UT Testing-Study Notes

Preparatory Notes for
ASNT NDT Level III Examination

- Ultrasonic Testing, UT
2014-J une
Facilitators: Fion Zhang/ Charliechong
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_alphabet
http://www.smt.sandvik.com/en/search/?q=stress+corrosion+cracking
Speaker: Fion Zhang
2014/6/19
Contents:
1. ASNT Level III Exam Topical Outline
2. AE Codes and Standards
ASTM
ASME V
3. Reading 01
Introduction to UT by ndt-ed.org
4. Others reading.
ASNT UT Level III Examination Topical Outline
This examination is 4 hours in length, having 135 questions of equal value.
1. Principles/Theory
2. Equipment/Materials
3. Techniques/Calibrations
Contact
Immersion
Comparison of contact and immersion methods
Remote monitoring
Calibration (electronic and functional)
4. Interpretation/Evaluations
Evaluation of base metal product forms
Evaluation of weldments
Evaluation of bonded structures
Variables affecting test results
Evaluation (general)
5. Procedures
Specific applications
Codes/Standards/Specifications
6. Safety and Health
References
1. Level III Study Guide: Ultrasonic Testing (2261)
2. NDT Handbook: Volume 7, Ultrasonic Testing (147)
3. Supplement to Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A (Q&A Book) -
Ultrasonic Testing Method (2028)
4. Ultrasonics: Fundamentals, Technology, Applications (341)
5. Refresher Course: ASNT offers a UT Refresher Course based on the Body
of Knowledge outlined above.
The number in parentheses following each reference is the ASNT catalog
number.
UT - Ultrasonic Testing
Length: 4 hours Questions: 135
1. Principles/Theory
Nature of sound waves
Modes of sound wave generation
Velocity, frequency, and wavelength of sound waves
Attenuation of sound waves
Acoustic impedance
Reflection
Refraction and mode conversion
Snells law and critical angles
Fresnel and Fraunhofer effects
2. Equipment/Materials
Pulse/echo instrumentation
Digital thickness instrumentation
Transducer operation and theory
Transducer operation/manipulations
Resonance testing equipment
Couplants
Calibration blocks
Cables/connectors
Test specimen
Miscellaneous materials
3. Techniques/Calibrations
Contact
Immersion
Comparison of contact and immersion methods
Remote monitoring
Calibration (electronic and functional)
4. Interpretation/Evaluations
Evaluation of base metal product forms
Evaluation of weldments
Evaluation of bonded structures
Variables affecting test results
Evaluation (general)
5. Procedures
Specific applications
Codes/Standards/Specifications
Reference Catalog Number
NDT Handbook, Second Edition: Volume 7,
Ultrasonic Testing 132
ASNT Level III Study Guide: Ultrasonic Testing 2261A
Ultrasonics: Fundamentals, Technology,
Applications 341
ASME V Article Numbers:
Gen Article 1
RT Article 2
Nil Article 3
UT Article 4 for welds
UT Article 5 for materials
PT Article 6
MT Article 7
ET Article 8
Visual Article 9
LT Article 10
AE Article 11 (FRP) /Article 12 (Metallic) / Article 13 (Continuous)
Qualif. Article 14
ACFM Article 15
ASTM/ AWS Standards
ASTM E494 10: Practice for Measuring Ultrasonic Velocity in Materials.
ASTM standard E-164, "Standard Practice for Contact Examination of
Weldments.
AWS Structural Welding Code, section 6.
Annual Book of the American Society of Testing and Materials,
ASTM. Volume 03.03, Nondestructive Testing
Other Reading
http://techcorr.com/services/Inspection-and-Testing/Ultrasonic-Shear-Wave.cfm
http://www.cnde.iastate.edu/faa-
casr/engineers/Supporting%20Info/Supporting%20Info%20Pages/Ultrasonic%20Pages/Ultra-
principles.html
http://www.ndt.net/article/v05n09/berke/berke1.htm#0
http://www.mie.utoronto.ca/labs/undel/index.php?menu_path=menu_pages/projects_menu.htm
l&content_path=content_pages/fac2_2.html&main_menu=projects&side_menu=page1&sub_si
de_menu=s2
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/ndt-tutorials/flaw-detection/
https://www.nde-ed.org/GeneralResources/Glossary/letter/d.htm
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/knowledge/
http://wenku.baidu.com/view/3cf257781711cc7931b716e0.html
Study Note 1:
Ultrasonic Testing
Source: http://www.ndt-
ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultra
sonics/cc_ut_index.htm
Content:
Section 1: Introduction
1.1: Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing
1.2: History of Ultrasonics
1.3: Present State of Ultrasonics
1.4: Future Direction of Ultrasonic Inspection
Content: Section 2: Physics of Ultrasound
2.1: Wave Propagation
2.2: Modes of Sound Wave Propagation
2.3: Properties of Acoustic Plane Wave
2.4: Wavelength and Defect Detection
2.5: Sound Propagation in Elastic Materials
2.6: Attenuation of Sound Waves
2.7: Acoustic Impedance
2.8: Reflection and Transmission Coefficients (Pressure)
2.9: Refraction and Snell's Law
2.10: Mode Conversion
2.11: Signal-to-Noise Ratio
2.12: Wave Interaction or Interference
2.13: Inverse Square Rule/ Inverse Rule
2.14: Resonance
2.15 Measurement of Sound
2.16 Practice Makes Perfect
Content: Section 3: Equipment & Transducers
3.1: Piezoelectric Transducers
3.2: Characteristics of Piezoelectric Transducers
3.3: Radiated Fields of Ultrasonic Transducers
3.4: Transducer Beam Spread
3.5: Transducer Types
3.6: Transducer Testing I
3.7: Transducer Testing II
3.8: Transducer Modeling
3.9: Couplants
3.10: Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMATs)
Continues Next Page
3.11: Pulser-Receivers
3.12: Tone Burst Generators In Research
3.13: Arbitrary Function Generators
3.14: Electrical Impedance Matching and Termination
3.15: Data Presentation
3.16 Error Analysis
3.17 Transducer Quality Factor Q
3.18 Testing Techniques
3.19 Further Reading on Sub-Section 3
Content: Section 4: Measurement Techniques
4.1: Normal Beam Inspection
4.2: Angle Beams
4.3: Reflector Sizing
4.4: Automated Scanning
4.5: Precision Velocity Measurements
4.6: Attenuation Measurements
4.7: Spread Spectrum Ultrasonics
4.8: Signal Processing Techniques
4.9: Flaw Reconstruction Techniques
4.10: Scanning Methods
4.11: Scanning Patterns
4.12: Pulse Repetition Rate and Penetration
4.13: Interferences & Non Relevant Indications
4.14: Exercises
Content: Section 5: Calibration Methods
5.1: Calibration Methods
5.2: The Calibrations
5.3: Curvature Correction
5.4: Calibration References & Standards
5.5: Exercises
5.6: Video Time
Content: Section 6: Selected Applications & Techniques
6.1: Defects & Discontinuities
6.2: Rail Inspection
6.3: Weldments (Welded J oints)
6.4: Pipe & Tube
6.5: Echo Dynamic
6.6: Technique Sheets
