UNIVERSITY OF PERPETUAL HELP SYSTEM DALTA CALAMBA CAMPUS

BRGY PACIANO RIZAL, CALAMBA CITY, LAGUNA

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT


RESEARCH
IN
CEMENT




SUBMITTED BY: Dela Rosa, Florence F.
SUBMITTED TO: Engr. Roselle P. Alviar
DATE: June 17, 2014


I. HISTORY

Cements before the 18th century
An early version of cement made with lime, sand, and gravel was used in Mesopotamia
in the third millennium B.C. and later in Egypt. It is uncertain where it was first discovered that a
combination of hydrated non-hydraulic lime and a pozzolan produces a hydraulic mixture but
concrete made from such mixtures was first used by the Ancient Macedonians and three centuries
later on a large scale by Roman engineers. They used both natural pozzolans (trass or pumice)
and artificial pozzolans (ground brick or pottery) in these concretes. Many excellent examples of
structures made from these concretes are still standing, notably the huge dome of
the Pantheon in Rome and the massive Baths of Caracalla. The vast system of Roman
aqueducts also made extensive use of hydraulic cement. Although any preservation of this
knowledge in literary sources from the Middle Ages is unknown, medieval masons and some
military engineers maintained an active tradition of using hydraulic cement in structures such
as canals, fortresses, harbors, and shipbuilding facilities. This technical knowledge of making
hydraulic cement was later formalized by French and British engineers in the 18th century.


Cements in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries
John Smeaton made an important contribution to the development of cements when he
was planning the construction of the third Eddystone Lighthouse (17559) in the English
Channel now known as Smeaton's Tower. He needed a hydraulic mortar that would set and
develop some strength in the twelve hour period between successive high tides. He performed
experiments with combinations of different limestones and additives including trass
and pozzolanas
[11]
and did exhaustive market research on the available hydraulic limes, visiting
their production sites, and noted that the "hydraulicity" of the lime was directly related to the clay
content of the limestone from which it was made. Smeaton was a civil engineer by profession, and
took the idea no further.
In Britain particularly, good quality building stone became ever more expensive during a
period of rapid growth, and it became a common practice to construct prestige buildings from the
new industrial bricks, and to finish them with a stucco to imitate stone. Hydraulic limes were
favored for this, but the need for a fast set time encouraged the development of new cements. Most
famous was Parker's "Roman cement". This was developed by James Parker in the 1780s, and


finally patented in 1796. It was, in fact, nothing like material used by the Romans, but was a
"natural cement" made by burning septaria nodules that are found in certain clay deposits, and
that contain both clay minerals and calcium carbonate. The burnt nodules were ground to a fine
powder. This product, made into a mortar with sand, set in 515 minutes. The success of "Roman
cement" led other manufacturers to develop rival products by burning artificial hydraulic
lime cements of clay andchalk. Roman cement quickly became popular but was largely replaced
by Portland cement in the 1850s.
In Russia, Egor Cheliev created a new binder by mixing lime and clay. His results were
published in 1822 in his book A Treatise on the Art to Prepare a Good Mortar published in St.
Petersburg. A few years later in 1825, he published another book, which described the various
methods of making cement and concrete, as well as the benefits of cement in the construction of
buildings and embankments.
Apparently unaware of Smeaton's work, the same principle was identified by
Frenchman Louis Vicat in the first decade of the nineteenth century. Vicat went on to devise a
method of combining chalk and clay into an intimate mixture, and, burning this, produced an
"artificial cement" in 1817 considered the "principle forerunner" of Portland cement and "...Edgar
Dobbs of Southwark patented a cement of this kind in 1811."
James Frost,
[16]
working in Britain, produced what he called "British cement" in a similar manner
around the same time, but did not obtain a patent until 1822. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin patented a
similar material, which he called Portland cement, because the render made from it was in color
similar to the prestigious Portland stone. However, Aspdins' cement was nothing like modern
Portland cement but was a first step in its development, called a proto-Portland cement.
[11]
Joseph
Aspdins' son William Aspdin had left his fathers company and in his cement manufacturing
apparently accidentally produced calcium silicates in the 1840s, a middle step in the development
of Portland cement. William Aspdin's innovation was counterintuitive for manufacturers of
"artificial cements", because they required more lime in the mix (a problem for his father), a much
higher kiln temperature (and therefore more fuel), and the resulting clinker was very hard and
rapidly wore down themillstones, which were the only available grinding technology of the time.
Manufacturing costs were therefore considerably higher, but the product set reasonably slowly and
developed strength quickly, thus opening up a market for use in concrete. The use of concrete in
construction grew rapidly from 1850 onward, and was soon the dominant use for cements. Thus
Portland cement began its predominant role.


