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Table 7.2 Tunnelling and deep excavation projects and references

7.4 FOUNDATIONS
7.4.1 Deep foundations
Within the Lambeth Group deposits the choice of whether to found on, or to penetrate, hard
layers within a weaker medium is made more difficult by the impersistence, variability in
thickness and strength, and unpredictability, of such layers. These layers may be in the form of
shelly limestones (Lower and Upper Shelly Clays of the Woolwich Formation), calcretes
(Upnor Formation and Lower Mottled Clays) or silica-cemented gravels and sands (e.g. Upnor
Formation). A 1 m thick layer of limestone nodules (calcrete) within the Lambeth Group was
successfully used as a founding medium for some 2000 kN capacity 600 mm x 16 m
continuous flight auger piles on the South Quay Plaza (Phase 2), Isle of Dogs (Solera, 1998).
Other piles were founded in underlying Lambeth Group sands. In central London, under-
reamed piles have been successfully foundered in the Upper Mottled Clay, Reading Formation.
The de-stressing of the Lambeth Group clays following excavation can result in de-structuring,
swelling, and softening. Thus the relationship between strength, bearing capacity, and depth is
important in the design of foundations as is timely construction after pile boring, and control of
surface water. Although in central London where the water table has been lowered, the
Lambeth Group is generally considered to be under-drained by the Thanet Formation and
Chalk. Water bearing sand units such as sand channels in the Laminated Beds and Upnor
Formation gravel should be carefully monitored during the site investigation phase of projects
involving deep pile foundations. If high water pressures are encountered then actions such as
bentonite support introduced towards the base of the London Clay Formation, should be
considered to prevent collapse of bored piles.
Canary Wharf was one of the largest developments in Europe. Started in the late 1980s it has
expanded across many of Londons 19
th
and early 20
th
century docks. Notable infrastructure
developments have included the Docklands Light Railway (DLR) and a network of roads,
whilst preserving much of the waterway system. Fill, Alluvium, Terrace Gravel and Lambeth
Group strata underlie the centrally situated Canary Wharf site in the West India Docks area of
the Isle of Dogs. Here, the Lambeth Group is approximately 12 m thick, with typically two-
Project name Reference Subject
Thames Tunnel Skempton and Chrimes, 1994 Engineering and geology
Rotherhithe Tunnel Tabor, 1909 Engineering
Blackwall Tunnel OReilly, 1997 Construction, scour hollows
Limehouse Link (A13),
Canary Wharf to City of London
Stevenson and DeMoor, 1994 Design and performance
Victoria Line Follenfant et al., 1969
Jubilee Line Extension (JLE) Linney and Page, 1996
Burland et al., 2001, Batten et
al., 1996
Engineering geology
Construction

Docklands Light Railway (DLR)
Lewisham Extension
Sugiyama et al., 1999 Tunnelling
Channel Tunnel Rail Link
(CTRL)
Beckwith et al., 1996
Whittaker, 2004
Ground investigation
Groundwater control
Crossrail Lehane et al., 1995 Lithological variability
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thirds of this consisting of Reading Formation deposits. The Lambeth Group strata are of
uniform thickness across most of the site, but limestone and gravel layers are intermittent. As a
result of the heterogeneity of the strata, it was found that SPT data best characterised the
engineering properties (Troughton, 1992).. Considerable seepage from the gravel bed in the
upper beds of the Upnor Formation, and the Thanet Formation beneath was managed by using
bentonite and casing (Troughton, 1992). Major buildings were founded in the Thanet
Formation, while smaller structures and roads, usually by driven piles, and cofferdams were
founded within the Lambeth Group. Some driven piles reached refusal in the limestone/marl
layers.
Large diameter bored piles were successfully used under dry conditions at the British Library
site in Euston, London, where shaft adhesions of over 200 kPa were achieved in Lambeth
Group clays and sands at between 9 and 13 m depth (ORiordan, 1982). Design compressibility
and permeability parameters for the clays and sandy clays of the Lambeth Group for the Royal
Albert Dock Spine Road (RADSR) are given as m
v
= 0.15 m
2
/MN, c
v
= 10 m
2
/yr, and k = 1 x
10
-8
m/s (Card and Carter, 1995). Other examples of pile design and tests are given in Hight et
al. (2004).
7.4.2 Shallow Foundations
The lack of publications on problems associated with shallow foundations on the Lambeth
Group indicates that their construction generally presents no major difficulties. Those
settlements that have been documented indicate that they are about half those generally found
for the London Clay Formation (Morton and Au, 1974). Nevertheless, shrinkage and swelling
of high plasticity Reading Formation clays, and possible instability in the Upnor Formation
gravel or loose sand beds in any unit, should be considered during the site investigation and
design stages.
Mobilisation of pyritic material within the lignite layers of the Lambeth Group can give rise to
sulphate-rich groundwater and consequent local damage to foundation concrete, after
oxidation. Deposits with a large proportion of plant remains may provide poor and variable
foundation conditions.
7.4.3 Summary of key issues for foundation design in the Lambeth Group
Deep foundations:
Control of groundwater (for example by site specific designed de-watering),
Founding-on, or penetrating, strong layers or lenses (i.e. shelly limestone within the
Lower and Upper Shelly Clays of the Woolwich Formation and calcrete in the Upnor
Formation and Lower Mottled Clay),
Sulphate attack of concrete foundation in the Woolwich Formation,
De-stressing, heave and softening of clays in excavation.
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Shallow foundations:
Shrink/swell in clays:
Related to
o Seasonal moisture content changes,
o Desiccation due to trees,
o Heave due to removal of trees,
o Swell due to leaking drains.
Softening of clays in the presence of water bearing sand beds.
7.5 EMBANKMENTS AND USE AS FILL MATERIALS
Due to the highly variable lateral and vertical nature and extent of the Lambeth Group
lithologies and their relatively thin development, fill materials derived from these deposits are
likely to be composed of more than one unit and lithology. Therefore, use of the Lambeth
Group as an engineered fill will require a good knowledge of the lithologies present and
available at a potential source area and their strength/compaction characteristics. During the
construction of the Newbury bypass (A34) the Lambeth Group provided a good source of fill
for embankments and landscaping when emplaced in the correct condition, but low plasticity
clays and silty sands typically proved to be highly sensitive to changes in moisture content.
Acceptable criteria for use as engineered fill should be ascertained during the planning,
investigation and construction phases (Hight et al., 2004).
Data on embankments constructed from the Lambeth Group is sparse partly because it has a
relatively small outcrop. A survey of the motorway networks by TRL (Perry, 1989) found
failure of 7.6% of embankments constructed from Lambeth Group deposits (undertaken prior
to revision of the stratigraphy, the survey reported Reading Beds as Eocene, rather than
Palaeocene in age). This was second only to the Gault Formation. Typically failure occurred on
1 in 2 slopes within 22 years of construction. Failure modes include not only slope failures but
also tension and shrinkage cracks, excessive settlement, water seepage and erosion of the toe.
The survey noted that drainage ditches on the slope itself contributed significantly to reducing
the number of failures. The maximum allowable embankment slopes assessed during this
survey are presented in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3. Maximum slope (vertical to horizontal) allowable for embankments
constructed from the Reading Formation to reduce failure to below 1% within 22 years
of construction (Perry, 1989).
Maximum slope
Slope height (m) 0 - 2.5 2.5 - 5.0 >5.0
Fine grained 1:3 1:4 1:4
Coarse grained 1:1.75 1:1.75 1:1.75