8th Social Social Science 2

CONTENTS
PUBLISHER'S NOTE v
UNIT II : Resources and Development 1-73
1. Resources, Types and Development 3
2. Natural Resources Land, Soil and Water 10
3. Natural Resources Minerals, Energy, Plants and Wildlife 21
4. Agriculture 35
5. Manufacturing Industries 48
6. Human Resources 62
UNIT III : Major Issues and Challenges of India and the World 74-175
7. Natural Disasters 76
8. Environmental Degradation 96
9. Developmental Issues 105
10. Globalisation 116
11. TerrorismA Challenge 123
12. United Nations, International Agencies and Human Rights 129
13. India and the United Nations 144
14. Foreign Policy of India 152
15. India and its Neighbours 159
GLOSSARY 176-181
I ndustri al revol uti on changed the course of
development throughout the world. With increasing
use of machinery and improved technology, quality
and quantity of agricultural and industrial production
increased in several countries of the West (e.g. the UK,
Germany and France in Europe, the USA and Canada
in North America). However, with this increase in
production, the West required various types of raw
materials in large quantity. They, therefore, started
looking for such resources in countries of Asia, Africa
and South America, where bounties of nature
forests, minerals, animals and agricultural products
were available in plenty. The exploitation of these
resources, especially in the colonies of European
powers, coul d be easi l y traced through the
important transport routes developed during that
period. Most of the road and rail routes were connected
2/ Social Science: Part II
with resource-rich interior parts of these countries with
sea-ports. Plantations of tea, coffee and rubber were
started in Asia, Africa and South America. Export items
from these continents included mainly raw materials.
These were processed in the newly industrialised West.
The finished products were sold in the Asian, African
and South Ameri can markets. Power- dri ven
machineries took less time to produce goods in large
volumes. These goods were cheaper than the hand-
made items. As a result, traditional small-scale and
household industries of the oriental world were
adversely affected.
The economic disparity between the industrialised
countries and the remaining part of the world increased.
However, other countries are gradually trying to catch
up with the modern technological developments to
improve their economic conditions. Depending upon
the level of economic development, the countries of the
world today can be grouped as developed, developing
and less developed.
There is a close relationship between resource-use
and level of economic development. With the increasing
pace of development, the resource-use also increases.
It has also brought in its wake, serious environmental
problems such as resource depletion and environmental
pollution. Advancements in science and technology
are helpful in providing improved techniques to stop
wasteful exploitation of resources and checking
pollution. But, we also need to make efforts to keep
the pace of development at a level which could be
sustained in future.
In the following chapters, we will study in detail
about resources, their use and importance as they
change over time. We shall also study how resource-
use reflects the process of development and makes it
more sustainable.
Resources, Types and Development/ 3
Look around and name a few articles
that you use. Food that you eat,
clothes that you wear, house where
you live in, the furniture, utensils,
stationery, and vehicles all have
been obtained using some material
from the nature. These might have
changed substantially in the present
form to make it difficult for you to
recognise the original raw material.
Processed goods become more useful
and hence more valuable. Compare
the prices of any unprocessed and
processed i tem e.g. one kg of
sugarcane and one kg of sugar.
What are Resources?
We satisfy all our material needs using
gifts of nature such as rocks, minerals,
soils, rivers, plants and animals. In a
way, any material that constitutes part
of the earth and which humans need
and value is called aresource. In fact,
even humans are also cal l ed a
resource because by developi ng
human skills only, other resources can
be developed.
Any physical material becomes a
resource as and when humans find
them useful and attach some value to
it. Value can be expressed in terms of
economic, legal, aesthetic and ethical
properties. For example, resources
being used for producti on have
economic value. Clean Air Act is an
example of legal value attached to the
quality of a resource air. Natural
scenic beauty of forests, mountains,
lakes and rivers is an example of the
aesthetic value. The responsibility to
preserve our National Parks for future
generations reflects theethical value
attached to such resources.
Gifts of nature or natural
endowments acquire value with
reference to theneeds of people living
in a region and the technology, i.e.
knowledge of the best way to do or
make things, available to them.
Human needs and desires are neither
uniform in all parts of the world nor
static over the years. They generally
grow and become complex with the
progress of a society. The early
humans had few basic needs and they
were fulfilled by collecting materials
from thei r surroundi ngs. Some
communities do it even today. For
RESOURCES, TYPES AND DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1
them as hunting grounds till humans
learnt domestication of plants, i.e.
selecting a wild variety of plant and
cultivating it successfully in future. It
led to the development of sedentary
agriculture i.e. farming of land at a
fixed location instead of moving from
one site to another. For the people of
Chhotanagpur, the iron ore deposits
acquired resource-value only after the
first iron and steel plant of the country
was set up there. Rock oil seeping from
rocks in north-western Pennsylvania
was of l i ttle val ue ti l l the mi d-
nineteenth century. It acquired a
resource value with the development
of a technology that enabled its
refinement into a lamp oil. Reasons
for valuing a resource may also
change with time. In the seventeenth
century, the availability of pine tar
and tall timber in northern New
Engl and (USA) hel ped devel op
settlements. These resources were
example, the Paliyan tribes of South
India or the Pygmies of Africa eat
edible plants roots, flowers and
fruits, and hunted animals without
much processing. The nature of
human needs and desires do change
with the process of development. It
is reflected through the ways people
live in different parts of the world e.g.
food habits, clothing, housing and
modes of transport. In developed
societies people use a variety of
products in large quantities that are
hi ghl y processed. An average
American or European, for example,
consumes a variety of food products,
most of which are highly processed
items such as cheese, chocolates,
tinned fruit, frozen vegetables and
animal products. In a developing
country like India, on the other hand,
common food items for a large
number of people would comprise
chapati or rice along with vegetable,
dal and curd. All these products
undergo little processing. It means
that as our needs and desi res
grow, consumption of resources
also increases.
Natural endowments were already
present on Earth when humans
appeared on the scene. But, these
were not of much value till humans
di scovered thei r use and found
appropriate technology to make them
usable. Hence, the progress of human
civilisation is marked with various
inventions and discoveries. Vast fertile
plains across continents were hardly
of any resource-value except using
Pygmies : hunters and gatherers
used by the Engl i sh Navy for
shipbuilding, and hence were of
strategic value. This region now uses
its vegetation cover as a totally
different kind of resource for
recreation and tourism because of its
natural beauty.
TYPES OF RESOURCES
Resources are generally classified into
natural, human and human-made
(See figure below).
Natural Resources
Any matter or energy derived from the
environment that is used by living
things including humans such as air,
water, soil, minerals, fossil fuels,
Resources
Human
Non-Renewable
Renewable
Natural
Continuous
e.g. wind
Non-recyclable
e.g. fossil fuels
Flow
Human-made e.g.
buildings,
capital, political
institutions
Recyclable
e.g. metallic
ores
Short term
e.g. crops
Mid term
e.g. water
Long term
e.g. forests
plants and wildlife is called a natural
resource. Many of these resources
are essential for human survival e.g.
air, water and plants. Others are used
for satisfying other material needs
and desires.
Natural resources are classified in
many ways. They may be categorised
on the basis of the source of their
origin. Accordingly, there are land,
soil, water, plant, animal, mineral and
energy resources.
Another method of classification is
according to the stage of development
of a resource. Those resources
which are found in a region, but have
not been put to a proper use are
called potential resources. Africa, for
Resource Types
example, has a vast potential of water
resources but all have not yet been
determined fully. The resources, which
have been surveyed and quantified
(quantities determined properly) for
actual use are calledactual resources.
The development of an actual resource
depends on the technology available
and the cost involved. That portion of
the actual resource, which can be
developed profitably with available
technol ogy i s termed a reserve
resource. For example, an increase in
world price of a metal such as iron
makes it profitable to utilise even a low
grade ore and thus a resource
becomes a reserve.
All natural resources in a way are
renewable in the sense that they are
part of natural cycl es, such as
hydrological cycle, rock cycle and
carbon cycle. But the time taken in
completing these cycles vary. While
some cycles e.g. hydrological cycle
may be completed soon, others such
as rock cycle may take millions of
years. Thus one of the common ways
of classifying natural resources is on
the basis of renewability. This refers
to the ability of a natural resource to
renew or replenish itself within a few
generati ons of human l i ves.
Accordingly, the natural resources are
categori sed into renewabl e and
non-renewable resources, as shown
in the figure on page 15.
Resources, which get renewed or
repleni shed fast, are call ed
renewable resources. Some of these
resources are al ways avai l abl e
(continuous) and do not get affected
by human activities e.g. solar and
wind energy. Many resources, on the
other hand, get depleted after use.
These may, however, be replenished
without endangering future use
provided, the rate of consumption
does not exceed the rate of renewal
or repl eni shment. Hence they
maintain a flow. Some resources like
crops, take a short time for renewal.
Others like water can be renewed in a
comparatively longer time. Some other
resources like forests take still a
longer period.
Non-renewable resources are
built over a very long geological time.
Minerals and fossil fuels are the
examples of such resources. Since the
rate of their formation is extremely
Natural resources
slow, they cannot be replenished
within a time frame meaningful to
people. Though these resources are
normally found in large quantities,
they are distributed unevenly. Their
economic use is viable only when they
are found i n suffi cientl y l ar ge
concentrations and are extractable.
Some of these resources such as
metal l i c ores (rocks contai ni ng
minerals like gold, silver and iron) are
recyclable in nature. It means that the
metal content drawn from the ore may
be used agai n and agai n after
necessary processing. Fossil fuels
such as coal , mi neral oi l and
natural gas get exhausted forever
once consumed. Hence, they are
non-recyclable.
Human Resources
These refer to the number (quantity)
and abilities (mental and physical) of
the people. Education and health
make peopl e competent for
developing resources. In economic
terms, people are considered valuable
assets of a country. Though, there are
differing views regarding treatment of
humans as a resource, one cannot
deny the fact that it is basically the
abilities of humans that help in
transforming the physical materials
into valuable resources. You will learn
more about human resources later.
Human-made Resources
These resources are basically those
aids of production which have been
created by people to utilise the
physical materials of the environment.
Thus, machines, tools, houses and
bui l di ngs are the exampl es of
such resources.
Over the time, the nations of
Europe and North America, as well
as some Asian countries such as
J apan and Singapore prospered.
Here, people have better nutrition,
longer lives and more access to a
variety of consumer products than
what they had 100 or 50 years ago. It
is mainly because of the economic
development that took place due to
rapid industrialisation.
Economic development refers to
changes in the amount, composition,
rate of growth, distribution and
consumption of resources. If the
productivity of a nation i.e. average
output per hour of work, is high, it is
definitely better off by producing more
goods and services. However, human
resources are most crucial because
the health and education of the
population contribute to growth in
productivity. Rapid population growth
may prohibit it.
While natural resources can be
protected and sometimes renewed, in
general, they have been formed over
millions of years and hence need to be
conserved with care. Over the time,
human-made resources have gained
importance because they help in
enhancing the productivity. Today,
growth in physical capital, e.g. the
equipments and buildings used to
produce other things, contributes a
great deal to productivity. Technology,
i.e. the method of doing or making
things is also a human-made
resource and an important contributor
to productivity growth.
The pol i ti cal i nsti tuti ons of a
nation such as the Panchayati Raj
System i n I ndi a may al so be
considered as human-made resources
that contribute to producti vi ty.
Enforcement of the rule of law and of
property rights reduces uncertainty.
For example, if law and order is
ensured by the pol i ce and the
judiciary, people feel free to move
about and carry their business. With
less uncertainty, people spend fewer
resources on protecting themselves
and their belongings. As a result,
productivity increases. The laws of a
nati on concerni ng openness to
international trade and investment
also influence productivity. India in
recent years has opened its market to
many foreign goods. Therefore, people
are not required to produce everything
that they need. They may instead
produce goods r efl ecti ng thei r
specialisation. Thus, the quality of
goods will always be good and it will
boost the trade.
RESOURCE-USE AND
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
As we know, demands for resources
vary among different regions and
countries. Developed countries use
more resources than developing
countries. For example, mineral oil
is used five times more than the world
average in the USA. With economic
devel opment, the demand for
resource i ncreases faster than
their population growth. The wealth
that accompani es economi c
development enables individuals to
consume more.
The rising demand for various
resources has caused degradation or
depl eti on of many val uabl e
resources. For example, overuse of
soil has caused infertility in many
areas. Si mi l arl y, wi despread
deforestation and killing of birds and
animals have endangered many plant
and animal species. As a result, some
of them have become extinct i.e.
l ost forever. Some others are
disappearing fast and if we do not
make efforts to preserve and
conserve them now, they will soon be
extinct. The quality of air, water and
l and r esour ces have also been
affected badly due to misuse or
overuse of resources. I f sincere
attempts are not made by every
individual to stop misusing these
resour ces, al l of them cannot
last long.
Future of our planet and its
people, therefore, is linked with our
ability to maintain and preserve the
life support system that nature
provides. This makes it our duty to
ensure that
all uses of renewable resources are
sustainable
the diversity of life on the earth is
conserved
the damage to natural environmental
system is minimised.
Some Principles of Sustainable
Development
Respect and care for all forms of life
EXERCISES
1. Answer the following questions in brief.
(i ) What is a resource?
(i i) What are the four types of values associated with resources?
(iii) What is sedentary agriculture?
(iv) Name the three categories of resources.
(v) What do we mean by a reserve?
(vi) What is meant by human-made resources?
(vii) Give two examples of human-made resources.
(viii) Why consumption of resources is higher in developed nations
than developing nations?
2. Distinguish between
(i ) natural and human resources
(i i) potential and actual resources
(iii) renewable and non-renewable resources.
3. Project Work
List from your surroundings as many resources as you can
and put them under the categories natural and human-
made.
Fi nd out from your nei ghbourhood the l ocal natural
resources, which are being used. Also make a list of the
different ways they are being used by the people of the
locality.
Improve the quality of human life
Conserve the earths vitality and
diversity
Minimise the depletion of natural
resources
Change personal atti tude and
practices towards the environment
Enable communities to care for
their own environment
By sustainable development, we
mean that resources are utilised
carefully so that besides meeting the
present requirements it also takes
care of the future generations.
10/Social Science: Part II
Natural resources are crucial for
economic development of a region or
a country. Distribution of resources
of various types in the world is highly
uneven. Also, the techniques used for
production vary. As a result, great
variations are observed in the levels
of development not only among
different countries but also within a
country.
In the following pages, we will
examine the distribution and
utilisation of major types of natural
resources as well as the impact of
their development. Most of these
resources may be used again and
again with careful management, but
waste and misuse can seriously
threaten their future. Preservation
and conservation of these resources
are, therefore, necessary for their
future use. Conservation means wise
use of resources avoiding misuse and
wastage.
LAND RESOURCES
Land is an important resource as
humans live on it. Humans obtain
most of the products from it to satisfy
their needs. For example, it provides
for more than 95 per cent of human
food requirement, greater part of
clothing and housing and all needs of
wood for both fuel and construction.
But, the availability of land for human
use is very limited. Land covers only
about 30 per cent of the total area of
the earths surface. Even all parts of
this small percentage is not habitable.
About 90 per cent of the world
population (over 6 billion people)
occupy roughly 30 per cent of its land
area. The remaining 70 per cent of
the land is either sparsely inhabited
(10 per cent of population) or
uninhabited. It is because this land
is either too rocky or the climate is
too dry, too wet, too hot or too cold.
Topography of the land, such as
rugged and steep slopes of the
mountain and low-lying areas
susceptible to waterlogging, and
extreme climate impose restrictions
on land for human use. Sparsely
populated areas mostly include the
deserts and grasslands of Asia and
Africa, tropical forests of South
America, Africa and Southeast Asia
NATURAL RESOURCES
LAND, SOIL AND WATER
CHAPTER 2
Natural Resources Land, Soil and Water/11
grazing of animals, building houses
and roads, mi ni ng and
manufacturing. This is commonly
termed as land use. The proportion
of land put to different uses varies
from one region to the other. It is
referred to as land use pattern. It
also varies within a region over
time. Growing population in many
parts of the world has converted
parts of forests into crop lands or
agri cul tural l ands i nto non-
agri cul tural uses such as
buildings, roads and airports.
Several factors influence land use
pattern of a country or a region at a
given time. Physical factors such as
topography, soil, climate, availability
of water and mineral resources
determine the probable use of land.
and polar areas. These areas are
inhabited by people, who are engaged
in hunting, gathering, fishing,
herding and in growing of some
crops. Antarctica is uninhabited
except for temporary occupation by
few scientists conducting research.
Fertile plains and river valleys are
densely populated because they are
suitable for agriculture.
The sub-tropical and mid-latitude
zones are occupied by the bulk of
world population (approx. 66 per
cent). The availability of arable land
i.e. land suitable for cultivation, is yet
very limited (See map below).
Land Use
Land is used for different purposes
such as cul ti vati on of crops,
World distribution of Arable Land
2330' N
0
2330' S
arable land
Fertile plains, for example, are used
as croplands. Occurrence of mineral
deposits favours mining. Economic
and human factors are also
important. For example, areas having
low-grade ores may not develop
mining owing to its high cost.
Similarly, in densely populated areas,
encroachment on forest and
croplands may be more for meeting
other human requirements like
buildings, houses, roads and rails
etc. Land use patterns of a few
countries of the world are given in
Table 2.1.
India is fortunate to have a very
high percentage of arable land. But
the forest cover is quite low. It is
desirable to have about one-third of
Table 2.1 Land use in selected countries
Countries Percentage of area in
Croplands Pasture Forest Other Uses
Australia 6 56 14 24
Brazil 9 20 66 5
Canada 5 4 39 52
China 10 34 14 42
France 35 21 27 17
India 57 4 22 17
Japan 12 2 67 19
Russia 8 5 44 44
U.K. 29 46 10 16
U.S.A. 21 26 32 21
World 11 26 31 32
Study the above table and answer the following:
(i) Name the countries having the highest percentage of land under cropland, forest,
pasture and other uses.
(ii) How would you relate the land use patterns of these countries with the probable
economic activities?
the total land area of the country
under forest to maintain a healthy
environment. Some countries like
Australia and the U.K. have high
percentage of pasture lands.
Since the extent of land available
in any region is limited, there has
always been a competition among
its different uses. The same piece of
land has to be distributed among
various uses i.e. construction of
building, road, railways, ports,
setting up a factory, mining,
cultivation, forests and grazing
grounds. Keeping in view the nature
of land and needs of the community,
land use can be planned properly
to provide best results. Careless use
of land may create serious problems
such as shortage of croplands, soil
erosion and desertification.
SOIL RESOURCES
Most part of the earths surface is
covered with soil. It is a combination
of small rock fragments and organic
materials in which plants grow. The
quality of land is determined by soil
cover, because all plants crops,
grasses, flowering plants, vegetables
and trees, need soil to grow. It is, in
fact, the thin layer of the top soil
that is crucial for the growth of
plants. Though soil is a renewable
resource, the process of soil
formation is extremely slow. It takes
hundreds of years to form one
centimetre of soil layer. Care,
therefore, must be taken to preserve
and protect it, because if the topsoil
is washed away, it will take a very
long time to replace it.
Soil formation is controlled by five
factors nature of parent rock, the
topography, the climate, the
organism in the soil and time. The
original rock called parent rock,
from which the soil is formed,
determines its basic characteristics.
For example, shales contribute
clays, while sandstones contribute
sand grains. Temperature and
precipitation are the main climatic
factors affecting soil formation.
Frequent temperature changes and
presence of water quicken the soil
formation through increased
weathering. Topography affects the
drainage of an area. On a steep slope,
there is hardly any chance of
accumulation of weathered rocks.
They are moved down the slope by
water and under force of gravity. In
plains and areas with gentle slope,
soils are accumulated without any
hindrance. Dead plants and animals
provide humus to the soil.
Organisms like earthworm and ants
through their movements create
space for air and water in the soil.
Time factor is also important because
longer the time for soil formation,
more deeper is the soil layer. Besides
weathering of rocks, soil is also
formed by deposition of materials by
moving water (rivers) and winds in
low-lying areas. Alluvial soils of river
valleys are very fertile and deep.
The soil is robbed of its fertility if
the land is not left fallow (without
crops) for sometime or the same
crop is grown every year. The soil
may become deficient in some
nutrients. It is interesting to note
that all crops do not need the same
Soil erosion
nutrients from the soil in equal
amount. Certain plants rather
return nitrogen to the soil, helping
to maintain the soils fertility. The
fertility of the soil can also be
restored by adding fertilisers to the
soil. But the chemicals used in
fertilisers can make the soil unfit
for cultivation in the long run.
The greatest loss to soils is
caused by erosion. Loose soil devoid
of vegetation is subject to higher
rate of erosion. It is carried by
running water down the slope
and by wind. Physical and human
factors are responsible for this.
Physical factors include slope,
intensity of rainfall and velocity of
wind. Human factors include,
overgrazing, deforestation, overuse
by adding more and more chemical
fertilisers, over-irrigation leading to
salinisation and poor agricultural
practices. In India, 36 per cent of
i ts total i rri gated area
has been damaged by salinisation.
Soil conservation measures are
selected on the basis of the local
condition of terrain (slope of the
land) and climate.
Conserving Land and Soil
Resources
Growing population and their ever
growing demands have led to a large-
scale destruction of natural
resources. It has created a fear of
losing many natural resources.
Therefore, the present rate of
destruction must be checked. Some
of the ways to prolong the use of these
wonderful gifts of nature are as
follows: minimising our resource
needs; finding ways and means to
utilise these resources in a more
ef ficient manner; looking for
alternatives whenever possible and
conserving these resources with
better planning.
In hilly and mountainous areas,
soil can be conserved by following:
terrace farming, contour
ploughing, controlling shifting
agriculture, deforestation, afforestation
and plugging of gullies. In plains,
strip cropping is useful in checking
soil erosion. Gullying is a major
problem in areas of clayey soils.
Bunding the field can reduce
gully erosion.
In arid region, where wind action
is destructive for soil, shelter belts are
quite effective in checking soil erosion.
WATER RESOURCES
Water is a unique liquid because
there is no alternative for it. It is
essential for all forms of life.
Compared to most other liquids,
water has a high capacity to absorb
or store heat.
Water i s a maj or body
constituent of several plant and
animal species. Seventy per cent of
the human body consists of water.
Humans use water for various
purposes domestic (drinking,
cooking, washing, etc.), agricultural
( i rri gati on) , i ndustri al and
generation of electricity.
Contour ploughing and strip cropping
Shelter belts
Terrace farming
Terrace Farming
The growing of crops on level steps
or terraces that have been
constructed on hillsides.
Contour Ploughing
Technique of ploughing parallel to
the contours of a hill slope rather
than up and down the slope, so as
to reduce soil erosion.
Strip Cropping
Growing of different crops on
parallel narrow strips of ground,
usually following the contour
patterns.
Shelter Belts
In dry regions, rows of trees are
planted to check the wind
movement for protecting soil cover.
Availability of Water Global
Distribution
Water is found in abundance on the
earth. It covers about three-fourths
of the earths surface (71 per cent
covered by oceans). As such, the
earth appears blue from space and
hence called a blue planet.
Yet, all water on the earth is not
available for use. Note that about 97
per cent of the earths total water is
Blue Planet Earth
in oceans and seas. It is salt-water
(saline) and hence unsuitable for
consumption. Another two per cent
water is contained in ice-caps and
glaciers. Due to their location, they
are inaccessible. Only one per cent
is fresh water, which is easily
available and is suitable for human
use. It is found as ground water, as
surface water in rivers and lakes, and
as water vapour in the atmosphere.
A tiny fraction (0.001%) of the total
water on the earth is in the
atmosphere at any one time. This
relatively small amount of water in
the hydrological cycle is very crucial
for us. Recall from the earlier class
that water constantly moves among
different spheres of the earth i.e.
lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere
and biosphere. Water is found in
different forms i.e. solid, liquid and
gas in these spheres. It remains in
the gaseous form in the atmosphere
for the shortest duration compared
to other forms. It is responsible for
producing all fresh water resource on
the earth through the process of
precipitation.
Fresh water, therefore, is one of
the most precious substances on the
earth. While the total volume of water
is relatively constant over the earth,
its problem continues to soar with
population increase and rising
standards of living. In 1975, the total
human use of water was about 3,850
cu km/year. It increased to more
than 6,000 cu km/year in the year
2000. As such, despite it being a
renewable resource, many parts of the
world are facing the problem of water
scarcity either due to drying up of
water sources or water pollution.
Fresh Water
Distribution of fresh water resources
is highly uneven. Many of these
inequalities in water availability are
due to climatic reasons. In some
regions precipitation exceeds
evaporation. Hence, these areas have
surplus precipitation. These areas of
surplus precipitation are: the region
between equator and 20 north and
south, and north and south of 40
latitude. In both hemispheres
between 20 and 40 latitudes
evaporation exceeds precipitation.
Hence this has created deserts e.g.
the Sahara, the Arabian, and the Gobi
deserts in the Northern Hemisphere.
The Atacama, the Namibia-Kalahari
and the Western Australian deserts
are examples from the Southern
Hemisphere.
Surface water is the most common
source of water. Overland flow of
rainwater is the principal contributor
to the surface water reservoir. If the
rainfall is slow and steady on a heavily
forested land, run off is little. In urban
areas, where there is little soil and
forest cover, run off may be 100 per
cent. The surface run off from a large
area gets collected in the form of small
streams, which unite together to make
big rivers. The area drained by a big
river along with its small streams
(tributaries) is called a river basin.
Water is extracted from a river
through a pipe or cutting a canal from
it. Pipes are generally used for
domestic or industrial purposes and
canals for irrigation. If the rate of
extraction is higher than the rate of
replenishment of the river, the water
level will go down, and make it dry.
Water is impounded by making
dams on rivers so that water can be
used in times of shortage. A number
of large dams have been built the
world over e.g. Bhakra, Hirakud and
Rihand in India, Aswan in Egypt and
Hoover in the USA.
Problems of Water Availability
Water shortage is a major and
recurrent problem in many regions,
including most of Africa, the west
Asia, much of south Asia, a large
proportion of the western United
States, north-west Mexico, parts of
South America and nearly all of
Australia.
In 1999, 26 countries were
experiencing water scarcity; by
2025, it is likely that 65 countries
(including India, Korea, Nigeria,
Peru and Poland) will face water
scarcity.
Poverty stricken countries are
located in the climatic zones most
susceptible to drought and other
water problems. They are, therefore,
least able to afford to import water
from other sources.
Regions with scarce water tend to
have the highest rates of population
growth. The result is that more than
3 billion people live in regions
affected by water shortages.
Large Dams
Dams have been built on many rivers
over the last 5,000 years. The first
dams were small constructions
designed to control floods and to
supply water for irrigation and
domestic use. Later, they were used
to drive waterwheels and more
recently to generate hydroelectric
power. Since 1930s, many large dams
have been built, particularly between
1950s and 1970s. As reported by the
World Commission on Dams, by 2000,
there were more than 48,000 large
dams (over 15 m high) in the world,
nearly two-thirds of which were in
Asia (about half of the worlds total
in China alone).
Many large dams produce
environmental impacts upstream,
downstream and in the vicinity of the
reservoir and hence controversies
surround such developments. The
Babina dam on the Amazon in Brazil,
e.g., covered 2,360 km
2
of natural
rainforest of the Amazon basin. Since
it received run off from a small
drainage basin, the river flow was
limited and the scheme generated
only 112 MW of electricity. The dam
was completed in 1987. It was
designed to supply much of the
electricity needs of the city of
Manaus. But it took so long to build
and the population in the city rose so
fast during construction that
additional alternative energy sources
were soon required. Among the more
serious short-term consequences of
the dam construction were loss
of valuable rainforest and
displacement of about a third of the
surviving members of the Waimiri
Atroari tribe. Similarly, Three Gorges
Dam in China on the Chang Jiang
has been also under severe criticism
by environmentalists. In India, the
Sardar Sarovar dam on the Narmada
has also been discussed widely.
Conserving Water and Improving
its Quality
Quality of water is affected adversely
when the impurities in water exceed
such permissible limit that can be
tolerated by living organisms.
The allowable concentration of
impurities in water varies with the
different purposes for which the water
is used.
Drinking water must be the most
pure. The major contaminants of
water are: bacteria and parasites,
chlorinated hydrocarbons, volatile
hydrocarbons, lead, salt, hardness
(dissolved calcium carbonate),
and iron.
Bacteria and parasites cause
many diseases such as amoebic
dysentery. The allowable limit for all
organisms is ideally zero. Complete
disinfection of drinking water is
possible only through chlorination.
Boiling water is the most common
method, which kills all bacteria and
parasites.
Pesticides are derived from
chlorinated hydrocarbon. Because of
their toxicity to animal and insect
pests, they have been used in virtually
all counties, but they are equally
hazardous to people. They are not
biodegradable and hence they reach
in some amount to human bodies
through water. Water can be freed of
this contamination only by the very
expensive process of distillation
(boiling the water and condensing the
pure steam). The use of pesticides
needs to be banned completely in
developing countries as has been done
in industrialised nations.
Soil and water are contaminated
with hydrocarbons by oil spills,
leaking petrol and diesel tanks, and
cleaning fluids that are flushed down
the drain. Checking contamination is
the best way. The water once
contaminated cannot be easily
purified and hence has to be marked
undrinkable.
Lead is very dangerous to the
nervous system. Though water
purifiers remove the lead
contamination, they absorb lead
particles and need to be replaced.
Salt, dissolved calcium carbonate
and iron do not cause health
problems, but create other problems
such as they affect the machineries.
Problem of Water Quality
Untreated or partially treated
sewage, agricultural chemicals and
industrial effluents are major
contaminants, with nitrates, metals
and pesticides the main problems.
As a result, many water supplies are
being damaged by pollution, with
declining water quality.
Human and animal wastes
introduce pathogens that cause
serious diseases (including
typhoid, cholera, amoebic
infections, dysentery and
diarrhoea). This accounts for over
three-quarters of all diseases in
developing countries.
Improvements in water supplies
and sanitation could reduce child
morality by more than a half.
These are however, more localised
problems.
Besides drinking, water has four
other uses industrial, electricity
generation, irrigation, and for animals
and poultry. The iron contamination
and hard water are more serious
problems for industrial activities and
electricity generation. Irrigation water
faces major threat from salt. Like
humans, animals and poultry need
water free of microbes and lead
contamination. It may, however, be
slightly more salty than human use.
Access to clean and adequate water
sources are emerging as the greatest
problem of the 21st century world.
Surface run off can be slowed
down by forest and other vegetation
cover to improve underground
storage. Water harvesting is one of the
methods of saving surface run off.
Water can also be impounded by
making check dams.
Water is used maximum for
irrigating crops. Over irrigation needs
to be avoided. Seepage losses from
canals can be minimised by lining
them. Sprinklers are very effective
and efficient tools of irrigation. Even
undulating lands are irrigated
properly. Besides, water losses
through seepage and evaporation are
checked. In dry regions, where
evaporation rate is very high, drip or
trickle irrigation is very useful. Water
is supplied to plant roots through
underground pipes.
Problems of Access to Water
Less than 20 per cent of the
population in many developing
countries has access to clean
drinking water.
In India over 60 per cent of families
do not get water at home. Only 29
per cent of families in rural areas
and 65 per cent in urban areas get
water at home.
In 1990, 243 million urban and 988
million rural dwellers were without
access to potable water. This has
risen by an extra 2.1 billion people
(813 million in cities and 1.3 billion
in countryside) in 2000.
Water supply to an area can be
increased in various ways
(including building dams, canals
and pipelines and desalination
plants) but these engineering
solutions are expensive.
Access to and shared use of water
are major issues for many
neighbouring countries, and
hydropolitical issues can lead to
major confrontation between
countries.
In industries, recycled water may
be used for cooling purposes.
Effluents should be treated before
disposing them.
In domestic use, wastage of water
should be checked. Waste water of
kitchen may be used for gardens.
Every individual needs to economise
water use. In many parts of India,
water is brought for daily use from
long distances. It is going to be a
problem in other parts as well sooner
or later, if we do not learn to
economise and make best use of the
water available to us.
EXERCISES
(i) Why are natural resources important?
(ii) What is meant by conservation?
(iii) Why is the land considered an important resource?
(iv) Name the five factors controlling soil formation.
(v) Why does soil lose fertility?
(vi) Name three factors influencing the land use pattern.
(vii) List three factors responsible for soil erosion.
(viii) How can soil be conserved?
(ix) In what way can we check soil erosion from wind action in a
dry region?
(x) Why is the earth called a blue planet?
2. Fill in the blanks.
(i) About 90 per cent of the worlds population occupy roughly
________ per cent of its land area.
(ii) ________ has the highest percentage of land under pasture.
(iii) _________ and precipitation are the main climatic factors
affecting soil formation.
(iv) Evaporation exceeds precipitation in both hemispheres between
20
and ________ latitudes, creating deserts.

3. Project Work
Find out the ways the land is being used (land use) in your
neighbourhood e.g. commercial (shops and offices), industrial
(factories and mines), residential (houses, schools and
hospitals), farming and forestry. Make a note of changes, if
any, in the existing pattern. Consider how far they will be
affecting your community.
Besides land, soil and water
resources, other important natural
resources are minerals, energy,
plants and wildlife.
MINERAL RESOURCES
Modern society depends upon the
availability of mineral resources. We
use different kinds of minerals in our
daily lives e.g. iron ore for making
steel, fossil fuels such as coal and
mineral oil, and marble, sand and
gravel for constructing buildings.
Many mineral products can be seen
in your own surroundings utensils,
nails, wires, machines, jewellery and
television. All these have been made
of some kind of mineral. Their
importance can be judged from the
fact that every new phase of human
civilisation is associated with the
discovery of an important mineral.
You must have read earlier about
copper age, bronze age and iron age.
What are Minerals?
You have already read about rocks
and minerals in the previous class.
Minerals are natural inorganic
substances, which consist of one or
more elements. They have specific
chemical composition. They are
identified on the basis of their
physical and chemical properties.
Colour and hardness are examples
of physical properties. Coal is black
or brown. Quartz may be red, black,
pink or purple. Similarly, a mineral
may be as soft as talc and can be as
hard as a diamond. Solubility is a
chemical property. Salt, for example,
is soluble, while quartz is insoluble.
Classification of Minerals
Minerals are classified on the basis
of several criteria such as physical
and chemical characteristics, use
and origin. They include a great
variety of commodities, which are
grouped into metallic and non-
metallic minerals.
Metallic minerals are those from
which metals such as iron, copper,
silver and gold are derived. Metals are
strong, ductile, good conductors of
heat and electricity, opaque to visible
light and reflective after polishing.
