these principles apply to the South African context? Are there other principles that apply to South Africa? You have to find cases in South Africa, or in your local environment, where these principles apply. For example Principle 4 Environmental education should look at major environmental issues from a local, national and international perspective. Environmental educators at grass root levels will probably not play a major role in the international sphere. But what can educators do to inform people about the importance that decisions made in South Africa can have on the environment? More importantly, can environmental educators play a role at an international level? Think of recent events. Use newspapers, magazines and television programmes to find answers to these questions. This principle requires us to think widely about environmental issues and to apply common, worldwide strategies to solve some of the problems. Think of things such as the trade in ivory and rhinoceros horn and the greenhouse effect. 1.8.3 Conclusion We trust that this study unit has taught you more about the theory of environmental education and about how that theory relates to practice. We will concentrate on communication in the next study unit, that is, the practical planning and presentation of lessons, programmes and activities. We will also endeavour to help you understand your audiences or learners better. 35 EDA304-6/1 /1, / . /1, / . :-/./ /.:, // :-/./ /.:, // ::/- ::/- a LEARNING OUTCOMES After working through this study unit, you should be able to . explain how environmental learning came to be included in the curriculum . discuss how to teach environmental issues in the classroom . select suitable methods for teaching environmental issues . explain how learners react (learn) to the teaching of environmental issues . assess environmental learning in an appropriate way. . /:1/ . /:1/ As an environmental educator whether in formal education or in the private sector you will be expected to communicate with people. You could, for example, be invited by members of your community to give a talk on how to combat littering, or to give information to children on water as an essential resource. You could even be expected to start a petition, or to write letters to the press or to government officials. Irrespective of the form it may take, you will be required to communicate with others. There are currently more than 15 million learners in South African schools. It is, therefore, important that you are able to select the best ways of introducing environmental learning during your teaching. .. .. ./ /:1/ :-/./ /.:, // ./ /:1/ :-/./ /.:, // ::/- ::/- This section must be studied in conjunction with sections 2.7, 2.8, 5.1, 5.2 and 5.3 in chapters 2 and 5 of your textbook. After studying the appropriate sections in your textbook, you may have realised that it was not easy to get environmental education included in the curriculum. 36 D ACTIVITY 40 What is the exact status of environmental learning in the curriculum at the moment? Is it necessary for you to teach environmental issues in your learning area or subject? Why? The National Environmental Education Project (NEEP) came to an end in 2004 and the following needs to be highlighted about the project: (1) The aims of the Project The relationship between human rights, social justice, inclusivity and a healthy environment should be emphasised in all teaching. (2) Environmental learning in all the learning areas The Project established the role of environmental learning in all the learning areas up to grade 9. Natural Sciences Emphasises the importance of biodiversity in life support systems Social Sciences Emphasises learners' abilities to identify and analyse a range of environmental and developmental issues Life Orientation Emphasises environmental health, and creates links between human health and environmental health risks (eg water pollutions). Economic and Emphasises sustainable development and growth, Management Sciences and calls for approaches to reduce waste and protect resources Arts and Culture Considers the importance of cultural and natural heritage Technology Emphasises the importance of environmentally- friendly designs, and encourages learners to investigate technological impacts on the environment Languages Develops critical literacy skills needed to analyse and address environmental issues and risks Mathematics Develops numeracy skills needed to address environmental issues and risks (3) Educators' role in establishing environmental learning The Project found that educators lack the capacity to understand how environmental learning should be incorporated in their day-to-day