Heat spreading: not a trivial problem

Clemens J.M. Lasance

Philips Research Laboratories, the Netherlands

Introduction
Heat spreading is essentially area enlarging: the larger the area, the more heat can be removed
at the same temperature difference (subject to certain limits). Unfortunately, except for the
simplest of cases, the equations describing heat spreading physics do not have an explicit
mathematical solution. Hence, we have to rely on clever approximations or suitable computer
codes. This article discusses the basics of heat spreading starting with the problematic definitions
of thermal resistance and maximum allowable flux.

The thermal resistance conundrum

Thermal resistance data published by vendors are widely used to compare the performance of
various products, be it semiconductor packages, LEDs or heat sinks. The common notation is:

(T1 − T2 )
Rth = [K/W] (1)
q
However, we rarely have constant temperatures at the two faces where the heat flux originates
and where the same flux leaves. Here is a formal definition of thermal resistance:
The temperature difference between two isothermal surfaces divided by the heat that flows
between them is the thermal resistance of a) the materials enclosed between the two isothermal
surfaces and b) the heat flux tube originating and ending on the boundaries of the two isothermal
surfaces (1).
Surface 1

Surface 2

Figure 1 Two isothermal surfaces connected by a heat flux tube

The emphasis is on ‘isothermal surfaces 1 and 2’ and ‘flux leaving 1 equals flux entering 2’, see
Figure 1. Now consider Figure 2 showing two simple cases of heat spreading where all surfaces
are adiabatic except the bottom surface.

Figure 2 Heat spreading from single source (left) and two sources (right)
For the single source case a constant heat transfer coefficient h at the bottom causes a non-
uniform temperature profile on this face, except in the case of h or the thermal conductivity k
being infinite or the trivial case of the source area equalling the substrate area. The average
temperature could be used but the question in practice is: how do we get this value? Usually one
thermocouple is used at the center, but one should realize that the thermal resistance from
source to thermocouple defined in this way is per definition dependent on the boundary
conditions because these determine the temperature profile and hence the temperature at the
location of the thermocouple. The only definition that is in accordance with the definition is the
thermal resistance from source to ambient: Rthj-a, but this value is often useless because the
boundary conditions are rarely the same. However, even this definition is lost when more than
one source is present, such as in Figure 2b, because the main condition for a correct definition,
the fact that the same flux has to enter and leave the resistance, cannot be fulfilled. The essential
point to understand is that the concept of thermal resistance becomes meaningless when dealing
with multiple sources. It is theoretically possible to solve this problem because the substrate can
be split in such a way that every source has its own volume allocated to it (based on the minima
of the isotherms) but then the simplicity of the concept is lost. A possible way out is to make use
of the principle of superposition. By switching off all sources except one we are able to find again
the thermal resistance from that source to ambient. However, its use for design purposes is
limited because the problem cannot be reduced to a parallel combination of all individual source-
ambient resistances found in this way, put otherwise: no network can be constructed using these
resistors. It might serve however as a way to thermally characterize multisource applications by
providing a test protocol.

The flux conundrum

Let’s calculate how much heat we may dissipate by natural convection at a ∆T of 50 °C.
2 2
We may write for the flux q=h∆T, and with h=12 W/m K (including radiation) we get q=600 W/m .
2
The conclusion is then: natural convection can handle 600W/m . Is this correct? Yes and no. Can
we put 60 mW in one square centimeter? Yes, no problem. Can we put 600 W in one square
2
meter with a source of a few cm and stay within the quoted temperature limit? No, we can’t,
because the simple equation assumes not only a uniform h but also a uniform surface
temperature. The problem is caused by the fact that we are dealing with increasing temperature
2
gradients over the surface when the area increases. Why do we always talk W/cm ? Because the
thermal management field is dominated by the cooling of processors that have dissipating areas
2
of O(cm ). Now take a junction of such a processor. The area is about 0.1*0.1µm and with 1 µW
2
dissipation this comes down to an amazing 10kW/cm . Nobody has a problem with this.
Apparently it is the dissipating area that sets the limit to the maximum allowable flux. A useful rule
2
of thumb has been formulated by Willcoxon and Cornelius , using the following equation:

300
q& = , q& in W/cm2, A in cm2
A
2
However, its use is limited to areas larger than about 0.1*0.1 mm . It should also be realized that
this limit depends not only on the source size but also on the spreader thickness, area, thermal
conductivity and boundary conditions.
In summary, what is important to realize is that it does not make sense to use the same heat flux
limits for both processors and LEDs alike.