Ductility is the ability of a metal to
NATURAL RESOURCES MINERALS,
ENERGY, PLANTS AND WILDLIFE
CHAPTER 3
produce only copper, nickel and
cobalt, which are commonly found
together in nature.
Minerals are dug out from the
earth either from the surface or
from varying depths. Extracting
commercially valuable minerals from
the earth is called mining. A mine is
an excavation in the ground for
digging out minerals. It may be a deep
underground mine or close to
surface. Surface mine or open pit
mines are also called a quarry.
Though minerals occur widely
in rocks, they can be mined
economically only at places where
their concentrations are high and
they are easily accessible. Therefore,
mining is limited to sites where
minerals and ores occur.
be drawn into thin wire without
breaking. Metallic minerals are mostly
found in nature as ores. An ore is the
natural accumulation of metals or
valuable minerals in a concentrated
form along with several impurities.
Metals in their pure forms are
obtained after separating them from
ores. For example, aluminium is a
metal, which is derived from
its ore bauxite. The process of
separating of metals from their ores
by the use of heat is called smelting.
Metals may further be subdivided
on the basis of some common
properties: Precious metals (gold and
silver); ferrous (iron and manganese);
non-ferrous (copper and lead); light
metals (aluminium); and rare metals
(zirconium). In general, metallic
minerals are more
valuable than non-
metallic minerals.
N o n - me t a l l i c
minerals are used
widely. They include
minerals such as
phosphate, potash,
salts, silica, diamonds,
sand and gravel.
Each mineral commo-
dity has its own
specifications and
markets. Hence
mineral producing
companies also do
specialise in a range of
related commodities.
Some produce only
precious stones, others
Surface Mining
Natural Resources Minerals, Energy, Plants and Wildlife/23
Usefulness of a metal is sometimes
enhanced by combining it with other
metals. This new material is called an
alloy. Copper is made stronger by
adding tin and this alloy is called
bronze. Similarly, iron is mixed with
different metals such as manganese,
nickel and chromium to prepare
different alloys. Depending upon the
proportion of each metal, the property
of each alloy would be different.
Where are Minerals Found?
Distribution of minerals on the
earths surface is closely associated
with the type of rocks and the
underlying structure of a region.
Many important minerals like gold,
silver and lead are found as ores in
the form of narrow lodes or veins in
igneous or metamorphic rocks.
Limestone, chalk and clay, used by
construction industries, are
important non-metallic minerals.
These are obtained from sedimentary
rocks. Certain minerals like gold and
diamond may occur as alluvial
deposits in the sands and gravels of
river beds. Weathered and eroded
rock particles containing the
minerals are removed and carried by
rivers, which get deposited in the river
beds. These are called placer
deposits. Oceans contain vast
quantities of minerals, but most of
them are widely scattered. Hence,
economically they are not profitable.
Distribution of Important Minerals
Minerals are distributed very
unevenly over the earth. In the map
given on next page, distribution of
some important minerals of the world
has been shown. Iron ore, copper and
bauxite are used in a large number
of industries.
Iron: Iron is the most widely used
metal. Because of its importance, it
is taken as the symbol of modern
civilisation. It is used for making
machine tools, machines, various
means of transport etc. Iron ores are
of different types e.g. haematite and
magnetite. The metallic content of the
ores vary greatly. If the metallic
content of ore is less than 30 per cent,
its mining is generally not beneficial
due to high cost.
Iron ores are found in large
amount in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, the
USA, China, Brazil, Australia and
India. In Europe, the best quality of
iron ore is found in Sweden. France
and Germany also have iron ore
deposits. Liberia and South Africa in
Africa have iron ore deposits with over
60 per cent iron content. India has
many important iron ore fields.
Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh
and Madhya Pradesh are the major
producers of iron ore in our country.
Copper: Copper is used largely in
electrical industries because of its
quality of electrical conductivity. Its
ore is found in Chile, the USA,
Canada, Poland, Russia, Kazakhstan,
Georgia, Armenia, Congo and
Zambia. In India, reserves of
copper ore are found in Jharkhand
and Rajasthan.
Bauxite: Aluminium is a light and
versatile metal. It is used for making
aeroplanes, machine tools, utensils,
packaging, construction and
electricals. It is extracted from
bauxite using electrolysis smelting
process, which requires large amount
of electrical energy. For this reason,
aluminium is manufactured mostly
in developed countries, where
abundant electric energy is available
at a low cost. Australia, Guinea,
Jamaica and Brazil are the main
producers of bauxite in the world.
If we compare the annual
consumption of various minerals in
the world, with the exception of iron,
the predominant mineral resources
are not metallic. Of the metallic
minerals, iron makes up for about 95
per cent of all metals consumed.
Mineral resources are limited. As
the world population and desire for
a higher standard of living grow, the
demand for mineral resources also
increases. More developed countries
with about 16 per cent of Worlds
population consume disproportionate
amount of mineral resources. The
USA, western Europe and Japan
collectively use about 70 per cent of
all aluminium, copper and nickel that
is extracted from the earth. If the
predicted increase in world use of
several minerals are linked with
expected population growth, the rate
of production of these minerals would
have to be increased by several times.
World: Distribution of Iron, Copper and Bauxite
PACIFIC
INDIAN
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
OCEAN
Copper
Iron
Bouxite
OCEAN
OCEAN
PACIFIC
But the existing mineral reserves
cannot meet these demands.
Hence, we need to find substitutes,
or use a smaller proportion of
mineral resources. Thus, reducing
consumption, reusing and recycling
of mineral resources are preferable
ways to delay a possible crisis.
Recycling means using discarded
materials once again. Metals like
aluminium can be recycled easily .
Minerals can also be conserved by
using efficient methods of extraction
and processing. This would save
wastage.
ENERGY RESOURCES
You must have read about energy in
science. Energy is the capacity to do
a work. We obtain energy in three
basic ways:
(i) direct heating such as by fire, the
sun and natural hot spring;
(ii) electricity, which is produced
from more direct sources such as
by burning fossil fuels; and
(iii) stored energy in the form of a
battery.
Of these, electricity is the most
important. Electricity is produced
from large power plants. Thermal
(heat) plants burn coal or natural gas;
nuclear plants use nuclear fuel such
as uranium; and hydroelectric power
plants use the force of falling water.
Besides, there are smaller plants
using geothermal, solar or wind
sources. Electricity thus produced is
transmitted through network of
power lines, called a grid to far off
places and reaches houses, shops
and factories. Considerable amount
of power is lost in its transmission.
People living in the industrialised
countries consume a dispro-
portionately high percentage of total
energy produced in the world. For
example, the USA with 5 per cent of
the world population consumes 25
per cent of world energy. The per
capita energy consumption in the
USA is approximately 25 times more
than that in India.
Most of the energy consumed in
the world today is produced by coal,
mineral oil and natural gas. Because
Recycling of cans
of their organic origin, these are called
fossil fuels. They are produced from
plant and animal materials and are
forms of stored solar energy.
Coal is formed owing to the
submergence of natural vegetation.
Mineral oil and natural gas are
usually found in association with
each other. They are formed in fine
grained sedimentary rocks.
Decomposed marine creatures,
minute plants and animals, buried
and sedimented for millions of years
ago are called fossils. Under the
pressure of overlying rocks, the oil
and gas are squeezed out of the
source rocks. They move up through
available spaces. However, if they are
trapped beneath a layer of
impermeable rock, oil or gas deposits
are formed. The rocks that contain
large deposits of oil and gas are called
reservoir rocks. Nearly 60 per cent
of the worlds mineral oil is found in
sandstone reservoirs. These resources
are essentially non-renewable.
There are other sources of energy
as well. They include hydropower,
geothermal, nuclear, solar and wind
power. These are also referred to as
the alternative energy sources, with
the possibility that they might replace
fossil fuels in future. Many such
resources such as solar energy and
wind are renewable because they are
not depleted by consumption.
World: Distribution of Mineral Oil and Coal
PACIFIC
INDIAN
ATLANTIC
OCEAN OCEAN
Mineral Oil
Coal
OCEAN
OCEAN
PACIFIC
Distribution of Fossil Fuels
Coal: The plant debris buried under
sediments are converted into coal. It
is found as one of the layers or seams
in the sedimentary rocks. The
thickness of the coal seams depends
upon the nature of the plant cover.
The quality of the coal depends upon
the depth, pressure and the heat
which the buried plant cover was
subjected to. Peat with highest
percentage of moisture content is the
lowest quality of coal. It represents
the first stage of coal formation. The
quality of coal increases with the
increase in the carbon content. In an
ascending order of quality, the coal
can be divided into peat with 50-60
per cent carbon; lignite (brown coal)
with 60-70 per cent carbon;
bituminous (black coal) with 70-90
per cent carbon; and anthracite, with
over 90 per cent carbon.
The worlds largest coal reserves
were formed about 300 million years
ago. Russia has about one-third and
the USA has about one-fourth of the
worlds coal reserves. Both these
countries together with China,
Australia, parts of western Europe,
South Africa and India share about
90 per cent of the total coal reserves
of the world. Rest is scattered in
different parts of the world and is not
of much commercial value.
Mineral oil: The total worldwide
reserve of oil is estimated to be about
one trillion (1000 billion) barrels.
About two-thirds of this supply is in
the Persian Gulf and the surrounding
areas. Saudi Arabia has the largest
reserves. Outside this region, oil
reserves are concentrated in a few
countries Russia, Venezuela,
Mexico, Libya and Nigeria. These five
countries and the Gulf region account
for nearly 90 per cent of the worlds
known reserves. Besides the above
mentioned countries, the USA, the
UK, Norway, Denmark, Germany and
the Netherlands are other producers
of mineral oil.
In India, oil was first found in
Assam. There are several oil fields
in this region. The other important
oil producing areas in the west are
Guj arat and Maharashtra. Oi l
fields are also located in the Gulf
of Khambhat and in the Arabian
Sea of f Maharashtra coast
respecti vel y. Oi l i s al so bei ng
produced in the delta areas of
Godavari and Krishna.
Western
Europe
(10%)
United States
(28%)
Former Soviet
Union
(26%)
Australia
(10%)
Eastern Europe
(6%)
Others
(9%)
China
(11%)
Distribution of coal resersves by region
eighteenth and the nineteenth
centuries.
Water is a source of clean energy,
which does not pollute the
environment. The force of falling water
is used for generating electricity,
which is called hydroelectricity.
It cannot be stored for future.
Markets should, therefore, be readily
available before its generation. Large
amount of capital is required for
making dams on rivers, fixing
machines and turbines, and laying
the transmission lines.
Many developed countries like
Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, Canada
and the USA have harnessed their water
resources successfully. Many African
countries, despite their large water
resource potential, have not used it.
In India, hydroelectricity is being
generated by several hydel power
Hirakud dam
Generating hydroelectricity
Hydroelectricity
The energy from
water is obtained
from its flow by
using turbines.
Water power has
been successfully
harnessed for a
long time. Water
wheels provided
energy to power
grain mills, saw
mills and other
machineries in
Europe and the
USA during the
Impounded
water
Screen to
filter debris
Discharge
Dam
Generator
Turbine
Power
lines
Electric
generator
Water from
reservoir
Moving water
spins turbine,
which turns
generator
Discharge
plants. Bhakra Nangal, Hirakud,
Rihand, Nagarjuna Sagar and Koyna
are the examples of such projects.
Find out the names of the rivers on
which these projects are located.
Solar Energy
The total amount of solar energy
reaching the earths surface is
tremendous. For example, on a global
scale, the solar energy of ten weeks is
roughly equivalent to the energy stored
in all known reserves of coal, oil and
natural gas. It is the most widely
available and non-exhaustible source
of energy. In many countries, it is being
used for cooking and heating purposes.
Solar energy can be trapped using
solar collectors, which can heat water
for homes. Photovoltaic cells convert
sunlight directly into electricity.
Experiments are going on to make it
more efficient and less expensive.
Some countries like Japan,
France, Germany, the USA, Canada
and India are producing photovoltaic
cells in small quantities. They are still
in the early stages of development.
Wind Energy
Wind power, like solar power, has
evolved over a long period of time.
Wind has propelled ships as well as
driven windmills to grind grain or
pump water. More recently, wind has
been used to generate electricity. The
potential for wind energy is
tremendous. Yet, there are problems
in its use because it is highly variable
in time, place and intensity.
Regions with greatest potential for
wind energy in North America are the
Pacific north-west coastal area and
the coastal region of north-eastern
USA and southern California. The
Netherlands in Europe has used
windmills for a long time. The Gujarat
coast has few windmills in India.
Geothermal Energy
It is the useful conversion of natural
heat from the interior of the earth to
heat buildings and generate
electricity. As early as 1904,
geothermal power was developed in
Italy. Natural internal heat is now
being used to generate electricity in
Russia, Japan, New Zealand, Iceland,
Mexico, and Hawaii and California in
the USA.
PLANT AND WILDLIFE
RESOURCES
The earth is a unique planet because
it contains life. A variety of organisms
exist in a thin zone of contact between
lithosphere, hydrosphere and the
atmosphere, called biosphere. These
organisms of the biosphere are
broadly divided into plants, animals
and microbes. Over 3,00,000 plant
Wind mills
species and 10,00,000 animal
species are known to exist. There is
exchange of matter and energy
between the three elements of the
physical environment (land, air and
water) and the organisms in the
biosphere. Plants and animals are
interdependent on each other.
Factors Influencing Plants and
Wildlife Resources
The physical environment influences
the types of organisms living in an
area. For example, plants and
animals found on land and in water
are totally dif ferent. Similarly,
climatic conditions also bring about
variations in the types of plants and
animals found in different regions.
Any change in the physical
environment has a great impact on
the plant and animal lives. Plants are
rooted to soil and hence they cannot
move. They make physiological
adjustments to seasonal changes.
However, climatic on a large scale
change may endanger the plant
survival. Since animals are able to
move from place to place, they stand
better chances of survival. Annual
migration of birds and animals is a
common feature in many parts of the
world. You must have heard of or
seen migrating birds, who come to
India during winter. They fly
thousands of kilometres to escape the
freezing cold of the north in Siberia
and other such places. They go back
to their homes before the beginning
of summer. Major climatic changes
may, be deadly as certain animal
species may not be able to adapt
themselves to a changed environment
and hence become extinct.
Plant Resources
Moisture and temperature are two
limiting factors of plant growth. In the
areas of heavy rainfall, huge trees
may thrive. As the rainfall decreases,
the size of the trees and their density
get reduced. Short and stunted trees,
grasses and shrubs are found in
regions of low rainfall. In such areas,
plants have deep roots. Leaves have
thorny and waxy surface to reduce
loss of moisture by transpiration. In
areas having a distinct dry season,
plants shed their leaves to reduce loss
of moisture. Even in cold regions,
plants shed leaves and remain
dormant during winter.
Every plant needs an optimum
temperature for germination, growth
and reproduction. In the tropics, due
to high temperature and moisture, a
wide variety of plants thrive. Plant
growth ceases when temperature falls
below 6C. In polar regions and on
high mountains, the growing season
is short and, therefore, the plants
occur in scattered patches. In middle
latitudes, fewer plant species occur
because of extremes of temperature
between summer and winter months.
The assemblage of plant species
living in association with each other
in a given environmental framework
is known as vegetation. Plants
occur in distinct groups of plant
communities in areas having similar
climatic conditions. These are called
biomes. The major vegetation types
of the world may be grouped as
forests, grasslands, scrubs and
tundra. The global pattern of their
distribution depends upon the
availability of moisture. Temperature
induces variations in species within
the major formations. Thus, forests
are found from the equator to the
areas beyond 60 North and South,
but the types of trees found in these
forests vary depending upon the
range of temperature.
Forests are thus associated with
areas having abundant water supply.
Grasslands are found in regions of
moderate rainfall. Thorny shrubs are
typical of dry regions. Tundra
vegetation of cold polar regions
comprises of mosses and lichens.
Here, we will discuss only forest
resources in a greater detail.
Forest Types
Forests are classified broadly into
evergreen and deciduous forests.
Evergreen Forests
Trees in these forests do not shed
their leaves simultaneously during
any season of the year. These
forests may also be grouped
into: tropical, and mid-latitude
evergreen forests, Mediterranean and
coniferous forests.
Tropical Evergreen Forests: Rainfall is
very heavy in the equatorial as well
as tropical coastal regions. Hot and
humid conditions favour luxuriant
growth of a variety of vegetation.
Trees have broad leaves to permit
transpiration of surplus moisture.
There is a very dense growth of
vegetation. They vary from tall trees
to undergrowth of low-lying plants
and bushes to creepers. As there is
no dry season, plants grow
throughout the year. Canopy of the
forest always looks green. These
forests have hardwood trees such as
mahogany, ebony and rosewood.
Their trunks and branches are of
dark colour. A special feature of these
forests is the scattered distribution
of one particular specie of tree.
Cutting of trees for commercial
purposes is, therefore, not very easy.
Mid-Latitude Evergreen Forests:
These are found on the eastern
margins of continents. These forests
contain hardwood trees with broad
leaves. south China, south eastern
USA, south Brazil, east coast of South
Africa and south eastern Australia
have such forests. Oak, eucalyptus,
and wattle are some economically
important trees of these forests.
Mediterranean Forests: On the
western margins of continents in
middle latitudes, winter has
moderate rainfall and summer is dry.
Trees are adapted to seasonal
changes in temperature. They
withstand the dry summer without
shedding their leaves. Plants,
therefore, have spiny, waxy or small
leaves to reduce transpiration. Since
the groundwater level is quite low and
the soil cover is too thin, the root
system of these plants is totally
different. They have comparatively
small number of deep roots. Barks
are also thick so as to prevent loss of
moisture. Trees and shrubs are
widely spaced. Cork, olive and
chestnut are the common trees of
these forests.
Coniferous Forests : These forests
extend as a continuous belt around
the North Polar region and high
mountains in Europe, Asia and North
America. The growing season is
limited to the short summer. Trees
dont shed their leaves and, hence,
look evergreen. They are tall and
conical in shape. These trees have
thick needle-shaped leaves to reduce
transpiration and to protect
themselves from cold winter. Softwood
trees like pine, cedar and fir are found
in these forests. They have been in
great demand for commercial use.
Deciduous Forests
Deciduous forests are those in which
trees shed their leaves in a particular
season in order to conserve loss of
moisture through transpiration.
Tropical deciduous : These forests are
found in sub-tropical regions with a
distinct dry season. Monsoon Asia,
parts of central America, Brazil and
northern Australia have such forests.
Trees shed their leaves during
summer. These forests are
comparatively less dense than
tropical evergreen forests. They have
fewer species but they are found in
close proximity. Teak, sal and
shisham are valuable hardwood trees
of these forests.
Mid-latitude deciduous : These forests
occur in the coastal temperate
regions. western Europe, north-
eastern China, Japan, north- eastern
USA, New Zealand and southern
Chile have such forests, During
winter, temperature in these areas fall
below 6C. Therefore, trees shed their
leaves in winter to protect themselves
from such cold. Birch, ash and oak
are some of the important trees of
these forests.
Forests cover about 30 per cent of
the land area of the world. Area under
forests was quite extensive in the
Coniferous forests
Deciduous forests
past. Growth of population and their
increasing demands for various uses
of land (cultivation and settlements)
as well as different forest products
have reduced the forest rapidly.
Table 3.1 shows the percentage
decrease in the tropical forest cover
in a few countries of the world.
One of the most important
measures of forest conservation is to
plant trees i.e. afforestation. Besides,
preventing the reckless cutting of trees
and creating an awareness about the
importance of forests among all
communities may help conserve the
forests.
Forest fires caused by human
negligence can destroy this valuable
resource from a large area in a very
short time. Such disasters can be
prevented only by making people
living in and around forests more
vigilant and cautious.
Wildlife Resources
Wildlife refers to a variety of life-
forms birds, fishes and animals,
which live in a natural habitat.
There is a balance in the
environment if the relative number
of species is not disturbed. Human
activities in several parts of the
world have disturbed the natural
habitats of many species. Due to
indiscriminate killings, several
birds and animals have either
become extinct or are on the verge of
extinction.
Conservation of wildlife is
important for the future. National
Parks and wild life sanctuaries have
been established to protect and
conserve wildlife. Many countries have
passed laws declaring the trade as well
as killing of several birds and animals
illegal. In India, killing of lions, tigers,
deers, great Indian bustards and
peacocks have been banned.
Table 3.1: Estimated Total Loss of
Tropical Forests upto 2000
Country loss (%)
Indonesia 10
Brazil 33
Colombia 33
Ecuador 50
Thailand 67
Costa Rica 80
Nigeria 100
Use
Commercial utilisation of temperate
evergreen and coniferous forests is
very high. Norway, Sweden, Finland
and Canada are important exporters
of several forest products such as
paper, wood pulp and newsprint. In
India and other monsoon countries
of south and southeast Asia,
rosewood, sandalwood, teak and
mahogany are the important species
which have been used economically
to a large extent.
Conservation of Forests
Forests are the important components
of our environment. Rapid destruction
of this important resource has been a
cause of concern. Hence, we need to
conserve this renewable resource.
EXERCISES
(i) What are minerals?
(ii) What is recycling?
(iii) List three basic ways through which energy is obtained.
(iv) List three alternative sources of energy.
(v) Why are coal, mineral oil and natural gas called fossil fuels?
(vi) Name two factors that influence plant growth.
(vii) What is meant by wildlife?
(i) The natural accumulation of metals or valuable few minerals
in a concentrated form along with several impurities is known
as _______.
(ii) Nearly 60 per cent of the worlds mineral oil reserve is found in
___________ reservoirs.
(iii) ____________ cells convert sunlight directly into electricity.
(iv) One of the most important measures of forest conservation is
_________.
(v) National Parks and wild life _________ have been established to
protect and conserve wildlife.
(i) metallic and non-metallic minerals
(ii) anthracite and bituminous coals
(iii) evergreen and deciduous forests.
4. Write short notes on
(i) Distribution of coal and mineral oil
(ii) Alternative sources of energy
(iii) Factors influencing the plant and wildlife resources.
5. Project Work
Collect information regarding some endangered plants and
animal species of India.
In the previous chapter we have
studied how dif ferent natural
resources are used by humans for
meeting their needs. Food is one of
the most basic necessities for human
survival. The early humans gathered
nuts, fruits and roots from forests
and hunted animals to satisfy
hunger. Gradually with the
development of better tools and
techniques, they learnt to make
better use of the available resources.
They learnt to grow crops and that
was the beginning of agriculture. It
helped them to lead a settled life and
gave rise to early civilisation.
What is meant by agriculture? The
word agriculture is derived from the
Latin words ager or agri meaning
soil , and culture meaning
cultivation or tilling of soil .
Agriculture thus refers to the
cultivation of soil for growing crops
and rearing of livestock. Crops are
those plant species which have been
selected by humans to be cultivated
for their use. Livestock include
animals (cattle, sheep and goat) and
birds (e.g., chicken) that are reared
for human use. Sometimes, forestry
and fishing are also included in
agriculture.
Agriculture is the oldest and most
widely adopted occupation of
humans. Even today, about 50 per
cent of the worlds population is
engaged in this activity. It continues
to be the major occupation of people
in the developing countries of the
world.
The map on page 11 shows the
world distribution of arable land. You
will notice that cultivation of crops is
possible only in a limited area. Relief,
soil, temperature and rainfall are
some of the important physical
controls. Every crop has certain basic
requirements of nutrients, heat and
moisture. While some crops are
suitable for tropical climate, some
may be grown only in the subtropical
and temperate regions.
Methods of cultivation have
improved a lot since ancient times.
The earliest farmers used only simple
tools digging sticks, hoes and
sickles. Gradually ox-drawn ploughs
were introduced. In developed
AGRICULTURE
CHAPTER 4
south west Africa, parts of western and
central Asia, and northern Eurasia.
Shifting cultivation: This farming
method is practised by a very small
population living in dense forests of
tropical Africa, south east Asia and
some parts of India. These people do
not lead a settled life. The land is
prepared for cultivation by felling
trees and burning them. Crops like
maize and cassava are grown using
simple tools. The produce is
consumed by the community. People
move from one area to another when
the soil loses its fertility.
Intensive agriculture: In this method
of farming, even from a small piece
of land, farmers get a very high per
hectare yield by using good quality
seeds, ample fertilisers, ensuring
regular water supply and applying
more labourers. Besides, more than
one crop is grown on the same piece
of land because of fertile soil and
good climate. It is prevalent mostly
in the monsoon regions of south,
southeast and east Asia. Rice is the
main crop. Besides, wheat, maize,
pulses and oilseeds are also grown.
A variety of crops are usually grown
by farmers because most of
the produce is used for their
own consumption. This is the
most prevalent form of agriculture
in India.
Commercial Agriculture
The main purpose is to sell the
produce in the market. Therefore, one
particular crop suitable for the region
countries today all farm operations
have been mechanised. Tractors with
multiple attachments perform
different functions. It has reduced the
number of people occupied in
agricultural work. Large number of
people in these countries are engaged
in other occupations industries
and services.
Types of Agriculture
Based on the agricultural practices,
which include size of the farm, tools
and techniques used, crops grown,
the types of livestock kept, and the
proportion of the output retained by
the farmer, agriculture may be
broadly divided into two categories:
subsistence agriculture and
commercial agriculture.
Subsistence Agriculture
This type of agriculture is practiced
mainly to meet the requirements of
the local community. Most of the
products are grown and consumed
within the area where they are
produced.
It includes mainly three types of
traditional agricultural practices i.e.,
nomadic herding, shifting cultivation
and intensive agriculture.
Nomadic herding : It is practiced by
those people who rear cattle, sheep,
goats, camels and yaks. These animals
are dependent on the natural
vegetation in the area. Herders move
with their animals from one place to
another in search of fodder. It is
prevalent in the Sahara, east and
Agriculture/37
is selected by the farmer. It is called
crop specialisation.
This type of agriculture has two
main forms: commercial grain
farming and plantation agriculture.
Commercial grain farming is
mostly practised in the middle
latitudes. Crops are grown for
commercial purposes in many
developed countries such as Canada,
the USA, Russia, Ukraine, Argentina,
Australia and in some parts of India.
Wheat is the most important crop
grown in India. In the USA, there are
distinct wheat, corn and cotton belts.
In these areas population density is
low. As a result per person availability
of land is very high. Farms are of big
sizes spreading over hundreds of
hectares. Most of the work on the
farms are done by machines
tractors, levelers, seed drills, and
combined harvesters. Compared to
intensive agriculture, the amount of
capital and labour applied per unit
area is relatively small here. It is,
therefore, called extensive
agriculture. But the total production
is very high because of large area under
cultivation. In Europe, there has been
a trend of diversification of crops
instead of specialisation. The crops
grown are cereals (wheat and oat),
vegetables, oilseeds and roots (sugar
beet).
When crops are combined with
livestock the type of farming is known
as mixed farming. Besides Europe,
it is common in eastern North
America, Argentina, south east
Australia, New Zealand and South
Africa.
Plantation agriculture is found
in the tropical region. It is a well
managed and organised system of
agriculture. Crops like rubber, tea and
coffee are grown on large plantations.
Large amount of labour and capital
are required for such plantations.
Most of the processing is done on
plantations. These plantations were
originally developed by the
Europeans. Now, most of them are
owned and managed by the local
government or private companies.
The produce is sold in the national
as well as international markets.
Major Crops
Major crops grown in the world are
generally classified into food crops
and commercial crops. Some food
crops have been included under
commercial crops because these are
grown mainly for selling.
Food Crops
Food crops include all cereals, pulses,
oilseeds, beverages and tubers. Rice,
wheat, corn or maize and millet are
the main cereals.
Rice: Rice was grown in India even
more than five thousand years ago. It
perhaps originated from India and
spread to other parts of the world.
Rice is obtained from paddy, which is
processed in mills. Bran and husk are
used as fodder and also as fuel. About
one-half of the world population
including the whole of east Asia use
rice as their staple food.
Cultivation of rice requires high
temperature of over 20C to germinate,
bloom and mature. Rainfall of 100 cm
to 150 cm is required.
Rice is grown in deltas, river
valleys, and coastal plains. In
the mountainous areas where
temperature and rainfall are
appropriate for its growth, it is
cultivated in terraced fields. It is one
of the crops for which a lot of human
labour is required. All operations
including the preparation of seedling
beds, ploughing, planting, weeding,
harvesting and separation of grain are
done by human labour.
Rice is cultivated mainly in India,
China, Japan, Bangladesh, Indonesia,
Thailand and Myanmar. In India, it is
grown in West Bengal, Bihar, Assam,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa,
Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.
Rice is mostly consumed within the
countries where they are grown. Some
amount of good quality rice is,
however, exported to other countries.
Wheat : Wheat is grown under a wide
range of climatic conditions from
Siberia to the tropical regions. Loam
is the most suitable soil for its
cultivation. It is, however, the main
crop of the temperate regions. It
requires cool weather and a rainfall
between 40 cm to 75 cm. At the time
of ripening, there should be clear sky.
Two main varieties of wheat are grown
in north America winter wheat and
spring wheat.
Russia, Ukraine, the United States
of America, Canada, and most of the
European countries, Australia,
Rice cultivation
Agriculture/39
Argentina, China and India are
important producers of wheat. Most
of the wheat produced in European
countries are consumed within the
region. Hence, none of these countries
export wheat.
The United States of America,
Canada, Argentina and Australia
are the main exporters of wheat.
They share three-fourth of the total
sale of wheat in the international
market. Europe is the major buyer
of wheat.
In India, wheat is grown during
winter, particularly in the north,
north western and central India.
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and
Bihar are the main producers.
Maize : Maize is known as makka in
India, corn in the United States of
America and Indian corn in Europe.
It originated from American
continents. It was introduced in
Europe by Columbus and other
Wheat cultivation
Do you know ?
We are familiar with only one variety of
maize i.e., yellow ones. Native
Americans cultivated varieties of maize
in different colours red, blue, pink
and black. It was banded, spotted or
striped and used as ornaments.
explorers. It is second to wheat in
terms of area cultivated.
Maize is used as foodgrain and as
fodder. It is grown mainly in Russia,
Canada and parts of South America.
It is one such crop that is available
in every month of the year in some
parts of the world. The United States
of America is the largest producer
and seller of maize in the
international market. China is the
second largest producer followed by
Brazil, Mexico and Argentina. In India
maize has not been a major crop,
though in recent times, it has gained
importance. It is cultivated in
Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Millets : It is a name given to a group
of crops such as jowar, bajra, ragi and
sorghum. They are used as fodder
and food grains. They grow well in
moderately high temperatures,
varying from 25C to 30C and in
areas having an annual rainfall of 50
cm to 75 cm. It is grown mainly in
rainfed areas and less fertile soils.
Major producers of millets are India,
Nigeria, China and Niger.
Millets are not only the staple food
for a very large section of people of
peninsular India throughout the year
but also utilised as fodder. The fodder
value of jowar is so great that in some
parts of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and
Punjab, this crop is raised using
irrigation wholly for that purpose.
Karnataka and Maharashtra are the
other major producers of millets
in India.
Commercial Crops
Fibres
Fibre is a material with hairlike
structure produced from vegetables,
animals, minerals and chemicals.
Vegetable fibres are obtained from
seeds, stems, leaves and fruit cases.
Animal fibres are produced from
insects such as silkworm, from
animals such as camels, sheep,
goats, yaks, llamas, alpacas, rabbits
and reindeers. Mineral fibres such
as glass, is made from silica sand.
Synthetic fibres are derived from
chemical treatment of natural
cellulose, which is made from wood
pulp. Let us study two important
sources of vegetable fibres.
Cotton: Cotton is one of the worlds
leading agricultural crops used to
produce clothes. Cotton is classified
on the basis of the length of the fibre
as short staple, medium staple and
long staple cotton. The long staple
cotton is used to produce fine and
strong quality of cloth.
Cotton grows best in areas where
the temperature is between 30C and
40C. It should be uniformly high
throughout the growing season.
Cotton plants require rainfall of 60
to 100 cm. But at the time of
ripening, it requires cloud free sunny
days. Alluvial and black soils are best
suited for its cultivations.
The leading cotton producers are
China, the USA, Russia, India,
Pakistan and Brazil. In India, cotton
is produced to a large extent in
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and
Haryana.
Jute: Jute fibre is obtained from the
bark of the jute plant stem. Wherever
bulky, strong fabrics and twines
resistant to stretching are required,
jute is widely preferred because of its
low cost.
The jute plant originated in the
Indian subcontinent. It grows best in
well drained sandy loam and requires
warm and humid climate. Jute plant
requires temperature of more than
Agriculture/41
25C and rainfall of over 150 cm per
year. It is a major fibre crop grown
intensively in the south east Asia.
India, Bangladesh and China account
for 85 per cent of the world s
production. Jute is also produced on
a small scale in Myanmar, Nepal,
Thailand and Brazil.
In India, jute is cultivated in the
Ganga-Brahmaputra delta in West
Bengal and Assam. Some of the minor
producers of jute are Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh, Tripura and Meghalaya.
Bangladesh is the world leader in the
international jute market. Jute
faced a tough competition from
development of synthetic gunny bags.
But the Government of India is
making ef forts to promote its
products because being natural fibre
it does not damage the environment.
Beverage Crops
Tea: Tea is made from the young
leaves of the tea plant. It has many
varieties. Small-leaved China tea
plants and large-leaved Assam tea
plants are popular all over the world.
Tea plants require moderate
temperature of about 25C and a
rainfall of about 200 cm per year.
Climatic requirements restrict the
commercial cultivation of tea to rainy
tropical and humid subtropical
Tea a brief history
Chinese were the earliest tea drinkers
in the world. Initially the habit of tea
drinking was restricted to rich people
only. It was also considered as a
medicinal drink. The tea gardens were
prohibited for outsiders in China. The
colonial British first discovered the
Assam tea in 1829 in the forests of
north east India. Cultivating tea on a
large scale is called tea plantations
or tea gardens. Apart from developing
tea plantations in Assam, the British
also developed tea plantations in
Sri Lanka.
Tea plantation
Coffee plantation
regions. Tea also requires well-
drained alluvial soil.
Apart from India, other major tea
producers are Sri Lanka, China,
Japan and Indonesia. More than
three-fourth of world production of
tea is contributed by these four
countries. In India, tea is produced
in Assam, West Bengal, Kerala and
Tamil Nadu. Assam alone accounts
for half of the amount of tea produced
in the country.