teaching. In order to integrate environmental learning in the curriculum, the Project identified that Curriculum Support (CS) should be implemented to assist 37 EDA304-6/1 educators in developing skills in the following areas: (ie they should support educators in gaining these skills): . in-depth knowledge of curriculum issues and processes (particularly related to the requirements of the National Curriculum Statement [R-9]) Read chapter 5 in your textbook for more information on this.) . in-depth knowledge of environmental learning (including knowledge of environmental issues, and the different approaches to teaching and learning) (Read chapter 1 in the textbook and study unit 3 of this study guide for more information on this point.) . greater understanding of professional development approaches within a context of curriculum change (eg cluster-based approaches, spiral model) (Read section 5.3.1 in your textbook for more information on the spiral model.) . development of a range of management skills (eg planning, report writing, professional writing, programme management, budgeting, business planning) . improved job-related functions (eg interactions within departmental structures) . reflexive practice (ie improved ability to deal with uncertainty and change, and to evaluate and review programmes and activities through action research strategies) (Read section 8.3.5 for more information on action research.) Educators should, therefore, work on gaining skills such as those listed above and to create some environmental learning in their learning areas/ subjects. (4) Sustainability of environmental learning NEEP stated that much effort should go into strengthening interpretations and understanding of the environmental focus in different learning areas at provincial and national levels, and in the ongoing NCS (R-9) training programmes and follow-up educator development programmes and materials development initiatives in order for environmental learning to reach sustainable proportions. D ACTIVITY 41 How would you integrate environmental learning in your learning area? . . F//1: //: .1 :::: : :-/./ F//1: //: .1 :::: : :-/./ 1./ 1./ 2.3.1 Introduction Environmental educators should help people to explore and investigate subject matter relevant to the environment. In the broad context of environmental 38 education, the environmental educator could be any one of the following: an educator or lecturer, or a person in the non-formal education sector (game warden, municipal official, museum curator). Learners could be school children, members of associations, students, members of the army, farmers, et cetera. The subject matter of a lesson or training session could be anything that affects the environment, that is, anything that the environmental educator chooses in order to fulfil the stipulated aims and objectives of his or her lesson. The environmental educator should use the best possible methods and strategies to help learners to master the subject matter. 2.3.2 What is a method? A method may be described as a planned manner of doing something. A method is also a planned procedure to reach a particular goal. A teaching method, therefore, is any planned procedure used in the teaching situation. No single teaching method can be called the best, so one cannot prescribe any particular method. Environmental educators should choose a suitable method for themselves. We suggest that you use a combination of methods. Strydom (1981:112) recommends the following criteria for choosing methods: . The methods chosen should suit the personal talents, subject knowledge, experience, teaching style and interests of the instructor (environmental educator). . The selected methods should suit the learners' talents and learning styles as far as possible. . The methods selected should take account all the components of teaching design (aims, selection of subject matter, selection of resources, evaluation). . The chosen methods should concur with educational principles. . Methods should suit the content that has to be taught. These criteria show that methods are not as formal and prescriptive as some people think and that they can be adapted to different situations. D ACTIVITY 42 Read section 5.5 of your textbook and indicate how you would select a suitable method to teach an environmental issue. .- ::: : :-/./ 1./:: .- ::: : :-/./ 1./:: The effective use of resources (media) is extremely important in any teaching situation. Media are also used in environmental education. 