Isaac Charles Johnson further refined the production of meso-Portland cement (middle
stage of development) and claimed to be the real father of Portland cement.
Setting time and "early strength" are important characteristics of cements. Hydraulic
limes, "natural" cements, and "artificial" cements all rely upon their belite content
for strength development. Belite develops strength slowly. Because they were burned at
temperatures below 1,250 C (2,280 F), they contained no alite, which is responsible for early
strength in modern cements. The first cement to consistently contain alite was made by William
Aspdin in the early 1840s: This was what we call today "modern" Portland cement. Because of the
air of mystery with which William Aspdin surrounded his product, others (e.g., Vicat and
Johnson) have claimed precedence in this invention, but recent analysis
[18]
of both his concrete and
raw cement have shown that William Aspdin's product made at Northfleet, Kent was a true alite-
based cement. However, Aspdin's methods were "rule-of-thumb": Vicat is responsible for
establishing the chemical basis of these cements, and Johnson established the importance
of sintering the mix in the kiln.
Sorel cement was patented in 1867 by Frenchman Stanislas Sorel and was stronger than
Portland cement but its poor water restive and corrosive qualities limited its use in building
construction. The next development with the manufacture of Portland cement was the introduction
of the rotary kiln which allowed a stronger, more homogeneous mixture and a continuous
manufacturing process.


Also, tabby, a wall building method using lime, sand and oyster shells to form a concrete,
was introduced to the Americas by the Spanish in the sixteenth century.

The lime may have been
made from burned oyster shells which were available in some coastal areas in the form of
shell middens. Calcium aluminate cements were patented in 1908 in France by Jules Bied for
better resistance to sulfates.
In the US the first large scale use of cement was Rosendale cement, a natural cement
mined from a massive deposit of a large dolostone rock deposit discovered in the early 19th
century near Rosendale, New York. Rosendale cement was extremely popular for the foundation
of buildings (e.g., Statue of Liberty, Capitol Building,Brooklyn Bridge) and lining water pipes.
But its long curing time of at least a month made it unpopular after World War One in the
construction of highways and bridges and many states and construction firms turned to the use of
Portland cement. Because of the switch to Portland cement, by the end of the 1920s of the 15
Rosendale cement companies, only one had survived. But in the early 1930s it was discovered


that, while Portland cement had a faster setting time it was not as durable, especially for highways,
to the point that some states stopped building highways and roads with cement. Bertrain H. Wait,
an engineer whose company had worked on the construction of the New York City's Catskill
Aqueduct, was impressed with the durability of Rosendale cement, and came up with a blend of
both Rosendale and synthetic cements which had the good attributes of both: it was highly durable
and had a much faster setting time. Mr. Wait convinced the New York Commissioner of
Highways to construct an experimental section of highway near New Paltz, New York, using one
sack of Rosendale to six sacks of synthetic cement. It was proved a success and for decades the
Rosendale-synthetic cement blend became common use in highway and bridge construction.

II. TYPES OF CEMENT

Modern cements
Modern hydraulic cements began to be developed from the start of the Industrial
Revolution (around 1800), driven by three main needs:
Hydraulic cement render (stucco) for finishing brick buildings in wet climates.
Hydraulic mortars for masonry construction of harbor works, etc., in contact with sea
water.
Development of strong concretes.