Coffee: One-third of the world
population drinks coffee, the second
largest beverage after tea. Even when
some religions denounced coffee as
an intoxicating drink, its stimulating
effect made it popular all over the
world. The coffee plants are cultivated
for seeds and beans, which are
roasted, ground and sold for brewing
coffee. There are two types of coffee
plants Coffee Arabica or Moka and
of 100 cm to 150 cm and temperature
between 15C and 25C. Irrigation is
required where the annual rainfall is
less than 100 cm.
The important coffee producers
are Brazil, Columbia and Cote
dIvoire. These three countries meet
more than half the worlds demand
for coffee. In India, coffee is largely
grown on the eastern sheltered slopes
of Western Ghats in Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu.
Development of Agriculture
With the growth of population in the
world, the demand for food and
other requirements also grew.
Humans learnt improved ways of
growing crops. Industrial revolution
boosted agricultural development
too. In the 18th and the early 19th
centuri es, i mproved f ar mi ng
methods, advances in livestock
breeding and invention of farm
equipments brought remarkable
changes in the development of
agriculture in the world. There has
been a progressi ve growth i n
agriculture during the twentieth
century as wel l . Wi th hi gh
yielding varieties of seeds and
application of fertilisers, pesticides,
i nsecti ci des and weedi ci des,
agri cul tural producti on has
i ncreased worl dwi de. Now
genetically modified crops to get
higher yield with less problems of
pests and weeds have also been
developed by some countries. Their
use is still very limited.
Who discovered the coffee plant?
There are different versions about the
discovery of coffee. In about AD 850,
Kaldi, an Arab goat-herder, who was
puzzled by the queer antics of his flock,
tasted the berries of the evergreen bush
on which the goats were feeding. On
experiencing a sense of exhilaration, he
proclaimed his discovery to the world.
Coffee Robusta. Robusta is the main
variety produced in the world.
The coffee plant requires warm
climate and moderate rainfall. Both
strong sunshine and snowfall are
harmful to the plant. During its
growth, coffee plant requires rainfall
Agriculture/43
Unlike developing countries,
most of the farmwork in developed
countries is done with the help of
machines. Some countries such as
the USA, Canada and Russia have
very large farms. In the USA, only 3
per cent of population depend on
agriculture for their livelihood. In fact,
agriculture is a business rather than
an occupation. With the help of the
two case studies of farms one from
the USA and the other from India,
we may compare the agricultural
development of developed and
developing countries better.
A Farm in the USA
A typical farm in the USA today is of
about 250 hectares. Farmers
generally reside in the farms. The
average size of the plots in the USA
is much larger than that of an Indian
farm. This particular farm, under
study, has specialised in the
production of wheat. This decision
has been taken by the farmer after
ensuring himself that the soil and
water resources meet the needs of the
crop. He takes measures to control
pests that could damage the crop. He
analyses its soil to learn if any
nutrients are insufficient or lacking.
To get an accurate analysis, the farmer
sends soil samples to a soil-testing
laboratory. The results help the
farmer to plan a scientific fertiliser
programme. An American farmer, in
general, heavily depends on chemical
fertilisers and pesticides. He uses
tractors, seed drills, leveler, combined
harvester and thresher to perform
various agricultural operations. The
grains are stored in the automated
grain storage or dispatched to market
agencies.
The farmer in the USA, as
mentioned earlier, works like a
businessman and not like a peasant
farmer. This successful farmer is an
expert in farming. He maintains
proper accounts of expenditure and
income.
Agricultural Development in India
Agriculture is an important activity
in India as it is the source of livelihood
for about three-fourths of the
population in the country. Nearly half
the total geographical area in India
of is used for the cultivation of various
crops. Do you know that India has
the highest percentage of land under
cultivation in the world?
At the time of Independence, India
faced the problem of food shortage.
Famines were frequent in different
parts of the country. A majority of the
tillers of lands in India were tenants A farm in the USA: Mechanised Harvesting
and landless labourers. Methods of
farming were traditional. Farmers did
not have sufficient knowledge and
money to introduce new methods of
farming. Hence they were unable to
meet the increasing demand for
foodgrains.
The Indian government took
several steps to improve the
agricultural condition in the country.
Most of the farmers in India own not
more than one hectare of the land.
On an average a farmer operates
about 1.5 hectares. Even this land is
fragmented over the years with the
growing population. It is mainly
because industries and services in
our country are not able to generate
sufficient employment opportunities.
As a result large number of people
tend to stay in farming. The
government has encouraged
consolidation of land holdings to
promote use of farm machines.
Land reforms were introduced.
Under this, the government took
lands of big landowners away and
redistributed to landless labourers.
Modern methods of cultivation
were introduced in the country.
The government provided better
infrastructure facilities such as
irrigation, electricity and transportation.
Agricultural equipments such as
tractors, threshers and harvesters,
high yielding varieties of seeds,
fertilisers, pesticides and electricity
were made available to farmers at less
than the actual price.
The loss thus incurred was borne
by the government. Getting finance
from banks was made easier for the
farmers. This led to tremendous
increase in the production of crops
especially foodgrains. This increase in
the production of cereals as a result
A farm in the USA
Agriculture/45
of high-yielding varieties of seeds,
fertilisers and irrigation is known as
green revolution. For tackling the
problems of storage and crop failure,
the government is making efforts to
develop storage facilities. Insurance
schemes for various crops have also
been introduced.
India is a major producer of cereals
such as rice and wheat, oilseeds, such
as groundnut, mustard and
sunflower, vegetables and fruits. One-
tenth of fruits produced in the world
are from India, notable being mango
and banana. Flower cultivation on a
commercial basis is picking up slowly.
It has wide potential for future. The
livestock quality in India is not very
satisfactory. But India has made
significant progress in milk
production. It is the largest producer
of milk in the world.
A Farm in India
A farm i n Indi a i s about 1.5
hectares. Let us take a farm located
in the Kaveri basin. The owner of
the farm generally has his residence
in the main village. This farm has a
Agricultural fields
Ploughing a field
EXERCISES
(i) What is meant by agriculture?
(ii) What are the factors affecting the cultivation of crops in an area?
(iii) Name three factors that helped agriculture in the twentieth
century.
(iv) What is the green revolution?
(v) List three major fibre crops grown in the world.
(vi) What are the physical conditions required for the cultivation
of rice?
well in a corner of the farm. He uses
pump set to irrigate his fields. The
entire land is divided into small
plots. Different crops are grown in
these plots. Rice is the main crop,
which is grown during rainy season
(June-October). Since the soil is
very fertile, another crop is also
harvested from the field. The farmer
takes advice of his friends and
el ders as wel l as government
agricultural of ficers regarding
farming practices. The farmer
also has a few livestock cows,
buf f al oes, bul l s, a f ew hens,
roosters and chicks. He sells milk
in the cooperative store located in
the nearby town. The milk-producer
cooperative, of which he is also a
member, suggests the type of fodder
to be used, safety measures to
protect the health of the livestock
and artificial insemination.
In order to perform various
agricultural activities, he generally
hires machineries such as tractor and
thresher from a nearby town. For
different operations in the field, he
mobilises agricultural labourers from
the same village or from neighbouring
villages. All the family members help
him in various activities. While
cultivating his farm, the farmer
requires money to purchase various
inputs including fertilisers and
pesticides. He depends on
moneylenders for this. Agricultural
cooperative societies or banks also
provide loan.
He sells his produce in the mandi
located in the nearby town. Since
majority of the farmers lack storage
facilities, they are forced to sell the
produce even when the market is not
favourable to them. In recent years, the
government has taken some steps to
develop storage facilities. This farmer
like majority of farmers, did not get
proper education. He does not have
sufficient capital to undertake modern
farming. Perhaps in the next few
decades, situation may change.
Agriculture/47
(vii) How government helps farmers in the development of
agriculture?
2. Differentiate between
(i) Subsistence farming and commercial farming.
(ii) Extensive farming and intensive farming.
3. Project Work
Collect seeds of wheat, rice, jowar, bajra, ragi, maize, oilseeds
and pulses available in the market. Bring them to the class
and discuss the geographical conditions necessary for growth
of each crop.
Collect different types of cloth pieces from the tailors shop
and classify them under cotton, silk, synthetic and woollen.
Find out the raw materials used in their manufacturing.
Find out the difference between the life style of farmers in the
U.S.A. and India on the basis of pictures collected from
magazines, books, newspapers and the Internet.
Visit a farm in the village nearby/ horticulture farm.
Traditionally, the term manufacture
meant to make by hand. It now
refers to production of any article. It
is a process in which raw materials
are transformed in such a way that
they become more useful, and hence
of a greater value.
Industry refers to an economic
activity that is concerned with
production of goods, extraction of
minerals or the provision of services.
Thus we have iron and steel industry
(production of goods), coal-mining
industry (extraction of coal) and
tourism industry (service provider).
Manufacturing industry is concerned
with the production of goods.
Stages of Production in Industries
Most of the products that we use
today, for example, food, clothes,
furniture and vehicles are the
products of manufacturing industry.
From raw material to the final
product, each one of them has gone
through various stages of production.
The more a matter is changed in form,
the greater is its utility and value. Let
us take the example of the book that
you are holding now. It started its life
as part of a tree. It was cut down and
transported to the pulp mill. There the
wood of the tree was processed and
converted into wood pulp. The wood
pulp was mixed with chemical and
finally changed into paper by
machines. The paper was sent to the
press where these pages were printed.
After printing, the pages were folded
and bound in covers in the form of a
book. Finally, the finished product,
was ready for sale and now you are
holding it.
Industries enrich our quality of life.
Sometimes they also lead to many
harmful side effects. Many industries
pollute the air and water and thus
endanger our health.
Classification of Industries
Industries are classified on different
bases, such as raw materials,
ownership, and size.
Based on the sources of raw
materials industries are classified
into (i) agro-based industries which
derive their raw materials from
agriculture. For example, food-
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
CHAPTER 5
industries, e.g. iron and steel
industry. Its products are used by
other industries to produce goods
such as automobiles, machines and
tools. There is another category of
industries, whose goods are directly
used by consumers. These are called
consumer industries. Industries
such as bicycle industry, paper
industry and sugar industry are some
examples of consumer industries.
Factors Affecting Industrial
Location
The establishment of an industry in
a particular region depends on
several factors. The availability of raw
materials, electricity, transportation,
workers, capital and marketing
facilities are some of the important
factors influencing location of
industries. The decision of a
government to establish a factory in
a less developed region is a political
consideration. In order to promote
industrial development, the
governments do provide certain basic
infrastructure facilities such as
industrial sheds, roads and electricity
to attract industrialists to set up
industries in that region.
Industrial Regions
With the development of an industry
in a region, dif ferent kinds of
infrastructure facilities and services
e.g. banks and financial services also
grow to meet the requirement of the
people working there. In order to take
the advantage of those facilities, other
industries, cotton and jute textile
industries, and vegetable oil
industries, are dependent on
agricultural products; (ii) animal
based industries, such as dairy and
meat industries; (iii) marine based
industries such as fish processing
industries; (iv) forest based industries
like paper industries; and (v) mineral
based industries such as iron and
steel, cement and chemical industries.
On the basis of ownership,
industries can be classified into the
following categories: (i) public sector
industries are owned and operated
by government and its agencies;
(ii) private sector industries are
owned and operated by individuals
or group of individuals; (iii)
cooperative sector industries are
owned and operated by the producers
or suppliers of raw materials, workers
or both; and (iv) joint sector
industries are owned by the state and
individuals or group of individuals.
Industries can also be classified on
the basis of their size in terms of money
invested. Industries whose investment
is up to rupees one crore come under
the category of small scale industries.
Industries having an investment of
more than rupees one crore, are called
medium or large-scale industries.
Large-scale industries also employ
large number of workers.
Industries may also be classified
on the basis of the nature of end
products. Industries, whose finished
products are used as raw material for
other industries, are called basic
Manufacturing Industries/49
industries also get attracted to that
region. Sometimes, industries also
cluster together to take advantage of
the products of an industry, which
may be used by them as raw
materials. Such clusters are known
as industrial regions or complexes.
The world has four major
industrial regions: (i) eastern part of
North America; (ii) western and central
Europe; (iii) eastern Europe; and
(iv) eastern Asia. Besides these, there
are a few industrial complexes in
Australia and Brazil.
India has eight industrial regions
viz., (i) Mumbai-Pune Region which
extends from Thane to Pune and
the adjoining districts of Nasik
and Sholapur; (ii) Hugli Region
extends from Bansbaria in the north
to Birlanagar in the south;
(iii) Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Region
extends from Bangalore to all parts
of Tamil Nadu except Villupuram;
(iv) Gujarat Region lies between
Ahmedabad and Vadodara in the
south to Jamnagar in the west;
(v) Chhotanagpur Region extends
over Jharkhand, northern Orissa
and western West Bengal;
(vi) Vishakhapatnam Guntur Region
extends from Vishakhapatnam
district to Kurnool and Prakasam
districts in the south; (vii) Gurgaon-
Delhi-Meerut Region includes
Gurgaon, Delhi, Shahdara,
Faridabad, Ghaziabad, Meerut,
Modinagar, Ambala, Agra, and
Mathura, and (viii) Kollam-
Thiruvananthapuram Region is
World: Industrial regions
North
spread over Thiruvananthapuram,
Kollam, Alwaye, Ernakulam and
Alappuzha districts. Find out the
location of these regions on a map of
India in your atlas.
DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR
INDUSTRIES
Some of the important industries and
the countries in which they
concentrated are as follows: (i) iron
and steel industry: China, Japan, the
United States of America, Russia and
Germany; (ii) textile industry: India,
Hong Kong, South Korea and Taiwan
and other countries in east Asia; (iii)
automobile industry: Japan, the
United States of America, Germany,
and France; (iv) shipbuilding: Japan
and South Korea; (v) commercial
vehicles: the United States of America,
Japan, Brazil and Canada; (vi)
electronics industry: Japan, China
and other countries in east Asia.
Distribution of major industries in
the world reveals some interesting
features: (i) most of the industries
particularly the basic industries are
concentrated on or near coal fields,
such as Damodar Valley Coal field
industrial region in India, the
industrial region of the Ruhr coal
fields in Germany, and the industrial
region of the Appalachian coal fields
in the USA; (ii) industries are also
located near sea ports and rivers for
obvious reasons of facilitating
international transport and use of
water for industries. For example,
industrial regions of Mumbai,
Chennai and Kolkata in India.
Iron and Steel Industry
Iron is the fourth most abundant
element in the earths crust and is
believed to constitute 80 per cent of
the earths core. It is found in nature
in the form of iron ore. The iron ore
contains several impurities. It is
mixed with coal and limestone and
smelted together in a blast furnace.
The molten iron still contains some
impurities. It is released in a mould
to make pig iron. After solidification,
it is hard and strong but very brittle.
When all the impurities are removed,
what we get is pure iron. Certain
amount of carbon is mixed with pure
iron to make steel. Steel can be
converted to any shape such as
sheets, tubes and wires. Iron and
steel industry is a basic industry
because it provides the base for many
other industries. It is, therefore,
considered a measure of industrial
development of a country.
Largest iron ore reserves, in a
descending order, are found in
Russia, Brazil, Australia and India.
But in the production of steel, China
is the largest producer in the world
followed by the United States. Japan,
India, Russia, Germany, South Korea,
Brazil, Mexico, Canada and the United
Kingdom are some of the other
important producers of steel.
The use of iron and steel in India
dates back to 480 BC when Indian
archers used arrows tipped with
steel. Other well known examples
include Iron pillar of Dhar
near Indore in Madhya Pradesh
(about A.D. 321), iron pillar of Qutab
Minar in Delhi (about A.D. 400) and
iron beams of the Sun Temple of
Konark in Orissa (13th century).
In India, iron and steel industry
has developed very well taking
advantage of raw materials found in
close proximity, cheap labour,
transport and market. All the
important steel producing centres
viz., Bhilai, Durgapur, Burnpur,
Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro are
situated in a region that spreads over
four states West Bengal,
Jharkhand, Orissa and Chhatisgarh.
Bhadravati and Vijay Nagar in
Karnataka, Vishakhapatnam in
Andhra Pradesh, Salem in Tamil
Nadu are other important steel
centres utilising local resources.
Indias steel production increased
from one million tonne in 1947 to 30
million tonnes in 2002.
Before 1947, there was only one
iron and steel plant in the country
Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited
(TISCO). It was a private company.
After Independence, the government
took the initiative and set up several
iron and steel plants. This has been
fruitful in pushing industrial
development at a fast track.
Jamshedpur-An Iron and Steel Centre:
The Tata Iron and Steel Company
(TISCO) was started in 1907 at
Sakchi, near the confluence of the
rivers Subarnarekha and Kharkai in
Bihar (now in Jharkhand). Later, this
World: Major Iron and Steel producing regions
SOUTH
AMERICA
Brazil
Canada
PACIFIC
ATLANTIC
U.S.A.
OCEAN OCEAN
AFRICA
Russia
India
China
Germany
Japan
OCEAN
South
Africa
EUROPE
AUSTRALIA
OCEAN
INDIAN
PACIFIC
India: Selected industrial centres
ARABIAN SEA
BANGALORE
AHMEDABAD
JAMSHEDPUR
B AY
OF
BENGAL
Iron and Steel industry
Information Technology
industry
Textiles industry
INDIAN OCEAN
place grew as a major iron and steel
centre of the country and was named
after its founder.
For setting up the iron and steel
factory, Late Jamshedji Nusserwanji
Tata chose Sakchi for several reasons.
This place was only 32 kilometers away
from Kalimati station on the Bengal-
Nagpur railway line. It was close to the
iron ore, coal and manganese deposits
as well as to Kolkata, which was a large
market. Water supply was provided by
the Kharkai and Subarnarekha rivers.
He got the support of the leaders of the
freedom struggle. Generous financial
backing was provided by Indians
from all communities. He was also
given the assurance by the British
government that it would purchase the
iron and steel.
TISCO, gets coal from Jharia
coalfields, and iron ore, limestone,
dolomite and manganese from Orissa
and Chhattisgarh. Geographically,
Jamshedpur is the most conveniently
situated iron and steel centre in the
country.
In Jamshedpur, several other
industrial plants were set up after
TISCO. They produce chemicals,
locomotive parts, agricultural
equipments, machineries, tinplate,
cable, and wire. Jamshedpur is a well-
planned and clean industrial city of
our country.
Detroit-From Iron and Steel to
Automobiles : Automobile industry is
closely linked to the iron and steel
industry because it makes use of iron
and steel. It is one of the leading
industries in the world. It provides
jobs for millions of people directly and
indirectly. The term automobile
comes from French, meaning self-
mobile. Initially it was referred to
vehicles carrying a small number of
passengers only. Over the years, it has
included all kinds of vehicles such as
buses, trucks, cars and vans that run
on roads using petrol, diesel, or CNG.
The automobi l e has enabl ed
people to travel and transport goods
farther and faster. The automobile
industry has also reduced the overall
cost of transportation by using
methods such as mass production,
mass marketing and globalisation of
production. In 1880s, only about 300
automobiles were built, but there was
no real established industry. A
century later, with automakers and
auto buyers expanding globally,
automobile manufacturing became
the worlds largest manufacturing
activity, with more than 53 million
new vehicles built each year
worldwide.
Automobile manufacturers are
among the largest companies in the
world. For instance, the three major
automobile manufacturers General
Motors Corporation, Ford Motor
Company, and Daimler Chrysler AG
provide three-fourths of the
industrys total direct employment in
the United States of America.
Detroit, a motor city and one of the
USAs leading industrial centres, is
known as the automobile capital of
the world. It is in south eastern part
of Michigan State. Its official name,
Detroit, comes from a French word
that means the narrow place. The
city is located between Huron and
Erie lakes on the Great Lakes water
system. This strategic location greatly
aided the citys development, as it
became a major port of the Great
Lakes industrial region, linked to
world markets in Europe and Asia.
Shipping in the Great Lakes played
an important role in the development
of Detroit. Detroit benefitted from the
large volume of water transport that
passed through the Sault Sainte Marie
Canals linking Lake Superior and
Lake Huron. This made Detroit a
transportation hub for the Midwests
industrial heartland and it also
emerged as a strong industrial centre.
This mix of transport and
manufacturing activity encouraged
the auto industry to take root in
Detroit after 1900. Detroit s
convenient location with reference to
iron and coal made it the greatest
automobile centre of the country.
Ransom E. Olds opened an early
automobile factory in 1897 with
Henry Ford following close behind.
During the World War II, Detroit also
gained the nickname Arsenal of
Democracy for producing mechanised
weaponry.
The Detroit area is also the
home of General Motors Cor -
poration, Ford Motor Company,
and DaimlerChrysler AG. Farm
machinery, machine tools, and
chemicals based largely on salt are
World: Selected industrial centres
PACIFIC
OCEAN OCEAN
ATLANTIC
INDIAN
OCEAN
OCEAN
PACIFIC
JAPAN
Osaka
Silicon Valley
Detroit
U.S.A.
other important products of the area.
Other significant industries are
steelmaking, food processing,
petroleum refining, printing and
publishing, and shipbuilding.
Textile Industries
Fibres are the raw materials of textile
industries. There are two types of
fibres natural and man-made.
Natural fibres are obtained from
wool, silk, cotton, linen, jute,
asbestos, etc. Man-made fibres
include nylon, polyester, acrylic and
rayon. Goods produced in textile
industries are used as clothing, home
furnishings and as packing materials
in industries.
Clothes are a basic human need
as are food and shelter. These are
produced in textile industries.
The textile industry is about 7000
years old.
The textile industry is divided on
the basis of raw materials used as
(i) cotton, (ii) woollen, (iii) silk, (iv) jute,
and (v) the artificial silk and rayon
industry (synthetic). We will study
cotton textile industry here.
Cotton Textile Industry : The cotton
textile industry is one of the oldest
industries in the world. It originated
in the Indus Valley about 5000 years
ago. Till the industrial revolution,
cotton cloth was made using hand
spinning techniques (wheel) and
handlooms. The industrial revolution
in the 18th century brought a
phenomenal change in the textile
industry. Powerlooms facilitated
World: Major cotton textile manufacturing regions
PACIFIC
OCEAN
OCEAN
ATLANTIC
INDIAN
OCEAN
PACIFIC
OCEAN
Egypt
Canada
China
India
Russia
Japan
Brazil
SOUTH
AMERICA
U.S.A.
South
Africa
AFRICA
AUSTRALIA
development of cotton textile
industry, first in the Great Britain and
later in the other parts of the world.
India, China and Japan are the
important producers of cotton
textiles.
In India, cotton textile industry is
an important industry. Indian textile
industry was world famous before
industrial revolution. The muslins of
Dhaka, chintzes of Masulipatnam,
calicos of Calicut and gold-wrought
cotton pieces of Burhanpur, Surat
and Vadodara were known worldwide
for their quality and design. Being
handwoven, production of cotton
textile was expensive and time-
consuming. As, such the traditional
cotton textile industry of India could
not face the tough competition from
the new textile milles of the West,
which produced cheap and good
quality fabrics.
The first successful modern cotton
textile mill was established in Mumbai
in 1854. Most of the cotton mills
established afterwards were also in
Mumbai. Availability of cotton within
the country, cheap labour, access to
British machineries and ideal climatic
conditions in the coastal region
helped in the growth of modern cotton
textile industry in India. The two World
Wars increased the demand for
clothes, which further boosted the
development of cotton textile
industries. It, however, suffered a
setback in 1947 when due to partition
most of the long staple cotton
growing areas went to Pakistan. It has
taken a few decades to increase the
area under cultivation of long
staple cotton.
The industry has spread over large
area and there are more than 80 towns
and cities known for this industry.
They are distributed in three states
Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil
Nadu. This industry employs millions
of people directly or indirectly.
Since the entry of man-made
fibres, the share of cotton fibre to the
total fibre production has come down.
In the world the ratio of cotton to man-
made fibre is 43:57 whereas in India
it is still dominated by cotton as the
ratio is 59:41.
For a long time, India exported
mainly raw cotton and yarn. Now we
export readymade garments as well.
The cotton textile industry has a great
potential to generate employment.
Today India is competing with
countries like China, Bangladesh
and Pakistan in the international
market.
Ahmedabad : Ahmedabad is often
referred to as the Manchester of
India. It is located in Gujarat on the
banks of Sabarmati river. It is 440
kilometres north of Mumbai (See page
53). The first textile mill was set
up here in 1859. It grew up
simultaneously with Mumbai and
became the second largest textile city
of India.
Ahmedabad had a tradition of
spinning and weaving which was
utilised in the industry. Being located
in the cotton-growing region, it had
better access to local raw cotton. If
necessary, it could also import quality
raw cotton from other countries
through Mumbai port. The city also
had a good access to internal markets
of the country. Now the city has more
than 50 mills, which are smaller in
size than those of Mumbai. Yet
this city is noted for its good quality
cotton textiles.
In recent years, Ahmedabad textile
mills have been facing some
problems. Since many mills have not
upgraded their machines and
technology for a long time, they are
unable to compete with the new
players in the field. As a result, many
mills have closed down. Employment
is this sector has also fallen.
Osaka : Osaka is one of the largest
industrial and financial centres
of Japan. It ranks among the
busiest ports in the nation and
accommodates major ocean-going
vessels. Osaka is in Kinki region (See
page 55). Osaka is known as the
Manchester of Japan. It is the most
important textile centre of Japan. The
extensive plain around Osaka was
especially suitable for the growth of
cotton textile mills. Its southern
location makes it a convenient port
for importing raw cotton and for
exporting textiles. Moist climate,
cheap women labourers and harbour
are the main factors that led to the
development of textile industry in this
city. Though it is one of the important
textile cities in the country, of late, the
cotton textile industry of Osaka has
been replaced by other industries,
such as iron and steel, machinery,
shipbuilding, automobiles, electrical
equipment and cement.
Information Technology
Radio, telephone, telegraph,
television, fax and computer connect
people in different parts of the world.
These have made our lives much
comfortable. By using technologies
such as computers, calculators,
telephones and various electronic
equipments, we can store, process
and distribute information at a great
speed. This technology is called
information technology. The IT
industry also includes different
service tasks carried out by people
using these machines.
The first digital electronic computer
was developed in the USA in 1946 for
military purposes. The emergence of
microelectronics, a sub-industry of
electronics industry in the 1970s
and the 1980s led to the development
of information technology in the
world. Microelectronics is centred
on semiconductor chips and
their applications in various
telecommunication equipments and
computers. A semiconductor is a
solid-state device, which controls
the flow of electricity so as to boost, or
amplify an electrical signal. Computers
are essentially composed of millions of
such semiconductors (chips).
In India, the development of
microelectronics was started in 1984.
In the last two decades, Indias
telecommunications sector, has
achieved enormous growth. This
has led to rapid development of IT
industry. In 1996-97, India produced
electronics goods worth about
Rs. 27,000 crores and this has
increased by nearly four times in
2002-03. Of late, IT industry has
become one of the important exporters
in India. The Indian IT industry gives
direct employment to 7 million persons.
Bangalore, Hyderabad, Mumbai,
Pune, Chennai, Delhi-Noida-
Gurgaon belt, Chandigarh and
Thiruvananthapuram are some of
the important centres of the
information technology industry.
Indian companies are becoming
proficient in chip design, web-based
services, and telecom software,
among other fields. India has
emerged as one of the great leaders
in this field.
Silicon Valley : Silicon Valley is located
in west central California. It contains
about 50 kilometre by 20 kilometre
strip of land in Santa Clara County
between the cities of San Francisco
and San Jose. It is bordered by the
San Francisco Bay on the east, Santa
Cruz Mountains on the west and the
Coast Range to the southeast. It is a
highly industrially developed region
in the western USA.
The Silicon Valley was once called
the Valley of Hearts Delight. This area
was once famous for its apricots,
Do you know?
Silicon is the basic material used in
the semiconductor elements in
computer circuits. Don Hoefler, a
journalist was the first person, who
used the term Silicon Valley in 1971,
to describe the region in and around
Palo Alto, where semiconductor
industry was developed.
walnuts and various fruits. Today
Silicon Valley is considered one of the
greatest science parks in the world
that contains hundreds of hightech
information technology industries.
It is an important information
technology centre in the USA. Several
large companies such as Intel,
the world leader in making
microprocessors, Apple Computer,
makers of computer, Hewlett-
Packard, and Sun Microsystems, are
located in the Silicon Valley.
The foundation of Silicon Valley
was laid at Stanford University. For
supporting research in the post-
World War II period, the Stanford
University developed the Stanford
Research Park in 1951. Electronic
industries were invited to set up their
firms in this park. The University
provided land and other facilities.
Professor Frederick Emmons Terman,
planned this knowledge-based
electronics industry region centred in
the University. He is, therefore, called
father of the Silicon Valley.
Stanford Research Park opened up
the boundaries between the university
and industries. In 1959, the region
was home to approximately 100 IT
firms, most of which produced
transistors or instruments for military
purposes. By 1990, the number of IT
firms in the Valley increased to 3,200.
Today these firms collectively employ
about 3,00,000 workers and sell
goods worth over Rs. 5,50,000 crores!
Bangalore : Bangalore is the capital
city of Karnataka, which is one of the
largest cities in the country. After
Independence, it has emerged
as a major transportation and
manufacturing centre, with
industries producing communication
equipments, machine tools, aircraft,
electric motors, print materials,
textiles, footwear and timepieces.
Bangalore is the base of Indias space
programme as well.
The development of IT industries
has started in the late 1970s.
Bangalore has been ranked the fourth
best Global hub of technological
innovation by the United Nations. It
has the highest number of software
companies in India. With more than
300 software units including 50
Multinational Companies (MNCs),
Bangalore accounts for a major share
of software exports from India. That
is why it is called the Silicon Valley of
India. Bangalore currently employs
about 1,50,000 software professionals,
highest in the world in a given city.
Some of the important companies
located in Bangalore are Infosys, a
leading developer of software for foreign
companies and Wipro Technologies, a
software services company.
Concentration of IT companies,
availability of English-knowing
software programmers in plenty,
and well-educated management
personnel etc. have attracted many
international companies either to
come to Bangalore, or become
partners of companies located in
Bangalore. It has also been possible
because Bangalore provides attractive
and pleasant living conditions. The
Karnataka state government also
helps the IT industry to grow.
Bangalore is in a very comfortable
position in the IT arena because it
offers a wide spectrum of services
required for the IT industry.
EXERCISES
(i) What is meant by the term industry?
(ii) Name the five categories of industries based on raw
materials.
(iii) What is an industrial region?
(iv) Name two countries known for shipbuilding in the world.
(v) Where is Silicon Valley located?
(vi) Name three centres of cotton textile industry in the world.
(vii) How are industries classified on the basis of ownership?
(viii) List three factors affecting the location of industries.
(ix) How does infrastructure help industrial development?
(i) Public Sector and Private Sector.
(ii) Basic industry and Consumer industry.
(iii) Pure iron and Steel.
3. Project work
Look for advertisements of a few companies, which aim to
market their products. Categorise them on the basis of the
products and industry to which they belonged.
Visit a small-scale industry. Discuss the observations you made
in the class.
Prepare models of infrastructure: Roads with vehicles and
electric transmission networks.
All human beings, engaged in some
useful activities represent the human
resources. Every human being is a
potential resource for the society.
Why are we calling ourselves as
human resources?
All the efforts human beings put in
while producing various goods and
services were not recognised for a very
long time. Only in the last century,
governments have realised that by
harnessing the skills of their people,
they could produce more and carry out
tasks in a better manner. It was felt
that by providing education, training,
nutritious food and health facilities
people can produce more than what
is being done by illiterate and
untrained people.
as well as the individual. When a
country possess sufficient number
of highly educated and trained
people, it can produce more and
also efficiently, without wasting
scarce resources. Human resources
are al so i mportant to each
individual because they assist other
people in improving and using their
capacities and potentialities to the
utmost. With ever-developing skills
and aptitudes, the individual has
become increasingly proficient in
overcoming many hurdles. There
are many ways for the people to
become a valuable resource for
the country.
The contribution of those who do
not work for wages is also very
relevant for a country. Many women
in our country do not go to work
outside their home. They do
household chores taking care of
the children and the elderly. When
women are educated, they do their
housework, educate their children in
a better way than when they are
uneducated. By taking care of the
children, women help in developing
HUMAN RESOURCES
CHAPTER 6
Do you know which part of the
Government Administration looks
after the education of all of us in
India? It is called Ministry of Human
Resource Development. Previously it
was called Ministry of Education.
Importance of Human Resources
Human resources are important for
the development of both the country
ethnicity, tribe, language and
religion. Let us look at three major
components of the population viz.,
sex composition, age structure and
literacy levels.
Sex Composition: This means the
proportion of male and female in
the total population. It is expressed
with the help of a ratio, which is
known as sex ratio. It is defined as
the number of females per 1000
males in the population. Suppose
the sex ratio of a country is 1000.
This ratio implies that the total
number of male and female in that
country is equal. If the ratio is 1100,
it implies more females than males
in that country. This figure suggests
that the sex ratio is favourable to
females. If the sex ratio is less than
1000, say 900, it means that the
sex rati o i s unf avourabl e to
females.
See the following diagram. It
shows the sex ratio of the different
regions of the world and India.
the country, as their children are the
ones who work in the later years to
become human resources of the
country.
In recent years, many people go
abroad for lack of suf ficient
employment opportunities within
their country. One of the main
reasons for this trend is the lack of
opportunity to use the skills they
possess. They earn and bring back a
lot of wealth and experience to their
country.
Human resources are the least
developed of all the resources in
many developing countries. Millions
of people in these countries are
untrained, and their potentials are
yet to be tapped.
Composition of Human Resources
The composition of human resources
of a country explains the basic
characteristic of the total population.
We can see it through traits such as
age, sex, literacy, occupation,
939
957
985
990
1031
1018
1072
850 900 950 1000 1050 1100
India
Asia
World
Oceania
North America
Latin America & Caribbean
Europe
Sex Ratio
World: Sex Ratio, 2000
63/Human Resources
Among different regions, in
countries of North America, Latin
America and Caribbean and Europe,
sex ratio is in favour of females. In
contrast to sex ratio of these regions,
in Asia, where a major section of the
world population inhabits, the sex
ratio is unfavourable to females.
Refer to the diagram given on page
63 again. In India, the sex ratio is
939. For every 1000 males, there are
only 939 females. Among different
India: Sex ratio, 2001
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700 800
801 900
901 1000
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Human Resources/65
States and Union Territories, Kerala
and Pondicherry have sex ratio of above
1000. (Refer map on page no. 66)
The unfavourable sex ratio in India
is due to many reasons. Some of them
are: (i) biologically more males are
born than females; (ii) males get
preferential treatment while females
are neglected; and (iii) females die at
all stages of life due to many reasons:
the girl children die due to negligence
or deliberate attempts. Girl children
are also being killed just after birth.