2.4.1 What are resources (media)? Resources or teaching media are any person or object that is used for the purpose 39 EDA304-6/1 of communicating learning content in a didactic situation. Freysen, Biel, Potgieter, Van Graan and Van Niekerk (1989:3) prefer the term ``teaching medium'' to ``teaching aid'' and ``audiovisual medium'', because the term ``teaching medium'' refers to the integrated vehicles of subject matter and is not limited to the auditory and visual senses. Although a distinction is made between ``teaching media'' and ``teaching and learning media'', the same media used by the educator to communicate learning content are also used by learners to learn. There is a wide variety of teaching media. We shall only discuss groups of media, give a few examples of each group and indicate their use in environmental education. 2.4.2 Why are resources (media) used? Resources or media are as important to environmental educators as they are to other people involved in communication. They can be used to explain a particular point of view or to stress an important point. Resources are used to provide more impact and to contribute to people's understanding of the matter at hand. In addition, interest can be aroused and boredom could be prevented. Resources have to be used judiciously and not merely ``because they are there''! 2.4.3 Groups of resources (media) and their use in environmental education (a) Human resources A person communicates a message mainly by means of verbal communication and body language (Freysen et al 1989:67). Human resources include speech, body language and nonverbal communication. Human resources are used in environmental education and the way in which they are used is important. The environmental educator should not only be familiar with the subject matter but should also know how to communicate it effectively. Because environmental education is closely associated with the affective (feelings), the example set by the environmental educator is also relevant. The educator's manner, dress, appearance and body language (nonverbal communication) to emphasise certain aspects all play a part. The person's verbal communication of subject matter should be clear. Application relates to the activities discussed above. D ACTIVITY 43 Describe how you would use human resources in environmental education. Think of things like role play, stage productions, debates, et cetera. 40 (b) Objects and models Actual objects can be used to communicate subject matter (Freysen et al 1989:78) and include aquaria, terraria, vivaria, exhibitions, the diorama, sand bowls and interest tables. There are a variety of resources of this nature outside, including expeditions to zoos, nature reserves and museums, as well as involvement in community studies. When it is not possible to give learners access to the real thing, one could use models to represent the real objects. Objects are generally used in environmental education, especially for the natural component. Learners could, for example, observe real plants and animals to study the relationships between organisms. Models like a globe can be used to indicate the limited resources on earth. D ACTIVITY 44 Mention at least five objects which you are aware of and indicate how you would use them for environmental education. (c) Auditory resources Freysen et al (1989:91) describe auditory resources as non-personal media that communicate information to people's auditory sense organs by means of sound. Examples of auditory resources include radios, record players and tape recorders. In environmental education, one could use audio cassettes of bird sounds, running water or voices to create an atmosphere and teach related subject matter. One could also encourage learners to make their own recordings of, for example, interviews on environmental issues with members of the public. D ACTIVITY 45 Describe how you would use auditory resources for environmental education. (d) Visual resources Visual resources are directed to people's visual sense and include a host of things like printed media (books, magazines, pamphlets, newspapers), pictures (graphs, drawings, sketches, diagrams, posters, wall charts), boards (writing board, pin board), slides, strip films, episcopes, overhead projectors with transparencies and photographs. Try and think of possible uses of visual resources to promote an environment-oriented approach. (e) Audiovisual resources Freysen et al (1989:173) define audiovisual resources as media that present learners with information that has been pre-recorded in sound and images 41 EDA304-6/1 according to a fixed, planned programme. Examples are tape-slide programmes, videos, television and films. Good use can be made of environmental television programmes to promote environmental awareness. Tape-slide programmes can be used in any field or subject area and