6.7: Material Properties-Elastic Modulus Measurements
6.8: High Temperature Ultrasonic Testing
6.9: TOFD Introduction
Content: Section 7: Reference Material
7.1: UT Material Properties
7.2: General References & Resources
7.3: Video Time
Content: Section 8: Ultrasonic Inspection Quizzes
8.1: Ultrasonic Inspection Quizzes
8.2: Online UT Quizzes
Content:
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound energy to conduct
examinations and make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for
(1) flaw detection/evaluation, (2) dimensional measurements, (3) material
characterization, and (4) more. To illustrate the general inspection principle, a
typical pulse/echo inspection configuration as illustrated belowwill be used.
A typical UT inspection system consists of several functional units, such as
the pulser/receiver, transducer, and display devices. A pulser/receiver is an
electronic device that can produce high voltage electrical pulses. Driven by
the pulser, the transducer generates high frequency ultrasonic energy. The
sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form
of waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path,
part of the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface.
The reflected wave signal is transformed into an electrical signal by the
transducer and is displayed on a screen. In the applet below, the reflected
signal strength is displayed versus the time from signal generation to when a
echo was received. Signal travel time can be directly related to the distance
that the signal traveled. From the signal, information about the reflector
location, size, orientation and other features can sometimes be gained.
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Graphics/Flash/ultrasoundInspection.swf
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Graphics/Flash/ultrasoundInspection.swf
http://www.cnde.iastate.edu/faa-casr/engineers/Supporting%20Info/Supporting%20Info%20Pages/Ultrasonic%20Pages/Ultra-principles.html
Figure below: Immersion UT setup with CRT or computer screen display.
IP indicates the initial pulse while FWand BWindicate the front and back wall
of the specimen, respectively.
Basics of Ultrasonic Test
Basics of Ultrasonic Test
Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method. Some of the
advantages of ultrasonic inspection that are often cited include:
It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to
other NDT methods.
Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is
used.
It is highly accurate in determining reflector position and estimating size
and shape.
Minimal part preparation is required.
Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
It has other uses, such as thickness measurement, in addition to flaw
detection.
As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which
include:
Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound
energy into the test specimen.
Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin
or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to
low sound transmission and high signal noise.
Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and the
characterization of flaws.
The above introduction provides a simplified introduction to the NDT method of
ultrasonic testing. However, to effectively perform an inspection using
ultrasonics, much more about the method needs to be known. The following
pages present information on the science involved in ultrasonic inspection, the
equipment that is commonly used, some of the measurement techniques used,
as well as other information.
Prior to World War II, sonar, the technique of sending sound waves through
water and observing the returning echoes to characterize submerged objects,
inspired early ultrasound investigators to explore ways to apply the concept to
medical diagnosis. In 1929 and 1935, Sokolov studied the use of ultrasonic
waves in detecting metal objects. Mulhauser, in 1931, obtained a patent for
using ultrasonic waves, using two transducers to detect flaws in solids.
Firestone (1940) and Simons (1945) developed pulsed ultrasonic testing
using a pulse-echo technique.
Shortly after the close of World War II, researchers in J apan began to explore
the medical diagnostic capabilities of ultrasound. The first ultrasonic
instruments used an A-mode presentation with blips on an oscilloscope
screen. That was followed by a B-mode presentation with a two dimensional,
gray scale image.
J apan's work in ultrasound was relatively unknown in the United States and
Europe until the 1950s. Researchers then presented their findings on the use
of ultrasound to detect gallstones, breast masses, and tumors to the
international medical community. J apan was also the first country to apply
Doppler ultrasound, an application of ultrasound that detects internal moving
objects such as blood coursing through the heart for cardiovascular
investigation.
Ultrasound pioneers working in the United
States contributed many innovations and
important discoveries to the field during the
following decades. Researchers learned to
use ultrasound to detect potential cancer and
to visualize tumors in living subjects and in
excised tissue. Real-time imaging, another
significant diagnostic tool for physicians,
presented ultrasound images directly on the
system's CRT screen at the time of scanning.
The introduction of spectral Doppler and later color Doppler depicted blood
flow in various colors to indicate the speed and direction of the flow..
The United States also produced the earliest hand held "contact" scanner for
clinical use, the second generation of B-mode equipment, and the prototype for
the first articulated-arm hand held scanner, with 2-D images.
Beginnings of Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE)
Nondestructive testing has been practiced for many decades, with initial rapid
developments in instrumentation spurred by the technological advances that
occurred during World War II and the subsequent defense effort. During the
earlier days, the primary purpose was the detection of defects. As a part of
"safe life" design, it was intended that a structure should not develop
macroscopic defects during its life, with the detection of such defects being a
cause for removal of the component from service. In response to this need,
increasingly sophisticated techniques using ultrasonics, eddy currents, x-rays,
dye penetrants, magnetic particles, and other forms of interrogating energy
emerged.