This phenomenon is known as female
infanticide. Girl children are also
killed before birth as well. This is
referred to as female foeticide. These
inhuman practices are also followed
in many other developing countries.
Women also die at the time of
deliveries. Elderly women often get
neglected during old age.
Age Structure: The age-wise
distribution of people helps the
government to plan for the people on
various aspects. The population
is divided into three age groups:
(i) 0-14 years, (ii) 15-64 years and (iii)
65 years and above. See Table 6.1.
The share of working age-group
15-64 is always greater than the other
age groups. This is natural and
common in all the regions. In high
and middle-income countries, a high
proportion of people are in working
age group. In the low and middle-
income countries, young people are
a major section of the population. In
rich countries, the number of old
people are more. When the
population comprises of more elderly,
there may be shortage of people
working in factories, farms and
offices. The government has to make
arrangements to sustain their life
with good health and care.
India, which is lying between
low and middle-income country
categories, has 34 per cent of its
population in the younger age
group. It also has a great share of
people in the working age group.
The gover nment has to make
ef forts in providing health and
education facilities to younger
section of the population. The
gover nment al so has to make
arrangements to train people who
Table 6.1 : Age Composition of Population, 2000
Region/Country Age Group (%)
All Age Groups
0-14 15-64 65+ (%)
India 34 61 5 100
Low Income countries 37 59 4 100
Middle Income countries 27 66 7 100
High Income countries 18 67 15 100
have reached the working age
group.
Literacy Levels: We all know that
literacy is essential for our life and
that is why we have come to school
and are sitting in the classrooms.
Literacy means the ability to read,
write and understand a simple
message in any language. If a person
is able to read but cannot write, he or
she is considered as illiterate.
What do you infer from the Table
6.2 ? Low-income countries have more
number of illiterates than the
India: Literacy 2001
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Less than 50
50 60
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81 90
71 80
91 and above
INDIAN
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Human Resources/67
middle and high-income countries.
More than two-fifth of females are
illiterate. Compared to females, a
greater proportion of males are
literate. Regardless of income status
whether low income or middle income,
females are discriminated in getting
literacy in these regions. The adult
literacy in India was about 60 per cent
in 2001. Similarly, the proportion of
adult illiterates is higher than the
proportion of literates in low-income
countries.
In India, a person is literate when
he or she is aged 7 and above and is
able to read, write and understands
a simple statement in any language.
At the time of Independence, only
about one-sixth of the population was
literate. In 2001, about two-third of
the population was literate. More
males are literates than females. It is
due to discrimination against girl
children going to school.
Distribution
One of the important aspects of
worlds population is its uneven
distribution. The population of India
is highly concentrated in some
pockets such as highly urbanised
and industrialised areas and areas
of high agricultural prosperity. There
are fewer people in high mountains,
arid lands, thickly forested areas and
cold polar areas. Thus, uneven
distribution of population is due to
various factors, which are discussed
below.
Geographical Factors
Topography is one of the most
important factors affecting the
distribution of population. People
always prefer plains rather than
mountains and plateau because
activities such as farming,
manufacturing and service activities
can easily be developed on plain
regions. Plains occupy about half the
worlds land surface but support
more than 90 per cent of the worlds
population.
Regions having very hot or very cold
climate are usually avoided by people.
That is why the equatorial parts of
Africa and the polar regions of
Russia, Canada and Antarctica have
Table 6.2 Illiteracy of Adults in the World (Aged 15 above)
Region/Country Illiteracy (%)
Male Female
India 29 53
Low Income countries 28 46
Middle Income countries 9 18
High Income countries 3 3
practically no population. Deserts also
do not support people. Regions having
temperate climate with moderate
rainfall are densely populated, for
example, countries of eastern Asia
and western Europe.
Soil is another factor affecting
agriculture. It helps us in obtaining
food, clothing and shelter. Thus fertile
plains such as those of the Ganga and
Brahmaputra in India, the Hwang-Ho
and the Chang Jiang in China, and
the Nile in Egypt are some of the
densely populated areas.
Yet another factor is existence of
mineral deposits. The discoveries of
minerals in different parts of the world
have attracted people. The diamond
mines of South Africa and the
discovery of oil fields of the Middle
East are some examples.
Social and Economic Factors
Religious, cultural, industrial and
commercial centres attract people
from all over the world. Some of the
cities in India such as Varanasi in
Uttar Pradesh, Puri in Orissa,
Kancheepuram in Tamil Nadu,
Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh, Vatican
City and Jerusalem city are examples
of religious centres. Cities such as
Mumbai, Bangalore, Kolkata, Delhi,
New York and Tokyo are some
examples of industrial and
commercial centres.
Spatial Distribution of Population
The total number of people living in
the world has crossed 6 billion in
2001. Out of this six billion people,
about 60 per cent are living in
Asia, 13 per cent in Africa, 12 per cent
in Europe and the rest in other
continents. You can easily unders
tand this from the diagram given
below.
In India, the total population in
2001 was 1.03 billion. India is the
second largest populated country in
the world, after China. Nearly half
the population lives in five states
Distribution of World Population
12%
14%
1%
13%
60%
Africa
Asia
Europe
The Americas
Oceania
Human Resources/69
population density in India is that, it
has been consistently increasing over
the years. In 1901, Indias density was
77 only and it increased to 117 in
1951 and finally it has now reached
324 in 2001.
Within the country, the density
varies from region to region. Union
Territories of Delhi and Chandigarh
have the density of 9300 and 7900
persons per square kilometres
respectively whereas the density in
Arunachal Pradesh and Mizoram is
13 and 43 persons per square
kilometre respectively.
Population Change
The number of people living in an area
is not always stable. As more and more
children are born, the population of
that area also increases. Not all the
children live longer, some die at early
age and others live longer. When we
compare the total population of a
country in one year with another year,
we get to know whether the population
of that country has increased,
decreased or is stable. The
phenomenon of knowing whether the
population increased, decreased or
remained stable is called population
change. This change takes place due
to natural growth and migration.
See the figure on the next page.
The X-axis refers to year and the Y-
axis, the population in the world.
The population of the world in 8000
BC was estimated to be only about
8 million. The population during AD
1750 was estimated to be about
Do you know
Every sixth person living on this
earth is an Indian. The total
population added every year in India
is equal to the population of Australia.
Indias population is more than the
population of the USA, Russia,
Canada, Australia and Brazil.
Note each of these countries is larger
than India in area.
Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar,
West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.
The other half lives in 23 other states
and 7 Union Territories. About one-
sixth of the population resides in
Uttar Pradesh alone. The population
in Delhi, a Union Territory is equal
to the population of all other Union
Territories, two states of Jammu and
Kashmir and Arunachal Pradesh
put together.
Density
The number of people living in a unit
area of the surface area is called
population density. It is normally
expressed as per square kilometre.
The average density of population in
the whole world is 45 persons per
sq. km. South central Asia has the
highest density of population followed
by east Asia and south eastern Asia. See
also the map given on page 71 for
density of other regions.
With an average density of 324
persons per square kilometre in
2001, India is one of the most
densely populated countries of the
world. The most striking feature of
750 million. We know that AD 1750
was the peri od of i ndustri al
revolution. From 750 million in
1750, the population increased to
1.2 billion in 1900 in 150 years. In
just another 100 years, the world
population has increased to 6
billion. Look at the steep line during
1960-2000. During the last 40
years, the world population has
doubled from 3 billion to 6 billion.
This is how the population is
growing in the world.
The population in India has also
increased in the same way as that of
the world. Look at the steepness of
the population curve during 1961-
2001. Why does population increase
rapidly?
Even in the past also, the
population was growing but the
number of people living longer was
less than at present. There were no
proper health facilities. Sufficient food
was not available for all the people.
Farmers were not able to produce
enough to meet the food requirements
of all the people. Everyone had to work
hard without sufficient and nutritious
food and hence they were not able to
live longer. Now we have hospitals and
the farmers of today are able to
produce more and grow a variety of
food crops. We are able to get
sufficient food.
Changes in the population occur
due to changes in birth rate (BR),
death rate (DR) and natural growth
rate (NGR). Birth rate is defined as
total number of live births per 1000
population. Death rate is defined as
the total number of deaths per 1000
population. The difference between
birth rate and death rate is called
natural growth rate of population. The
population increase in the world is
mainly due to rapid increase in
Natural Growth Rate.
Trends in world population
Y
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India: Population density, 2001
In the past, the difference between
BR and DR was not much. It resulted
in slow population growth. In the last
250 years, that is, after the industrial
revolution, improvement in the
standard of living led to decline in
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Above 1001
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death rate without any major decline
in the birth rate. This has led to
increase in the natural growth rate.
In India, the birth rate during
1901-11 was 49. This means for every
1000 population, 49 children were
Population in India, 1600 2001
born during that period. During the
same period the death rate was 43,
which means for every 1000 people,
43 persons died. The natural growth
rate was 6. This means only 6 people
increased for every 1000 people
during 1901 to 11. During 1981-91,
the birth rate was 31 whereas the
death rate was 11 and the natural
growth rate was 20. The increase in
natural growth rate increased from 6
in 1911 to 18 in 1998. This is the
reason for population increase in
India.
The growing population must be
provided with proper amenities of life
so that they become effective resource
of our country.
EXERCISES
(i) What is human resource?
(ii) Why are human resources relevant for a country?
(iii) How is housework a human resource?
(iv) Why are there differences in sex ratio?
(v) How is density of population measured?
(vi) Who is a literate?
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(vii) What is birth rate?
(viii) What is natural rate of growth of population?
(a) Relevance of human resources
(b) Age structure
(c) Factors affecting population density.
3. Project Work
Collect the information on number of girls and boys studying
in each class of your school. Calculate the sex ratio, prepare a
chart similar to the one given in the text and discuss in the
class.
Visit the village administrative office/Panchayat office/
Municipality/Municipal Corporation. Get the details of how
they are recording the deaths and births happening in the area
under their control.
Visit an institute that gives training to educated youths such
as industrial training institutes, polytechnic colleges. Discuss
your experience with your classmates.
In the previous classes we have learnt about our
community life and also knew how our country is
being governed. In the last two units, we have
familiarised ourselves with the events and
developments which brought significant changes in
the world. Thus a new era was ushered in with the
characteristics of the modern age. Progress in science
and technology, especially after the Industrial
Revolution, entirely changed the face of the earth.
During the past hundred years the world has seen
more changes than it had seen in the past thousand
or more years. The process of development has been
uneven as reflected through various patterns of
resource-use. Also, we have learnt, how the judicious
use and rational management of our resources can
make it possible to achieve sustainable development.
By expanding the frontiers of our knowledge and
making intensive efforts in various directions we have
transformed our society its values, life style and
thinking. The study of this unit will open the vistas of
our knowledge and acquaint us with the major global
issues and challenges that humanity as a whole
confronts today. As all humans constitute one family,
it is imperative to transcend national boundaries
and concerns when the whole world has become a
global village.
The story of the humans all over the world is the
story of their struggle to secure freedom and to ensure
progress. People have not only become conscious of
human rights but have also realised the importance
of looking at their problems from the global point of
view. At times, the furies of nature, called natural
disasters such as environmental degradation and
human made maladies such as terrorism remind us
how fragile our existence is and how they challenge
our development. All our socio-economic and cultural
progress depends on our mutual cooperation and
concerted efforts. For the fulfilment of these, we have
to come nearer to each other by developing an attitude
towards globalisation. Worlds greatest organisation,
the United Nations has been actively working in this
direction. The role of India in this vast canvas of
human endeavour is very important. The study about
India in its neighbourhood and in the world comity
would enhance our knowledge and understanding of
our countrys participation in international affairs,
global issues and world organisations in the greater
interest of humankind. This unit throws light on the
aforesaid concerns in this perspective.
Natural Disasters/75
Humans have always had to deal with
the fury of nature such as
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
cyclones, droughts and floods. These
phenomena affect human habitation
over large areas causing loss of
lives and property. However
technologically advanced we think of
ourselves, the forces of nature, at
times, remind us exactly how fragile
our existence on the earth is. We often
use terms like natural hazards and
natural disasters to describe these
terrifying forces of nature. Is there any
difference between these terms? Yes.
Let us consider what do they mean.
We use the word hazards to
describe the latent danger, which
may be posed by a material, event or
phenomena, e.g. a hazardous
substance or a hazardous act.
Natural hazards, therefore, literally
mean those natural happenings,
which are potentially dangerous to
humans causing injury, loss of life
and property, and disrupting social
and economic life. In our context,
they include a wide variety of
phenomena earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, landslides, cyclones,
droughts and floods. While some of
these occurrences are exclusively of
natural origin e.g. volcanic eruptions,
others are due to a combination of
both, natural and human factors e.g.
landslides.
In the earlier class, we learned
that the earths surface constantly
changes due to various natural
processes. While some changes on
the earth are slow and invisible,
others are fast and perceptible. The
formation of mountains is a slow
process, but a volcanic eruption is
sudden and brings rapid changes.
Any natural occurrence or event that
is infrequent and fast enough to
threaten life is referred to as a
natural hazard . Most of these
hazards are periodic, and can be
predicted. But some are difficult to
predict. Natural hazards may be
grouped under two major categories:
(i) Geological hazards: Earthquakes,
volcanoes, landslides and
avalanches.
(ii) Weather associated hazards:
Cyclones, droughts, and floods.
NATURAL DISASTERS
CHAPTER 7
their causes as well as their potential
dangers. Therefore, it is difficult for
them to change their behaviour to
reduce risk from a hazard that few
have ever witnessed. How are people
expected to modify their habits and
behaviour to avoid building on sites
where powerful cyclonic storms may
occur once every fifty years, or when
geological hazards occur only every
100 years? Compared to weather-
associated disasters, geological
disasters such as earthquakes and
volcanoes do occur rarely. But they
are dramatic in their impact. Damage
caused by them may be severe
especially in an area where people
think themselves at little risk before
the event. For example, the
peninsular part of India was always
considered stable i.e., having little
risk of earthquakes. But the
earthquakes of Koyna (1967) and in
Latur, Maharashtra (1993) proved
this belief wrong. It caused extensive
damage to human lives and property
as people were unprepared for such
an eventuality.
Although many acts of nature
cannot be predicted or controlled,
better knowl edge about these
hazards can at least reduce the
extent of damage. People could be
more vigilant and prepared to face
the natural disasters and their
aftereffects. The Government of
India has issued certain dos and
don' ts for the people living in
areas af fected by earthquakes
cyclones and floods.
It has been estimated that the
world endures on an average about
1,00,000 thunderstorms, thousands
of floods, hundreds of landslides
and earthquakes, and scores of
cyclones and volcanic eruptions
every year.
All of them are obviously not
equally harmful. Depending upon
the location of such occurrences and
the intensity, the natural hazards
become natural disasters. For
example, in the twentieth century,
30 major natural disasters took
place in the world. Of these, there
were 17 earthquakes, 10 cyclones,
2 floods and 1 volcanic eruption. It
is thus clear that of many natural
hazards, a few create widespread
havoc and are, therefore, called
disasters.
Humans take risks in life. They
also adapt to varying environments.
For example, in many developing
countries, people live in a river flood
plain, abandon it at the annual high
flow of the river water, and come back
after the flood recedes. Normally, the
event is cyclic and predictable and
hence adaptation is possible.
However, any change in normal
pattern i.e., in the timing of the flood
or increase in the volume of water,
may have a devastating impact on
people. Thus this event, which
otherwise is a normal annual feature,
turns into a disaster.
Most natural disasters are
infrequent and unpredictable.
Besides, most people are unaware of
Table 7.1 : Some Major Natural Disasters of the World (1960-2000)
Type of disaster Place and year of major disaster Deaths
Earthquake Morocco, 1960 12,000
Floods Vietnam, 1964 8,000
Cyclone Bangladesh (then East Pakistan), 1970 3,00,000
Earthquake and Landslide Peru, 1970 67,000
Earthquake China, 1976 2,90,000
Volcanic eruption Colombia, 1985 25,000
Earthquake Armenia, 1988 25,000
Cyclone Bangladesh, 1991 1,39,000
Earthquake Japan, 1995 1,00,000
Earthquake Turkey, 1999 17,000
Source: Park, C. The Environment: Principles and Applications, Second Ed., Routledge:
London, 2001.
In Table 7.1, some major natural
disasters causing great loss of lives
and property during 1960-2000 have
been shown.
There is a rapid increase in
exposure to many natural hazards in
the second half of the twentieth
century. Earthquakes continue to be
the most significant both in terms of
occurrences and the number of
deaths. More than 1.4 million people
died as a result of natural disasters
over the past fifty years.
Geological Hazards
Natural hazards caused by those
forces, which originate below the
surface of the earth, belong to this
category.
Earthquakes: Earthquakes are a
fact of life on the planet earth.
Hundreds of detectable earthquakes
happen every year. Fortunately only
a few are devastating. But even they
shake the ground sufficiently to
damage buildings and kill humans.
Every five to twenty years, on an
average, a massive earthquake
triggers a horrific calamity. Why
and where do the earthquakes take
place? How do they cause damage?
Can we predict earthquakes and
reduce the earthquake hazards? We
will find answers to these questions
in the following paragraphs.
An earthquake is the sudden
vibration or tremor of the earths
crust. It is caused by tectonic forces
that build the landforms like
mountains, or by volcanic eruptions.
The sudden displacement of the
earths crust releases energy stored
within the earths interior. It causes
tremors or waves, which move in
different directions from the centre
of disturbance. These waves are
similar to the ripples in water that
move away from the place where a
pebble is thrown in a pond. The
centre from which the earthquake
waves originate is called the seismic
focus. The point on the earths
surface vertically above the seismic
focus is called the epicentre. Most
of the earthquakes have seismic
focus at depths of less than 60 km.
The intensity of the tremors is
maximum near the epicentre and
decreases with distance from the
epicentre.
Earthquakes of mild intensity
take place daily. Strong tremors
causing large scale destruction are
less frequent. Earthquake waves are
recorded by an instrument called
seismograph.The size, or magnitude
of an earthquake is recorded by
using Richter scale. It measures the
amount of energy released by an
earthquake. Each increase of one
unit on the Richter scale represents
a ten-fold increase in earthquake
strength in terms of ground
displacement. The Richter magnitude
varies theoretically between zero and
Seismic focus and epicentre
World distribution of earthquakes
Epicentre
Point on the
surface directly
above the focus
Focus
Centre of energy
released during an
earthquake
Alpine-Himalayan
collision
Indian
Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Earthquake Belt
infinity but the highest Richter
magnitude ever measured is 8.5 for
the Good Friday Earthquake in
Anchorage, Alaska (USA) on March
28, 1964. Any earthquake with a
magnitude greater than 8 is
devastating. But the number of
deaths in this case were small (131)
because of a very low density of
population of this area. Besides, the
people were comparatively better
prepared than those in many other
countries of the world to face the
after-effect.
Earthquakes are most frequent
in the areas of plate boundaries
especially of active faults. About
two-thirds of the earthquakes
occur i n the Ci rcum-Paci f i c
boundary. The AlpineHimalaya
mountain belts in Europe and
Asia accounts for nearly 20 per
cent of the earthquakes. (See map
on page 79.)
India: Seismicity Zones
SRINAGAR
SHIMLA
CHANDIGARH
DEHRADUN
DELHI
JAIPUR
GANDHINAGAR
SILVASSA
MUMBAI
BHOPAL
HYDERABAD
ARABIAN SEA
BANGALORE
PANAJI
THIRUVANANTHAPURAM
KAVARATTI
CHENNAI
PONDICHERRY
INDIAN OCEAN
BAY OF BENGAL
L
A
K
S
H
A
D
W
E
E
P
(
I
N
D
I
A
)
BHUBANESHWAR
AIZAWL
RAIPUR
RANCHI
KOLKATA
LUCKNOW
AGARTALA
PATNA
GANGTOK
ITANAGAR
DISPUR
KOHIMA
IMPHAL
PORT BLAIR
No risk
Very high risk
High risk
Moderate risk
Low risk N
I
C
O
B
A
R

I
S
L
A
N
D
S
A
N
D
A
M
A
N
&
(
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N
D
I
A
)
IV
V
V
V
V
V
V
III
V
V
I
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
V
V
V
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
IV
IV
I
I
I
I
I
IV
IV
I
I I
In the map given on page 80 the
seismic zones of India have been
shown. You will notice that the entire
Himalayan region, parts of north
Indian plains and parts of Gujarat
(Kachchh) belong to the highest and
the high risk categories (zones V
and IV). The remaining parts of the
northern plains and western coastal
areas fall in moderate risk zone. A
large part of the peninsular India lies
in the low risk zone.
Destruction Associated
with Earthquakes
An area ravaged by a major
earthquake is a heartbreaking sight.
Earthquakes cause vertical and
horizontal displacement of the earths
surface. When earthquake waves
pass, buildings crack, break apart
and collapse. Roads, railways and
bridges also suffer the same fate as
buildings (See below). Electricity and
water pipelines may get destroyed.
The toll of death could be several
thousands in number. Cracks may
be formed over long distances. Rivers
may be blocked or their courses may
be altered leading to sudden floods.
These primary ef fects can also
generate other problems such as
fires, diseases, shortage of food and
water and diseases.
Earthquake destruction
What does an earthquake feel like?
When you are in such a situation,
time seems to standstill. Even though
most earthquakes take less than a
minute, they seem much longer.
Because of the swaying, bouncing and
lurching of the ground and buildings,
people become disoriented and
panicky. A large number of people are
killed by collapse of buildings.
The intensity of the event and the
place of occurrence determine the
extent of damage. A severe
earthquake in an uninhabited area
may not cause serious damage to
human lives and property, but a
comparatively less severe earthquake
occurring in a densely populated area
would be disastrous.
Earthquake Prediction
and Preparedness
An early warning of an earthquake
may help people evacuate homes and
other buildings to minimise risk to
life. However, with our present
understanding of the distribution of
seismic zones and the frequency at
which earthquakes occur, we can
make long term predictions i.e., in
terms of decades and centuries. But
short term prediction of hours to
weeks is not possible. If we cant
avoid earthquake, can we prepare
ourselves for them? The loss of lives
and property may certainly be
reduced by taking appropriate
measures. In California, for example,
no new building may be built within
40 metres of a known fault-line.
Earthquake resistant buildings
need to be constructed in both the
highest and high risk zones. It
means that buildings should be
somewhat flexible and strong to bear
the shock. The plans for the
construction of new buildings
should strictly adhere to the
prescribed building codes. People in
general should be made aware of
the risks involved in violating rules.
Existing buildings, which are not
earthquake resistant, may be
strengthened structurally. Ancient
Japanese temples have stood
for centuries through many
earthquakes. Do you know why? It
is because the light weight walls of
the buildings do not touch the
ground. As a result earthquake
energy only transmits into support
columns which can easily sway.
Earthquake Preparedness
Do not panic. Stay calm.
If you are indoors, don t rush
outside. Move under doorways,
tables or beds. Keep away from
windows, mirrors and things that
could fall.
If you are outdoors, move to an open
area, away from buildings, trees,
electrical wires and poles.
Individuals should learn to protect
themselves during an earthquake. If
you live in a high risk zone, take
necessary safety measures. In your
home, keep heavy objects away from
beds and arrange them in a manner
that they dont obstruct passages.
You should know how to shut off the
Types of volcanoes based on shape
gas and electricity. Schools and
colleges should have earthquake
preparedness drills.
Volcanic Eruptions
One of the most dramatic effects of
plate movement is the formation of
volcanoes. Most volcanic activities
occur along the boundary of crustal
plates. Molten rocks from the interior
of the earth known as magma, rises
up and pushes its way through weak
structures such as faults. As the
magma reaches the earths surface,
it is called lava. The opening in the
earths crust through which magma
reaches the earths surface is known
as a volcano.
Many volcanoes begin with
relatively quiet lava flows and then
Shield volcano
Cinder-cone volcano
(a) Shield volcanoes are formed
by quiet eruption of basalt lava that
has a low silica content. It has a
cone with gentle slope and a base
that covers a wide area. Example
of this kind is Mauna Loa (Hawaii)
in the USA.
(b) Cinder-cone volcanoes consist
mainly of ash and tuff. Tuff is
formed from compressed ash, cinder
and small lava masses. In contrast
to shield volcanoes, they are formed
by silica-rich magma. Violent
eruption produces steep-sided
cinder-cone.
(c) Composite volcanoes are
formed from a series of alternating
erupti on qui et and vi ol ent
f or ms. Theref ore, they have
alternating layers of ash, tuff and
basalt. The slope of these volcanoes
is steeper than the shield volcano
but less steep than a cinder-cone
volcano. Mt. Fuji in Japan is a good
example.
Composite volcano
up to few centrimetres thick as far
as 1000 km away.
Fragments of rocks and lava
masses can travel down the flanks of
volcano tens to hundreds of
kilometres per hour. The force of its
impact can flatten forests and
buildings. The hot and poisonous
gases may cause instant death to
anyone caught in its path.
How to minimise the risk?
The knowledge about the type of a
volcano i.e. whether it is active,
dormant, or extinct, helps us to
determine the extent to which it can
be hazardous. Active volcanoes are
those that have erupted within the
past few centuries. These are
therefore, threats because of their
likely eruption any time. Majority of
these volcanoes are located in the
CircumPacific belt, also known as
Ring of Fire . Of these active
volcanoes, 80 are highly risky. These
are scattered in about fifteen
countries, such as: the USA, Mexico,
Colombia, Italy, Japan, New Zealand
and Indonesia. Dormant Volcanoes
have not erupted for a long time but
do have the potential to erupt again
in the future. They, therefore, pose a
threat for future. Extinct volcanoes
are those which were active in the
past but do not have the possibility
of erupting again. Hence they do not
pose any threat. Hawaiis Kilauea is
an active volcano. Mt. Rainier in the
Cascades, USA last erupted centuries
erupt explosively. In other cases, the
first eruption is the most explosive.
The character of eruption depends
upon the nature of materials thrown
out of a volcano. Materials ejected
from a volcano include lava, rock
fragments, ashes and gases. The
amount of water and silica in the
magma determines the nature of lava
flow. If the lava has little silica and a
lot of water, it will flow easily. Silica-
rich magma flows slowly because of
high viscosity. Viscosity is a liquids
resistance to flow. This type of
magma traps gases inside the volcano
until enough pressure builds up to
push the magma out of the earth. If
the amount of water is high, it quickly
turns to steam. The pressure of
steam causes an explosion that may
throw gases, bombs and ash, several
metres high into the atmosphere.
Lava-flows, at times, may spread
quickly over a large area. It may bury
transport lines such as roads and
railways, houses and other buildings,
crop fields and forests. Usually people
have time to get out of the way of such
flows, but not necessarily with their
belongings. Similarly large quantities
of ash and gas, thrown out of
volcanoes create ash clouds, which
affect air traffic severely for days
together. These materials can block
the airflow of a jet engine and shut
it. They ultimately fall on the ground
forming a coat of ash on the ground.
On 18 May, 1980, eruption of Mt. St.
Helens in Washington, USA deposited
1.1 km
3
of wind-blown ash in layers
ago. It is quiet, but may erupt in future.
So it is considered dormant. Devils
Tower in Wyoming, USA is a remnant
of a volcano that was active millions of
years ago, but is extinct now.
It i s i mpossi bl e to prevent
volcanic eruption. Instead they
have to be coped with. Unlike
earthquake, most vol cani c
eruptions give warning. The rising
magma causes bulging up of the
earths surface. Small earthquakes
can be experi enced and the
temperature of hot springs may
i ncrease. These war ni ngs are
helpful for taking precautions.
Besides, maps may be prepared on
the basis of past experiences to
show areas likely to be affected by
future eruptions. They are helpful
i n taki ng deci si ons regardi ng
evacuation and other disaster
response activities. Major loss of life
and property can be avoi ded
wi th caref ul pl anni ng and
effective warning and evacuation
procedures.
Landslides and Avalanches
People often assume that the earths
surface over which they live, has a
Types of volcanoes based on eruption frequency
How people cope with volcanoes?
In June, 1991 Mt. Pinatubo in
Philippines erupted after six centuries
of dormancy. Despite the fact that the
eruption was one of the largest in the
20th century, deaths were limited to
350. Major disaster could be averted
with careful monitoring of the volcano
as it started giving warning in April
1991. People evacuated their homes
within 10 km of the peak by the time
the volcano erupted. California has
more than 500 volcanic vents. Here,
people have developed quite effective
ways of coping with volcanoes.
An active volcano A dormant volcano An extinct volcano
solid foundation. Contrary to this
idea, much of the earths surface is
unstable ground, which means
that the land is capable of moving
down slope.
Landslide is the sudden
movement of the soil and weathered
rock material down the slope under
the force of gravity. Weathered
material or bed rock after getting
detached from the main body, slides
down the slope very fast. It may
move at the speed upto 300 km per
hour. The landslides are particularly
fast when a cushion of air gets
Landslide
trapped beneath the moving mass.
As a result, there is no friction
between the surface and the moving
material. It, therefore, glides like a
hovercraft. Turbulent clouds of snow
and ice mixed with debris, that rush
down steep mountain slopes at high
speed are called avalanches.
Landslides and avalanches, both are
down slope movements, though at
varying speed and consisting of
different materials.
Landslides are very common in a
mountainous regions, along eroding
river banks and coastlines. In India,
Most landslides are small involving
some blocks upto a few metres across.
But some are large enough to cause
catastrophe. They may bury roads,
buildings and other structures.
for example, these are common in the
mountainous region of the northern
and north-eastern parts.
Deforestation and other human
activities may also induce landslides.
India: Areas prone to landslide
Areas Prone to
Landslide
BHUTAN
BANGLADESH
These hazards can be avoided by
checking deforestation on mountain
slopes, following building codes for
such areas and avoiding construction
of buildings on steep slopes.
Weather Associated Hazards
Cyclones, droughts and floods can
cause humans a great loss. These
phenomena are associated with the
global climatic conditions. Recent
studies have shown that the earths
climate is getting warmer. During the
past two centuries, agriculture, fossil
fuels and industry have been
adding greenhouse gases such as
carbon dioxide and methane to the
atmosphere in a large amount. The
rate of addition has exceeded the rate
of absorption, causing general rise of
temperature globally. It is known as
global warming. Even a slight
increase in the average global
temperature might bring drought
conditions, melt polar ice sheets,
cause a sea level rise and in turn flood
coastal areas. Due to possible global
warming caused by the greenhouse
effect, there has been a dramatic
increase in irregular weather
patterns. The number of violent
storms is expected to increase in the
near future.
Tropical Cyclones: These are intense
storms that develop over warm
tropical oceans between 5
0
and 20
0
North and South of Equator. They
originate in the western parts of great
oceans and generally move
westwards. A cyclone has a low
pressure area in its centre with higher
pressure all around. Winds tend to
blow towards the low pressure centre
and converge, creating whirls. These
may be compared with whirlpools in
water. The velocity of winds within the
cyclones often exceeds 100 km per
hour. These fast moving whirlwinds
are very violent and cause large scale
destruction in its path.
These cyclones are known by
different names in different parts
of the world. In North America, they
are known as hurricanes while in
southeast Asia, they are called
typhoons. Approximately 100-120
tropical cyclones develop worldwide
every year. Many of them travel far
inland causing great damage to
crops, settlements and human
lives. The strong winds may uproot
trees, destroy el ectri ci ty and
telephone lines, and blow away
weak structures like thatch roofs
and walls of hutments. Torrential
rain can cause floods. Huge tidal
waves are formed which inundate
coasts.
In India, tropical cyclones
originate both in the Bay of Bengal
and the Arabian Sea mostly between
10
0
N and 15
0
N. In fact, the frequency
of these cyclones is the most in this
region compared to other parts of the
world. The number of cyclones
originating in the Bay of Bengal is
more than those in the Arabian Sea.
These cyclones mostly occur in
October and November. The terms of
deaths, tropical cyclones are among
India : Normal tracks of tropical cyclones
the worst natural hazards.
Realistically humans can do
nothing to control most natural
hazards except to take precautions
for safety and getting prepared to face
such events. For instance,
settlements in areas prone to tropical
cyclones should not be too close to
sea coasts. Early prediction and
warning can help people evacuating
low-lying areas that will be hit
hardest. Unfortunately in many
countries such as Bangladesh and
India, people have not much choice
and they live in marginal low-lying
areas, which are prone to tropical
cyclones.
Droughts: It can be defined as a
Cyclone Preparedness
Listen to radio or TV weather
reports regularly during the cyclone
season.
Ensure that everyone is alerted.
Follow the advice.
Identify safe shelters in your area
and the safest and closest route to
reach these places.
In case you have to evacuate, move
to the shelter with necessary food
items in water-proof bags, water
and emergency kit.
Do not go to the beach or venture
into the sea after the warning.
prolonged period of unusually dry
weather in a region where some rain
might normally be expected. Thus a
drought differs from a dry climate,
which is usually associated with a
region that is normally or at least
seasonally dry. A drought is a drier
and longer period than a dry spell. It
often lasts for years. Drought also
differs from aridity because it is
temporary while aridity is a
permanent feature.
Many factors are responsible for
the occurrence of droughts. Quite
often they are the combined result
of climate and human activities.
Changing land-use patterns,
especially destruction of tropical
forests may affect wind circulation
patterns globally, which may cause
local droughts. Besides, global
warming may shift rainfall patterns
causing once well-watered areas to
become drier. The most frequent and
most serious droughts occur
between 15
o
and 20
o
latitudes in
areas adjacent to the permanently
arid continental regimes. Major
droughts have been experienced in
recent years in a number of places.
It has been quite widespread in
Africa parts of Ethiopia, Sudan,
Chad, Niger, Mali, Burkina Faso,
Mauritania, Senegal and Gambia to
the south of Sahara. Here the
prolonged dry conditions were made
worse by human practices. Despite
decline in rain, almost all arable
land has been brought under
cultivation to feed the growing
population. This has progressively
destroyed the top soil, causing
severe desertification in this area.
Drought leads to acute shortage of
water, food and fodder, and thus
creates dif ficult conditions for
India : Drought prone areas
Drought Prone Areas
Hot Deserts
Cold Deserts
survival.
In India, drought is a perennial
problem in some parts of the country. It
is mainly because of the uneven
distribution of rainfall, which is highly
variable both in terms of timing and the
amount. About 30 per cent of the total
area or in other words, 70 per cent of
the total cultivated area of the country is
drought prone. Parts of Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Orissa
face frequent drought conditions if
monsoon rains are less than normal.