offer an opportunity to deal with relevant local environmental problems. Audiovisual presentations are always followed by a discussion or a debate to stimulate critical thought. (f) Programmable resources Although programmable resources are not widely used at present, they will become increasingly important in future and we need to take note of them. One possible use of these resources is to simulate the implications of human exploitation of the environment and illustrate the consequences. Advanced technological aids such as computers that can run programmes to simulate problems like the ozone layer and the greenhouse effect, are included in this group. Several sources for environmental educators are commercially available. . :-/./ /.:, . :-/./ /.:, D ACTIVITY 46 Read sections 5.7 to 5.12 in your textbook and indicate how you could introduce environmental learning through a specific learning strategy or approach. .: -::::-/ :-/./ 1./ .: -::::-/ :-/./ 1./ D ACTIVITY 47 Read section 5.13 in you textbook and indicate how you would assess a lesson with an environmental focus. After studying this study unit, we trust you will be able to plan and present a lesson with environmental learning as the focus. 42 /1, / /1, / /:1/ / /.: /,./ /:1/ / /.: /,./ o:o/: .1 :- :-/./ o:o/: .1 :- :-/./ //-: .1 ::: /.: /,./ //-: .1 ::: /.: /,./ o:o/: o:o/: a LEARNING OUTCOMES After working through this study unit, you should be able to . explain the concepts ``ecology'', ``food chains'' and ``food webs'' . explain the role of cycles in the environment . describe the following environmental issues and risks: biodiversity waste, littering and recycling the greenhouse effect and global warming ozone depletion pesticides overpopulation urbanisation depletion of natural resources health hazards desertification deforestation pollution poverty /:1/ /:1/ Although the word ``ecology'' is commonly used in everyday life, it is not always understood in context. To understand human beings and their interaction with the environment, one needs to know the basics of ecology. In this workbook, we only 43 EDA304-6/1 explain the basic principles to help you understand the complexity of environ- mental relationships. You can consult the many books on ecology for more information. Please read the sections on philosophies, ideologies and paradigms in study unit I. An obsession with the role of ecology in the environment can also give rise to negative perceptions in people. . //./ : /,, . //./ : /,, D ACTIVITY 48 See if you can supply the missing words in the following definition of ecology. Ecology is the ... (1) ... between ... (2) ... and their ... (3) ..., as well as the ... (4) ... between living organisms. The missing words are as follows: (1) interaction (2) living organisms (3) environment (4) interrelationship The following diagram may help you to form a concept of ecology. Ecology, then, is the interaction between living organisms and their environment, as well as the interrelationship between living organisms. This definition contains some important principles. We shall now look at the main components of the definition. /:./ // /, :,.:-: /:./ // /, :,.:-: D ACTIVITY 49 Identify a number of organisms which interact and indicate how they interact. Interaction can occur between plants and animals (eg cattle eat grass), between plants and other plants (bird-lime grows on some thorn trees), between animals and other animals (cheetah hunt impala), between animals and components of the physical environment (animals drink water and absorb oxygen), and between 44 plants and the environment (plants absorb minerals from the soil). These examples are taken from the natural environment, mostly in rural areas. But most people live in urban areas. Are there interactions between plants, animals, people and their environment in urban areas as well? D ACTIVITY 50 Write down as many examples of these interactions as you can think of. Look for examples in cracks, cement surfaces, or wherever there is some soil, such as under large trees and lampposts. There are obviously interactions between living organisms and their environment in urban areas. Here are some examples: (1) Moss grows in cool spots on the southern side of buildings. Moss needs moisture (water), cool temperatures and a bit of soil. (2) One finds insects (underneath the bark), bird nests and birds, and chameleons in trees. (3) Open spaces (eg parks) are recreational areas where people go for walks and play games. (4) People have to get rid of their refuse. Let us examine the interactions in the environment in more detail. - 1 /.: .1 1 /: - 1 /.: .1 1 /: The following is a typical interaction in nature: This is called a food chain. It consists of a primary level (in our example it would be grass), a secondary level (the zebra) and a tertiary level (the lion). A food chain could have four or more levels. D ACTIVITY 51 Draw any food chain with more than three levels. 