Basic principles of heat spreading

Single source, single layer
Contrary to what is believed by many designers: heat spreading is not a trivial issue. Consider the
simple configuration shown in Figure 2. A square source with zero thickness of size As centrally
located on a square plate of size A, thickness d and thermal conductivity k dissipates q W. The
top and sides of the plate are adiabatic (insulated), the bottom ‘sees’ a uniform heat transfer
2
coefficient h (W/m K). The remarkable thing is that even for this simple configuration no explicit
solution is known for the description of heat spreading. Observing the exact implicit solution of the
governing differential equations reveals the source of the complexity of heat spreading: it is not
possible to separate the convection and conduction parts. In other words, changing the heat
transfer coefficient changes also the value of the spreading resistance. Consequently, it is not
possible to write the problem in terms of one conduction resistance describing the heat spreading
inside the solid and one convection resistance describing the boundary condition because the two
are dependent. There is one exception: the analysis becomes much more straightforward when
the temperature gradients over the area that is in contact with the environment can be neglected.
In other words, a uniform temperature may be assumed. Such is often the case with relatively
small heat sinks and spreaders.
A final complexity stems from the fact that decreasing the thickness of the plate does not
automatically result in a decrease in temperature, caused by the fact that a smaller thickness also
implies a decrease in spreading capability. Hence, for a certain combination of thickness and
thermal conductivity given the boundary conditions and the dimensions a minimum in the total
thermal resistance may be found.

Single source, multiple layers

In practice we often have to deal with multiple layers. Figure 3 shows a cross section of a single
source on a submount itself connected to a second spreader.

Submount (Si)
Spreader (Cu/W)

Figure 3 Cross section through one planar source on a submount and a heat spreader

Closer observation reveals two heat spreading effects: one from submount to spreader, and one
from the source to the submount. To first order, this problem can be handled as a single layer
problem, provided the boundary condition of the first layer is replaced by the spreading plus the
boundary condition of the second layer.

Multiple sources
Multiple sources add another layer of complexity because the coupling between the sources is
not only dependent on the dimensions and physical properties but also on the boundary
conditions and, worst of all, on the dissipation of the sources themselves. Using superposition
techniques is the recommended approach.

Approximate heat spreading solutions for the single source-single layer problem
In the following three approximate solutions will be discussed.

The 1D-series-resistance approach

Equation 3 describes the temperature rise of the source due to dissipation Φ via a total thermal
resistance Rtotal from junction to ambient. While it is physically correct, splitting up this resistance
according to equations 4 and 5 is not.

∆T = q • Rtotal (3 )

with
 Rtotal = Rconduction + Rconvection (4)

and

d 1
Rconduction = g • , Rconvection = (5)
k⋅A h⋅ A

with g = f (As, A) some geometrical factor representing the spreading, e.g. the 45° rule.

The L-equation
A long time ago the author has derived a simple rule-of-thumb for the case of a single source on
3
a plate with uniform heat transfer coefficients at both sides, mainly for flat heat sinks . The
assumptions are that a surface source can be replaced by a volume source extending over the
thickness and that a square plate can be replaced by a flat cylinder. Surprisingly, it turned out that
the equation is valid over quite a large range of parameters, including low-conductivity substrates
and even non-square areas up to a length/width ratio of 4. By approximating the Bessel-function
solution for the cylinder by algebraic equations the following equation results for one-sided heat
transfer:
A2
)ln(
1 A1 γ
Rthj − a = + − (6)
hA2 4πkd 2πkd
where γ is Euler’s constant, 0.577. With some care the first term of the right-hand side could be
interpreted as a convective term, the second as a conductive term, and the third as a correction
term. Note: due to the negative sign this equation does not represent a simple series resistance
network.
To guarantee an accuracy of better than 90% the following inequalities should be obeyed:
b/a > 2, m ⋅ a < 0 .5 , m ⋅b < 3, m ⋅ d < 0.15 (7)
m is the so-called fin factor, and a and b equivalent radii for respectively source and base area,
defined as:

h A1 A2
m= , a= , b= (8)
k ⋅d π π
4
For non-centrally placed sources it can easily be shown that simple correction factors can be
applied. Calling the first term in Eq. (6) C1 and the second plus third C2 it follows:
C1 + C 2
Rthj − a = C1 + C 2 or ∆T j − a = (9)
q

Figure 4 Position of source: centre, side, corner

For a source in the corner, the extra ∆T is given by 3·C2·q (exact). For a source at the centre of a
side the extra ∆T is C2·q (approximation). More sophisticated correction factors can be found in
5
an article by Lee .