The situation worsens if such a condition
continues for consecutive years.
India: Flood prone areas
Indus
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LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS
ANDAMAN AND
NICOBAR ISLANDS
Rivers
Flood Prone Areas
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Narmada R.
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Krishna R.
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Tsangpo R.
BAY
O F
BENGAL
ARABIAN
SEA
INDIAN OCEAN
How to cope with Drought?
Since drought is caused mainly due
to abnormally low rainfall, planning
needs to be done to conserve water
resources. Harvesting of rainwater
needs to be made popular. Besides,
building small dams for collection of
water could be useful. Afforestation,
use of drought-resistant crops, and
encouraging farmers to join crop and
seed insurance schemes would help
people to cope with drought.
Floods
Floods are commonly associated with
a stream or river. A stream floods
when its discharge is greater than the
capacity of its river channel. Excess
water flows over the river banks and
submerges the adjacent land that is
usually dry. When it happens, the
channel and the flood plain together
allow passage of water. Floods are
natural phenomena that occur in all
river systems. Some floods are
seasonal, for example, those
associated with monsoon rains.
Sometimes flash floods also occur.
There are many causes of floods,
but the most important are:
climate extremes, particularly
heavy and prolonged rainfall
melting of snow and ice, more than
normal
silting of river beds
collapse of dams
landslide.
Flood disasters are also caused
by humans. When humans develop
a drainage basin they tend to build
permanent structures assuming
that rivers are also permanent
features of landscape. Since they
do not properl y consi der the
natural periodic occurrence of
floods, the toll of human life
and property l oss can be
immense. Many human activities
inadvertently promote flooding.
Overgrazing, deforestation and
paving large expanses of land area
increase surface runoff.
Floods are one of the major
natural hazards, which affect a large
number of countries. India is the
second most flood-affected country,
after Bangladesh in the world. The
most flood-prone basins in the
country are those of the Ganga in its
middle and lower course, the
Brahmaputra in Assam and the
deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna and Kaveri. About one-
eighth of Indias land area is flood-
prone. Mostly floods in India occur
during monsoons.
Floods submerge large areas
damaging crops, houses, and other
Diagram showing River Channel and
Flood Plain
Limit of
100-year
flood
Limit of
200-year
flood
Non-flood
(C)
property and killing people and
livestock. There is shortage of food and
drinking water as everything gets
destroyed. Even when the water
recedes, there is a danger of spreading
various water-borne diseases.
Floods may be controlled to some
extent by making embankments.
With proper monitoring of the rise in
river water and prompt warning,
people can be evacuated in time.
Better preparedness can help in
reducing risks and damages.
EXERCISES
(i) What are natural hazards?
(ii) Which natural hazard has been most frequent and has caused
maximum human loss during the past fifty years?
(iii) What is an earthquake?
(iv) What is measured on Richter Scale?
(v) What is a volcano?
(vi) Where are the most active volcanoes located in the world?
(vii) Why are tropical cyclones considered hazardous?
(viii) What is a drought?
(ix) Which parts of India face most severe droughts?
(x) What is a flood?
(xi) Explain how a natural hazard becomes a disaster.
(xii) Explain suitable measures to cope with the earthquake hazard.
(xiii) Mention the potential threats of volcanic eruption and the ways
to minimise the risk.
(xiv) How can landslides be hazardous and what are the measures
to reduce the risk?
(xv) What are tropical cyclones and where are they most common?
Discuss with special reference to India.
(xvi) What is common between droughts and floods? In what ways
proper planning can help in controlling drought and flood
conditions?
Flood Preparedness
Listen to the local radio or TV news
for warnings and advice.
If you are warned that the flood water
may enter houses, keep some stock
of readymade dry food items, fresh-
water, candles, match box and clothes
in water-proof bags.
Move cattle, moveable goods, and
vehicles to safer places such as higher
grounds.
Do not wander around in flood water.
(i) Geological hazards and weather-associated hazards.
(ii) Seismic focus and epicentre.
(iii) Magma and lava.
(iv) Active volcano and dormant volcano.
(v) Landslide and avalanches.
3. Project Work
On an online map of India, locate approximately the place you
live in by placing a dot. With the help of maps showing seismic
zones, areas affected by landslides, cyclones, droughts and
floods, find out which natural hazards are potential threats
for your region.
Collect information from newspapers and magazines about the
natural disaster that has taken place in the past few years in
your state. Find out what measures are being taken in your
area to reduce such risks in future.
We already know that environment
refers to the surroundings of
organisms in which they live and
interact. Thus it includes both natural
and human-made systems.
The natural environment consists
of physical and biological
environments. The atmosphere, the
lithosphere and the hydrosphere are
the three interrelated systems, which
constitute the physical environment.
The biosphere, a thin zone of
interaction amongst air, land and
water, contains all life-forms. All
living organisms have dynamic
interrelationship with their physical
environment. Essential constituents
necessary for life are continuously
cycled among different spheres e.g.
rock cycle, hydrological cycle, carbon
cycle and oxygen cycle. What makes
these cycles operational? It is energy,
which is required for all types of
works and movements.
The sun is the main important
source of energy on the earth. Only a
small fraction of the suns total energy
output reaches the earth. Of this
35 per cent is reflected back to space,
14 per cent is absorbed by the
atmosphere and the remaining
51 per cent reaches the earths
surface. It is called insolation
(incoming solar radiation). Part of
solar energy has been stored in the
fossil fuels. It is important to note that
the flow of energy from the sun to the
biosphere is one-way, as it does not
go back to the sun. Besides, energy
can be transformed from one form to
another, e.g. in photosynthesis, solar
energy is transformed into chemical
energy. Endless conversions of energy
take place in our daily lives. When
energy is converted from one form to
another, some amount of energy is
always lost. For example, the
chemical energy in coal is converted
into electrical energy, which can be
converted into heat energy while
cooking.
Human-made environment is
created by the humans through their
various activities. Through their
interactions with the natural
environment, they modify and alter
parts of their surroundings to suit
their wants. Human activities have
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
CHAPTER 8
have been killed. Due to pollution of
the Ganga, river dolphins were
reduced in number. It is encouraging
to note that initiatives have been taken
to cleanse the Ganga. The river
dolphins are being sighted in more
numbers now.
Causes of environment problems
and their manifestations vary from
one part of the world to the other. In
developed countries, these problems
are mainly related to high
affected the environment in a number
of ways. In many parts of the world,
environment has been degraded to
the extent that it poses a threat to the
well-being of the ecosystem. For
example, waters ability to cleanse
itself is a natural process. Disposal
of waste in rivers and other inland
waterbodies in some places, has
polluted water to such an extent that
it cannot be self-purified. As a result
plants and animals living in water
Energy conversion
Lost heat energy
Chemical
energy
stored in
cooking egg
Heat energy
from burner
Electrical
energy
Resistance wire
in stove burner
(A)
High-pressure
steam
Electrical energy to
power transmission
lines
Water
Heat
energy
Turbine
Kinetic energy
Generator
Electrical energy
Chemical
energy
from coal
(B)
Environmental Degradation/97
Environmental degradation, thus
refers to the deterioration of the
environment both in terms of
quantity, such as exhaustion of
certain minerals, forest cover and
extinction of some wildlife species,
and quality, such as pollution of land,
air and water.
We will now discuss both resource
depletion and environmental
pollution, which together cause
environmental degradation.
Resource Depletion
All our economic activities are
dependant on resource-use. If natural
resources are misused or overused,
they may not be available in future.
Non-renewable resources such as
minerals, oil and coal once exhausted
cannot be replenished. Therefore, if
we do not check the current rate of
their use, they are bound to be
finished soon.
Renewable resources such as
timber, crop and water can be
replenished only as long as
environmental conditions are
favourable and their qualities are not
affected to the extent beyond correction.
Problems of resource deterioration
may be discussed under the following
heads.
Depletion of Soil : The soil is a layer in
which plant nutrients are produced
and held. It holds water in storage for
plants to use. In fact, it is the heart of
the life-layer of the earth. Soil
formation takes a very long span of
time. It takes centuries to develop a
Symptoms of Environmental Crisis
According to the report of the
United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) titled Global
Environment Outlook 2000:
Eighty per cent of the forests in
the world have been cleared.
A quarter of the worlds 4,630
types of mammals and 11 per cent
of the 9,675 bird species are at
serious risk of extinction.
A billion city dwellers are exposed
to health-threatening levels of air
pollution.
The global population will reach
8.9 billion in 2050.
Global warming will trigger a
devastating rise in sea levels and
more severe natural disasters
during the 21st century.
Pesticides are causing upto five
million acute poisoning incidents
each year globally.
development pollution, fast
depletion of several natural resources
due to overuse, and overall damage
to the ecosystem. In developing
countries, on the other hand, most of
the environmental problems are
related to under-development
poverty and inadequate supplies of
necessities such as food, housing,
clean drinking water and safe
disposal of wastes. The demands of
fast-growing population have put
pressure on the available cropland.
Depletion of forests for timber and
cultivation, intensified use of
fertilisers and pesticides, and over-
irrigation, all these factors together
degrade the environment.
sufficiently deep layer of soil. Careless
human activities can destroy the soil
in a very short time. Deforestation,
overgrazing, overcultivation, mining
activities, construction of buildings,
and transport routes, etc. affect the
soil layer in different ways.
Destruction of vegetation and
overgrazing cause widespread soil
erosion. The plant roots hold the soil
together. In the absence of plants, soil
is left loose and washed away easily
by wind and water. It accounts for
major losses in soil fertility. It has been
estimated that the total mass of
materials moved annually by all rivers
to the oceans before human
intervention began was about 9.3
billion tonnes. After human
intervention it has increased more
than two and a half times.
Mining, settlement, transportation
and communication lines affect vast
stretches of land, which otherwise
would have been a living and
regenerating part of the earth. Open
pit mining creates large depressions
in the landscape. Some of them are
so big that astronauts can see them
from space.
Excessive irrigation and poor
drainage have caused many
productive farmlands turn into
unproductive land. Countries like
Egypt, Pakistan, and India have been
affected in this manner. Due to over-
exploitation of dry lands and
recurrence of severe drought
conditions, a large part of land is
being destroyed annually.
Quality of land is also being
affected by the use of pesticides. These
chemicals are poisonous. They stay
in the soil for a long time and pass on
to human population through water
and crops grown in this soil.
Depletion of Plant Cover : Due to human
activities, the natural vegetation cover
over a large part of the world has been
altered or modified. Native plants in a
natural state are restricted to only a few
areas now. For example, the rainforests
of the Amazon basin, arctic tundra and
the conifers of the sub-arctic zones are
still free to a large extent from human
interference. Several plant species have
been brought to foreign environments,
where they were unknown earlier. The
eucalyptus tree is a striking example.
It is a native tree of Australia, but now
it grows well in India, North Africa and
some parts of the USA.
Deforestation has caused
destruction of natural habitats of
several species. About 10 per cent of
the species of flowering plants are
threatened with extinction. In the next
few decades, more species might
become extinct if humans disrupt the
most complex biological community
on the earth. The rainforests cover
only seven per cent of the earths land
surface, but they contain nearly 50
per cent of all living species.
Destruction of natural vegetation
disturbs ecosystem as it increases
the population of life-forms existing
at a lower level such as insects,
which might be hazardous for
human health.
very high rate. As a society moves to
higher levels of industrialisation, the
per head consumption of minerals
also increases. In the USA, for
example, an average citizen uses
25 kg of aluminium, 550 kg of iron
and steel and 10 kg of copper
annually. If consumption of all the
minerals is combined, about 15,000 kg
(15 metric tons) of minerals are
consumed per capita each year. For
the USAs total population, the
amount will be 4 billion metric tons.
Deforestation
Depletion of Wildlife: According to the
International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN), 1,000 species of birds
and mammals are facing the threat of
extinction. Extinction means
disappearance of a species as a result
of natural disasters, climatic change
and habitat destruction, etc. It is mainly
because of humans, who directly or
indirectly affect their population.
Birds and animals are killed by
humans for various purposes. For
example, monkeys are used for a
variety of medical experiments, whales
for oils, musk deer for musk and hide,
and elephants for ivory.
Besides, destruction of their
natural habitat due to reduction in
forest cover, pollution of air and water
by toxic chemicals are also responsible
for the elimination of several species.
Depletion of Mineral and Energy
resources: Minerals and most of the
energy resources are non-renewable
resources. Once mined, an ore
deposit disappears forever. Even after
knowing this, we have been using
minerals and energy resources at a
The USA: Per Capita Annual
Consumption of minerals
4,100 kg
Stone
Nonmetallic resources
3,860 kg
sand and grovel
360 kg
Cement
250 kg
Clay
140 kg
Phosphate rock
200 kg
Salt
450 kg
Other nonmetals
Metallic resources
550 kg
Iron and steel
25 kg
Aluminium
10 kg
Copper
6 kg
Lead
5 kg
Zinc
6 kg
Manganese
6 kg
Other metals
In Table 8.1, the lifetime of some
of the metallic ores at the present rate
of consumption has been shown.
Table 8.1 Lifetime of Some Metallic Minerals
Metal Lifetime of World
Resources (in years)
Iron 120
Aluminium 330
Copper 65
Lead 20
Zinc 30
Gold 30
Platinum 45
Nickel 75
Cobalt 50
Manganese 70
Chromium 75
strain is more acute because of the
deterioration in water quality brought
about by agricultural and industrial
uses. Fertilisers, pesticides, chemicals
and other wastes get mixed with the
water supply and pollute it.
The rivers as resources have also
been affected due to construction of
dams. In 1950, there were about
5,000 large dams (over 15 metres
high dams) worldwide, but by the year
2000 there were over 48,000 such
dams. Though these dams have many
advantages such as controlling flood,
generation of hydroelectricity and
providing irrigation facilities, they
destroy the natural flow and alter the
ecosystem of the river basins.
Inland water systems at times are
invaded by some aquatic plants. They
choke the normal flow of water. It
affects other plant and animal lives.
For example, water hyacinth, a native
of South America, spread over
thousands of kilometres in the White
Nile System and remained a major
problem till 1980s. It could be
checked only after massive spraying
of weedicides, which was a very
expensive task.
Environmental Pollution
Pollution refers to the unwanted dirt and
waste that spoils land, water and air.
Any matter that is potentially harmful
to an organism when released into the
environment is known as pollutant, e.g.
toxic chemicals. It is, in fact, directly
linked with human activities, which are
performed without any regard for
These estimates are based on the
currently known reserves. If
geologists are able to discover fresh
reserves, the situation may change.
Further, increased ef forts at
conservation and recycling can cause
a sudden decrease in rates of
consumption. This might stretch the
lifetime of existing reserves.
Otherwise, the future seems bleak
because the geological process of the
formation of mineral ores cannot be
quickened.
Depletion of Water Resources: Of the
three major uses of water, i.e.
domestic, industrial and agricultural,
the last one makes the major demand.
In response to Green Revolution in
1960s, in many countries including
India, huge new tracts of land came
under irrigation. Today, about 65 per
cent of daily water consumption in the
world, on an average, is by
agriculture. About 25 per cent is used
by industry and only 5 per cent is used
for domestic use. In India, about
96 per cent of water is consumed in
agriculture, 3 per cent in industry and
only 1 per cent in domestic use. In
India, need for water has increased
many times. As a result, in some
places, so much water is drawn from
the river that the channel contains a
small trickle of waterflow. Increasing
human activities thus tend to deplete
locally available supplies. Continual
growth of world population and
acceleration of water use have started
straining the water resources of some
areas, even in the humid regions. The
nature. Let us examine the nature and
causes of pollution.
Land Pollution: Solid wastes dumped
on land pose a serious environmental
problem. These wastes come from
different sources such as residential,
commercial and industrial premises.
The quantity of wastes, and the
methods of their treatment and
disposal are important. Plastics are
not biodegradable because they are
not easily affected by weather or
bacteria. Hence a wide range of
disposable goods made of plastics are
convenient for consumers but they
aggravate environmental problems.
Spray of pesticides
Acid runoff from mines
Fertilisers and pesticides are
used for increasing agricultural
productivity all over the world.
However, these chemicals constitute
a very serious aspect of land
pollution. Substances such as
DDT, used as a pesticide, enter
the natural cycl es and the
ecosystem. It moves through food
to humans and animals and affects
their health.
Water Pollution: Untreated organic
wastes and industrial effluents
discharged into rivers, lakes and seas
cause water pollution.
A polluted river
Organic wastes come from
untreated human and animal wastes,
e.g. blood, hair, bones and feathers.
These wastes require oxygen to decay.
As a result, the amount of oxygen in
water is reduced, which may kill fish
and other organisms. Sediments and
chemical pollutants (plant nutrients,
e.g. fertilisers and toxic chemicals, e.g.
acids) are harmful for plants and
animals living in water. Oil spills from
pipelines or trucks can sink into
water below the earths surface and
contaminate groundwater. Oil spills
from ships create a slick, i.e. oil cover
on water that spreads over sea surface
and destroys the marine life. The
capacity of some rivers to carry
pollutants has long been exceeded.
They have become deadly, affecting
human health and other forms of life.
Air Pollution: Air pollution is caused
mainly by the burning of fossil fuels
and emission from automobiles. They
affect soil, vegetation, animal and
human beings and also buildings and
monuments. Respiratory diseases
such as bronchitis and pneumonia
increase due to air pollution.
Air pollutants, particularly
invisible gases, can be blown by the
wind over vast areas and can damage
human health as well as wildlife.
About 62.5 million people worldwide
live in areas (mainly industrial cities)
where the air is unhealthy. Due to
burning of fossil fuels, and
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), the
ozone layer in the upper atmosphere
is depleting fast. It allows more
incoming harmful ultraviolet radiation
from the sun to reach the earths
surface, threatening to increase the
incidence of skin cancers and eye
damage in humans.
How can we check Environmental
Degradation?
In order to check resource depletion
and control pollution of all kinds,
people s active participation is
necessary. Appropriate measures
need to be taken by countries/
regions of the world to stop misuse
or overuse of resources. In addition,
corrective steps to improve the
quality of degraded resources may
be beneficial. You have already read
about various measures to conserve
natural resources in detail in the
previous unit. The problem of
pollution will continue to be serious
until the sources of pollution are
checked to some extent. Many
countries have, therefore, banned the
use of certain dangerous pesticides
such as DDT and have found ways
of safe disposal of wastes. Efforts are
being made in our country to
check harmful emission from
automobiles. Now, like many
developed countries, India is also
considering to fix norms for the
quality of drinking water.
EXERCISES
(i) What is meant by environment?
(ii) What is insolation?
(iii) What is environmental degradation?
(iv) What is meant by resource depletion?
(v) Which parts of the world still have native vegetation cover?
(vi) How does mining affect the environment?
(vii) Which are the main sources of wastes?
(viii) What is pollution?
(ix) How are fertilisers and pesticides harmful to environment?
(x) Which are the major sources of atmospheric pollution?
(xi) Explain the nature of environmental problem associated with
wildlife resources.
(xii) Why is water pollution a major environmental problem?
(xiii) How does air pollution affect environment?
(i) Natural and human-made environment.
(ii) Environmental problems of developed and developing
countries.
(iii) Depletion and pollution.
(i) Deforestation and overgrazing lead to soil ________ .
(ii) Fossil fuels are ____________ resources.
(iii) Highest percentage of water is used by __________.
(iv) Respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and pneumonia
increase due to ___________ pollution.
(v) Recycling can help conserve _________ resources.
4. Project Work
With the help of the teacher prepare a project on any of the
following topics with reference to your area (village, town)
(i) Water pollution
(ii) Air pollution
(iii) Waste disposal (domestic, agricultural and industrial).
Make a list of the following:
(i) How water is wasted or misused by the people?
(ii) How the depletion of water resources affects our
environment?
We have studied that industrial
revolution has transformed the entire
world. In the last two centuries,
countries all over the world have
taken different developmental
strategies to improve the living
conditions of their people. Some
countries have been able to
accumulate wealth and improve the
lifestyles of their people; but many
developing countries are still
struggling to provide basic amenities
to their peoples. This has resulted in
a widening gap between the incomes
people earn in developed countries
and developing countries. The latter
suffer from many problems which they
try to solve. In this chapter we will
study two major challenges the
developing countries face today. In
the first section we will study
population and its linkage with some
of the developmental issues followed
by poverty and hunger in the
second section.
POPULATION AND DEVELOPMENT
The total number of persons
inhabiting a country at a particular
point of time is the population of
that country. The popul ati on
figures are always referred to in
international numerical as billion
or million. We know that the world
population has doubled in 40 years
from 3 billion in 1961 to 6 billion
in 2001. Increase in population did
not receive the attention for a very
long time. Only in the last few
decades, governments all over the
world are paying attention towards
this issue.
The diagram given on page 106
shows top 10 largely populated
countries of the world. They include
7 developing countries and 3
developed countries. Next to China,
India is the second largest populated
country in the world. India with over
2 per cent of the worlds geographical
area is inhabited by 16

per cent of the
worlds population.
Development and Sustainable
Development
Development of a country means
increase in the income of the people
of that country. It also includes
DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES
CHAPTER 9
people are forced to use water polluted
by industries and many service
sectors.
Can we consider the development,
which destroys nature and increases
levels of toxicity, as development in
the true sense of the term? No. There
is a need to include the maintenance
of ecological balance and environ-
mental protection as part of the
development. This leads to a change
in the concept of development; and
the changed concept is known as
sustainable development.
Sustainable development means
development without damaging the
environment. It is a pattern of
development that does not reduce
production, but changes its quality in
such a way that the needs of the
making available the basic
necessities such as food, clothing,
housing, quality education and
health for all and empowerment of
women. Development of a country
also reflects the following: (i) majority
of the working people shift from
agriculture to industry and service
jobs; (ii) there is movement from rural
to urban areas or conversion of rural
areas into urban areas; and
(iii) nature of employment is
respectable and is better paid.
Thus, the aim of development is to
improve the quality of human life in
all respects.
Development results in many
unwanted effects as well. It leads to
overexploitation of natural resources.
In many occasions, for example,
Largely populated countries of the world, 2003
Developmental Issues/107
present generation can be met
without jeopardising the resource
requirements of the future
generations.
Relationship between Population
and Development
Population and development are
interrelated. There are a number of
population traits that influence
developmental issues. In the same
way, the developmental issues also
affect different traits of population. The
ways by which population traits affect
developmental issues also vary from
region to region. For example, after
Industrial Revolution, there was a need
in the West to have a large population
to use the manufactured goods.
In contrast, it is alleged that the
increase in population in countries of
the East became an obstacle to
development. It puts pressure on
finite resources and their utilisation.
Since there is no industrialisation on
a large scale, the demands of the
increasing population could not be
fulfilled. A major section of the
population depends on agriculture,
which also leads to under-utilisation
of human resources.
When a country develops, there is
general improvement in the standard
of living. It is reflected in a number of
ways People get health facilities,
safe drinking water and sufficient
amount of food. This leads to decline
in death rates. Many people including
women go to work in factories and
offices. Since the survival of children
is ensured, people tend to have small
families. Moreover, in order to
maintain a high standard of living
small families are preferred. Over the
years, all these factors have led to
reduction in birth rates. We already
know that reduction of both birth rate
and death rate results in low natural
growth rate. Thus a gradual and smooth
population growth is established.
When population increases in a
country, it has to be provided with a
corresponding increase in basic
amenities, such as food, clothing,
hospitals, educational institutions,
drinking water and housing.
Governments also have to ensure
availability of foodgrains. A rise in
population may lead to difficulties for
the government to provide facilities for
all. It also raises the demand for goods
and services and more employment
opportunities.
Di f f erent aspects of the
popul ati on al so af f ect the
development. For instance, age
structure of the population directly
affects the distribution of resources
avai l abl e f or devel opmental
activities in a country. If a country
has a greater proportion of young
people (aged 0-14), they are to be
provided with education and health-
care facilities. In the same way
elderly people (aged 65+) are also to
be provided with health-care and
retirement or old age benefits. This
will divert the resources mobilised
by the government to prioritise the
development programmes in such a
way that the requirements of these
age groups are met.
Utilisation of Natural Resources
The increasing size of population
reduces per capita availability of
resources, i.e. the average amount of
resources available to each person.
They also put pressure on land that
leads to increase in the yield. How?
As population increases, the demand
for more foodgrains encourages
farmers to cultivate their lands
intensively. The increasing number of
members in the families also forces
them to cultivate lands to meet their
family requirements. They use
fertilisers and pesticides to get higher
yield. All these factors lead to overall
increase in agricultural production.
However, unless farmers possess
sufficient knowledge on utilisation of
the chemicals and manage their
lands, the intensive application of
chemicals on land results in
reduction in the productivity of these
lands. Increase in population also
leads to soil erosion. In order to
expand the area under cultivation
farmers tend to cultivate marginal
lands and hilly lands that were left as
fallow, which indirectly promotes soil
erosion. Intensive land utilisation in
many parts of the world has led to
salinity and waterlogging and thereby
land degradation. Do you know that
about half of the worlds irrigated
lands have been degraded?
The agriculture sector also will
have difficulty in producing additional
foodgrains because it has to produce
more to meet the requirements of
increasing population without much
profit. This problem is common in
many developing countries.
Education: We know that how people
become human resources when they
are provided with education.
Education contributes greatly to limit
the family size. Education also
accelerates the general process of
development through reducing the
pressure of population on given
resources and also by providing skilled
workers. Educational progress leads to
late marriage, which in turn reduces the
span of the fertility period leading to a
slower growth of population.
Do you know that governments all
over the world play a major role in
education of the people? Schools and
universities, established by the
governments are considered as the
major infrastructure for a country.
Rapid growth of population has a
direct effect on the future expenditure
on education. When population
increases in a country, more children
go to school, which automatically
increases the educational expenditure
in the form of creation of new schools,
employment of more teachers, books
and equipments.
Health: Population growth increases
the costs for providing health services,
mainly because more people want
more health services. Consequently
funds allotted for other developmental
activities are diverted to provide more
medical facilities.
Employment: Rapid population
growth leads to an increase in the
demand for employment opportunities
in the later years. It also compels
workers to accept low-wage jobs. Lack
of sufficient employment opportunities
lead to unemployment and poverty.
Urbanisation: The movement of
people to urban areas and increasing
population in urban areas create
problems of congestion and
environmental pollution, which has a
detrimental effect on the quality of life
in urban areas. Also, disproportionate
urban growth, which is common now
in almost all the developing countries,
creates further inequalities between
rural and urban areas. Increasing
disposal of solid waste by urban
settlements has given rise to pollution
and destruction of habitats. New
townships have been putting
pressure on scarce forest slopes and
marginal lands.
Indian Scenario
As a developing country, India is
confronted with rapid population
growth. The fruits of development are
not reaching all the people. Since
1920s, India has witnessed a
continuous increase in population,
adding to the already large
population. In 2050, with more than
one and a half billion people, India is
going to be the country with largest
population in the world.
Even after more than 50 years of
independence, no major occupational
shift from agriculture is evident in
India. The increasing population has
overburdened the agricultural sector.
Yet agriculture continues to occupy
the key position in the country by
providing employment and livelihood
to around 70 per cent of the
population. Though service sector, of
late, is generating employment
opportunities, there is a greater scope
to industrialise the country to meet
the employment needs of the
increasing population.
India was the first country in the
world to have a policy on population
in 1952. The Government of India has
identified the population stabilisation
as the main agenda in its policies to
promote sustainable development.
Some of its programmes include:
(i) affordable health-care facilities to
married women; (ii) education, both
primary and secondary level;
(iii) extending basic amenities
including sanitation, safe drinking
water and housing; (iv) empowering
women and enhancing their
employment opportunities; and
(v) development of infrastructure such
as transportation and communication
facilities.
POVERTY AND HUNGER
Do you know why some children look
extremely thin and wear not so good
clothes? Many of them do not get food
even two times a day. Do you know
why? Have you ever asked yourself
why people including many children
are begging on the footpath? Why
some people are residing in well-
furnished houses whereas the others
in slums and dilapidated houses?
Look at the picture above. These
children are in a condition, which is
known as extreme level of poverty. They
are faced with the problem of hunger.
Poverty: Poverty is one of the
important challenges in many
developing countries. It is defined as
the state of a person or family not
having enough money to take care of
basic needs such as food, clothing
and housing. Hunger is the extreme
situation of poverty. It is defined as
an urgent need for food, an uneasy
sensation caused by the lack of food
and a weakened condition brought
about by prolonged lack of food.
Non-availability of food on a large-
scale results in famines, which have
been affecting people for ages.
Famines prevailed in ancient India,
Egypt, western Asia, China, Greece,
Rome, north-east Africa destroyed
ancient civilisations of the world.
Those affected by hunger were ill-
treated in those days. They were sold
as slaves.
India also faced famines in the
past. In order to provide relief to
famine-affected people, Kautilya, in
the fourth century BC spoke of
employment creation and suggested
the government to redistribute the
properties and revenues of the rich
people to the poor and famine
affected. Various Indian rulers in the
later period, like Muhammad-bin
Tughlaq, made extensive use of work
projects and income creation to avoid
famines.
In recent times, people all over the
world protest against hunger and
poverty. It is reminiscent of a similar
period in the late 18th century in
Western Europe. The French
Revolution was driven not only by
ideas of political freedom alone, but
also by the lack of bread in Paris.
Food riots have occurred throughout
the history of many developed
countries. Hunger even today is a
major challenge in many parts of the
world particularly South Asia, Sub-
Saharan Africa and Latin America.
We do not like to see one starving.
Almost all the countries in the world
have recognised food as a basic
Somalian children
Do you know what Hunger Project is?
It is an international organisation,
based in the USA, started in 1977. It
is spread over 150 nations with a
membership of about three million.
Hunger Project is carrying on a
systematic campaign on a global scale
to draw attention to the grin dilemma
which humanity is facing in the form
of millions of people living in a
perpetual state of starvation in the
midst of ample availability of food.
human right and everyone will have
to be free from hunger. Poverty and
hunger are inhuman and intolerable.
They are unnecessary and
unwarranted and can be averted.
Thousands of years of experience of
farming and the industrial revolution
have helped us to cultivate. We are
skilled enough to guarantee adequate
food for all in the world. The only
problem is that the food produced in
different parts of the world is not
distributed equally among the rich
However, by sheer political will and
determination, famines have been
successfully averted in many
countries of Africa and Asia. It has
resulted in the improvement in the
living conditions of the people of these
countries. Let us study two such
successful attempts.
Maharashtra Drought, 1970-1973,
India
When the rural Maharashtra had
drought in 1970-1973, it was facing
an alarming problem of environmental
degradation and crop failures. But the
sincere efforts of the government
averted famine. Government generated
employment on a large scale. It also
provided food materials for those who
were unable to work and without able-
bodied relatives. At the peak of the
crisis, nearly five million labourers
were employed on public works
throughout the state. Apart from
providing foodgrains as a part of wages
for workers, the government also
directly sold the foodgrains in the open
market to restore normal levels of food
availability. While distributing
foodgrains, the vulnerable sections of
the population were given preference.
Cape Verde, the Country of Famines
Cape Verde is in Western Africa. It was
affected by recurrent devastating
droughts ever since it was colonised
by Portuguese in 1460. Famines were
common and periodical. They took lot
of lives. Due to some of these famines
nearly half of the population were
While discussing about hunger in the
Modern World, Amartya Sen, Indias
Nobel Laureate says that while one
part of humanity desperately
searches for more food to eat, another
part counts the calories and looks for
new ways of slimming.
and the poor or across the national
boundaries.
Some of the factors causing
poverty are the unequal distribution
of resources among the people,
inadequate education and employment
opportunities, military activities mainly
war, environmental degradation and
lack of welfare measures including
health. Non-availability and improper
distribution of food materials are some
of the major causes of hunger. Hunger
is primarily a problem of general
poverty and of deprivation of
food entitlement and adequate
health and social care. Hunger results
in malnourishment, sickness,
fatigue and death.
killed. The situation was so grim even
in the first half of the 20th century that
for every 10 children born, 5 died
immediately or within one year. Till the
middle of 20th century, the colonial
government did not give sufficient
attention to the problem.
After independence in 1975, Cape
Verde government implemented many
developmental programmes in the
areas of education and health. Drought
relief had been among the top
priorities. The government purchased
foodgrains from other countries and
sold in the open market. The income
that came from the sale was used for
labour -intensive public works
programme such as afforestation, soil
conservation, irrigation and
infrastructure. The vulnerable groups
such as pregnant women,
undernourished children, the elderly,
and the physically challenged were
given special attention.
Magnitude of Poverty and Hunger
Not all the people in the world are
facing hunger and poverty. Nearly
one-fifth of the six billion people are
affected by poverty. Most of these poor
are living in South Asia, Sub-Saharan
Africa and Latin America.
Malnutrition, one of the symptoms of
hunger, affects about 830 million
people all over the world. The rates of
malnutrition remain high in South
Asia, and they are rising in Sub-
Saharan Africa.
People living on less than Rs. 50 a day in 1998 (Millions)
O C E A N
PACIFIC
O C E A N O C E A N
ATLANTIC
Latin America
and the
Carribean
(78)
INDIAN
South Asia
(522)
Sub-Saharan
Africa
(291)
Middle East
and North
Africa (6)
Europe and Central Asia (24)
East Asia and the
Pacific (278)
O C E A N
PACIFIC
A large proportion of children
under the age of 5 in India are
malnourished. They have particular
nutritional deficiencies, such as lack
of iron and iodine. Many children die
before they attain the age of 5.
to the needy. NGOs and civil society
organisations play an important role
in mobilising opinion and
subsequently create awareness
among the people to assert peoples
food entitlement under various
government schemes.
In order to alleviate poverty and
hunger some other steps are also to
be taken. More employment is to be
generated. Medical and health care
needs are to be enhanced to cover
all sections of the people. Special
arrangements are to be made to
vulnerable groups such as mothers
and children to access to food.
Women are to be empowered by
making them literate, encouraging
them to participate in elections and
allowing them to work in factories
and offices.
Malnutrition among children is
measured by comparing their weight
and height with those of a well-
nourished reference population.
Recently the government has initiated
many programmes to reduce the
problem of malnutrition.
Population, Food Production and
Poverty
The three challenges population,
food production and poverty are
interlinked. With the increase in
population, food production has also
increased but due to extreme poverty
certain sections of society are not
capable to meet their food
requirements. Hence, they also suffer
from hunger.
Food production is an important
component of solving the problem of
hunger in the modern world. With the
help of modern technology, the
production of foodgrains has been
kept pace with the growth of
population. Consequently food
production will not be a major
problem from the point of view of
population growth.