Portland cement
Portland cement is by far the most common type of cement in general use
around the world. This cement is made by heatinglimestone (calcium carbonate) with
small quantities of other materials (such as clay) to 1450 C in a kiln, in a process known
as calcination, whereby a molecule of carbon dioxide is liberated from the calcium
carbonate to form calcium oxide, or quicklime, which is then blended with the other
materials that have been included in the mix. The resulting hard substance, called
'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum into a powder to make 'Ordinary
Portland Cement', the most commonly used type of cement (often referred to as OPC).
Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar and most non-specialty grout.
The most common use for Portland cement is in the production of concrete. Concrete is a
composite material consisting of aggregate (gravel and sand), cement, and water. As a
construction material, concrete can be cast in almost any shape desired, and once
hardened, can become a structural (load bearing) element. Portland cement may be grey
or white.

Energetically modified cement
The grinding process to produce energetically modified cement (EMC) yields
materials made from pozzolanic minerals that have been treated using a patented milling
process ("EMC Activation").

This yields a high-level replacement of Portland
cement in concrete with lower costs, performance and durability improvements, with
significant energy and carbon dioxide savings. The resultant concretes can have the
same, if not improved, physical characteristics as "normal" concretes, at a fraction of the
cost of using Portland cement.
Portland cement blends
Portland cement blends are often available as inter-ground mixtures from cement
producers, but similar formulations are often also mixed from the ground components at
the concrete mixing plant.
Portland blastfurnace cement contains up to 70% ground granulated blast furnace
slag, with the rest Portland clinker and a little gypsum. All compositions produce high
ultimate strength, but as slag content is increased, early strength is reduced, while sulfate
resistance increases and heat evolution diminishes. Used as an economic alternative to
Portland sulfate-resisting and low-heat cements.
Portland flyash cement contains up to 35% fly ash. The fly ash is pozzolanic, so that
ultimate strength is maintained. Because fly ash addition allows a lower concrete water
content, early strength can also be maintained. Where good quality cheap fly ash is
available, this can be an economic alternative to ordinary Portland cement.
Portland pozzolan cement includes fly ash cement, since fly ash is a pozzolan, but also
includes cements made from other natural or artificial pozzolans. In countries
where volcanic ashes are available (e.g. Italy, Chile, Mexico, the Philippines) these
cements are often the most common form in use.
Portland silica fume cement. Addition of silica fume can yield exceptionally high
strengths, and cements containing 520% silica fume are occasionally produced.
However, silica fume is more usually added to Portland cement at the concrete mixer.
Masonry cements are used for preparing bricklaying mortars and stuccos, and must not
be used in concrete. They are usually complex proprietary formulations containing
Portland clinker and a number of other ingredients that may include limestone, hydrated
lime, air entrainers, retarders, waterproofers and coloring agents. They are formulated to
yield workable mortars that allow rapid and consistent masonry work. Subtle variations of
Masonry cement in the US are Plastic Cements and Stucco Cements. These are
designed to produce controlled bond with masonry blocks.