45 EDA304-6/1 Compare your food chain with the following example: The first level consists of producers (trees produce food like carbohydrates by using sunlight, water and carbon dioxide). Second-level organisms are called first- level consumers (they eat the producers). Organisms at the next level are called second-level consumers (they eat the first-level consumers). Animals that eat plants are called herbivores; animals that eat other animals are called carnivores. But in nature one often finds that food chains overlap (eg one organism might eat several other kinds of organisms). One can represent it as follows: (Source: Ryke 1978) We call this a food web. :,, :,, We have said that the first level of a food chain consists of plants (producers) which use sunlight to produce food. In the production process, they capture 46 energy in the food that they make. In this way, herbivores get their energy from the plants they eat (indirectly, from the sun). Carnivores, in their turn, get their energy from herbivores. ENERGY FLOW IN A ECOSYSTEM (Source: Ryke 1978) If you look at the width of the arrows, you will notice that they become narrower. This represents a loss in energy. D ACTIVITY 52 Why is there a loss of energy in a food chain? The difference in ener- gy consumption can be represented in an ecological energy pyramid: NUMBER PYRAMID The same grass-zebra- lion food chain can also be expressed in terms of mass in an ecological pyramid. MASS PYRAMID 47 EDA304-6/1 A large mass of grass is required to eventually provide the lion with sufficient energy. The numbers pyramid also indicates this: ENERGY PYRAMID A lot of grass plants are needed to eventually provide a lion with enough energy. As one proceeds fromone level to the next, less and less energy per unit is available for the last level of consumers in the food chain. Food chains seldom have more than four levels, as more than four levels would result in too little available energy for the last levels. Fortunately, the sun continually adds more energy to ecosystems. This last fact also explains why plants are often the staple food in poor countries. (In China the staple food is rice, while in some African countries, it is maize.) So the shorter the food chain, the more people can survive in a country (Ryke 1978:16). : /,./ ,/: : /,./ ,/: In this module, it is important to note that some major elements in the environment occur in cycles. D ACTIVITY 53 Mention a few resources that you are aware of and that are available for reuse all the time. Your answer could have included water, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus and nutrients. We shall briefly discuss two of these cycles to illustrate their importance. 3.6.1 The carbon cycle The diagram shows the regular cycling of carbon between the atmosphere and plant and animal bodies. 48 3.6.2 The nitrogen cycle Although nitrogen comprises about 79 percent of the atmosphere, very few organisms can use nitrogen in this form (gas). Atmospheric nitrogen is compounded through physical-chemical and biological processes into nitrates, 49 EDA304-6/1 Atmospheric reservoir Combustion Respiration Photosynthesis Fossil fuels Oseanic reservoir Carbonates Earth reservoir nitrites, ammonia, urea and protein, and nucleic acids. These compounds occur freely in the bodies of organisms and are released into the atmosphere again through decomposition when organisms die. o/./ /,, o/./ /,, We do not deal with population ecology in detail, but population studies show just how complex the structure of the environment is. Biologically, populations consist of a number of communities, which in their turn consist of individuals. So the composition of populations differs greatly and can also be more or less complex. Obviously a population that has to live on extremely limited resources in a desert will be more sensitive to environmental problems than a population that has more accessible resources. All populations are in balance: if one disturbs the balance, the population can become extinct. The following factors influence the survival of a population: . carrying capacity . births (natality) . deaths (mortality) . age structure . migrations . competition If the animals in an area become too numerous, the land will not have the carrying capacity to support them all and deaths will increase. If they can, the animals will migrate to better pastures because of the increased competition for grazing. The age structure of the animal population also influences birth and death rates. The older the population, the higher the number of deaths. A young population, on the other hand, will have a high birth rate. D ACTIVITY 54 Now give your own example to show which of these factors apply to human populations. These basic ecological concepts will have to suffice. We shall now indicate which resources in the environment are endangered. It is important to realise that there are many interactions (relationships) in the environment and that many organisms are interdependent. You should also realise that resources are essential for human survival. 