Since food is a basic human need,
governments all over the world have
the primary responsibility to ensure
food availability and its distribution
Prior to Independence, India also met
with many famines. The last famine
known as Bengal Famine, occurred
in 1943. About 3 million people died
during the Bengal Famine.
Since Independence, removal of
poverty has been one of the major
objectives of India. India undertakes
two kinds of developmental
programmes to solve the problem of
poverty and hunger. They are (i) price
stabilisation and (ii) income
generation.
The following are some of the
activities the government takes:
(i) public distribution system: under
this programme, the government buys
foodgrains from farmers in the open
market, process, store and distribute
them through shops known as fair
price shops at less than the actual
price. Earlier, all the households were
covered under this scheme. Now only
very poor families are covered;
(ii) Children are given one meal in
school popularly known as mid-day
meal scheme; (iii) children below the
age of 5 are given supplementary
nutritious food through schools and
(iv) the government undertakes many
developmental works meant to
generate employment and the workers
are given foodgrains.
EXERCISES
1. Answers the following questions in brief.
(i) Define the term population.
(ii) What is meant by development?
(iii) Define sustainable development.
(iv) Give some examples of the characteristics of population.
(v) Name five developmental issues.
(vi) What is poverty?
(vii) List three causes of poverty.
(viii) How malnutrition is measured?
(ix) What are the impacts of population growth?
(x) How age distribution affects the developmental activities?
(xi) Explain how education and health are influenced by
population attributes.
(xii) How do different aspects of population affect the utilisation
of natural resources?
(xiii) What are the steps taken by the government to stabilise the
population growth in India?
(xiv) Describe the role of food production in poverty alleviation.
(xv) What are the steps that the Government of India has taken
to solve the problem of poverty and hunger?
(i) Development and sustainable development.
(ii) Poverty and hunger.
3. Project Work
Visit a government hospital and prepare the list of services
provided by the hospital.
Collect literacy levels of your parents and grandparents.
Tabulate and compare the collected information and discuss
in the class.
Visit the village administrative office/Panchayat office/
Municipality/Municipal Corporation and collect the details
of population and details of developmental activities
undertaken by that organisation. Discuss the details of
information in the class.
You may have read or heard about alleged pesticide content
in any goods that you use and other pollution related issues?
Discuss the information collected from newspapers and
television in the class.
Look at some of the things that we
use in our day-to-day life. Whether
they are necessities like food,
clothing, furniture, electrical goods,
medicine or other items of comfort
or entertainment, many of these
goods come to us through a network
of global proportions. The raw
material might have been extracted
in one country; the knowledge on
processing this raw material might
have been with some other country;
it might have been actually processed
in another place; and the money to
produce it might have come from
altogether a different country.
Notice how people in different
parts of the world are interlinked.
Their interdependence is not only
limited to production or distribution
of goods. They are influenced by each
other in spheres like education, art
and literature as well. This kind of
interaction of nations and peoples
through trade, investment, travel,
popular culture, and other forms is
a trend towards globalisation.
In the process of globalisation,
countries become interdependent
and the distance between people gets
shortened. One country depends on
the other for its development. Japan,
for example, one of the important
players in cotton textile industry,
depends on raw cotton produced in
India and other countries. Indias
cashewnut industry, a pioneer in the
international cashewnut market,
depends on production of raw cashew
in the African countries. We all know
the extent to which information
technology industries of the USA
depend on talented engineers from
India and other developing countries.
Globalisation includes movement of
not only goods and money but also
of people.
Early Forms of Globalisation
Globalisation is not something new.
From around 200 BC to AD 1000,
the most significant example of
interaction and long-distance trade
was happened through Silk Route.
The Silk Route stretched nearly 6,000
km across central and south-west
Asia, linking China to India, western
Asia, and the Mediterranean. Along
GLOBALISATION
CHAPTER 10
carpets of Java, the gold of
Zimbabwe, and the silks, porcelain
and tea of China made their way to
Europe. The eagerness of the
Europeans to find their sources in the
East sparked the European age of
exploration. Thus, today s
globalisation under the auspices of
the West is possible mainly because
of the framework established by the
Indians, the Arabs and the Chinese
in the past.
Move towards Modern
Globalisation
The technological innovations have
played an important role in the
process of globalisation. Another
factor contributing to this is the
establishment of international
institutions such as the United
Nations Organisation, World Bank,
and World Trade Organisation.
Moreover, the opening up of markets
for private companies outside their
home country and consumerism set
the trends towards the spread of
globalisation to various parts of
the world.
The globalisation gives thrust to
two areas: (i) liberalisation and
(ii) privatisation. Liberalisation means
the Silk Route, goods, people, and
i deas t ravel l ed t housands of
kilometres between China, India,
and Europe. Extensive interaction
between peoples, by travelling
over vast distances took place
across Asia between A.D.1000 and
A.D. 1500.
During this period the maritime
system on the Indian Ocean also
gained importance. The oceanic
routes between South-east Asia and
the Middle East greatly expanded. It
is not only goods and people who
travelled across the world but also
the technology. India, during this
period, was not only the seat of
learning and spirituality, but also the
centre of wealth. It was called a
Golden Bird, and it attracted traders
and travellers from other parts of the
world. It was during the Mongol rule
in China that many Chinese
inventions such as gunpowder,
printing, the blast furnace, silk
machinery, paper money and playing
cards found their way to Europe. In
fact, these trade relations sowed the
seeds of modern globalisation.
Todays globalisation has been
characterised by brain drain, or
exodus of talented people from the
East to the West. The world in the
14th century witnessed the same
phenomenon; but, the flow moved the
other way, from West to East.
In the early forms of globalisation,
the textiles of India, the spices of
Indonesia and East Africa, the gold
and tin of Malaya, the batik and
Do you know that an Italian traveller
Marco Polo, worked as a government
servant during the Mongol rule in
China for 17 years? His travel accounts
and experiences in China offered the
Europeans a first-hand knowledge of
Asian lands and stimulated interest in
Asian trade.
Globalisation/117
relaxation of government regulations
relating to various activities in
industrial and service sectors and
encouragement of foreign companies
to set up businesses and production
units within the domestic area.
Through privatisation, private sector
companies are allowed to produce
goods and services, which were not
allowed in the past. It also includes
the sale of the assets of the public
sector companies to private sector
companies.
The modern form of globalisation
had started since the Second World
War, but it has attracted more
attention during the last 20 years.
The modern globalisation is mainly
centred around developed countries.
These countries deplete a major part
of natural resources all around the
world. People of these countries
account for 20 per cent of the world
population but consume more than
80 per cent of the earths natural
resources. They control most of the
latest technology. Developing
countries are depending on these
countries for technology, money,
expertise and arms.
Globalisation allows multinational
companies rather than the
governments play a key role in many
countries. They possess resources,
technology and support of
governments for their activities. Many
multinational companies relocate
their factories from one country to
another country. In this process,
information technology enables them
to break down their production and
distribution activities and go around
the world.
What is the difference between
globalisation of the present and of the
past? Today, it is not only goods that
are travelling across the countries but
also the people on a massive scale.
Earlier it was only finished products
that travelled, now it includes raw
materials, technology and the people
also. Moreover, it was countries of
the East, which dominated the
international trade and their goods
more highly valued and respected.
Now it is the other way round. It is
goods from the West that are highly
valued. Many companies produce
goods in developing countries and
label them in developed countries and
sell in the global market as the
product of the developed countries.
Impacts of Globalisation
Globalisation influences every nation
in different ways. Its impact also
differs from country to country. The
effects of globalisation in developed
countries will be different from that
of developing countries. In developed
countries, globalisation has led to
loss of jobs because many companies
relocate production units to
developing countries to reduce the
cost of production. Unemployment is
a common phenomenon in many
European countries. In developing
countries, globalisation affects the
producers of foodgrains and
manufactured goods. Globalisation
Globalisation/119
has made it obligatory for many
developing countries to purchase
certain amount of goods from other
countries even if they are produced
within their own countries. The entry
of many manufactured goods from
outside threatens the local
industries. Some of the other
impacts of globalisation from the
point of view of developing countries
are as follows:
Economic Impacts: It brings in
capital from other countries, as well
as the latest technology and
machinery. For instance, the
information technology industry in
India uses computers and other
telecommunication equipment used in
developed countries. About 15 years
ago, this was unimaginable. The
engineering graduates of some of the
Indian institutions are most sought
after in the USA and in many
European countries. In many
countries, governments own natural
resources and utilise them efficiently
in the interest of the people and
provide them various services.
Globalisation encourages the
governments to privatise these
resources that lead to exploitation of
resources for profit motives and
accumulation of wealth by the
individuals. Privatisation also deprives
those who do not have the capacity to
pay to utilise these resources.
Political Impacts: Globalisation
shifts the power to regulate certain
activities from governments to
international institutions, which are
indirectly controlled by multinational
companies. For instance, when a
country is engaged in the business
activities of other countries, its
government makes agreements with
respect to those countries separately.
These agreements differ from country
to country. Now, international
organisations, such as World Trade
Organisation (WTO), frame rules and
regulations for all countries and the
governments have to enforce these
rules and regulations in their
respective countries. In addition,
globalisation compels many
governments to change legislations
and constitution to facilitate the
private sector. Governments often are
compelled to do away with certain
rules and regulations that safeguard
the rights of working people and
environment.
Socio-cultural Impacts: Globalisation
also brings about changes in the
structure of the family. The joint
family was the norm in the past. This
has been replaced by nuclear family.
Our eating habits, festivals,
ceremonies have also gone under
tremendous change. The birth day,
Womens day, May-day celebrations,
increasing number of fast food
restaurants, and many other
international festivals symbolise
globalisation. Changes in dress
culture is one of the major
manifestations of globalisation. Many
sanskaras traditions and values
that were part of a community are
undergoing change.
Globalisation Indian Scenario
Soon after Independence, India chose
the policy of mixed economy under
which the government undertook the
path of development. It established
many capital goods industries and
facilitated the development of private
sector in a gradual manner. Over the
years, India has not been able to
achieve its intended objectives. In
order to provide welfare measures,
India borrowed money from other
countries. In some situations the
government also spent the peoples
money extravagantly. In 1991, India
reached a situation in which the
government lost its credibility to
borrow from abroad. Several other
problems like rising prices, shortage
of adequate capital, slow
development and technological
backwardness also intensified the
crisis. Government expenditure far
exceeded its revenue. This led India
to increase the globalisation process
and open its market as suggested by
two international organisations, viz.,
World Bank and International
Monetary Fund.
The strategy adopted by the
government is known as New Economic
Policy. Under this policy, many
activities, which were carried out by
public sector companies were opened
to private sector as well. The private
sector has also been freed from many
restrictions. They have been provided
with many concessions to start
industries and business activities.
Industrialists and businesses from
outside the country have been invited
to produce and sell their goods and
services in India. Many foreign goods
that were earlier not allowed to sell in
India are being allowed now.
The last one decade of globalisation
in India has led to the set up of
production units by many foreign
companies in the area of automobile,
information technology, electronics,
and food processing industries.
Moreover, the prices of many
consumer goods, particularly in the
electronics industry such as radios,
televisions and other home
appliances have come down. The
telecommunications sector has seen
enormous growth. We are able to see
many television channels rather than
only one or two channels that we
used to see in the past. We have about
20 million cellular phone users. The
usage of computers and other
modern technologies has increased
tremendously. When developing
countries have to bargain with
developed countries to engage in
trade, India plays a crucial role in
taking the leadership role.
One of the areas in which
globalisation is not beneficial to India
is employment generation. Though it
provided opportunities for a few
hundred highly skilled workers to
earn high income, globalisation failed
to generate sufficient employment
opportunities on a large scale.
Moreover, agriculture, the backbone
of India is yet to gain the benefits of
globalisation. A lot of its lands are to
Globalisation/121
be irrigated efficiently using different
technologies available in different
parts of the world. Indias farmers are
to be educated enough to take up
modern methods of cultivation
practised in developed countries. Its
hospitals require more advanced
equipments. Globalisation is yet to
provide electricity at low cost to lakhs
of houses in India.
EXERCISES
(i) What is globalisation?
(ii) Give examples of some industries in which one country is to
depend on the other for its development.
(iii) What are the countries that sow the seeds of modern
globalisation?
(iv) What is Silk Route?
(v) What are the inventions that went from China to Europe in
the early forms of globalisation?
(vi) List the goods that travelled from East to West in early forms
of globalisation.
(vii) Describe the economic impacts of globalisation.
(viii) What are the two thrust areas of globalisation?
(ix) What are the political impacts of globalisation?
(x) Explain the reasons that led India increased the globalisation
process.
(xi) Describe the impact of globalisation in India.
(i) Liberalisation and privatisation.
(ii) Early forms of globalisation and modern forms of globalisation.
3. Project work
Visit an electronics or electrical shop and prepare a list of goods
which are produced outside India and discuss in the class
about the nature of goods and countries they come from.
Visit a grocery shop. List some important goods on the display.
Ask them the price of those goods today and 10 years before.
Discuss the changes in price in the class.
To conclude, globalisation is an
irreversible process. Its impact can
be seen everywhere in the world.
People in one part of the world are
interacting with people in other
parts. Such transactions, no doubt,
have their own problems. But, we
should look at its brighter side and
work it out for the benefit of our
own people.
List out some of the brand names of cars available in India
and get the details of their country of origin.
Prepare a list of goods that entered in India in the past 15
years. Consult your parents.
List out some of the traditional dresses and festivals celebrated
in India. Also prepare another list of dresses and festivals that
came from outside the country. Discuss the nature of these
festivals and their impacts.
Terrorism is one of the most serious
challenges that the world faces today.
It is a war against democracy and
crime against humanity. It has
crossed national boundaries and has
international ramifications. It is a
new variant of genocide which
threatens national unity and
sovereignty. Terrorism, in a way, is a
new challenge to humanity in the 21st
century.
Terrorism is violence used by a few
against fellow human beings.
Terrorists have total disregard for
human lives including their own.
They are ruthless, heartless and
senseless criminals. They commit
crimes and cause bloodshed without
any sense of guilt. Their self-made
ideology is the only justification for
their limitless crimes. To them, their
cause is everything and others are
either for or against it.
Violence is an essential part of
terrorism. Terrorism is a systematic
use of violence or the threat of violence
to achieve specific political goals. It
attempts to use violence to cause
widespread panic, fear or terror to
achieve its ultimate political aim. In
this sense, the fusion of crime and
politics gives birth to terrorism.
In every state it is the government
which has the exclusive authority
over the legal use of force. Terrorism
constitutes an organised challenge to
this authority. Terrorism is a total
negation of the democratic principles
of resolving disputes through peaceful
means. It has utter disregard for
democracy. It believes in the cult of
bullet against ballot. It has become
a tool to blackmail, coerce and impose
the minority decision over the
majority will.
All terrorists profess to have a
laudable cause for which the
constitutional means are not
effective. Their missionary zeal and
commitment operate under the
assumption that sooner or later a
majority of the people will surrender
to or support their cause which is
everything to them. Hence, they are
blind to see reason. So, violent,
undemocratic and even immoral
means are justified by them to
achieve their desired goals.
TERRORISM A CHALLENGE
CHAPTER 11
foreigners or foreign targets are also
aimed to internationalise their cause.
They kill leaders, blast institutions
and attack armed forces as they are
the symbols of state authority. By
fostering a sense of mass insecurity,
they try to hasten a collapse of state
machinery.
Insurgency and Terrorism
There is a very minute difference
between insurgency and terrorism.
Insurgency is confined within the
national boundary and it is directed
against ones own constitutional
government. But terrorism can cross
over the national boundaries and it
may be directed against ones own
or other countries. Insurgency is
operated with the support of a
section of the local people, whereas
terrorism may or may not have that
support.
Terrori sts use vi ol ence to
demoralise the government and
ultimately push them to a situation
of counter violence. In the violence of
ei ther si de, i t i s the ci vi l i an
population which suffers the most
physically, mentally, economically or
otherwise.
Terrorists kill one to frighten many.
It is a technique of psychological
warfare. Their violence against
Terrorist attack on World Trade Center (WTC), New York
In response to the terrorist attacks on
World Trade Center (WTC), New York,
on 11 September, 2001, the United
States of America declared war against
global terrorism, named Operation
Enduring Freedom. Incidentally, it was
on this very date in 1893 that Swami
Vivekananda in his memorable
speech at World Parliament of the
Religions at Chicago had convinced
the international community about
love and peace as the essence of all
the religions of the world.
TerrorismA Challenge/125
Revolutionaries and Terrorists
The revolutionaries of Indias freedom
struggle cannot be equated with the
present-day terrorists. They were
revolutionaries and not terrorists.
The aim of the revolutionaries was to
overthrow foreign or colonial rule
while the aim of the terrorists is to
overthrow an elected government.
Revolutionaries laid down their lives
to make India free from the colonial
rule. They were the true nationalists
and freedom fighters. Revolutionaries
were against the British rule and not
against the colonial and authoritarian
British people. They were not against
a particular community, race or
religion. Public or civilian population
was never the target of the
revolutionaries. Some selected British
officials known for their cruel and
arrogant behaviour were targeted by
them. Their sporadic acts of violence
were individual in nature and very few
in number. They were not mercenaries
or religious fanatics. Unlike terrorists,
revolutionaries were never associated
with drug trafficking, extortion,
kidnapping or blackmailing.
Terrorism in India
Terrorism today poses a uniform
challenge all over the world. In past
few decades, India has been badly
affected by terrorist activities. Some
hostile countries encourage
fundamentalist forces, separatist
tendencies and terrorism in India. As
a result, secularism in India, which
is built upon the principle of unity in
diversity, gets adversely affected.
Terrorism poses a direct threat to
national sovereignty, territorial
integrity and democracy in India.
The North East India gives a
picture of communal overtones,
border disputes, immigrations and
above all ethnic conflicts. Cross-
border terrorism and involvement of
foreign agencies have diluted the
distinction between the concepts of
insurgency and terrorism. Hence, the
various forms of insurgency in the
North East have been clubbed
together.
The insurgency in Nagaland, which
is the oldest, began with a demand
for secession from India. Today the
Nagas demand for a Greater
Nagaland comprising of Naga
inhabited areas of Assam, Arunachal
Pradesh, Manipur and Myanmar.
In Mizoram, the demand for a
sovereign state called Greater
Mizoram was given up after it was
granted statehood in 1987. In
Manipur too insurgency began with a
secessionist demand. The Nagas,
Kukis and Meiteis indulged in large-
scale violence and mass killings
claiming Manipur as their own land.
In Tripura, insurgency is marked by
violent clashes between indigenous
tribals and non-tribal settlers.
Assam is in the grip of insurgency
due to the presence of many insurgent
groups demanding secession,
separate state or greater autonomy.
For their various demands including
secession, the insurgents have
resort ed t o bl ast s, ki l l i ngs,
kidnappings and other violent
means. It has disturbed the law
and order and shat t ered t he
economy of the concerned states.
In this way insurgency in the North
East has advanced on the path of
terrorism.
Naxalite movement is also a
serious political-economic problem
before the nation, since Independence.
Inspired by the ideology of Mao,
Naxalism originated in a village
named Naxalbari in West Bengal in
the nineteen sixties. The Naxalite
movement later spread over to Bihar,
Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Orissa,
Tripura, Jharkhand, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, etc. There are
many Naxalite organisations
operating in different parts of India.
Among them, Peoples War Group
(PWG) and Maoist Communists
Centre (MCC) are the two most
prominent outfits.
NARCO TERRORISM
The linkage of terrorism with drugs and
arms traf ficking is called narco
terrorism. The Golden Crescent
comprising of Afghanistan, Iran and
Pakistan is situated to the west of India.
In the Golden Crescent, Afghanistan is
the major opium producing country.
Pakistan and Iran are the transit
countries to smuggle drugs towards
South Asia and Europe respectively.
Towards the east of India lies the
Golden Triangle of Myanmar, Laos and
Thailand.
Here Myanmar is the main source
of opium. Laos and Thailand serve as
a passage for drug smuggling to
different nations. As India is situated
between these two, it is adversely
affected by increased terrorist
activities and illegal arms supply.
A scene after terrorist attack on the Parliament
at New Delhi on 13 December 2001
TerrorismA Challenge/127
Sometimes terrorist activities have
been carried out in the name of religion.
But no religion preaches violence.
Over the past few years, cross
border terrorism has increased in
Jammu and Kashmir. Foreign
merceneries and local youth were
provided training in camps across the
border. They crossed the border and
spread terror in the state compelling
many Kashmiri families to flee the
state. Recently, there has been some
improvement in the situation.
Terrorism always disrupts the
normal life of people. It slows down
the process of socio-economic
development of the affected region.
India has always opposed terrorism
and insurgency of all forms and at
all places. No terrorist movement
has succeeded so far in the world.
History bears the testimony that
terrorism has always been self-
defeating.
EXERCISES
(i) What is terrorism?
(ii) Distinguish between insurgency and terrorism.
(iii) Distinguish between revolutionaries and terrorists.
(iv) How has insurgency affected the north eastern region of
India?
(v) What is Naxalite movement? Which states of India are
affected by it?
(i) In every state _____________ has the exclusive authority over
the legal use of force.
(ii) ____________ is an essential part of terrorism.
(iii) Terrorism is a tool to impose the minority decision over
____________.
(iv) Terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir has compelled many
___________ to flee the state.
3. Tick ( ) the right statements.
(i) Terrorists use violence to help the government.
(ii) Terrorism challenges territorial integrity and governance of
a nation.
(iii) Many terrorist movements in the world have been successful.
(iv) The fusion of crime and politics gives birth to terrorism.
4. Project Work
Collect newspaper clippings for the next three months about
terrorist/insurgent activities in any part of India. On the basis
of this collection the following may be attempted:
(a) On an outline political map mark the terrorist/insurgent
affected states of India.
(b) List the various losses incurred due to terrorism.
Hold a group discussion in your class to evolve measures to
curb terrorism/insurgency.
United Nations, International Agencies and Human Rights/129
The twentieth
century wit-
nessed two
terrible World
Wars. After the
First World War
(1914-1918), it
was realised
that an organisation should be
created to prevent future wars and
hence the League of Nations was
formed. But, it failed to achieve its
objectives. Within twenty years of its
formation, the Second World War
(1939-1945) broke out. It caused
enormous loss of lives and property
all over the world. This prompted the
nations of the world to make another
attempt to form an international
organisation.
From 25 April to 26 June, 1945,
representatives of 50 nations of the
world met in San Francisco, USA to
draw a Charter or a set of rules for a
new world organisation, called the
United Nations. The purposes of the
United Nations are same as, the
League of Nations to avert war and
to sponsor measures for human
welfare. The Preamble of the UN
Charter aims, to save succeeding
generations from the scourge of war
which, twice in our lifetime, has
brought untold sorrow to mankind,
and to ensure the welfare of the
people of the world. The members of
the United Nations resolved to
combine their efforts to work for
UN Secretariat
UNITED NATIONS, INTERNATIONAL
AGENCIES AND HUMAN RIGHTS
CHAPTER 12
to act as a centre for harmonising
the actions of nations to achieve
the above aims.
Principles of the United Nations
The Charter mentions certain
principles for the UN members. Every
member state is expected to follow
them. Some of these principles are:
to settle their differences with
other nations by peaceful means
to refrain from the use of threat
or force against any other state
to give the United Nations every
assistance in any action against a
nation that starts war
to fulfill the Charters obligations
with all sincerity.
In short, all the member states of
the UN are expected to act as good
neighbours in the world family of
nations.
The UN plays the twin roles of
preventing war and promoting the
welfare of people. In this way the UN
acts as the peacemaker and the
keeper of hope and conscience of all
the peoples of the world. It is a symbol
of international cooperation and
peaceful co-existence. It is central to
global efforts to solve such problems
through collective action that
challenge humanity.
Principal Organs of the United
Nations
Under the Charter, the United
Nations body has six organs: the
General Assembly, the Security
peace, human rights, social progress
and economic advancement. Today,
the United Nations is worlds largest
international organisation and it is
the single living embodiment of hope
for peace and freedom from the fear
of a Third World War.
The Charter was signed on 26
June 1945 by 50 nations including
India. Poland signed it later and
became one of the original member
states. The United Nations formally
came into existence on 24 October
1945, when the Charter was ratified
by the member states. Since then, 24
October is celebrated as the United
Nations Day every year.
Switzerland and Timor-Leste (East
Timor) joined the United Nations in
2002, thereby raising its present
strength to 191.
The United Nations is neither a
super state nor a world government.
It is an organisation of sovereign
states.
Purposes of the United Nations
The purposes of the United Nations,
as set forth in the Charter, are
to maintain international peace
and security
to develop friendly relations
among nations
to cooperate in solving
international economic, social,
cultural and humanitarian
problems
to promote respect for human
rights and fundamental freedoms
Council, the Economic and Social
Council, the Trusteeship Council, the
International Court of Justice and the
Secretariat.
1. General Assembly
All the member states are
represented in the General Assembly,
each having one vote. A member-
state can send as many as five
representatives.
It is a deliberative organ of the UN.
The main functions of the General
Assembly are: (a) to discuss the
powers and functions of other organs,
(b) to elect ten non-permanent
members of the Security Council,
(c) to elect the Judges of the
International Court of Justice, (d) to
admit new members, and (e) to
General Assembly
The opening day of the regular annual
session of the General Assembly in
September has been designated as
the International Day of Peace.
appoint the Secretary General, who
controls the Secretariat.
2. Security Council
The Security Council is an important
organ of the UN which is mainly
responsible for ensuring peace in the
world. The Security Council is
composed of 15 members of which 5
are permanent members and 10 are
elected by the General Assembly. The
5 permanent members are the USA,
the UK, Russia, China and France.
The 10 non-permanent members are
elected by the General Assembly for
two years and are not eligible for
immediate re-election. Each member
of the Security Council has one vote.
The approval of all the permanent
members is necessary on important
matters. If any permanent member
casts a Veto to show its
disagreement, then no decision can
be taken. The consent of all the
permanent members is also known
as Great Power Unanimity.
In the event of a threat to peace or
occurrence of war between two or
more countries, the Security Council
has the power to take appropriate
measures to restore peace and
security.
UN Security Council
In 1965, the membership of the
Security Council was increased from 11
to 15. Thus, the number of affirmative
votes needed for a decision was
increased from 7 to 9, including the
concurring vote of the 5 permanent
members on all important matters of
international security and peace.
Under the Uniting for Peace resolu-
tion adopted in November 1950, the
General Assembly may directly take
action if the Security Council fails to
act because of lack of unanimity among
its permanent members.
3. The Economic and Social
Council
The Economic and
Social Council
(ECOSOC) is the UNs
welfare council, which
coordinates the
economic and social
activities of the UN and
its specialised agencies
as well as other
organisations. It seeks
to build a world of
greater prosperity,
stability and justice.
It studies reports and
makes recommendations
on international economic, social,
cultural, educational, health and
related matters and also on human
rights and fundamental freedoms.
It organises major international
conferences and prepares draft
conventions on these subjects
for submission to the General
Assembly.
Economic and Social Council
Dependent Peoples who are not yet
able to govern themselves. Such
territories are to be administered
under the Trusteeship Council
system by the member states. Under
the Charter, the member states,
which administer such areas, have to
accept certain obligations to promote
their all-round development and to
protect their interest and security so
long as the Trust Territories are not
able to govern themselves.
By the end of 1994, all the original
11 trust territories of the Trusteeship
Council have become independent.
5. The International Court of
Justice
The International Court of Justice
popularly known as the World Court
The ECOSOC is composed of 54
members. Each year the General
Assembly elects its one-third, that is
18 members for a period of 3 years. It
takes decisions by a majority of those
present and voting.
4. The Trusteeship Council
The Trusteeship Council of the UN
may be called the Protector of
is the principal judicial organ of
the UN.
The court is open to all the
member states who agree to abide by
its decisions. The Court is not open
to private persons
and parties. It
settles legal disputes
between states and
gives advisory opinion
to the United Nations
and its specialised
agencies.
The court comp-
rises 15 judges who
are elected by the
General Assembly
and the Security
Council. The judges
are chosen on the
basis of their exper-
tise in international law. No two
judges can be appointed from
one country at a time. The
judges serve a 9-year term and
may be re-elected. The seat of the
Trusteeship Council
International Court of Justice
International Court of Justice is at the
Hague in the Netherlands.
6. Secretariat
The Secretariat performs all the day-
to-day functions of the UN. It
administers the programmes and
policies laid down by various organs
of the UN. It also keeps all records.
Its Chief Administrative Officer is
the Secretary General. He is
appointed by the General Assembly
on the recommendation of the
Security Council for a five-year term,
which is renewable.
The Secretariat known as the UN
office, has its headquarters in New
York, USA.
Arabic, Chinese, English, French,
Russian and Spanish are the six
official languages of the UN.
INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES
OF THE UN
The concern of the United Nations is
not only peace and security but also
social and economic progress of the
people. The United Nations has been
actively engaged in mobilising world
public opinion. It advocates global
action for providing solutions to the
international social, economic,
cultural, educational, scientific and
technological problems. A wide range
of issues human rights, water
resources, narcotics, drug control,
population explosion, refugee
settlement, sustainable development
and environmental protection, etc.,
are taken care of by the United Nations
through its various specialised
agencies and organisations.
The United Nations Economic and
Social Council plays an important
rol e i n the coordi nati on and
supervi si on of the vari ous
specialised agencies of the United
Nations. These specialised agencies
are autonomous and each of them
has its own constitution, sphere of
action, budget and staff. Let us deal
with some important specialised
agencies which are known for
their distinguished services in the
social, economic and humanitarian
sectors.
Secretaries General of the United Nations
Name Nation Period
Trygve Lie Norway Feb 1946 Nov 1952
Dag Hammarskjold Sweden April 1953 Sept 1961
U Thant Myanmar (Burma) Nov 1961 Dec 1971
Kurt Waldheim Austria Jan 1972 Dec 1981
Javier Perez de Cuellar Peru Jan 1982 Dec 1991
Boutros Boutros-Ghali Egypt Jan 1992 Dec 1996
Kofi A. Annan Ghana Jan 1997 till date
International Labour
Organisation (ILO)
The International
Labour Organisation
stands for the
promotion of social
justice and human
and labour rights. It strives to
improve the living and working
conditions of the labourers of the
world. For its meritorious services,
ILO was awarded the Nobel Peace
Prize in 1969, on its 50th anniversary.
The ILO brings together the
government, the labour and the
management. It encourages them to
accept international minimum
standards and draft labour
conventions on subjects like human
rights, freedom of association, wages,
hours of work, conditions of work for
various classes of workers, workmens
compensation, social insurance,
industrial safety, protection against
sickness, injury or old age.
ILO is linked with the ECOSOC. The
head office of ILO is located at Geneva
(Switzerland). Its office is headed by a
Director General. Established in 1919
with the League of Nations, it became
the first specialised agency of the
United Nations in 1946.
Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO)
Food and Agriculture
Organisation (FAO)
aims at making all the
people of the world
free from the fear of
food shortage. It wants to ensure food
security by securing an increase in
the production of food in all the parts
of the world.
FAO is set up to secure
improvement in the efficiency of
production and distribution of all
food and agricultural products from
farms, forests and fisheries.
Among its activities, it educates
about the use of soil, seed and the
natural water resources. It also
spreads advanced agricultural
techniques, promotes the global
exchange of new types of plants,
combats epidemics of animal
diseases and provides technical
assistance in the fields of nutrition
and food management.
FAO is headed by a Director
General. Its headquarter is at Rome,
(Italy). FAO was created on 16 October,
1945. This day is observed annually
as World Food Day.
United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural
Organisation (UNESCO)
As its name suggests,
UNESCO aims at
promoting education,
science and culture in
member countries. It
helps to combat illiteracy, spread
scientific knowledge and foster
cultural exchange among nations.
The programmes of UNESCO are
intended to create favourable
conditions for increasing
international understanding and
breaking down the obstacles for free
flow of thoughts.
UNESCO has arranged translation
of the worlds classics. It has made it
possible for the nations to know more
about music, art, painting, sculpture
and drama of other nations. It
generates greater understanding,
goodwill and ideas and enables us to
know one another as members of one
great family.
Right of the Child, ratified by almost
all the countries of the world, serves
as guiding principle in all its policies
and programmes. UNICEF was
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in
1965 for its meritorious services.
UNICEF gets most of its money
through voluntary donations from
governmental, Non-Governmental
Organisations (NGOs) and individuals.
Some funds also come from the sale
of UNICEF Greeting Cards which have
become popular all over the world.
Over 90 per cent of its budget is spent
on the programmes relating to health,
education, nutrition, water and
sanitation. It is also involved in the pre-
natal and post-natal care of the child
and the mother and at the same time
combating discrimination against the
girl child.
At present the activities of the
UNICEF are spread over 161
countries. It is headed by an
Executive Director General and its
headquarter is at New York (USA).
World Health Organisation (WHO)
WHO is also a special
agency of the UN. It
works for the
improvement of health
and prevention and
control of diseases.
The services of WHO include
extending technical cooperation for
health among nations, and carrying
out programmes to control and
eradicate diseases. Besides spreading
knowledge about diseases it also
The Preamble to UNESCO says:
Since wars begin in the minds of
men, it is in the minds of men that
the defences of peace must be
reconstructed."
Over 70 countries are members of
UNESCO. It is headed by a Director
General. Its headquarter is at Paris
(France). UNESCO was established in
1946.
United Nations Childrens Fund
(UNICEF)
The United Nations
set up the International
Childrens Emergency
Fund in 1946 as a
temporary agency. Its
work was so impressive that the UN
made it a permanent body in 1956
and changed its name to the United
Nations Childrens Fund but retained
its original symbol UNICEF. It is the
only UN organisation exclusively
dedicated to the cause of children and
women particularly in the developing
countries. The Convention on the
undertakes international research
projects on a number of diseases. It
trains personnel of different countries
to combat diseases like malaria, T.B.,
AIDS, and to promote maternal and
child health, nutrition, environmental
sanitation etc.
WHO was established in 1948 and
is headed by a Director General.
Its headquarters is at Geneva
(Switzerland).
World Bank
The World Bank is a
group of financial
institutions. All of
them in general help
the member states in
the reconstruction and development of
their economies and in reducing
disparities across and within the
countries. It also helps by giving loans,
guarantees, advisory services and by
mobilising foreign investments.
Besides this, it facilitates settlement of
investment disputes between govern-
ments and private foreign investors.
The World Bank headquarters is
located in Washington D.C. (USA).