Expansive cements contain, in addition to Portland clinker, expansive clinkers (usually
sulfoaluminate clinkers), and are designed to offset the effects of drying shrinkage that is
normally encountered with hydraulic cements. This allows large floor slabs (up to 60 m
square) to be prepared without contraction joints.
White blended cements may be made using white clinker and white supplementary
materials such as high-purity metakaolin.
Colored cements are used for decorative purposes. In some standards, the addition of
pigments to produce "colored Portland cement" is allowed. In other standards (e.g.
ASTM), pigments are not allowed constituents of Portland cement, and colored cements
are sold as "blended hydraulic cements".
Very finely ground cements are made from mixtures of cement with sand or with slag
or other pozzolan type minerals that are extremely finely ground together. Such cements
can have the same physical characteristics as normal cement but with 50% less cement
particularly due to their increased surface area for the chemical reaction. Even with
intensive grinding they can use up to 50% less energy to fabricate than ordinary Portland
cements.
Pozzolan-lime cements. Mixtures of ground pozzolan and lime are the cements used by
the Romans, and can be found in Roman structures still standing (e.g. thePantheon in
Rome). They develop strength slowly, but their ultimate strength can be very high. The
hydration products that produce strength are essentially the same as those produced by
Portland cement.
Slag-lime cements. Ground granulated blast furnace slag is not hydraulic on its own, but
is "activated" by addition of alkalis, most economically using lime. They are similar to
pozzolan lime cements in their properties. Only granulated slag (i.e. water-quenched,
glassy slag) is effective as a cement component.
Supersulfated cements. These contain about 80% ground granulated blast furnace
slag, 15% gypsum or anhydrite and a little Portland clinker or lime as an activator. They
produce strength by formation of ettringite, with strength growth similar to a slow Portland
cement. They exhibit good resistance to aggressive agents, including sulfate. Calcium
aluminate cements are hydraulic cements made primarily from limestone and bauxite.
The active ingredients are monocalcium aluminate CaAl
2
O
4
(CaO Al
2
O
3
or CA
in Cement chemist notation, CCN) and mayenite Ca
12
Al
14
O
33
(12 CaO 7 Al
2
O
3
, or
C
12
A
7
in CCN). Strength forms by hydration to calcium aluminate hydrates. They are well-
adapted for use in refractory (high-temperature resistant) concretes, e.g. for furnace
linings.


Calcium sulfoaluminate cements are made from clinkers that
include ye'elimite (Ca
4
(AlO
2
)
6
SO
4
or C
4
A
3
S in Cement chemist's notation) as a primary
phase. They are used in expansive cements, in ultra-high early strength cements, and in
"low-energy" cements. Hydration produces ettringite, and specialized physical properties
(such as expansion or rapid reaction) are obtained by adjustment of the availability of
calcium and sulfate ions. Their use as a low-energy alternative to Portland cement has
been pioneered in China, where several million tonnes per year are produced. Energy
requirements are lower because of the lower kiln temperatures required for reaction, and
the lower amount of limestone (which must be endothermically decarbonated) in the mix.
In addition, the lower limestone content and lower fuel consumption leads to a
CO
2
emission around half that associated with Portland clinker. However, SO
2
emissions
are usually significantly higher.
"Natural" cements correspond to certain cements of the pre-Portland era, produced by
burning argillaceous limestones at moderate temperatures. The level of clay components
in the limestone (around 3035%) is such that large amounts of belite (the low-early
strength, high-late strength mineral in Portland cement) are formed without the formation
of excessive amounts of free lime. As with any natural material, such cements have
highly variable properties.
Geopolymer cements are made from mixtures of water-soluble alkali metal silicates and
aluminosilicate mineral powders such as fly ash and metakaolin.

III. BRANDS OF CEMENT
Cement is the most widely used construction material worldwide. It provides beneficial
as well as desirable properties, such as compressive strength (construction material with highest
strength per unit cost), durability, and aesthetics to a variety of construction applications.
Cement is a fine powder, obtained from the calcination at 1,450C of a mix of limestone,
clay, and iron ore. The product of the calcination process is clinker the main ingredient of
cement that is finely ground with gypsum and other chemical additives to produce cement.
1. CEMEX: Rizal Portland Super Type 1P cement, Rizal Masonry Cement, APO Portland
Premium Type 1P, APO Masonry Cement, Island Portland Type 1 Cement, Palitada King
Masonry Cement (Type S masonry cement ), APO Portland Type 1 Cement.
2. HOLCIM: Holcim Excel, Holcim WallRight, Holcim 4X, Holcim Premium
3. LAFARGE: Lafarge Republic Portland Plus, Lafarge Rapidset, Lafarge Wallmaster,
Lafarge Mindanao Pozzolan Premium, Lafarge Fortune, Lafarge Portland Duo, Lafarge Republic
Type I (Bulk), Lafarge Type Ii Portland Cement, Lafarge Type V Cement .