50 :-/./ ::: :-/./ ::: 3.8.1 Introduction The following environmental issues and risks are some of the most serious world problems: . biodiversity . waste, littering and recycling . the greenhouse effect and global warming . ozone depletion . pesticides . overpopulation . urbanisation . depletion of natural resources . health hazards . desertification . deforestation . pollution . poverty We will now discuss these problems in this section. We provide only the basic information about each problem, because there is abundant literature available to supply more details about the problems. (a) Biodiversity `` ... we will have achieved adequate conservation when 100 per cent of South Africa is under some form of conservation management'' (Clarke 1991:225). This section needs to be studied in conjunction with section 1.2 in chapter 1 of your textbook. Biodiversity in South Africa and the extent to which it is endangered: Number of species Number endangered Plants 7 300 species in the Western Cape 2 000 Animals 227 18 Birds 700+ 22 Reptiles, amphibians 370 21 Fishes 220 freshwater 21 220 sea Insects 80 000 ? It is obvious from the above table that South Africa has a rich diversity of fauna and flora. Well-known species like the elephant, rhinoceros, lion, buffalo and leopard 51 EDA304-6/1 (the big five) attract thousands of tourists every year to South Africa. The world's biggest mammal, fastest mammal, biggest reptile, et cetera are also found in South Africa. Can you name them? Unfortunately, at least two mammal species we know of, namely, the bluebuck and the quagga became extinct in South Africa. Several other species like the black rhinoceros, wild dog, Cape vulture and jackass penguin are also on the endangered list. D ACTIVITY 55 We have just sketched a dark picture about biodiversity in South Africa. There are successes though. Which species in South Africa have been saved from extinction? Name at least three. Did you include some of the following? Bontebok, Mountain zebra, Marsh rose, Cape vulture? Attempts to save organisms from extinction can, therefore, be successful. (b) Waste, littering and recycling Study this section in conjunction with section 1.3 in chapter 1 of your textbook. D ACTIVITY 56 Name three important items that we need to recycle and indicate how you can do this at your school. (c) The greenhouse effect and global warming Study this section in conjunction with section 1.4 in chapter 1 of your textbook. D ACTIVITY 57 Describe the relationship between the greenhouse effect and global warming. (d) Ozone depletion Study this section in conjunction with section 1.5 in chapter 1 of your textbook. D ACTIVITY 58 What can you and your school do to prevent ozone depletion? 52 (e) Pesticides Study this section in conjunction with section 1.7 in chapter 1 of your textbook. D ACTIVITY 59 What alternatives are there for pesticides in the garden? (f) Overpopulation We shouldn't delude ourselves: The population explosion will come to an end before very long. The only remaining question is whether it will be halted through the humane method of birth control, or by nature wiping out our surplus. Paul H. Ehrlich in Miller (1994:203) Study this section in conjunction with section 1.8 in chapter 1 of your textbook. D ACTIVITY 60 World Population Day is commemorated on 11 July every year in an attempt to make the public aware of the problems of overpopulation. How do you think schools should commemorate this day? Remember! Awareness about overpopulation is not enough. Action is needed! (g) Urbanisation Study this section in conjunction with section 1.9 in chapter 1 of your textbook. D ACTIVITY 61 (1) What are the advantages and disadvantages of urbanisation? (2) What is the Government doing to decrease the level of urbanisation in South Africa? (h) Depletion of natural resources Study this section in conjunction with section 1.10 in chapter 1 of your textbook. D ACTIVITY 62 What is the relationship between sustainable development and the depletion of natural resources? 