The SLA-equations
6 7
Song et al. and Lee et al. found a set of approximate explicit formulae that are easy to
implement in a spreadsheet. They showed that the errors stay within 5% or less for the majority of
cases of practical interest. The maximum spreading resistances is defined as:

Tmax − T2
Rmax = (10)
q
where T2 is the average temperature of the base area. Approximate equations are presented to
calculate not only Rmax but also Ravg, based on the average temperature of the source. The
interested reader may consult the references cited. Finally, the temperature rise from junction to
ambient is calculated using:
∆Tmax = q ⋅ (Rmax + Rconv ) (11)
At first sight this expression looks like an ordinary series resistance network. However, it should
be understood that Rmax is a function of the boundary conditions, contrary to the networks
1
discussed previously .
In summary, heat spreading is a complex phenomenon that can be addressed by analytical
formulae only for geometrically simple cases for which no explicit solution exists. For situations
where double-sided heat transfer plays a role, or multiple sources, or multiple layers, the problem
becomes intractable from an approximate analytical point of view and we have to rely on
computer codes. Implicit solutions are known for multi-layer cases with multiple sources and
uniform boundary conditions, even when time is a parameter. User friendly software exists that is
8
based on these solutions, with the additional advantage that no mesh generation is required .
The big advantage of such software is that even people with little background in heat transfer can
get insight in the physics underlying heat spreading by simply changing a few parameters. For the
more practical cases for which layers consist of more than one material or for which the boundary
conditions cannot be considered uniform, more advanced conduction-only codes should be used.
Another recommended source of information can be found on the website of the University of
9 10
Waterloo . One of their papers shows a couple of graphics showing clearly the errors a designer
may encounter by using equations such as Eq.(5).

What are the errors to be expected?

An important question is: what are the errors if we use the approximate formulae? A detailed
analysis will be presented in the future, here are the most important conclusions.

Conclusions for single layers

• The 1D approximations should not be used at all.

1
For the reader who wants to consult the original papers a word of caution should be issued because the
6
three relevant papers differ in the definition of the parameters. In , the 1D conduction resistance and the
7
spreading resistance are separate entities and Rmax is only associated with the spreading resistance. In ,
5
Rmax is defined as the sum of the two. The result is different graphs. In , equation (1) is only correct if R0
equals Rconv. However, formally R0 represents the sum of Rconv and R1D (R0 =1/hA+t/kA). Fortunately, in
most cases the errors are negligible, but for those cases with h/k > 100 and d > 10 mm the errors are of the
order of 10% and beyond. However, especially the condition d >10 mm is not likely to occur in practice.
 •
2
The L-equation can be used provided h/k·d < 0.025. E.g.: h = 2500 W/m K, k = 100
W/mK, d = 1 mm: h/k·d = 0.025.
• The SLA equation can be used over a very large range.
• It is strongly recommended to use a user-friendly code.

Conclusions for two layers

• The 1D approximations should not be used at all.
• While the L-equation is OK for a certain range its use is not recommended because too
many conditions have to be met to guarantee accurate values.
• The SLA-equations can still be used over a very large range but errors increase when h/k
> 10, ksubm > 100 W/mK and d < 1mm
• It is strongly recommended to use a user-friendly code.

Conclusions for more than one source

• Be careful using simple resistance networks.
• Use superposition.
• Use a matrix-approach for thermal characterization.

Conclusions for all other cases

• Use a conduction-only code.

Conclusions
The author hopes he succeeded in conveying the message that heat spreading is not a trivial
problem that can be solved by simply adding convective and conductive thermal resistances. A
physically correct spreading resistance may be formulated, but it always contains the convective
boundary condition. Unfortunately, the notion of a thermal spreading resistance fails when we are
dealing with multiple sources and we have to rely on more sophisticated matrix methods.

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3
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4
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5
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6
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7
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8
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9
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10
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