4. NORTHERN CEMENT : Ordinary Portland cement, Portland pozzolana
cement , Sulphate Resistant Cement
5. PACIFIC CEMENT:Extra Super (T-1), Suppreme Pozzolan (T-P), Super Portland Plus,
Pacific Espesyalista Masonry Blend
6. TAIHEIYO CEMENT : ALOFIX-MC (Ultra-fine cement), ALOFIX-MC NO.2 (Ultra-
fine quick-setting injection material), ALOFIX-DS (Ultra-fine cement), SUPER HARD (Quick
hardening agent for ground injection), ALOFIX-AQ (Underwater setting type injection material),
SUPER FASTENER (Injection material for all ground fasten method)

IV. CEMENT MANUFACTURER IN THE PHILIPPINES

Cement Manufacturers Association Of The Philippines (CeMAP) as the association of
the cement manufacturers of the Philippines, promotes and looks after the interests of its members
in the Consistency in the production of high quality cement, Development of products and cement
based products for the consumers, Prevent unfair competition and ensure a level playing field for
the manufacturers, Leadership in the implementation of sustainable development initiatives, Data
source for the association members and for government and non-government construction
stakeholders, and Public Relations for the cement industry. CeMAP members includes:
1. CEMEX PHILIPPINES GROUP OF COMPANIES
CEMEX is one of the world's largest building materials suppliers and cement producers.
They the only eco-labeled cement company in the Philippines. Its APO Cement Plant in Naga,
Cebu has received the International Management System Certification including ISO 9001:2008 ,
ISO 14001:2004 & OHSAS 18001:2007.
a. Apo Cement Corporation
b. Solid Cement Corporation

2. HOLCIM PHILIPPINES, INC.
Holcim Philippines, Inc. integrates sustainability in its daily business. The company strives to
reduce its ecological footprint by keeping the air clean through its CEMS (Continuous Emissions
Monitoring System) in all plants, reducing CO2 emissions and ensuring efficient energy
consumption. Holcim continues to comply with global environmental standards. Recognizing that
communities give it the license to operate, Holcim develops partnerships to arrive at sustainable
options for their future
a. La Union, Davao, Bulacan Plants
b. Lugait Plant

3. LAFARGE ASSOCIATED COMPANIES
Lafarge is a French industrial company specialising in three major
products: cement, construction aggregates, andconcrete. The company has become a world leader
in building materials.




a. Lafarge Republic, Inc. Bulacan Plant
b. Lafarge Republic, Inc. (LRI) Norzagaray Plant
c. Lafarge Republic, Inc. (LRI) Batangas Plant
d. Lafarge Republic, Inc. (LRI) Teresa Plant
e. Lafarge Iligan, Inc.
f. Lafarge Mindanao, Inc.

4. NORTHERN CEMENT CORPORATION
Northern Cement Corporation was incorporated on February 10, 1967 and started
commercial operations in 1969.
In 1990, the company undertook modification to expand its capacity. Rehabilitation on the first
and second kilns was finished in 1991 and 1992 respectively. After several more upgrades, the
plant is now able to provide output of 4,400 tons per day clinker.

5. PACIFIC CEMENT PHILIPPINES, INC.
Pacific Cement Philippines, Inc. was organized and incorporated in 1964 to manufacture
ordinary Portland cement. The plant comprises a Wet Process Single Production Line with an
original rated capacity of 600 TPD.
In 1994, the company started a rehabilitation program then an upgrade program involving the
conversion from wet to dry process. The conversion achieved an increase of clinker production
from 600 to 900 TPD.