In the early 1970's, two events occurred which caused a major change in the
NDT field. First, improvements in the technology led to the ability to detect
small flaws, which caused more parts to be rejected even though the
probability of component failure had not changed. However, the discipline of
fracture mechanics emerged, which enabled one to predict whether a crack of
a given size will fail under a particular load when a material's fracture
toughness properties are known. Other laws were developed to predict the
growth rate of cracks under cyclic loading (fatigue). With the advent of these
tools, it became possible to accept structures containing defects if the sizes of
those defects were known. This formed the basis for the new philosophy
of "damage tolerant" design. Components having known defects could
continue in service as long as it could be established that those defects would
not grow to a critical, failure producing size.
A new challenge was thus presented to the nondestructive testing community.
Detection was not enough. One needed to also obtain quantitative
information about flaw size to serve as an input to fracture mechanics based
predictions of remaining life. The need for quantitative information was
particularly strongly in the defense and nuclear power industries and led to
the emergence of quantitative nondestructive evaluation (QNDE) as a new
engineering/research discipline. A number of research programs around the
world were started, such as the Center for Nondestructive Evaluation at Iowa
State University (growing out of a major research effort at the Rockwell
International Science Center); the Electric Power Research Institute in
Charlotte, North Carolina; the Fraunhofer Institute for Nondestructive Testing
in Saarbrucken, Germany; and the Nondestructive Testing Centre in Harwell,
England.
Ultrasonic testing (UT) has been practiced for many decades. Initial rapid
developments in instrumentation spurred by the technological advances from
the 1950's continue today. Through the 1980's and continuing through the
present, computers have provided technicians with smaller and more rugged
instruments with greater capabilities.
Thickness gauging is an example application where instruments have been
refined make data collection easier and better. Built-in data logging
capabilities allow thousands of measurements to be recorded and eliminate
the need for a "scribe." Some instruments have the capability to capture
waveforms as well as thickness readings. The waveform option allows an
operator to view or review the A-scan signal of thickness measurement long
after the completion of an inspection. Also, some instruments are capable of
modifying the measurement based on the surface conditions of the
material. For example, the signal from a pitted or eroded inner surface of a
pipe would be treated differently than a smooth surface. This has led to more
accurate and repeatable field measurements.
Many ultrasonic flaw detectors have a
trigonometric function that allows for fast
and accurate location determination of
flaws when performing shear wave
inspections. Cathode ray tubes, for the
most part, have been replaced with LED
or LCD screens. These screens, in most
cases, are extremely easy to view in a
wide range of ambient lighting.
Bright or low light working conditions encountered by technicians have little
effect on the technician's ability to view the screen. Screens can be adjusted
for brightness, contrast, and on some instruments even the color of the
screen and signal can be selected. Transducers can be programmed with
predetermined instrument settings. The operator only has to connect the
transducer and the instrument will set variables such as frequency and probe
drive.
Along with computers, motion control and robotics have contributed to the
advancement of ultrasonic inspections. Early on, the advantage of a
stationary platform was recognized and used in industry. Computers can be
programmed to inspect large, complex shaped components, with one or
multiple transducers collecting information. Automated systems typically
consisted of an immersion tank, scanning system, and recording system for a
printout of the scan. The immersion tank can be replaced with a squirter
systems, which allows the sound to be transmitted through a water
column. The resultant C-scan provides a plan or top view of the component.
Scanning of components is considerably faster than contact hand scanning,
the coupling is much more consistent. The scan information is collected by a
computer for evaluation, transmission to a customer, and archiving.
Squirter systems
http://www.ultrasonic-sciences.co.uk/squirter_systems.htm
Today, quantitative theories have been developed to describe the interaction
of the interrogating fields with flaws. Models incorporating the results have
been integrated with solid model descriptions of real-part geometries to
simulate practical inspections. Related tools allow NDE to be considered
during the design process on an equal footing with other failure-related
engineering disciplines. Quantitative descriptions of NDE performance, such
as the probability of detection (POD), have become an integral part of
statistical risk assessment. Measurement procedures initially developed for
metals have been extended to engineered materials such as composites,
where anisotropy and inhomogeneity have become important issues. The
rapid advances in digitization and computing capabilities have totally changed
the faces of many instruments and the type of algorithms that are used in
processing the resulting data. High-resolution imaging systems and multiple
measurement modalities for characterizing a flaw have emerged.
Interest is increasing not only in detecting, characterizing, and sizing defects,
but also in characterizing the materials. Goals range from the determination of
fundamental microstructural characteristics such as grain size, porosity, and
texture (preferred grain orientation), to material properties related to such
failure mechanisms as fatigue, creep, and fracture toughness. As technology
continues to advance, applications of ultrasound also advance. The high-
resolution imaging systems in the laboratory today will be tools of the
technician tomorrow.
Looking to the future, those in the field of NDE see an exciting new set of
opportunities. The defense and nuclear power industries have played a major
role in the emergence of NDE. Increasing global competition has led to
dramatic changes in product development and business cycles. At the same
time, aging infrastructure, from roads to buildings and aircraft, present a new
set of measurement and monitoring challenges for engineers as well as
technicians.
Among the new applications of NDE spawned by these changes is the
increased emphasis on the use of NDE to improve the productivity of
manufacturing processes. Quantitative nondestructive evaluation (QNDE)
both increases the amount of information about failure modes and the speed
with which information can be obtained and facilitates the development of in-
line measurements for process control.
The phrase, "you cannot inspect in quality, you
must build it in," exemplifies the industry's focus
on avoiding the formation of flaws.