On the whole, the specialised
agencies of the UN make efforts to
promote economic growth and
development, reduce poverty and
improve peoples living standard
throughout the world.
HUMAN RIGHTS
Human Rights are
those rights to which
every individual is
entitled as a human
being. These rights are
intrinsic to all humans as members
of humanity. They are inherent and
inalienable. All humans are born
equal and hence, are equally entitled
to these rights without any
distinctions of race, sex, religion,
language, region, nationality,
property, birth or status. Human
Rights are universal and should be
granted to all human beings
irrespective of the law of the state.
The World Bank Group
It consists of five financial institutions:
the International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development
(established in 1945), the International
Finance Corporation (1956), the
International Development Association
(1960), the Multilateral Investment
Guarantee Agency (1988), and the
International Centre for Settlement of
Investment Disputes (1966).
International Monetary
Fund (IMF)
The International
Monetary Fund was
established in 1945
as an independent
international organisation
and began operations on 1 March,
1947. It offers concessional financial
assistance to low-income members.
It also provides temporary credits
to members experiencing difficulties
in balance of payments. Its
headquarters is at Washington
D.C., USA.
Human Rights are often referred to
as basic rights, birth rights, natural
rights and moral rights. They imply
the rights relating to life, liberty,
equality and dignity of the individual.
Human Rights are essential
conditions of life for every human
being for their survival, development
and well-being.
There are two aspects of Human
Rights. The first is the natural aspect
which means Human Rights are
universal and inalienable. The second
is the legal aspect that implies
Human Rights are legal and
constitutional rights which are
enforced by the state.
Human Rights and United Nations
The death and destruction caused by
Hitlers genocide policy and the World
War II aroused the conscience of the
people against war all over the world.
Concerned with this state of affairs
the United Nations Charter itself
proclaimed in its Preamble:
WE THE PEOPLES OF THE
UNITED NATIONS DETERMINED to
save succeeding generations from the
scourge of war, which twice in our
life time has brought untold sorrow
to mankind, and to reaffirm faith in
fundamental human rights in the
dignity and worth of human
personand to promote social
progress and better standards of life
in larger Freedom AND FOR THESE
ENDS HAVE RESOLVED TO
COMBINE OUR EFFORTS TO
ACCOMPLISH THESE AIMS.
For the first time in history, the
United Nations worked exclusively on
Human Rights to give it a global
thrust. The United Nations Universal
Declaration on Human Rights
(UNDHR) was adopted on 10
December, 1948. Since then it is
observed as Human Rights Day
throughout the world.
Rene Cassin, the distinguished French
Jurist who drafted UNDHR was
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1968
for his work on Human Rights.
In 1995 the United Nations decided to
observe the Decade for Human Rights
Education from 1995 to 2004.
The UNDHR provides an elaborate
list of Human Rights dealing with
political, economic, social, and
developmental rights which are
intended to be universally applicable.
Human rights are embodied in a
single document of the UNDHR. They
have been further developed and
evolved through the adoption of
various international documents. The
process of growth is still on. The
development of Human Rights till
date, can be identified into three
generations or stages
The first generation of rights are
enumerated in The International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
(1966). They include the right to life,
liberty, and security of person,
freedom from slavery and servitude,
equal protection of law, the right to
be presumed innocent until proved
guilty, freedom of movement, of
thought, conscience and religion, of
opinion and expression, the right of
association and assembly and the
right to participate in periodic
elections based on universal adult
franchise.
The second generation of rights
are specified in The International
Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights (1966). They include
the right to social security, to work,
to rest and leisure, to adequate
standard of living, to education and
to participate in the cultural life of
the community. They also recognise
that everyone is entitled to a social
and international order in which
these rights and freedoms may be
fully realised.
The third generation of rights
are mentioned in The International
Convention on the Elimination of all
forms of Social Discrimination (1969),
the Convention against Torture
and other Cruel Treatment and
Punishment (1987) and the
Convention on Rights of Children
(1990). Their aim is to remove all
kinds of discrimination, ban torture
and cruelty and ensure the protection
and all-round development of all
children.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
The United Nations Declaration of
Human Rights (UNDHR), the two
covenants and the conventions taken
together are known as the International
Bill of Rights. All of them have been
ratified by the Government of India.
These Human Rights are based on
the principle that rights are the
means to secure a good life for the
individual in the society, and the task
of government is to settle conflicts
among many individuals and groups
in order to secure a good life for all.
The Declaration has inspired many
constitutions of the world to include
human rights provisions.
Indias Response to Human Rights
The national awakening and the
social reform movements in India
started a crusade against social evils
like sati, female infanticide and the
caste system. It was a movement for
equality, democracy and social
progress. During the freedom
movement the people of India fought
against an oppressive alien rule for
their rights and liberties. Freedom
fighter Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar
Tilak proclaimed Swaraj is my
birthright and I shall have it. In 1927
the Indian National Congress at its
Madras session strongly urged for
Fundamental Rights and resolved to
draft a swaraj constitution for India.
The national liberation movement
aimed to build a new India based on
the principles of democracy,
socialism and secularism. At the
Karachi session of the Indian National
Congress in 1931, the first major
statement was made about the types
of socio-economic and political rights,
that the Constitution of Independent
India should contain.
The impact of the UNDHR is
evident on the drafting of the Indian
Constitution. Our Constitution has
incorporated many provisions of the
UNDHR. They are reflected in the
Preamble, the Fundamental Rights
and the Directive Principles of State
Policy.
The Preamble declares four aims
in the governance of India (i) Justice
social, economic and political;
(ii) Liberty of thought, expression,
belief, faith and worship; (iii) Equality
of status and opportunity; and
(iv) Fraternity assuring the dignity
of the individual and the unity and
integrity of the nation.
Our Constitution guarantees six
Fundamental Rights: (a) Right to
equality, (b) Right to freedom,
(c) Right against exploitation,
(d) Right to freedom of religion,
(e) Cultural and educational rights,
and (f) Right to Constitutional remedies.
All these rights are justiciable in nature.
These rights are to be read alongwith
certain non-justiciable rights contained
in the chapter on the Directive
Principles of State Policy. These rights
are based on broad humanistic
principles and aim at socio-economic
justice. Thus, the UNDHR is sought to
be implemented through Fundamental
Rights and Directive Principles of State
Policy of the Constitution of India.
For the protection of Human
Rights, India has set up a National
Human Rights Commission (NHRC)
in 1993. It deals with the cases of
violation of Human Rights. Various
other statutory bodies have been
created for the protection of the rights
of women, children, minorities,
scheduled castes and schedule
tribes and backward classes and
other socially and economically
disadvantaged groups. Indian
cultural values based on the respect
for all religions Sarva Dharma
Sambhav, the philosophy of non-
violence and mutual co-existence also
provide moral safeguards for the
protection of Human Rights.
EXERCISES
(i) What promoted the nations of the world to form the United
Nations?
(ii) Mention the main organs of the United Nations.
(iii) Describe the composition and functions of the Security Council.
(iv) Give full forms of the following abbreviations:
ILO, FAO, UNESCO, UNICEF, WHO.
(v) Mention any two principles of the UN Charter which are
followed by the member states.
(vi) Name the cities where the headquarters of the following are
located:
(a) United Nations (b) World Bank (c) WHO
(d) UNESCO (e) International Court of Justice
(vii) Define Human Rights.
(viii) Mention four aims given in the Preamble of the Constitution
of India that reflect the spirit of Human Rights?
(ix) Write any three Civil and Political rights included in Human
Rights.
(i) United Nations came into existence on ____________ in the
year ____________.
(ii) The World Food Day is observed on ____________ every year.
(iii) ____________ was the last original member state to sign the
UN Charter.
(iv) The International Court of Justice comprises ____________
judges.
(v) The present Secretary-General of UN is ____________ and
he belongs to ____________.
(vi) Elimination of all forms of Social Discrimination is covered
under __________ generation of Human Rights.
(vii) Human Rights Day is celebrated throughout the world on
________.
(viii) Bal Gangadhar Tilak proclaimed ________ as our birthright.
3. Tick ( ) the right statements
(i) The United Nations is not a super state but a world
government.
(ii) No two judges of International Court of Justice can be from
the same country at a time.
(iii) There are six official languages of the United Nations.
(iv) UNICEF is exclusively dedicated to the causes of the aged
and the handicapped.
(v) Human Rights are also referred to as birth rights, natural
rights and basic rights.
(vi) All human beings are born free with equal dignity and rights.
(vii) Our fundamental rights are not based on Human Rights.
(viii) India has taken no initiative for the protection of Human
Rights.
4. Project Work
Prepare a flow chart depicting the organs of the UN and
their main functions.
Prepare a chart depicting any one agency of the UN with its
main functions.
Prepare a table giving the full forms of the following
abbreviations and the location of their headquarters: ILO, FAO,
UNESCO, UNICEF, WHO.
Prepare a chart showing Fundamental Rights as mentioned in
the Constitution of India on the one side and the equivalent
Human Rights on the other side.
India is one of the founder members
of the United Nations (UN). It has
made remarkable contribution to the
activities of the United Nations,
particularly in peace-keeping
operations and in various other
activities of its specialised agencies.
India has unstinted faith in the
United Nations, world peace and
global development. All these years,
India has remained committed to its
principles, purposes and working.
The basic elements of the Indian
foreign policy and the very spirit of
the Indian Constitution go in tune
with the ideals of the United Nations.
Ramaswamy Mudaliar, on behalf of India signing the UN Charter
at San Francisco on 26 June, 1945
INDIA AND THE UNITED NATIONS
CHAPTER 13
Ramaswamy Mudaliar led the Indian
delegation and signed the UN Charter on
behalf of India as one of its founder
members.
India and the United Nations/145
Apartheid
Apartheid is the worst form of racial
discrimination. It is against
humanism and democracy. India
fought against apartheid and
opposed all types of racial
discrimination. It firmly believes in
the equality of all human beings. It
gave full support to the cause of
victims of racial discrimination both
within and outside the United
Nations. It was instrumental in the
adoption of a resolution by the UN
against the policy of discrimination
followed by the government of South
Africa. Consequently, the UN
imposed political sanctions against
the racist regimes of South Africa
(1954) and economic sanctions
against Rhodesia (1956).
India has been a member of the
United Nations Human Rights
Commission. It took an active part
in the adoption of the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
and also the Declaration of Racial
Discrimination (1963). According to
these declarations, discrimination
based on colour, race or religion is
prohibited. India has always
supported the cause of human
dignity, justice, equality, liberty and
fraternity.
Colonialism
Indias own bitter experiences of
suffering, exploitation, discrimination
and its own long fight against
colonialism made it committed to
fight against colonialism in all forms.
The UN symbolises the collective
wisdom of the peoples of the world
for peace, progress and prosperity.
India stood in the forefront during the
UNs tumultuous years of struggle
against apartheid, the policy of racial
discrimination followed by the Union
of South Africa, and colonialism. In
all its efforts towards creation of a
more equitable International
Economic Order, bringing of global
disarmament, promotion of
sustainable development and
protection of human rights, etc., India
fully supported the UN and worked
hard to make them successful.
India was one of the first countries
in the world to raise its voice against
apartheid and colonialism. The United
Nations achieved its most significant
success on these two issues.
Eminent Indians in the United Nations:
Smt. Vijaylakshmi Pandit of India
was elected as President of the
United Nations General Assembly.
Indian Jurists Shri B.N. Rau and
Shri Nagendra Singh served as Judges
of the International Court of Justice.
Shri Nagendra Singh was also the
President of the International Court of
Justice. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad and
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan served as
Chairpersons of the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation (UNESCO). Smt. Rajkumari
Amrit Kaur served as the Chairperson
of the World Health Organisation (WHO),
Shri V.R. Sen as President of the Food
and Agricultural Organisation (FAO),
and Dr. H.J. Bhabha as the Chairperson
of the Atoms for Peace Commission.
Consequently, India advocated the
cause of dependent and exploited
nations of Asia and Africa in various
bodies of the UN. On Indias initiative,
the UN passed a resolution on
14 December, 1960 called the
Declaration on the granting of
independence to colonial countries and
peoples. For the implementation of
this declaration, India was appointed
a member of the special committee.
the issue of freedom and development
between the developed and
developing nations is clearly marked.
With the joining of new states,
especially newly liberated ones, and
with the disintegration of the USSR,
the present strength of the UN has
reached 191.
New Members
The process of decolonisation gave
birth to a large number of new states
in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
India supported the UN expansion by
supporting membership to new
states. In the Cold War period, often
the entry of these new states was
blocked due to the rivalry between the
two super power blocs led by the USA
and the erstwhile Soviet Union. India
went to the extent of pursuing the
super powers that the UN
membership to the new states should
be given strictly on merit without any
prejudice. On this principle, India
extended support for the UN
membership to the Peoples Republic
of China. Even after the Chinese
aggression, India did not alter its
stand. It persistently campaigned for
the inclusion of China even in the
Security Council. Indian efforts
succeeded in 1971 when China
gained admission in the UN. It is an
exemplary behaviour of India for the
universalisation and democratisation
of the UN.
Besides, India took a leading part
in voicing the demands of Asian,
African, and Latin American
The UN has declared the period from
2001 to 2010 as the International
Decade for Culture of Peace and Non
violence for the children of the world,
along with the second International
Decade for Eradication of Colonialism
to be celebrated worldwide.
India firmly supported the
freedom movements in Asia and
Africa. It consistently championed the
cause of the exploited nations against
the colonial powers. The UN which
used to be dominated by the western
countries, especially by the United
States and the Europeans, came
under the influence of the newly
liberated countries, popularly called
Third World or Non-aligned countries.
The newly independent Afro-Asian
countries, worked as a group in the
UN to assert their views. India stands
for the solidarity among the newly
liberated Afro-Asian countries. In this
situation, the western powers or the
former colonial states or developed
nations find themselves challenged.
Now, the difference of opinion in the
General Assembly deliberations over
countries. These newly born states
followed the policy of non-alignment
without joining either the American
or Soviet bloc. They came to be known
as the Third World. The process of
decolonisation has enhanced the role
of the third world countries in the
international relations and thereby
changed the face of the UN.
Peacekeeping Operations
India is one of the largest contributors
to the UN peacekeeping missions
worldwide today. Under the UN flag,
India has played a key role in various
peacekeeping activities. Indian troops
were sent to Korea to establish peace
and ensure the implementation of
Indian soldiers pacifying a prisoner group in a camp
It is not only in the earlier years that
India took part in the peacekeeping
operations like those in Korea, Egypt
and Congo but in recent years also
India participated in similar operations
in Somalia, Angola and Rwanda. The
yeoman services of the Indian soldiers,
their professional sincerity, dedicated
services and humanitarian concerns
also received worldwide appreciation.
Indias Lieutenant General Satish
Nambiar commanded the UN troops in
the Balkans.
India has played an important role
in the restoration of international
peace by contributing military
contingents to the UN Peacekeeping
Forces on several occasions, e.g. in the
crisis of Suez Canal, Congo, Angola,
Namibia, Gaza, Cambodia, Yugoslavia
and Lebanon.
weapons either openly or secretly.
Concerned with its growing security
risks, India in its self-defence was
compelled to conduct nuclear tests
at Pokhran on 13 May, 1998 for
acquiring a minimum credible
nuclear deterrent against heavily
armed nuclear weapon states. Unlike
other states, India set exemplary
behaviour by declaring that
India shall maintain minimum
credible nuclear deterrent without
engaging itself in arms race;
India shall not conduct further
underground nuclear explosions;
India voluntarily accepted the no-
first-use doctrine in the context of
nuclear weapons.
In this way, a global no-first-use
agreement was suggested by India to
the world community as a step towards
elimination of nuclear weapons.
Lt. General Satish Nambiar presenting
medals to peace mission pesonnel
United Nations Efforts for Peace
Peacemaking refers to the use of all
diplomatic and preventive means to
negotiate peaceful settlement of
international disputes.
Peacekeeping refers to the UN peace-
keeping operations authorised by the
Security Council with the consent of
the host country and involved parties.
Peacebuilding refers to all actions
which prevent resurgence of conflict
and strengthen peace.
The UN Peacekeeping Forces received
the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988.
cease-fire. Indian troops participated
in almost all the major UN operations.
The yeoman services of the Indian
soldiers, their professional sincerity,
dedicated services and humanitarian
concerns received worldwide
appreciation.
Disarmament
India, along with the UN, has made
consistent and sincere efforts for a
general and complete disarmament,
use of atom for peace and making the
world free of nuclear weapons. In
early 1948, India called for the use
of nuclear energy for peaceful
purposes only and elimination of all
nuclear weapons. India was the first
country to seek for a complete ban
on all nuclear testing in 1954.
Further, in 1988, India proposed
for the total elimination of weapons
of human destruction in a phased
manner. While pursuing the cause of
global nuclear disarmament, India
also noticed that some nations were
arming themselves with nuclear
India has been playing an active
role on disarmament issues in the
UN. It was a member of the Geneva
Commission on Disarmament.
Dr. H.J. Bhabha of India was the
elected Chairman of the first UN
Conference on the Peaceful Uses of
Atomic Energy held in 1955. India
also played a decisive role in the
constitution of the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) at
Vienna in 1957.
An Action Plan for ushering a
Nuclear Weapon Free and Non-
Violent World Order was presented
by India in the UN General Assembly
devoted to disarmament in 1988.
public opinion is in favour of
democratisation of the UN to make
this world forum representative of all
the peoples and nations. The strength
of the permanent members of the
Security Council should be raised
from 5 to 10 by including Japan,
Germany, Brazil, Nigeria and India.
The name of Egypt is also sponsored
sometimes.
Indias Stand on Nuclear
Non-Proliferation
India was one of the signatories of the
Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963)
which prohibits nuclear experiments
in air and water for all. Despite its
commitment to the nuclear
disarmament, India has opposed
nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT)
and Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
(CTBT) because of their partial and
discriminatory nature.
The growth of the UN membership
has been rapid. It has become almost
universal with its 191 members.
Though the UN is a world body, it is
dominated by the USA and European
countries. Since the Afro-Asian and
Latin American countries constitute
an overwhelming majority, there is
an urgent need to give more equitable
representation to the Afro-Asian and
Latin American countries, especially
in the UN Security Council. The world
Indian Constitution and the United
Nations
The Constitution of India, through
Directive Principles of State Policy,
directs the government and reaffirms
Indias commitment to
promote international peace and
security; to maintain just and
honourable relations among nations;
to foster respect for international law
and treaty obligations in the dealings
of organised peoples with one another;
and to encourage settlement of
international disputes by arbitration
and other peaceful means. This
provision of the constitution is in tune
with aims and objectives of the United
Nations Charter.
Within and outside the UN many
important countries of the world have
supported Indias candidature for
permanent membership of the
Security Council. Indias claim and
candidature has its own merit.
Besides being the second most
populous nation of the world, India
is the worlds largest democracy.
Today, it is one of the fastest growing
economies of the world. Above all, the
global recognition of Indias immense
contribution to the UN activities is
EXERCISES
(i) Describe the contribution of India to the the UN peacekeeping
missions?
(ii) Define disarmament. What role has India been playing on
disarmament issue?
(iii) What role has India played against colonialism?
(iv) What is Apartheid? Mention two measures taken by the United
Nations against Apartheid.
(v) Describe Indias role in the UN activities.
(i) Racialism is anti _____________ and anti _____________.
(ii) _____________ of India was the elected Chairman of the first UN
Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in 1955.
(iii) The Third World includes __________ countries.
(iv) India is one of the __________ members of the United Nations.
(v) The total membership of the United Nations is ___________.
3. Tick ( ) the right statement
(i) Apartheid is the best form of racialism.
(ii) No country has supported Indias candidature for the
permanent membership of the Security Council.
(iii) IAEA stands for Indian Atomic Energy Agency.
(iv) India was compelled to conduct nuclear tests in its self-defence.
(v) India never supported China for membership of the United
Nations.
one of the main reasons for the
support of its candidature for
permanent membership of the
Security Council.
Our ongoing studies reveal that
right from the beginning, India has
been playing an active role in all the
spheres and activities of the UN.
Indias demand for an expanded,
more representative and revitalised
UN will enable it to face effectively
the challenges of the 21st century.
4. Project Work
Organise a debate on the topic Disarmament alone can bring
world peace
Draw and colour the national flags of any 10 member states of
the United Nations.
Write arguments in support of Indias claim for permanent
membership in the Security Council.
The study of the foreign policy helps
us to understand the manner in
which a nation conducts its relation
with other nations and participates in
international affairs on the basis of
safeguarding its national interest.
National interest pertains to national
security, territorial integrity,
development issues, economic
development, etc. It is also concerned
with such global issues as peace,
human rights, disarmament,
terrorism, etc. In other words, a
foreign policy is the sum total of the
principles, interests and the
objectives of a nation in conducting
its relations with the rest of the world.
Any change in the foreign policy
comes with a change in national
interests and global concerns brought
about by internal or external factors.
The foreign policy of a nation is
influenced by many factors such as
its geographical position, historical
experiences, political traditions,
economic compulsions, cultural
foundation, constitutional system,
national character and the charisma
of its leaders personality.
The roots of Indias foreign policy
can be traced back to its freedom
movement with the impact of
Gandhian principles and Jawaharlal
Nehrus personality. The foreign
policy of India also grew in response
to the changes and events of the
world. During the British rule,
Indias foreign policy was given a
shape by the Indian National
Congress and the leaders of our
country. The desire of the Indian
people to live in peace and
friendship with their neighbours and
other countries was expressed at the
Haripura Session of the Indian
National Congress in 1938. The
ideals of peace, non-violence and co-
operation were propounded by
Mahatma Gandhi.
After Independence, Pandit
Jawaharlal Nehru was not only the
Prime Minister for the first 17 years,
but was also the Foreign Minister
of India. As such he was the chief
architect of free Indias foreign
policy.
The outstanding features of Indias
foreign policy are discussed as :
FOREIGN POLICY OF INDIA
CHAPTER 14
Foreign Policy of India/153
as they did not want their countries
to turn into battlefields of the Cold
War. Non-alignment, in a sense, was
the assertion of the collective strength
of the developing nations with
enlightened self-interest and self-
respect. It was intended to serve the
purpose of peace, development and
cooperation.
The gravest challenge to Indias
policy of non-alignment was posed by
the Chinese attack on India in
October 1962. Even then, the policy
of non-alignment was not abandoned
by India. The policy of non-alignment
transformed India into a strong
nation and made it a leader of non-
aligned countries.
Non-alignment
India evolved the policy of non-
alignment for the maintenance of
peace and security in the world. Non-
alignment means keeping away from
aligning with a power bloc. In that
particular period it meant to remain
aloof from power politics of the
American bloc versus the Soviet bloc.
India knew that power politics often
leads to war. Nehru, with the help of
Nasser of Egypt, Tito of Yugoslavia
and Sukarno of Indonesia developed
Non-alignment as a global movement.
Together with many Afro-Asian
countries and Yugoslavia, India
decided not to join any military bloc
Indian Prime Minister Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru with Abdul Nasser of Egypt
and Marshal Tito of Yogoslavia at NAM meet
The non-aligned movement had
come into being in the specific context
of cold-war with the fall of Soviet
Union and disintegration of the
Communist Block, the cold war also
ended leading to the emergence of
U.S.A. as the sole super-power in
world politics. This is very often called
uni-polarity in International
Relations. In such a situation the
influence of Non-Aligned Movement
has suffered a setback and lost its
previous space for activism. NAM
however, remains one of the largest
organisations of nations next only to
UN in the world which has the
potential of fighting against unjust
war, for an intervention, terrorism and
for peace and just international
economic order.
Opposition to Colonialism,
Imperialism and Racialism
The whole atmosphere of the Indian
national movement was charged with
an anti-colonial mood. India has
never supported domination,
exploitation and discrimination in
any part of the world, and had always
been sympathetic and supportive to
all those nations which were
struggling for independence and
equality. India consistently opposed
racialism. The anti-racial approach
of India could be very well witnessed
in its attitude towards South Africa
which practised apartheid.
Panchsheel
Panchsheel is an important basis of
Indias foreign policy. Panchsheel
consists of two Sanskrit words,
Panch means Five and Sheel
means Rule of Conduct . So,
Panchsheel means five rules of
conduct.
Panchsheel was first embodied in
a treaty signed by India and China
on the issue of Tibet on 29 May, 1954.
The five principles mentioned in the
treaty are as follows:
1. Mutual respect for each others
territorial integrity and sovereignty,
2. Non-aggression,
3. Non-intervention in each others
internal affairs,
4. Mutual benefit and equality, and
5. Peaceful co-existence.
Global acceptance of Panchsheel
as the basic code of conduct among
states lays a solid foundation for world
peace.
Peace and International
Understanding
The most important achievement of
Indias foreign policy has been its
valuable contribution towards the
promotion of world peace and
international understanding.
India stands for maintenance of
peace in the world through the United
Nations. India has always
endeavoured for the peaceful
settlement of international disputes
and has never been an aggressor
against any country.
Indias faith in humanity has been
the basis of its international
relations. It is also the signatory to
all the major Human Rights
documents of the UN. Being one of
the founder members of the UN, India
has been deeply involved in the
various UN activities, particularly in
peacekeeping operations.
Disarmament
There can be no lasting peace without
disarmament. Indias foreign policy
has strongly been in favour of
disarmament with highest priority to
total nuclear disarmament. An
Action Plan for Nuclear Weapon Free
and Non-Violent World Order was
presented by India in 1988 in the 3rd
session of the UN General Assembly
devoted to disarmament. India has
always been seriously concerned
about the nuclear arms race. It has
been vehemently opposing the
nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
(NPT) and Comprehensive Nuclear
Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) due to their
discriminatory nature. India has
been adamant not to give up its
nuclear option until all other
countries do so.
Regional Cooperation
An important aspect of Indias foreign
policy has been to promote regional
cooperation among south
Asian countries. Attempts
have been made in
various other parts of the
world to promote peace
and cooperation amongst states
through the formation of regional
organisations. Some notable
examples are Association of South
East Asian Nations (ASEAN),
European Economic Cooperation
(EEC), Organisation of African Unity
(OAU). India has always believed in
peace and cooperation with all its
neighbours. Thus, seven countries of
south Asia namely India, Pakistan, Sri
Lanka, Bangladesh, Maldives, Nepal
and Bhutan joined together to form
the South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation (SAARC).
The idea of South Asian Regional
Cooperation was first mooted by the
President of Bangladesh, Zia-ur
Rehman. Between 1977 and 1980, he
visited Nepal, India, Pakistan and Sri
Lanka for consultation with the
leaders of these countries in order to
give concrete shape to the idea. These
initiatives resulted in the formation of
SAARC in 1985.
During the first South Asian
Summit held in December 1985 at
Dhaka, the heads of the seven
founding member states adopted the
Charter of SAARC.
The main objectives of SAARC are
to promote welfare and to improve the
quality of life of the people of South
Asia, to accelerate social and
economic growth of the region, to
foster collective self-reliance, to
strengthen cooperation among South
Asian countries and to collaborate in
the economic, social, cultural,
technical and scientific fields.
The Charter of SAARC provides for
the annual meeting of the Heads of
States which is the supreme body of
the SAARC. The country hosting the
SAARC
summit functions as the chairperson
until the next summit meets.
The Council of Ministers,
comprising the Foreign Ministers meet
every six months. It is the highest
policy-making body of the
organisation. Its main function is to
review the progress periodically and
to identify new areas of cooperation.
All decisions are taken unanimously.
Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru with Indonesian President Sukarno during a NAM meeting
SUMMITS OF THE SOUTH ASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR REGIONAL COOPERATION
(SAARC)
First Summit 7-8 December 1985 Dhaka
Second Summit 16-17 November 1986 Bangalore
Third Summit 2-4 November 1987 Kathmandu
Fourth Summit 29-31December 1988 Islamabad
Fifth Summit 21-23 November 1990 Male
Sixth Summit 21 December 1991 Colombo
Seventh Summit 10-11 April 1993 Dhaka
Eighth Summit 2-4 May 1995 New Delhi
Ninth Summit 12-14 May 1997 Male
Tenth Summit 29-31 July 1998 Colombo
Eleventh Summit 4-6 January 2002 Kathmandu
Twelfth Summit 4-6 January 2004 Islamabad
The permanent secretariat of SAARC was set up at Kathmandu in Nepal in Dec. 1986.
No bilateral contentious issues are
taken up for discussion.
India is the biggest member state
among SAARC countries. It has a huge
economy, territory, population and
developmental base in comparison to
the other members. This makes the role
of India important in the functioning
and growth of SAARC. India also values
SAARC as complementary to its
bilateral relationship with its south
Asian neighbouring countries. But the
bilateral disputes and tensions between
India and Pakistan and the
apprehensions about Indias hegemony
by some other neighbours affect the
strength and effectiveness of the SAARC.
The political will and direction by
SAARC YEARS
Since 1989, it has been the practice to designate each year as SAARC Year to focus
on specific themes of common concern.
Year Specific Themes
1989 SAARC Year for Combating Drug Abuse and Drug Trafficking
1990 SAARC Year of Girl-Child
1991 SAARC Year of Shelter
1992 SAARC Year of Environment
1993 SAARC Year of Disabled Persons
1994 SAARC Year of the Youth
1995 SAARC Year of Poverty Eradication
1996 SAARC Year of Literacy
1997 SAARC Year of Participatory Governance
2004 SAARC Awareness Year
2005 SAARC South Asia Tourism Year
1991-2000 SAARC Decade of the Girl- Child
Indian Prime Minister Shri Atal Behari Vajpayee addressing
the 12th SAARC summit at Islamabad
EXERCISES
(i) Describe the main features of the foreign policy of India.
(ii) Mention the five principles of Panchsheel.
(iii) Name the member states of SAARC.
(iv) Enumerate the objectives of SAARC as given in its Charter.
(v) Explain the following terms:
a. Non-alignment
b. Colonialism
c. Racialism
d. Disarmament.
(vi) Write the full form of the following abbreviations:
SAARC, NPT, CTBT, EEC, OAU, ASEAN
(i) The foreign policy of a nation is the reflection of its ____________.
(ii) Different global concerns are _______, _________, __________.
(iii) The anti-racial approach of India was against the practice of
________ in South Africa.
(iv) Indias faith in humanity has been the basis of its ____________
relations.
(v) There can be no ________ without disarmament.
3. Tick ( ) the correct statement
(i) The Charter of the SAARC was adopted in Dhaka in December
1985.
(ii) The Headquarters of the SAARC is at Delhi.
(iii) Nehru, Nasser, Tito and Sukarno developed the non-alignment
as a global movement.
(iv) India was not the founder member of the United Nations.
(v) Myanmar is one of the members of the SAARC.
4. Project Work
Collect and paste the photographs of the four founding leaders
of the Non-alignment movement along with national flags of
their countries.
Prepare a chart showing the five principles of Panchsheel.
On the outline map of Asia colour the neighbouring countries
of India and mark them neatly.
the member states can only make
SAARC effective and strong. There is
a need for more socio-cultural
exchanges and cooperation among
SAARC countries in agriculture, trade,
industry, science and technology.
India and its Neighbours/159
India is a vast country with Pakistan,
China, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and
Bangladesh sharing its land frontiers
and Sri Lanka and Maldives touching
its maritime borders. Besides these
seven countries, Afghanistan is
also Indias neighbour due to its
physical proximity with India.
Indias relationship with all its
neighbours has not been the same.
Sometimes there have been
differences and problems with them.
Our bilateral relationships besides
being guided by historical, cultural
and developmental factors have also
been influenced by international
politics. It is necessary for us to know
about Indias relations with its
neighbours.
India-Pakistan Relations
Pakistan is the
outcome of the
partition of
British India at the time of
Independence. M.A. Jinnah, who is
regarded as the father of Islamic
Republic of Pakistan, propounded a
two-nation theory. He declared that
Hindus and Muslims were two
separate nations and that Muslims
should get a separate country.
Contrary to this, Mahatma Gandhi,
the father of our nation, believed in a
secular India, a home of all religions
and cultures. But eventually India
was divided into two countries, India
and Pakistan. India followed the
secular path whereas Pakistan opted
for a theocratic state.
Pakistan has been an important
factor in Indias foreign policy.
Indias relationship with Pakistan
has also influenced India s
relationship with other countries to
a certain extent. India has always
sought peaceful, cordial and friendly
relations with Pakistan. But
Pakistan has yet to respond to
Indias friendly gestures and help
establish healthy neighbourly
relations. This is possible only when
Pakistan stops cross-border
terrorism, a kind of undeclared war
against India.
The issue of Kashmir remains the
root cause of tension between the two
countries. Pakistan claims the
territory of Jammu and Kashmir on
INDIA AND ITS NEIGHBOURS
CHAPTER 15
Sketch map : Indias neighbouring countries
the basis of its two-nation theory
which collapsed long before in 1971
with the creation of Bangladesh. But,
for India, Jammu and Kashmir being
its integral part, is a crucial factor
for the maintenance of its secular
personality.
The Kashmir Problem
Under Indian Independence Act
1947, Jammu and Kashmir was one
of the princely states which was given
the right to join either India or
Pakistan or to remain independent.
The state was a model of communal
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portion of land to China from its
illegally occupied Jammu and
Kashmir territory. The illegal transfer
of Indian land to China and the
China-Pakistan collusion against
India further deteriorated India-
Pakistan relations.
Chinese support and the US arms
supply to Pakistan prompted it to
declare a war against India in 1965,
with the sole objective of conquering
the whole of Jammu and Kashmir.
But Pakistan was defeated. Both the
countries signed the Tashkent
Declaration in January 1966 and
agreed to settle their disputes
through peaceful methods.
The erstwhile Pakistan consisted
of East Pakistan and West Pakistan,
both situated miles apart on the
eastern and western sides of India.
In the General Election of December
1970, the Awami League Party of
Sheikh Mujibur Rehman won the
election by securing a majority. But
the military rulers of West Pakistan
did not accept the leadership from
East Pakistan. Therefore they chose
to flout the peoples mandate. The
voice of Bengali Muslims was crushed
by the Army. A civil war broke out
between the armed forces and the
civilians. About one crore Bengali
Muslims took refuge in India. The
Peoples army called Mukti Bahini
fought for the independence of East
Pakistan as a separate state of
Bangladesh. India, situated close to
its borders, found itself economically
strained by the sudden influx of
harmony where Muslims, Buddhists
and Hindus lived together in peace.
The roots of the problem go back to
1947 when Pakistan-backed
tribesmen invaded the then princely
state of Kashmir. This prompted
Maharaja Hari Singh, the ruler of
Kashmir to sign an agreement on
26 October 1947 to join the Indian
Union and Kashmir became an
integral part of India.