6. TAIHEIYO CEMENT PHILIPPINES, INC.
The Taiheiyo Cement Philippines, Inc. (formerly Grand Cement Manufacturing Corp.)
was incorporated on October 6, 1989 under registry of the Philippine Securities and Exchange
Commission.
Construction of its plant commenced in 1991, and started commercial operations during the last
quarter of 1993 with a capacity to produce 1.1 Million MT of cement per annum.
The Taiheiyo Cement plant facility is located in the town of San Fernando, Cebu, 30 Kilometers
south of Cebu City. The facility sits on a limestone deposit estimated to last at least 100 years.

Other Cement Manufacturer in the Philippines:
1. The Hsin Enterprise Phils. Corp
2. Kingston Stucco
3. EARN Corporation OMNIBOARD
4. Davao Concrete Poles Corp
5. Cementaid Philippines, Inc.
6. The Hsin Enterprise Phils. Corp



7. Premier Ready Mix Incorporated (Plant)
8. Davao Union Cement Corporation
9. FR Cement Corporation
10. Limay Grinding Mill Corporation Herrera
11. Grand Cement Manufacturing Corporation
12. Far East Cement
13. YIGM
14. Mabuhay Filcement, Inc
15. Rizal Cement Company, Inc.

V. PROCESS IN MAKING CEMENT

Quarrying
Two types of materials are necessary for the production of cement: one rich in calcium or
calcareous materials such as limestone, chalk, etc., and one that is rich in silica or argillaceous
materials such as clay. Extensive quarry drilling and analysis are undertaken to reduce the
variability of the raw material quality. The quality check that starts from the quarry ensures
optimization in the utilization of the reserves. Limestone and clay are either scraped or blasted
from the quarry and then transported to the crusher.
Crushing
The crusher is responsible for the primary size reduction of the quarried materials.
Boulders as big as 1 meter are crushed into material sizes less than 80 mm.
Pre-blending
The crushed materials pass through an on-line analyzer to determine the pile
composition. A stacker is then used to create different piles of materials and to reduce variation in
material beds.





Raw grinding and blending
A belt conveyor transports the pre-blended piles into individual bins where a weighing
feeder proportions it according to the type of clinker to be produced. The materials are then
ground into the desired fineness by the raw mill equipment.
The powdered raw meal is then transported into a continuous blending storage silo where
variations are further reduced by mixing using aeration.

Burning and clinker cooling
The homogenized raw mix is fed into the pre-heater, a heat exchange equipment composed of a
series of cyclones wherein heat transfer between the raw mix feed and the counter current hot
gases from the kiln take place. Calcination partially takes place in the preheater. Raw meal is fed
directly from the preheater to the rotary kiln. The slight angle of inclination and rotation of the kiln
causes the raw feed to slowly make its way through the kiln counter current to the burner flame.
The heat of the kiln breaks the chemical components and brings the raw mix into a semi-molten
state. At this point, raw materials form compounds that produce the cementitous properties. After
the burning section of the kiln, the materials turn into solid nodules known as clinker and
discharge into the clinker cooler. Clinkerization occurs between 1350-1400C wherein fine coal,
pulverized by coal milling, is often used as heating fuel.
The clinker cooler cools the hot granular mass of clinker by quenching air into it bringing the
temperature down to 100C so air becomes hot and clinker cold. This hot air is then utilized as
combustion air for the firing system of the kiln. Conveyors transport the cooled clinker to the
clinker storage silo.
Finish grinding
From the clinker silo, clinker is transferred to the clinker bin. It passes through the weighing
feeder, which regulates its flow in proportion with the additive materials. At this stage, gypsum is
added to the clinker and then fed to the finish grinding mills. Gypsum serves as a retarder in the
too rapid setting or hardening of cement.
Either the mixture of clinker and gypsum for Type 1 cement or the mixture of clinker, gypsum and
pozzolan material for Type P cement is pulverized in a closed circuit system in the finish mills to
the desired fineness. Cement is now piped to cement silos.
Packing and distribution
The cement from the cement silos are packed into bags by rotary packers or loaded as bulk and are
distributed either by land using forwarder trucks and bulk trucks or by sea using barges or bulk
ships.