Nevertheless, manufacturing flaws will never
be completely eliminated and material damage
will continue to occur in-service so continual
development of flaw detection and
characterization techniques is necessary.
Advanced simulation tools that are designed for inspectability and their
integration into quantitative strategies for life management will contribute to
increase the number and types of engineering applications of NDE. With
growth in engineering applications for NDE, there will be a need to expand
the knowledge base of technicians performing the evaluations. Advanced
simulation tools used in the design for inspectability may be used to provide
technical students with a greater understanding of sound behavior in
materials. UTSIM, developed at Iowa State University, provides a glimpse into
what may be used in the technical classroom as an interactive laboratory tool.
As globalization continues, companies will seek to develop, with ever
increasing frequency, uniform international practices. In the area of NDE, this
trend will drive the emphasis on standards, enhanced educational offerings,
and simulations that can be communicated electronically. The coming years
will be exciting as NDE will continue to emerge as a full-fledged engineering
discipline.
Section 2: Physics of Ultrasound
Content: Section 2: Physics of Ultrasound
2.12: Wave Interaction or Interference
2.14: Resonance
Ultrasonic Formula
http://www.ndt-ed.org/GeneralResources/Calculator/calculator.htm
Ultrasonic Formula
Ultrasonic Formula
Ultrasonic testing is based on time-varying deformations or vibrations in
materials, which is generally referred to as acoustics. All material substances
are comprised of atoms, which may be forced into vibration motion about their
equilibrium positions. Many different patterns of vibration motion exist at the
atomic level, however, most are irrelevant to acoustics and ultrasonic testing.
Acoustics is focused on particles that contain many atoms that move in
unison to produce a mechanical wave. When a material is not stressed in
tension or compression beyond its elastic limit, its individual particles perform
elastic oscillations. When the particles of a medium are displaced from their
equilibrium positions, internal (electrostatic) restoration forces arise. It is these
elastic restoring forces between particles, combined with inertia of the
particles, that leads to the oscillatory motions of the medium.
Keywords:
internal (electrostatic) restoration forces
inertia of the particles
Acoustic Spectrum
Acoustic Spectrum
Acoustic Spectrum
Acoustic Wave Node and Anti-Node
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/waves/u10l4c.cfm
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/waves/h4.gif
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/waves/standw.html
Q151 A point, line or surface of a vibration body marked by absolute or
relative freedom from vibratory motion (momentarily?) is referred to as:
a) a node
b) an antinode
c) rarefaction
d) compression
In solids, sound waves can propagate in four principle modes that are based
on the way the particles oscillate. Sound can propagate as;
longitudinal waves,
shear waves,
surface waves,
and in thin materials as plate waves.
Longitudinal and shear waves are the two modes of propagation most widely
used in ultrasonic testing. The particle movement responsible for the
propagation of longitudinal and shear waves is illustrated below.
Longitudinal and shear waves
In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction or the
direction of wave propagation. Since compressional and dilational forces are
active in these waves, they are also called pressure or compressional waves.
They are also sometimes called density waves because their particle density
fluctuates as they move. Compression waves can be generated in liquids, as
well as solids because the energy travels through the atomic structure by a
series of compressions and expansion (rarefaction) movements.
Longitudinal wave: longitudinal and shear. Longitudinal waves (L-Waves)
compress and decompress the material in the direction of motion, much like
sound waves in air.
Also Knows as:
longitudinal waves,
pressure wave
compressional waves.
density waves
can be generated in (1) liquids, as well as (2) solids
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Graphics/Flash/longitudinal.swf
Shear waves (S-Waves) vibrate particles at right angles compared to the
motion of the ultrasonic wave. The velocity of shear waves through a material
is approximately half that of the longitudinal waves. The angle in which the
ultrasonic wave enters the material determines whether longitudinal, shear, or
both waves are produced.
In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right angle or
transverse to the direction of propagation. Shear waves require an
acoustically solid material for effective propagation, and therefore, are not
effectively propagated in materials such as liquids or gasses. Shear waves
are relatively weak when compared to longitudinal waves. In fact, shear
waves are usually generated in materials using some of the energy from
longitudinal waves.
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Graphics/Flash/transverse.swf
10. For a shear wave travelling from steel to water incident on the boundary
at 10 degrees will give a refracted shear wave in water with an angle of:
a) 0 degrees
b) 5 degrees
c) 20 degrees
d) none of the above
In air, sound travels by the compression and rarefaction of air molecules in
the direction of travel. However, in solids, molecules can support vibrations in
other directions, hence, a number of different types of sound waves are
possible. Waves can be characterized in space by oscillatory patterns that
are capable of maintaining their shape and propagating in a stable
manner. The propagation of waves is often described in terms of what are
called wave modes.
As mentioned previously, longitudinal and transverse (shear) waves are most
often used in ultrasonic inspection. However, at surfaces and interfaces,
various types of elliptical or complex vibrations of the particles make other
waves possible. Some of these wave modes such as (1) Rayleigh and (2)
Lamb waves are also useful for ultrasonic inspection.
Keywords:
Compression
Rarefaction
Rayleigh waves are a type of surface acoustic wave that travel on solids.
They can be produced in materials in many ways, such as by a localized
impact or by piezo-electric transduction, and are frequently used in non-
destructive testing for detecting defects. They are part of the seismic waves
that are produced on the Earth by earthquakes. When guided in layers they
are referred to as Lamb waves, RayleighLamb waves, or generalized
Rayleigh waves.
Rayleigh Characteristics
Rayleigh waves are a type of surface wave that travel near the surface of
solids. Rayleigh waves include both longitudinal and transverse motions that
decrease exponentially in amplitude as distance from the surface increases.