Indian forces were rushed to
Jammu and Kashmir. India also took
the matter to the UN and charged
Pakistan with an act of aggression
against India. The UN arranged a
cease-fire on 1 January 1949.
Despite Indias insistence on the
vacation of Pakistan occupied
Kashmir (PoK), Pakistan did not
vacate it. The popularly elected
Constituent Assembly of Jammu and
Kashmir once again made it clear
that Jammu and Kashmir was an
integral part of India. Pakistan was
frustrated in its venture to capture
Jammu and Kashmir with the help
of tribesmen. In subsequent years,
Pakistan adopted different tactics
from time to time. These included
Pakistan s decision to join the
western military alliances, transfer of
a portion of Pakistan occupied Indian
territory to China, open aggression
against India, export of cross-border
terrorism and intrusions in the
Jammu and Kashmir area.
After the India-China war of 1962,
Pakistan moved closer to China. In
1963, Pakistan handed over a large
refugees. No longer could India be a
silent spectator to the ongoing
massacre and murder of democracy
in its neighbourhood. India raised its
voice at international fora against the
inhuman acts carried out against the
innocent and unarmed Bengali
Muslims of the East Pakistan.
Angered by India s protests,
Pakistan launched a massive attack
on India in 1971. The 1971 war was
a historic one in many ways. The
Indian armed forces helped the Mukti
Bahini and fought against the
Pakistani forces. About one lakh
Pakistani soldiers surrendered before
the Indian forces. Such a large
number of Prisoners of War (PoW) had
not been made even during the
Second World War. The creation of
Bangladesh came as a blow to
Pakistans two-nation theory which
it seeks to apply in the case of Jammu
and Kashmir.
After the war, the Simla Agreement
was signed between India and Pakistan
in July 1972. The release of Pakistans
PoWs and the vacation of the territories
of West Pakistan won by India, were
agreed by India. In return, Pakistan
recognised Bangladesh as an
independent sovereign country. The
importance of the Simla Agreement lay
in the commitment that both countries
agreed to settle their problems,
including the Jammu and Kashmir
problem, through bilateral negotiations
in a peaceful manner.
But the spirit of the Simla
Agreement was not carried out by
Pakistan. It missed no opportunity to
raise the Kashmir issue in
international fora. Pakistan provided
financial and material assistance to
terrorists in Punjab and Jammu and
Kashmir. The militancy killed civilian
population, government officials and
armed forces. The lives of Kashmiri
pandits became miserable. They were
compelled to flee and take refuge in
other places. Relations further
deteriorated when both the countries
conducted their nuclear tests in May
1998 and declared themselves as
nuclear power states.
To normalise the relations between
the two countries, Prime Minister Atal
Bihari Vajpayee visited Lahore on
February 20, 1999 by bus. This visit
popularly called bus diplomacy was
hailed by the world community.
The Prime Minister of India Shri
Atal Bihari Vajpayee expressed
Indias deep desire for peace, goodwill
and friendship with Pakistan. The
famous quote of his speech says, we
can change history, not geography; we
can change our friends but not
neighbours. The two Prime
Ministers, Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee
and Shri Nawaz Shariff signed the
Lahore Declaration which contained
the ideals of peace, friendship and
cooperation. But Indias efforts were
frustrated when Pakistan illegally
occupied Kargil on the Indian side
of the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
The intention behind the Kargil
occupation was to cut of f the
Srinagar-Leh link highway and thus
disconnect the Laddakh region from
the rest of Jammu and Kashmir.
India was shocked over this
happening. The world community,
including the United States and
China supported Indias position and
favoured Pakistan s withdrawal
from Kargil. Indian forces succeeded
in forcing the enemy to retreat.
Pakistan had never been isolated like
this before.
Our relations with Pakistan
worsened after the terrorist attack
on the Indian Parliament on
13 December 2001. Attempts are
being made by the governments of
both the countries to ease tension
and normalise relations. Efforts are
also being made on the non-
governmental level for facilitating
people to people contact. A durable
peace can be established when both
India and Pakistan live and work
under the spirit of Simla and Lahore
Agreements. They should find
solutions to their problems through
the bilateral talks in the atmosphere
of trust and goodwill.
A new beginning was made when
Shri Vajpayee went to Islamabad in
January 2004. He once again
extended a hand of friendship.
Pakistans President, General Pervez
Musharraf, agreed to drop Kashmir
as the central issue in bilateral
relations and negotiate with India on
a broad range of subjects like culture,
Indian Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi and Pakistan President
Shri Z. A. Bhutto signing Simla Agreement
trade, river water sharing. This is
called the Composite Dialogue
Process which also includes Jammu
and Kashmir. Pakistan also agreed
to stop support to terrorists. in
February 2004, the two countries
began implementation of the
Composite Dialogue Process by
holding a meeting of their foreign
secretaries in Islamabad.
India-China Relations
India and China
are the two largest
nations in Asia in
terms of land and population.
Moreover, both are the major
economic and military powers as well
as nuclear weapon states. Their
relationship has remained strained
owing to the border dispute and the
Tibet problem. Indias asylum to the
Tibetans, the merger of Sikkim with
India and the border disputes
between the two countries are the
major irritants.
Prior to this, India had close
relations with China. India was the
first nation to recognise and establish
diplomatic relations with it, when the
Peoples Republic of China came into
existence through a revolution in
1949. It was through Indias serious
efforts over the years that China
could succeed in getting UN
membership and also a permanent
seat of the United Nations Security
Council.
India received a rude shock when
the Chinese army occupied Tibet in
1950. However, in view of its
friendship it did not question Chinas
right over Tibet. India peacefully
resolved the matter with China
signing a Treaty on 29 April 1954.
Under the treaty, India recognised
Chinese sovereignty over Tibet and
abandoned all its claims over Tibet
hitherto enjoyed by it since the
British time.
In 1959, there was a revolt in Tibet
against the Chinese rule. Tibets
spiritual and religious leader Dalai
Lama with his followers fled from
Tibet and sought refuge in India.
India gave them asylum purely on
humanitarian consideration. But it
did not allow the Dalai Lama to set
up a government in exile or to carry
out anti-China protests from its soil.
Indias stand was clear because it had
already accepted the Chinese right
over Tibet under the Treaty of 1954.
The issue of asylum to the Dalai
Lama and Tibetans brought a
dramatic change in the Chinese
attitude and tension started building
between the two nations.
Tibet had been a buffer zone
between India and China but the
Chinese occupation changed the
scenario. The Chinese borders came
close to India. Chinese maps started
showing a large portion of Indias
territory as a part of China. India
lodged protests with China. In reply
to Indias protests China promised to
correct the maps. But they were never
corrected. Since 1957, Chinese
intrusions and incursions into Indian
territories became quite frequent.
Indias protests were ignored. In 1957
Chou-en-Lai, the Chinese Premier
refused to accept the McMohan Line
as India-China border which had
been in operation since 1914, and
put claim over thousands of square
kilometres of the Indian territories.
The Chinese launched a massive
attack on Arunachal Pradesh
(erstwhile NEFA of Assam) and on
Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir on
20 October 1962 and occupied vast
Indian territories. Indias national
pride was greatly hurt by this war.
Since then, India started building a
strong military to defend its frontiers
and became a nuclear weapon state
in 1998.
After 1962, India-China bilateral
relations went through a cold phase.
China came closer to Pakistan. As we
have read earlier, Pakistan illegally
ceded the Indian territories of PoK to
China in 1963. Chinas association
with Pakistan in nuclear and missile
technology threatened India s
security. The China-Pakistan
collusion was intended to encircle and
isolate India and to penetrate Chinese
influence in South Asia. This collusion
came to light during India-Pakistan
wars of 1965 and 1971 when China
openly supported Pakistan.
China is already a nuclear power
state but it criticised India when it
conducted its first nuclear test for
peaceful purposes in 1974. Again,
when Sikkim merged with India in
1975, China accused India for
having expansionist approach.
Smt. Indira Gandhi, the then Prime
Minister of India, reacted sharply and
reminded China of its own track
record in Tibet.
India and China could develop a
broad understanding when Shri Atal
Bihari Vajpayee, the then External
Affairs Minister, visited China in
1979. Since then a perceptible change
was noticed in the Chinese attitude
as it stopped giving support to the
North-East insurgents of India.
The Indian Prime Minister
Shri Rajiv Gandhi made a historic visit
to China in December 1988. This was
a first ever visit of an Indian Prime
Minister to China, afterPandit
Jawaharlal Nehru. Both the nations
agreed to set up a Joint Working
Group on the boundary issue and a
separate Joint Group on Economic
Relations and Trade, Science and
Technology. Again in 1993, China and
India signed an agreement to
maintain peace and tranquillity along
their border areas.
A breakthrough was achieved
during the visit of the Chinese
President Jiang Zemin in November
1996, which was the first ever visit of
a Chinese Head of State to India. Both
sides signed an accord on Confidence
Building Measures (CBMs) in the
military field along the frontiers and
to delimit the LAC. To instill
confidence, the CBMs provided
reduction in military presence on
both sides and maintenance of peace
and tranquillity. It also stated that no
military activity would be undertaken
on either side of the LAC affecting the
security of each other. In a sense it
was virtually a no-war pact. The treaty
also stressed upon the relevance of
Panchsheel initiated by Nehru and
Chou-en-Lai in 1954.
After the signing of this agreement
of 1996 the India-China relations
improved remarkably in the field of
trade and commerce. The relationship
received a temporary setback when
India conducted its nuclear test in
May 1998 and became a nuclear
weapon state. China, though itself a
nuclear weapon state, criticised India.
For the first time China supported
India against Pakistan during Kargil
conflict of 1999. In recent years China
has realised the threat posed by
global terrorism. It condemned the
terrorist attack on the Indian
Parliament on 13 December 2001.
China also favoured a peaceful
settlement of the Kashmir problem
through bilateral negotiations
between India and Pakistan. This is
interpreted as tacit support for the
Indian position on Jammu and
Kashmir. In June 2003, Prime
Minister Shri Vajpayee visited Beijing.
It was a historic visit as it led to the
opening of a new era in Sino-Indian
relations. China agreed to recognise
Indian Prime Minister Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee welcoming
Chinese President Jiang Zemin at New Delhi
Sikkims merger with India and
subsequently stopped depicting the
state as an independent country in
its maps. It was also agreed to start
border trade through the Nathula
Pass in Sikkim. This agreement is
expected to be of great economic
importance to Indias north-east. To
resolve the border dispute, it was
mutually decided to intensify the
dialogue through high level
representatives. By January 2004,
two rounds of this meeting were held.
Trade relations between the two
countries have also expanded
substantially. It is hoped that the new
century would see Asias two biggest
countries co-exist in harmony in the
highest traditions set by their
respective ancient cultures.
India-Nepal Relations
The kingdom of Nepal
is the only Hindu state
in the world. It is
located in the Central Himalayas as a
buffer state between India
and China. India-Nepal relations are
interwoven with the close
geographical, historical and cultural
ties.
There exists a special kind of India-
Nepal relationship within the
framework of the Treaty of Friendship
and the Treaty of Trade and
Commerce which were simultaneously
signed in 1950. These treaties provide
a stable base to the Indo-Nepal
relations. Under the provisions of the
first treaty an attack on one would be
viewed as an attack on both the
countries. In addition, Nepal would
consult India in case of buying war
materials from any third country. With
regard to trade and commerce, it is the
responsibility of India to make
available to Nepal all commodities by
securing convenient and economical
routes. The treaty provides for an
extensive economic cooperation
between them and ensures Indias
economic assistance to Nepal.
Nepal got United Nations
membership in 1954 with Indias
support. In 1955, the popular
ministry was dismissed and the
constitution was abrogated by the
King of Nepal. To escape arrest many
popular leaders fled to India to
channelise their pro-democracy and
anti-monarchy movement.
Although India was upset over
the derailment of democracy in
neighbouring Nepal, it did not support
anti-Nepal activities from its soil. But
even then a misunderstanding
developed. Indias sympathy for
democracy was misunderstood by the
King. This led to a difficult phase in
Indo-Nepal relations.
Nepal started moving away from
India and closer to China. Chinese
economic assistance was secured by
Nepal to reduce its dependence on
India. Much against Indias wish,
Nepal entered into an agreement with
China for the construction of a
highway connecting Kathmandu with
Lhasa. This phase of strained
relationship continued till 1961.
During the Chinese aggression
against India in 1962, Nepal adopted
a neutral attitude. In the post-1962
period Indo-Nepal relations improved.
An agreement, on a large economic
assistance to Nepal, was signed by
India in 1964. Nepal whole-heartedly
supported India during the Indo-
Pakistan wars of 1965 and 1971.
After the death of King Mahendra
his son Birendra became the king in
early 1972. During his visit to India
in 1974 a series of agreements were
signed between the two countries.
Under the agreements India agreed
to set up a cement plant, a sugar mill
and an ancillary engineering factory
in Nepal. India also agreed to
collaborate in the industrial field to
set up the Karnali project and to
assist in the Devighat project.
There was a temporary setback to
the relations when Sikkim s
accession to India in 1975 created
misapprehension in the minds of the
Nepali rulers, regarding their own
future. Despite Indias efforts to
allay these fears, some sections in
Nepal continued to fan and
exploit anti-India feeling for their
vested interests.
But, by and large, Indo-Nepal
relations have remained generally
cordial. India continues to be Nepals
major trading as well as develop-
mental partner. India is also the
single largest aid giver to Nepal, and
has provided financial and technical
assistance in areas such as road
construction, power and irrigation,
telecommunications, agriculture,
forestry, education and health.
Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru being greeted by His Majesty Jigure Dorji Wangchuck
IndiaBhutan Relations
The kingdom of
Bhutan, popularly
known as the land
of thunderbolt is a land locked country
in the Eastern Himalayas. Like Nepal
it is also a buffer state between India
and China as it is bordered in the north
by China and from all other sides by
India. Among all its neighbours India
has the closest and tension-free
relations with Bhutan.
The relations between India and
Bhutan are largely governed by the
India-Bhutan Treaty of Friendship
of 1949. This treaty is a historical
legacy. In 1910 an Anglo-Bhutanese
Treaty was signed according to
which non-interference in the
internal af fairs of Bhutan was
assured by the British but Bhutans
external affairs were placed under
the Government of British India.
After the independence of India in
1947, the treaty of 1910 was
replaced by the present treaty of
1949. Under the treaty, India
undertook not to interfere with the
internal matters of Bhutan and
Bhutan undertook to seek advice of
India in regard to its foreign
relations. The treaty also holds
India responsible for the defence
of Bhutan.
India is the principal contributor
in the economic development of
Bhutan. Bhutans five year plans
have been largely funded by India.
There is a complete free trade regime
between India and Bhutan under the
India-Bhutan Trade and Commerce
Agreement which has been extended
upto March 2005.
At present the presence and
activities of the insurgent groups of
North East India in the southern
parts of Bhutan adjoining Assam is
a matter of security concern for both
the countries. The Government of
Bhutan is committed to not allowing
its territory to be used by the
militant groups for anti-India
activities. Both the countries are in
constant touch and are cooperating
with each other in all the matters of
mutual concern.
India-Myanmar Relations
My anmar,
known as
Burma till
1989, is situated to the extreme east
of India. It was a part of British India
till 1935 when it became a separate
territory. Myanmar got independence
in January 1948. Friendly ties
between the two countries are rooted
in history, culture and tradition. It
provides the basis for mutual
understanding and cooperation.
India helped Myanmar in framing
its constitution after independence.
The Indo-Burma Treaty of Friendship
was signed in 1951 to widen and
deepen the scope of bilateral
relations. India fully cooperated with
Myanmar by providing financial
assistance in building its infra-
structural facilities and human
resource development.
Myanmar is the worlds second
largest producer of illegal drugs after
Afghanistan. India being on the
border land, is naturally affected by
this. To tackle the menace of
drug trafficking, insurgency and
smuggling, a Treaty on Control of
Cross Border Insurgency and Trans
Border Trafficking was signed in
1993 by the two countries.
Myanmar has been under
military rule since 1962. In 1995 a
movement f or restorati on of
democracy started and is still going
on in Myanmar. India maintains a
neutral posture and holds the view
that pro-democracy forces should
not be crushed i n an anti -
democratic manner.
India-Bangladesh Relations
Bangl adesh
shares more
than 4000
kilometres long border with India. It
has geographical, cultural and
linguistic af finities with India,
particularly with the West Bengal and
the north-eastern states.
Bangladesh, the former East
Pakistan, has borders with India
on the west, north and east.
Bangladesh came into being as an
independent nation in 1971 after a
long drawn struggle by the people
of East Pakistan. India played a
significant role in the emergence of
Bangladesh.
India was the first country in the
world to recognise Bangladesh as a
sovereign state. During the initial
stages India not only pledged to
protect the territorial integrity of
Bangladesh but also promised
economic assistance for its
reconstruction as a new state.
Both countries signed a Treaty of
Friendship and Peace for a period of
25 years in 1972. Both countries
resolved that their relations shall be
guided by the principles of
democracy, socialism, secularism,
non-alignment and opposition to
racialism and colonialism. They also
agreed to work for making Indian
Ocean a nuclear-free zone.
The Treaty of Friendship was
followed by a comprehensive Trade
Agreement in 1972. The agreement
enabled Bangladesh to secure a
Aung San Suu Kyi, daughter of
Myanmars independence hero Aung
San and the leader of the National
League for Democracy Party has been
struggling for the cause of democracy
in Myanmar. She won the Nobel Peace
Prize in 1991.
Indo-Myanmar trade relations got
a further boost after the signing of
the Trade Agreement in 1970. Today
India is the largest export market for
Myanmar as one-fourth of its exports
are directed to India. In 1999, India
and Myanmar signed an Agreement
on Cooperation in the field of science
and technology. Defence is the new
thrust area where both countries are
looking forward to enlarge their
bilateral cooperation.
market for its products in India.
Gradually cooperation was extended
to agriculture, irrigation, education,
science and technology. Differences
which existed over issues like sharing
of the Ganga water and exchange of
areas in each others territory have
been settled peacefully.
The recognition of Bangladesh by
Pakistan in 1974 opened the door for
a Pakistan-Bangladesh friendship,
which encouraged pro-Islamic and
anti-India elements in Bangladesh.
Supported by these forces, a group
of army officers engineered a coup
by assasinating Sheikh Mujibur
Rehman. Since then an anti-India
feeling has been generated in
Bangladesh. These fundamentalist
and anti-India forces converted
Bangladesh into an Islamic Republic.
In 1990, when democracy was
restored in Bangladesh, the Indo-
Bangladesh relations started
becoming cordial. India transferred
the Teen Beegha Corridor to
Bangladesh on a permanent lease
basis in 1992, though it was an
emotional issue for many Indians.
The Chakma refugees from Tripura
were repatriated to Chittagong Hill
Tracts in Bangladesh in 1994. In the
1996 elections, Sheikh Hasina Wajed,
the daughter of late Mujibur Rehman,
was elected as Prime Minister. It
helped in receding the anti-India tide.
The vexed issue of the Ganga water
dispute was finally settled through
negotiations in 1996. During
this period there was a visible
improvement in bilateral relations.
The dispute over New Moore Island
still remains unresolved because it
is not clearly located in the territorial
waters of either country. Another
problem which India faces is the
influx of a large number of
Bangladesh nationals which poses a
strategic and demographic threat and
creates economic problems. Efforts
to curb this infiltration by erecting
barbed wire fences have been
resented and resisted by Bangladesh.
India-Sri Lanka Relations
The Island of
Sri Lanka,
e r s t whi l e
Ceylon, is situated in the Indian
Ocean at about 80 km from the
south-east coast of India.
India and Sri Lanka attained
independence within six months of
each other. Both nations believe in
the principles of peaceful co-
existence, non-alignment and
democracy. The socio-cultural ties
between them are centuries old. We
have already read that King Ashoka
had sent his son Mahendra and
daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka
for the propagation of Buddhism.
Both the ethnic groups of Sri Lanka-
Sinhalese and Tamils trace their
origin to India.
One of the major problems in
Indias relations with Sri Lanka has
been the Tamil issue. There are two
aspects of the problem. First is the
political status of those Tamils who
were brought to Sri Lanka as tea
plantation labourers. These Tamils
are different from the original Tamil
inhabitants of Sri Lanka. These
labourers lived and enjoyed voting
rights as British subjects in Sri Lanka
for generations. The dispute arose
immediately after the independence
of Sri Lanka in 1948 when the Sri
Lankan government deprived them of
their voting rights and employment.
They were asked to return to India.
The Sinhalese majority consisting
of about two-third of the population,
was apprehensive of the settlement
of the Tamils of Indian origin. They
suspected more Tamil influx from
India would ultimately reduce them
to a minority in their own homeland.
After several attempts and sincere
efforts an agreement was signed in
1954 between the two countries by
which half of these Tamils were to be
repatriated to India while the other
half would get Sri Lankan citizenship.
The other problem arose on
account of state patronage to
the Sinhalese and perceived
promotion of their interests over
Tamils. The Tamils feared their
extinction. This gave birth to
Tamil militancy and the demand
for a separate Tamil Eelam
independent state.
The most powerful and prominent
Tamil militant group is the Liberation
Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) which
has carried out a very violent terror
campaign to achieve Eelam State.
This resulted in an exodus of
Tamil refugees from Sri Lanka to
India. Keeping in view the situation
might go out of hand and to prevent
intervention by any third party, the
Indian Prime Minister Shri Rajiv
Gandhi and Shri Jayawardhane, the
President of Sri Lanka signed an
agreement in 1987. The agreement
provided for the Indian Peace Keeping
Force (IPKF) in Sri Lanka to end
violence and to restore normalcy.
However, it was viewed by many Sri
Lankans as an outside interference,
and the LTTE wanted the withdrawal
of IPKF as a precondition for any
peace talks. India supported Sri
Lankan governments peace efforts
and called back the IPKF in 1990.
Even then Shri Rajiv Gandhi was
assasinated by the LTTE militants
during Lok Sabha election campaign
in 1991. India viewed it very seriously
and declared the LTTE as a terrorist
outfit, and banned it. Several
attempts for a peaceful solution to the
Tamil problem, including the most
recent facilitated by Norway, have
failed to achieve a final settlement.
EXERCISES
(i) What is the Kashmir problem? How is it the root cause of
tension between India and Pakistan?
(ii) Describe the measures taken by India to establish cordial and
friendly relations with Pakistan.
(iii) What tactics has Pakistan been using to harass India from
time to time?
(iv) Describe two points each of agreement and disagreement
between India and Pakistan.
(v) Describe IndiaChina relations in the post-1962 period.
(vi) What measures have been taken to improve Sino-Indian
relations since 1979?
(vii) Mention the issues on which India supported China.
(viii) Describe India-Nepal relations.
(ix) Mention the areas in which India provided financial and
technical assistance to Nepal.
(x) Mention the names of Indias immediate neighbours.
(xi) Which treaty governs the relationship between India and
Bhutan? Give two main features of this treaty.
(xii) What was the impact of Sikkims accession to India on Nepal?
(xiii) Which two neighbouring countries of India have been under
military rule?
(xiv) Which country shares the largest border with India?
(xv) Describe two points each of agreement and disagreement
between India and Bangladesh.
(xvi) Explain the main points of conflict between the Tamils and
the Simhalese of Sri Lanka.
(xvii) Describe the efforts made by India to resolve the Tamil issue of
Sri Lanka.
(i) Simla Agreement
(ii) War of 1971
(iii) Tibet problem.
(i) _____________ is a home of all religions and cultures.
(ii) India followed the __________ path whereas Pakistan opted for
________ state.
(iii) __________, the ruler of Kashmir signed the instrument of
accession with India on ______ 1947.
(iv) PoK stands for ____________ ______________ _______________.
(v) Bangladesh liberation movement was led by ________ of
______ party.
(vi) The People's Republic of China came into existence in ________.
(vii) __________ is the spiritual and religious leader of Tibetans.
(viii) LAC stands for ____________ _____________ _____________.
(ix) Nepal is the only ____________ State in the world.
(x) Nepal became the member of the United Nations in
__________ with Indias support.
(xi) The present king of Nepal is ______________.
(xii) Bhutan is popularly known as the land of _______________.
(xiii) There is a complete free trade regime between ____________ and
_______________.
(xiv) India helped _____________ in framing its Constitution.
(xv) Prior to its independence Bangladesh was known as __________.
(xvi) India transferred _____________ corridor to Bangladesh.
(xvii) The two important ethnic groups of Sri Lanka are
____________ and _____________.
(xviii) India and Sri Lanka both believe in the principles of
____________ and _____________.
4. Tick ( ) the right statement
(i) Pakistan attacked India in 1962.
(ii) The Tashkent Declaration was signed in Moscow.
(iii) About 50 lakh Pakistani soldiers surrendered before Indian
forces in 1971.
(iv) India did not recognise the sovereignty of China over Tibet.
(v) China supported India for declaring itself as a Nuclear Weapon
State.
(vi) India assisted Nepal to set up the Karnali and Devighat Project.
(vii) Myanmar got independence along with India in 1947.
(viii) Bangladesh is a secular State.
(ix) The dispute over New Moore Island between India and
Bangladesh has been amicably resolved.
(x) The most powerful and prominent Tamil militant group is the
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Ealem.
5. Project Work
Divide the whole class into eight groups, each representing
one country-India, Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar,
Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Each group should display the
name of the country and its national flag. Hold group
discussions or quizzes on the following topics:
a. capitals
b. form of government
c. religion
d. physical location like land locked or sea bound
e. points of agreement with India
f. points of disagreement with India
Agriculture Cultivating the soil to grow crops and rearing of
livestock. It also includes forestry and fishing.
Apartheid Refers to the South African system of racial
segregation of the white, black and brown (i.e. Indian)
population and the domination of the white minority
over the black majority. A basic aspect of apartheid
was the exclusion of the majority on the basis of
their colour from participation in central government.
Arable land Land suitable for cultivation. It includes both cultivated
and temporary fallow land.
Avalanche A slide or fall of a mass of snow and ice along with rock
debris down the slope in mountainous areas.
Basic Industries Industries, whose finished products are used as raw
materials in other industries.
Bilateral Talk, agreement or business between two parties.
Birth Rate The number of live births per 1000 population over a
given period, usually one year.
Buffer State A neutral country or zone between two others whose
relations are strained.
Colonialism A policy of acquiring or maintaining colonies and
exploiting them for economic benefit.
Coniferous Forests A vegetation type associated with cool climate, having
cone-shaped evergreen trees, e.g. pine and spruce.
Consumer Industries Industries, whose goods are directly used by
consumers.
Contour Ploughing A technique of ploughing parallel to the contours of
a hill slope rather than up and down the slope.
Contour A line drawn on a map joining places of equal height
from the mean sea level.
GLOSSARY
Glossary/177
Cooperative Sector Those economic activities in which producers or
suppliers of raw materials own and operate the
business or industry by cooperating with each other
in managing the means of production, purchasing and
marketing products.
Crop Rotation The system of changing the crop cultivated in a field
from season to season to restore fertility to the soil.
Dam A structure built across a river with different purposes
e.g. irrigation, generation of hydroelectricity, controlling
flood and recreation.
Death Rate The number of deaths per 1000 population over a
given period, usually one year.
Debris The loose asserted fragments of rock material, sand
and clay produced by weathering and erosion.
Deforestation The removal of the tree cover from an area by falling or
burning.
Developed Countries Countries where majority of people earn a high income
and depend more on industries and services than
agriculture.
Developing Countries Countries where majority of people earn a low income
and depend mainly on agriculture and export of primary
products.
Development The process of improving the quality of all human lives.
Domestic System The method of manufacturing in which workers
produce goods at home.
Drainage Basin An area drained by a single river system i.e., the
main river and all its tributaries.
Drought A very long period of extremely dry weather in a region
where some rain might normally be expected.
Drugs Medicinal substances that lead to addiction.
Earthquake The violent shaking of the earths surface due to sudden
movements below the earths surface.
Effluent The waste products from a factory or industrial
complex.
Entrepot A bonded warehouse.
Entrepreneur A person who undertakes personal financial risk to
start a commercial venture.
Factory System The method of manufacturing in which production
of goods takes place in a specially built workplace
called a factory.
Famine A severe shortage of food resulting in widespread
hunger and starvation.
Flood The submergence of land not usually covered with
water, most commonly by rivers. River flooding is
usually a seasonal event.
Fundamental Freedoms The basic freedoms like freedom of speech, freedom
of assembly, etc.
Genocide Mass killing of human beings.
Green Revolution Developments in agriculture by introducing scientific
methods such as usage of new varieties of seeds and
application of fertilisers, assured water supply and
use of machinery, which led to considerable increase
in agricultural yields in certain cereals such as wheat
and rice.
Greenhouse Effect Temperature rise caused by the addition of carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere.
Human Rights It implies such conditions or privileges that are
essential for every human being and should not be
denied to any person in a civilised society.
Hunger An urgent need for food, an uneasy sensation caused
by the prolonged lack of food and a weakended
condition. It is the extreme situation of poverty.
Imperialism A policy of extending political or economic control by a
powerful country over a weaker country and exploiting
its resources.
Industry Economic activity that is concerned with production
of goods, extraction of minerals, or the provision of
services.
Information Technology The use of technologies such as computers, calculators,
telephones and various electronic equipment to store,
process and distribute information.
Intensive Agriculture Methods of farming in which large amounts of capital
and/or labour are applied per unit of land.
International Economic Order It aims to end the monopoly enjoyed by the developed
countries and to promote international cooperation for
mutual benefit.
Investment The use of money in various activities for the purpose
of making profit.
Irrigation The artificial application of water to the land in order
to grow crops.
Joint Sector Industries owned and operated by the state and
individuals or group of individuals.
Landslide A rapid movement of rock debris down slope under
the influence of gravity.
Glossary/179
Liberalisation Relaxation of government regulations relating to various
activities in industrial and service sectors and
encouragement of foreign companies to set up business
and production units within the domestic area. This also
includes entry of the Private Sector in those activities
which were reserved for the Public Sector.
Livestock The animals and birds that are kept on a farm to
earn money or to provide food for the family.
Mandate Authority given by electors to a government to act in
a particular way.
Manufacturing Industry Those industries that process materials or assemble
components to produce finished products such as iron
and steel industry and automobile industry.
Mixed Farming Farming that includes the growing of crops and the
rearing of animals.
Mono Cropping Cultivation limited to a single crop in a year.
Multi Cropping Growing more than one crop on the same plot of land
in a year.
Multilateral Talk, agreement or business among many parties.
Multinational Companies Companies, which operate in more than one country.
Narcotics Substance inducing drowsiness, sleep or insensibility.
Natural Disasters Those natural phenomena, which cause serious
damage to humans.
Natural Growth Rate The difference between birth rate and death (birth rate
minus death rate).
Natural Hazards Natural events or happening that are potentially
dangerous to humans e.g. earthquakes and cyclones.
Natural Resources Any matter or energy that is derived from the
environment and used by living things including
humans such as land, plants and minerals.
Organised Sector All public sector enterprises and those in the private
sector, which employ more than nine persons on a
regular basis.
Plantation System The system of growing cash crops like cotton, tea,
sugar, rubber, etc. in a colony. It was first devised
by the Portuguese in Malacca in the East Indies.
Population Density The average number of people living in per unit area.
It is normally expressed as per square kilometre.
Population The total number of persons inhabiting a defined
region at a particular point of time.
Poverty The state of a person or a family not having enough
money to take care of basic needs such as food,
clothing and housing.
Preamble It is an introduction to the Constitution. It explains
the aims and objectives of the Constitution and serves
as guideline for the government.
Private Sector Enterprises owned and operated by individuals or
group of individuals.
Privatisation Encouragement of private sector companies to produce
goods and services and sale of the assets of the public
sector enterprises to private sector.
Public Distribution System The network established by the government to provide
foodgrains and other essentials to the people generally
below poverty line at less than the actual price.
Public Sector Industries owned and operated by the government and
its agencies.
Racialism A practice of discrimination on the basis of racial origin.
Recycling The reusing of materials or products that have been
discarded because they are no longer of value for their
original use.
Resource Any material on the earth that is of value to humans.
Right of Extra-territoriality The privileges granted to foreigners in China under
pressure.
Salinisation The process by which salt is added to the soil making
it unproductive.
Sedentary Agriculture The farming of land at a fixed location instead of
migrating from one site to another.
Seismic Focus The place of origin of an earthquake in the earths crust
from which the earthquake waves move outwards.
Sex Ratio The number of females per 1000 males.
Shifting Cultivation An agricultural practice in which a patch of forest is
cleared for growing crops. After a few years, the fertility
of soil is reduced, the site is, therefore abandoned and
another clearing is made somewhere else.
Small Scale Industries Group of manufacturing enterprises whose
investment is up to one crore rupees.
Socialism The theory or system of social organisation by which
the means of production and distribution are owned
by the government or workers association or the
community as a whole.
Strip Cropping Growing of different crops on parallel narrow strips of
ground, usually following the contour pattern of the
land, e.g. growing clover and maize alternatively.
Substainable Development A development that fulfills the needs of today and
remains beneficial for a long time.
Glossary/181
Telecommunications The science and technology of transmitting
information electronically by means of wires or radio
signals.
Terrace Farming The growing of crops on level steps or terraces
constructed on hillsides.
Theocratic State It recognises a state religion. The government affairs
are carried out in accordance with the rules of the state
religion.
Unemployment A situation in which people though willing could not
find gainful employment.
Vegetation The total plant life of a particular region.
Veto A Constitutional right to reject or block a proposal
or a resolution.
CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
Part III (Articles 12 35)
(Subject to certain conditions, some exceptions
and reasonable restrictions)
guarantees these
Fundamental Rights
Right to Equality
before law and equal protection of laws;
irrespective of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth;
of opportunity in public employment;
by abolition of untouchability and titles.
Right to Freedom
of expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession;
of certain protections in respect of conviction for offences;
of protection of life and personal liberty;
of free and compulsory education for children between the age of six and fourteen years;
of protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
Right against Exploitation
for prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour;
for prohibition of employment of children in hazardous jobs.
Right to Freedom of Religion
freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion;
freedom to manage religious affairs;
freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion;
freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in educational
institutions wholly maintained by the State.
Cultural and Educational Rights
for protection of interests of minorities to conserve their language, script and culture;
for minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
Right to Constitutional Remedies
by issuance of directions or orders or writs by the Supreme Court and High
Courts for enforcement of these Fundamental Rights.

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CONTENTS

and ________ latitudes, creating deserts.

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