53 EDA304-6/1 (i) Health hazards Study this section in conjunction with section 1.11 in chapter 1 of your textbook. Von Schirnding (1995) asserts that the following environmental factors contribute to disease, disability and death in South Africa: . a lack of sewers, drains or services to dispose of solid and liquid wastes . a lack of safe and sufficient water supplies . overcrowded and inadequate living conditions . insufficient safe and clean fuels for domestic cooking and heating . poor control of workplace environments (in both the informal and formal sectors) leading to chemical and biological contamination of land, air, water and food resources and resulting in unacceptable levels of pollution All the above factors have direct effects on health. D ACTIVITY 63 For each of the factors mentioned above, list one common health problem in South Africa today. (j) Desertification Below that thin layer comprising the delicate organism known as soil is a planet as lifeless as the moon. GY Jacks and RO Whyte in Miller (1994:313). Study this section in conjunction with section 1.12 in chapter 1 of your textbook. Soil erosion is a very serious problem, and it is calculated that South Africa loses between 300 and 400 million tons of soil per annum. If this soil is loaded on 7 ton trucks and these trucks are parked bumper-to-bumper, they will form a line which will span seven times around the earth. D ACTIVITY 64 Ecofacts No 52 provides the following ideas as ways of preventing soil erosion: . Teach people to make compost heaps. . Teach people to cultivate healthy vegetables. 54 . Prevent the formation of dongas by stacking stones in riverines prone to donga formation. Indicate how an educator can become involved in each one of these methods. (k) Deforestation Study this section in conjunction with section 1.13 in chapter 1 of your textbook. D ACTIVITY 65 Study the carbon cycle in section 3.6.1 of this study guide. What effect will deforestation have on this cycle? (l) Pollution Study this section in conjunction with section 1.14 in chapter 1 of your textbook. D ACTIVITY 66 (1) Which types of pollution are evident in your community? (2) How will you try to curb these types of pollution? (m) Poverty Study this section in conjunction with section 1.15 in your textbook. D ACTIVITY 67 What is the relationship between poverty and natural resources? Relate this to your community. We trust that you now have an understanding of basic ecology and why it is important for environmental education. We also trust that you have an understanding of the main environmental issues and risks, and that you will be able to include environmental issues in your teaching activities. 55 EDA304-6/1 :: :1 // -o/./ :: :1 // -o/./ //: :/// //: :/// Baczala, K. 1992. Towards a school policy for environmental education: environmental audit. Washington. National Association for Environmental Education. Braus, JA & Wood, D. 1994. Environmental education in the schools: Creating a programme that works! Troy: NAAEE. Brennan, MJ. 1970. Making tomorrow now: building a qualitative environment for all children. Childhood education 47(1):25. Brooks, E. 1978. 'n Opvoedkundig-sielkundige beskrywing van die bo-gemiddelde standard agt-Afrikaanssprekende seun wat 'n Wiskunde onderpresteer. MEd- verhandeling: Universiteit van Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch. Chambers Ethymological Dictionary, 1939. Clarke, J. 1991. Back to Earth. South Africa's environmental challenges. Halfway House: Southern Book Publishers. Comrie Greig, J. 1983. De Hoop en Krygkor. African Wildlife 37(1):3. Cooper, K. 1989 Zululand dune-mining threaten coastal formation. African Wildlife 43(3):118119. De Bono, E. 1976. Teaching thinking. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Ecofacts No. 52. Soil erosion. Stiffy developed by the Wildlife Society of Southern Africa. Howick: WESSA. Fien, J. 1993. Education for the environment: critical curriculum theorising and environmental education. Deakin: Deakin University Press. Freysen, JB, Briel, RM, Potgieter, C, Van Graan, ESJ & Van Niekerk, LJ. 1989. Mediakunde. Kempton Park: Audiovisual Aids. Gifford, R, Hay, R & Boros, K. 1982. Individual differences in environmental attitudes. Journal of Environmental Education 14:1923. Gillett, DP, Thomas, GP, Skok, RL & McLaughlin. 1991. The effects of wilderness camping and hiking on the self-concept and environmental attitudes and knowledge of twelfth graders. Journal of Environmental Education 22(3):33 44. Goedhals, HF. 1989. Dune-mining in Zululand: mining company's point of view. African Wildlife 43(4):176177. Grover, HJ, Engleson, DC, Hottman, M, Gomoll, R & Grady, S. 1991. A guide to curriculum planning in environmental education. Madison, MS: Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction. Hawkins, DE & Vinton, DA. 1973. The environmental classroom. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Iozzi, L.A. 1989. What the researcher says to the educator. Part one: Environmental education and the effective domain. Journal of Environmental Education 20(3):39. International Union for the Conservation of Natural Resources. 1972. 56 Environmental education and training: suggestions developed by the Secretary general of the 1972 United Nations conference on the Human Environment. Stockholm, Sweden. Irwin, P. 1984. The origin and development of environmental education: a world perspective. Southern African Journal of Environmental Education 11:37. Irwin, P. 1990. The concept of environmental education and the development of environmental education in Southern Africa. The Southern Africa Journal of Environmental Education 11:37. Le Roux, A & Schreuder, DR. 1988. Die evaluering van 'n musiekvideo ``sending out an SOS'' as sensiterings-medium van natuurbewaring. RTV 1(4):7579. Marsh, C. 1994 Society and environment. Sydney: Prentice Hall. Millbrath, LW. 1994. Envisioning a sustainable society: Learning our way out. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Miller, GJ. 1994. Living in the environment. Belmont, Calif: Wadsworth. Montague, EJ. 1987. Fundamentals of secondary classroom instruction. Colom- bus, Ohio: Merrill. Opie, FWJ. nd. Memorandum: teacher education and environmental education. Cape Town: Mowbray College of Education. Pettus, A. 1976. Environmental education and environmental attitudes. Journal of Environmental Education 8(1):4852. Pieters, M. 1993. Values in environmental education. Paper delivered at the Conference: Values in the Environment, Stirling, October 1993. Puhl, CA. 1990. Teaching thinking to promote language acquisition. Paper presented at the National Subject Didactics Symposium, Stellenbosch, September 2628. Ruckleshaus, WD. 1989. Towards a sustainable world. Scientific American, September. Ruhela, SP (ed). 1986. Human values and education. New Delhi: Sterling. Ryke, PAJ. 1978. Ekologiese beginsels en toepassing. Durban: Butterworth. Schreuder, DR. [sa] Omgewingsopvoeding. HOD (Nagraads). Onderwysverryking 142. Stellenbosch: University of Stellenbosch. Slabbert, JA. 1988. Die ontwikkeling van 'n metaleermodel. DEd-thesis, University of Pretoria, Pretoria. Smith, LR. 1992. Ontario Ministry of Education. Environmental education summary of education K to OAC including key concepts, key skills, environmental issues, environmental literacy and environmental framework. Ontario: Curriculum Policy Branch. South Africa (Republic). 1995. White Paper on Education and Training. Cape Town: Government Printer. South Africa (Republic). 1989. White paper on environmental education. Pretoria: Government Printer. Stapp, WB. 1969. The concept of environmental education. Environmental education 1(1):3031. Strydom, AH. 1981. Didaktiek as deeldissipline. Pretoria: Saccum. Swanepoel, CH & Loubser, CP. 1994. Identiteitsvorming as voorwaarde vir effektiewe omgewingsopvoeding. SA Journal for Education 12(1):7277. Swanepoel, CH. 1986. Die aard en meting van standard 7-leerlinge se belangstelling in die natuurwetenskaplike studierigting. DEd-thesis, University of South Africa, Pretoria. 57 EDA304-6/1 58 Sykes, JB (ed). 1982. The concise Oxford Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Technikon SA. 1992. Bewaringskommunikasie II: Studiegids 1. Technikon SA: Florida. Tennyson, RD, Youngers, J & Seubsonthi, P. 1983. Concept learning by children using instructional presentation forms for prototype formation and classification-skill development. Journal of Educational Psychology 75(2):280291. The Scottish Environmental Education Council. 1994. The Stewardship Scheme. Scottish Environmental Council. UNESCO. 1980. Environmental education in the light of the Tbilisi conference. Nairobi/Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO. 1988. International strategy for action in the field of environmental education and training for the 1990s. Paris: UNESCO. Van Rensburg, E. 1995. Environmental education and research in Southern Africa: a landscape of shifting priorities. PhD thesis, Rhodes University, Grahamstown. Von Schirnding, Y. 1995 Environmental health from Cinderella status to centre stage. CHASA 6(2):6163. Vosloo JL. 1987. How much muscle does the Directorate of Soil Protection really have. African Wildlife 41(5):241. World Resources Institute 1993. Green guidance for Latin America and the Carribean. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.