There is a phase difference between these component motions. In isotropic
solids these waves cause the surface particles to move in ellipses in planes
normal to the surface and parallel to the direction of propagation the major
axis of the ellipse is vertical. At the surface and at shallow depths this motion
is retrograde , that is the in-plane motion of a particle is counterclockwise
when the wave travels from left to right.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_wave
29. The longitudinal wave incident angle which results in formation of a
Rayleigh wave is called:
(a) Normal incidence
(b) The first critical angle
(c) The second critical angle
(d) Any angle above the first critical angle
Lamb Wave:
When guided in layers they are referred to as Lamb waves, RayleighLamb
waves, or generalized Rayleigh waves.
Lamb waves 2 modes
Lamb waves propagate in solid plates. They are elastic waves whose particle
motion lies in the plane that contains the direction of wave propagation and
the plate normal (the direction perpendicular to the plate). In 1917, the english
mathematician horace lamb published his classic analysis and description of
acoustic waves of this type. Their properties turned out to be quite complex.
An infinite medium supports just two wave modes traveling at unique
velocities; but plates support two infinite sets of lamb wave modes, whose
velocities depend on the relationship between wavelength and plate thickness.
Since the 1990s, the understanding and utilization of lamb waves has
advanced greatly, thanks to the rapid increase in the availability of computing
power. Lamb's theoretical formulations have found substantial practical
application, especially in the field of nondestructive testing.
The term rayleighlamb waves embraces the rayleigh wave, a type of wave
that propagates along a single surface.
Both rayleigh and lamb waves are constrained by the elastic properties of the
surface(s) that guide them.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamb_wave
http://pediaview.com/openpedia/Lamb_waves
Waves
New!
Plate wave- Love
Stoneley wave
Sezawa
Longitudinal and transverse waves were discussed on the previous page, so
let's touch on surface and plate waves here.
Surface (or Rayleigh) waves travel the surface of a relatively thick solid
material penetrating to a depth of one wavelength.
Surface waves combine both (1) a longitudinal and (2) transverse motion to
create an elliptic orbit motion as shown in the image and animation below.
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Graphics/Flash/rayleigh.swf
The major axis of the ellipse is perpendicular to the surface of the solid. As
the depth of an individual atom from the surface increases the width of its
elliptical motion decreases. Surface waves are generated when a
longitudinal wave intersects a surface near the second critical angle and
they travel at a velocity between .87 and .95 of a shear wave. Rayleigh
waves are useful because they are very sensitive to surface defects (and
other surface features) and they follow the surface around curves.
Because of this, Rayleigh waves can be used to inspect areas that other
waves might have difficulty reaching.
Wave velocity:
Longitudinal wave velocity =1v,
The velocity of shear waves through a material is approximately half that
of the longitudinal waves, (0.5v)
Surface waves are generated when a longitudinal wave intersects a
surface near the second critical angle and they travel at a velocity
between .87 and .95 of a shear wave. (0.87~0.95)x0.5v
The major axis of the ellipse is perpendicular to the surface of the solid.
Surface wave
Surface wave or Rayleigh wave are formed when shear waves refract to 90.
The whip-like particle vibration of the shear wave is converted into elliptical
motion by the particle changing direction at the interface with the surface. The
wave are not often used in industrial NDT although they do have some
application in aerospace industry. Their mode of propagation is elliptical along
the surface of material, penetrating to a depth of one wavelength. They will
follow the contour of the surface and they travel at approximately 90% of the
velocity of the shear waves.
Depth of penetration of
about one wavelength
Direction of wave propagation
Surface wave has the ability to follow surface contour, until it meet a sharp
change i.e. a surface crack/seam/lap. However the surface waves could be
easily completely absorbed by excess couplant of simply touching the part
ahead of the waves.
Transducer
Wedge
Surface discontinuity
Specimen
Surface wave One wavelength deep
Rayleigh Wave
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/Rwave_files/image001.gif
Love Wave
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/Lwave_files/image001.gif
Q110: What kind of wave mode travel at a velocity slightly belowthe shear
wave and their modes of propagation are both longitudinal and transverse
with respect to the surface?
a) Rayleigh wave
b) Transverse wave
c) L-wave
d) Longitudinal wave
Q: Which of the following modes of vibration exhibits the shortest wavelength
at a given frequency and in a given material?
A. longitudinal wave
B. compression wave
C. shear wave
D. surface wave
Plate waves
Plate or Lamb waves are the most commonly used plate waves in
NDT. Lamb waves are complex vibrational waves that propagate parallel to
the test surface throughout the thickness of the material. Propagation of Lamb
waves depends on the density and the elastic material properties of a
component. They are also influenced a great deal by the test frequency and
material thickness. Lamb waves are generated at an incident angle in which
the parallel component of the velocity of the wave in the source is equal to the
velocity of the wave in the test material. Lamb waves will travel several
meters in steel and so are useful to scan plate, wire, and tubes.
Lamb wave influenced by: (Dispersive Wave)
Density
Elastic material properties
Frequencies
Material thickness
Plate or Lamb waves are similar to surface waves except they can only be
generated in materials a few wavelengths thick.
http://www.ndt.net/ndtaz/files/lamb_a.gif
Plate wave or Lamb wave are formed by the introduction of surface wave
into a thin material. They are a combination of (1) compression and surface or
(2) shear and surface waves causing the plate material to flex by totally
saturating the material. The two types of plate waves:
Plate or Lamb waves are generated at an incident angle in which the parallel
component of the velocity of the wave in the source is equal to the velocity of
the wave in the test material.
Q1: The wave mode that has multiple or varying wave velocities is:
A. Longitudinal waves
B. Shear waves
C. Transverse waves
D. Lamb waves
With Lamb waves, a number of modes of particle vibration are possible, but
the two most common are symmetrical and asymmetrical. The complex
motion of the particles is similar to the elliptical orbits for surface
waves. Symmetrical Lamb waves move in a symmetrical fashion about the
median plane of the plate. This is sometimes called the extensional mode
because the wave is stretching and compressingthe plate in the wave
motion direction. Wave motion in the symmetrical mode is most efficiently
produced when the exciting force is parallel to the plate. The asymmetrical
Lamb wave mode is often called the flexural modebecause a large portion
of the motion moves in a normal direction to the plate, and a little motion
occurs in the direction parallel to the plate. In this mode, the body of the plate
bends as the two surfaces move in the same direction.
The generation of waves using both piezoelectric transducers and
electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs) are discussed in later sections.
Keywords:
Symmetrical = extensional mode
Asymmetrical = flexural mode
Dispersive Wave:
Wave modes such as those found in Lamb wave have a velocity of
propagation dependent upon the operating frequency, sample thickness and
elastic moduli. They are dispersive (velocity change with frequency) in that
pulses transmitted in these mode tend to become stretched or dispersed.
Dispersion refers to the fact that in a real medium such as water, air, or glass,
a wave traveling through that medium will have a velocity that depends upon
its frequency. Dispersion occurs for any form of wave, acoustic,
electromagnetic, electronic, even quantum mechanical. Dispersion is
responsible for a prism being able to resolve light into colors and defines the
maximum frequency of broadband pulses one can send down an optical fiber
or through a copper wire. Dispersion affects wave and swell forecasts at
sea and influences the design of sound equipment. Dispersion is a physical
property of the medium and can combine with other properties to yield very
strange results. For example, in the propagation of light in an optical fiber, the
glass introduces dispersion and separates the wavelengths of light according
to frequency, however if the light is intense enough, it can interact with the
electrons in the material changing its refractive index. The combination of
dispersion and index change can cancel each other leading to a wave that
can propagate indefinitely maintaining a constant shape. Such a wave has
been termed a soliton.
http://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/WWW/faculty/plawsky/Comsol%20Modules/DispersiveWave/DispersiveWave.html
Thickness Limitation:
One can not generate shear / surface (or Lamb?) wave on a plate that is
thinner than the wavelength.
Wavelength, Frequency and Velocity
Among the properties of waves propagating in isotropic solid materials are
wavelength, frequency, and velocity. The wavelength is directly proportional
to the velocity of the wave and inversely proportional to the frequency of the
wave. This relationship is shown by the following equation.
The applet below shows a longitudinal and transverse wave. The direction of
wave propagation is from left to right and the movement of the lines indicate
the direction of particle oscillation. The equation relating ultrasonic
wavelength, frequency, and propagation velocity is included at the bottom of
the applet in a reorganized form. The values for the wavelength, frequency,
and wave velocity can be adjusted in the dialog boxes to see their effects on
the wave. Note that the frequency value must be kept between 0.1 to 1 MHz
(one million cycles per second) and the wave velocity must be between 0.1
and 0.7 cm/us.
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Physics/applet_2_4/applet_2_4.htm
J ava dont work? Uninstalled Reinstalled Then
http://jingyan.baidu.com/article/9f63fb91d0eab8c8400f0e08.html
J ava dont work?
J ava dont work?
J ava dont work?
J ava dont work?
As can be noted by the equation, a change in frequency will result in a
change in wavelength. Change the frequency in the applet and view the
resultant wavelength. At a frequency of .2 and a material velocity of 0.585
(longitudinal wave in steel) note the resulting wavelength. Adjust the material
velocity to 0.480 (longitudinal wave in cast iron) and note the resulting
wavelength. Increase the frequency to 0.8 and note the shortened wavelength
in each material.
In ultrasonic testing, the shorter wavelength resulting from an increase in
frequency will usually provide for the detection of smaller discontinuities. This
will be discussed more in following sections.
Keywords:
the shorter wavelength resulting from an increase in frequency will usually
provide for the detection of smaller discontinuities
In ultrasonic testing, the inspector must make a decision about the frequency
of the transducer that will be used. As we learned on the previous page,
changing the frequency when the sound velocity is fixed will result in a
change in the wavelength of the sound.
The wavelength of the ultrasound used has a significant effect on the
probability of detecting a discontinuity. A general rule of thumb is that a
discontinuity must be larger than one-half the wavelength to stand a
reasonable chance of being detected.
Sensitivity and resolution are two terms that are often used in ultrasonic
inspection to describe a technique's ability to locate flaws. Sensitivity is the
ability to locate small discontinuities. Sensitivity generally increases with
higher frequency (shorter wavelengths). Resolution is the ability of the system
to locate discontinuities that are close together within the material or located
near the part surface. Resolution also generally increases as the frequency
increases.
The wave frequency can also affect the capability of an inspection in adverse
ways. Therefore, selecting the optimal inspection frequency often involves
maintaining a balance between the favorable and unfavorable results of the
selection. Before selecting an inspection frequency, the material's grain
structure and thickness, and the discontinuity's type, size, and probable
location should be considered.
As frequency increases, sound tends to scatter from large or course grain
structure and from small imperfections within a material. Cast materials often
have coarse grains and other sound scatters that require lower frequencies to
be used for evaluations of these products.
(1) Wrought and (2) forged products with directional and refined grain
structure can usually be inspected with higher frequency transducers.
Keywords:
Coarse grains Lower frequency to avoid scattering and noise,
Fine grains Higher frequency to increase sensitivity & resolution.
Since more things in a material are likely to scatter a portion of the sound
energy at higher frequencies, the penetrating power (or the maximum depth
in a material that flaws can be located) is also reduced. Frequency also has
an effect on the shape of the ultrasonic beam. Beam spread, or the
divergence of the beam from the center axis of the transducer, and how it is
affected by frequency will be discussed later.
It should be mentioned, so as not to be misleading, that a number of other
variables will also affect the ability of ultrasound to locate defects. These
include the pulse length, type and voltage applied to the crystal, properties of
the crystal, backing material, transducer diameter, and the receiver circuitry of
the instrument. These are discussed in more detail in the material on signal-
to-noise ratio.
Since more things in a material are likely to scatter a portion of the sound
energy at higher frequencies, the penetrating power (or the maximum depth
in a material that flaws can be located) is also reduced.
Coarse grains Lower frequency to avoid scattering and noise,
Fine grains Higher frequency to increase sensitivity & resolution.
http://www.cnde.iastate.edu/ultrasonics/grain-noise
Higher the frequency, greater the scattering, thus less penetrating.
Detectability variable:
pulse length,
type and voltage applied to the crystal,
properties of the crystal,
backing material,
transducer diameter, and
the receiver circuitry of the instrument.
Investigating further on:
Detectability variable:
pulse length,
type and voltage applied to the crystal,
properties of the crystal,
backing material,
transducer diameter (focal length Cross sectional area), and
the receiver circuitry of the instrument.
Investigating on: Sonic pulse volume pulse length, transducer
Pulse Length:
A sound pulse traveling through a
metal occupies a physical
volume. This volume changes
with depth, being smallest in the
focal zone. The pulse volume, a
product of a pulse length L and a
cross-sectional area A, can be
fairly easily measured by
combining ultrasonic A-scans and
C-scans, as will be seen shortly.
For many cases of practical interest, the inspection simulation models predict
that S/N (signal to noise ratio) is inversely proportional to the square root of the
pulse volume at the depth of the defect. This is known as the pulse volume
rule-of-thumband has become a guiding principle for designing
inspections. Generally speaking, it applies when both the grain size and the
lateral size of the defect are smaller than the sound pulse diameter.
http://www.cnde.iastate.edu/ultrasonics/grain-noise
Determining cross sectional area using reflector- A Scan (6db drop)
Determining cross sectional area using reflector- C Scan
Sonic pulse volumeand S/N (defect resolution)
Pulse volume rule-of-thumb:
Competing grain noise (pulse volume)
In the previous pages, it was pointed out that sound waves propagate due to
the vibrations or oscillatory motions of particles within a material. An
ultrasonic wave may be visualized as an infinite number of oscillating masses
or particles connected by means of elastic springs. Each individual particle is
influenced by the motion of its nearest neighbor and both (1) inertial and (2)
elastic restoring forces act upon each particle.
A mass on a spring has a single resonant frequency determined by its spring
constant k and its mass m. The spring constant is the restoring force of a
spring per unit of length. Within the elastic limit of any material, there is a
linear relationship between the displacement of a particle and the force
attempting to restore the particle to its equilibrium position. This linear
dependency is described by Hooke's Law.
Spring model- A mass on a spring has a single resonant frequency
determined by its spring constant k and its mass m.
Spring model- A mass on a spring has a single resonant frequency
determined by its spring constant k and its mass m.
In terms of the spring model, Hooke's Law says that the restoring force due to
a spring is proportional to the length that the spring is stretched, and acts in
the opposite direction. Mathematically, Hooke's Lawis written as F =-kx,
where F is the force, k is the spring constant, and x is the amount of particle
displacement. Hooke's law is represented graphically it the bottom. Please
note that the spring is applying a force to the particle that is equal and
opposite to the force pulling down on the particle.
Elastic Model / Longitudinal Wave
Shear Wave
The Speed of Sound
Hooke's Law, when used along with Newton's Second Law, can explain a few
things about the speed of sound. The speed of sound within a material is a
function of the properties of the material and is independent of the amplitude
of the sound wave. Newton's Second Law says that the force applied to a
particle will be balanced by the particle's mass and the acceleration of the
particle. Mathematically, Newton's Second Law is written as F = ma. Hooke's
Law then says that this force will be balanced by a force in the opposite
direction that is dependent on the amount of displacement and the spring
constant (F = -kx). Therefore, since the applied force and the restoring force
are equal, ma = -kx can be written. The negative sign indicates that the force
is in the opposite direction.
F= ma = -kx
Since the mass m and the spring constant k are constants for any given
material, it can be seen that the acceleration a and the displacement x are the
only variables. It can also be seen that they are directly proportional. For
instance, if the displacement of the particle increases, so does its acceleration.
It turns out that the time that it takes a particle to move and return to its
equilibrium position is independent of the force applied. So, within a given
material, sound always travels at the same speed no matter how much force
is applied when other variables, such as temperature, are held constant.
a x
What properties of material affect its speed of sound?
Of course, sound does travel at different speeds in different materials. This is
because the (1) mass of the atomic particles and the (2) spring constants are
different for different materials. The mass of the particles is related to the
density of the material, and the spring constant is related to the elastic
constants of a material. The general relationship between the speed of sound
in a solid and its density and elastic constants is given by the following
equation:
Density
mass of the atomic particles
Elastic constant
spring constants
Where V is the speed of sound, C is the elastic constant, and p is the material
density. This equation may take a number of different forms depending on the
type of wave (longitudinal or shear) and which of the elastic constants that are
used. The typical elastic constants of a materials include:
Young's Modulus, E: a proportionality constant between uniaxial stress
and strain.
Poisson's Ratio, n: the ratio of radial strain to axial strain
Bulk modulus, K: a measure of the incompressibility of a body subjected to
hydrostatic pressure.
Shear Modulus, G: also called rigidity, a measure of a substance's
resistance to shear.
Lame's Constants, l and m: material constants that are derived from
Young's Modulus and Poisson's Ratio.
Q163 Acoustic velocity of materials are primary due to the material's:
a) density
b) elasticity
c) both a and b
d) acoustic impedance
When calculating the velocity of a longitudinal wave, Young's Modulus and
Poisson's Ratio are commonly used.
When calculating the velocity of a shear wave, the shear modulus is used. It
is often most convenient to make the calculations using
Lame's Constants, which are derived from Young's Modulus and Poisson's
Ratio.
E/N/G
It must also be mentioned that the subscript ij attached to C (C
ij
) in the above
equation is used to indicate the directionality of the elastic constants with
respect to the wave type and direction of wave travel. In isotropic materials,
the elastic constants are the same for all directions within the material.
However, most materials are anisotropic and the elastic constants differ with
each direction. For example, in a piece of rolled aluminum plate, the grains
are elongated in one direction and compressed in the others and the elastic
constants for the longitudinal direction are different than those for the
transverse or short transverse directions.
V
longitudinal
V
transverse
Examples of approximate compressional sound velocities in materials are:
Aluminum - 0.632 cm/microsecond
1020 steel - 0.589 cm/microsecond
Cast iron - 0.480 cm/microsecond.
Examples of approximate shear sound velocities in materials are:
Aluminum - 0.313 cm/microsecond
1020 steel - 0.324 cm/microsecond
Cast iron - 0.240 cm/microsecond.
When comparing compressional and shear velocities, it can be noted that
shear velocity is approximately one half that of compressional velocity. The
sound velocities for a variety of materials can be found in the ultrasonic
properties tables in the general resources section of this site.
Longitudinal Wave Velocity: V
L
The velocity of a longitudinal wave is described by the following equation:
V
L
= Longitudinal bulk wave velocity
E = Youngs modulus of elasticity
= Poisson ratio
P = Material density
Shear Wave Velocity: V
S
The velocity of a shear wave is described by the following equation:
V
s
= Shear wave velocity
E = Youngs modulus of elasticity
= Poisson ratio
P = Material density
G = Shear modulus
When sound travels through a medium, its intensity diminishes with distance.
In idealized materials, sound pressure (signal amplitude) is only reduced by
the (1) spreading of the wave. Natural materials, however, all produce an
effect which further weakens the sound. This further weakening results from
(2) scattering and (3) absorption. Scattering is the reflection of the sound in
directions other than its original direction of propagation. Absorption is the
conversion of the sound energy to other forms of energy. The combined
effect of scattering and absorption (spreading?) is called attenuation.
Ultrasonic attenuation is the decay rate of the wave as it propagates through
material.
Attenuation of sound within a material itself is often not of intrinsic interest.
However, natural properties and loading conditions can be related to
attenuation. Attenuation often serves as a measurement tool that leads to the
formation of theories to explain physical or chemical phenomenon that
decreases the ultrasonic intensity.
Absorption:
Sound attenuations are affected by; (1) Geometric beam spread, (2) Absorption,
(3) Scattering.
Absorption processes
1. Mechanical hysteresis
2. Internal friction
3. Others (?)
For relatively non-elastic material, these soft and pliable material include lead,
plastid, rubbers and non-rigid coupling materials; much of the energy is loss as
heat during sound propagation and absorption is the main reason that the
testing of these material are limit to relatively thin section/
Scattering:
Grain Size and Wave Frequency
Sound attenuations are affected by; (1) Geometric beam spread, (2)
Absorption, (3) Scattering.
The relative impact of scattering source of a material depends upon their
grain sizes in comparison with the Ultrasonic sound wave length. As the
scattering size approaches that of a wavelength, scattering by the grain is a
concern. The effects from such scattering could be compensated with the use
of increasing wavelength ultrasound at the cost of decreasing sensitivity and
resolution to detection of discontinuities.
Other effect are anisotropic columnar grain with different elastic behavior at
different grain direction. In this case the internal incident wave front becomes
distorted and often appear to change direction (propagate better in certain
preferred direction) in respond to material anisotropy.
Anisotropic Columnar Grains
with different elastic behavior at different grain direction.
Spreading/ Scattering / adsorption (reflection is a form of scattering)
Scattering
Scatterbrain
Adsorption
Spreading
The amplitude change of a decaying plane wave can be expressed as:
In this expression A
o
is the unattenuated amplitude of the propagating wave
at some location. The amplitude A is the reduced amplitude after the wave
has traveled a distance z from that initial location. The quantity is the
attenuation coefficient of the wave traveling in the z-direction. The
dimensions of are nepers/length, where a neper is a dimensionless
quantity. The term e is the exponential (or Napier's constant) which is equal
to approximately 2.71828.
The units of the attenuation value in Nepers per meter (Np/m) can be
converted to decibels/length by dividing by 0.1151. Decibels is a more
common unit when relating the amplitudes of two signals.
Attenuation is generally proportional to the square of sound frequency.
Quoted values of attenuation are often given for a single frequency, or an
attenuation value averaged over many frequencies may be given. Also, the
actual value of the attenuation coefficient for a given material is highly
dependent on the way in which the material was manufactured. Thus, quoted
values of attenuation only give a rough indication of the attenuation and
should not be automatically trusted. Generally, a reliable value of attenuation
can only be obtained by determining the attenuation experimentally for the
particular material being used.
Attenuation Frequency (f )
2
Attenuation can be determined by evaluating the multiple back wall reflections
seen in a typical A-scan display like the one shown in the image at the bottom.
The number of decibels between two adjacent signals is measured and this
value is divided by the time interval between them. This calculation produces
a attenuation coefficient in decibels per unit time Ut. This value can be
converted to nepers/length by the following equation.
Where v is the velocity of sound in meters per
second and Ut is in decibels per second.
Amplitude at distance Z
where:
Where v is the velocity of sound in meters per
second and Ut is in decibels per second.
Ut
A
o
A
Factors Affecting Attenuation:
1. Testing Factors
Testing frequency
Boundary conditions
Wave form geometry
2. Base Material Factors
Material type
Chemistry
Integral constituents (fiber, voids, water content, inclusion, anisotropy)
Forms (casting, wrought)
Heat treatment history
Mechanical processes(Hot or cold working; forging, rolling, extruding,
TMCP, directional working)
Frequency selection
There is no ideal frequency; therefore, frequency selection must be made with
consideration of several factors. Frequency determines the wavelength of the
sound energy traveling through the material. Low frequency has longer
wavelengths and will penetrate deeper than higher frequencies. To penetrate
a thick piece, low frequencies should be used. Another factor is the size of the
grain structure in the material. High frequencies with shorter wavelengths
tend to reflect off grain boundaries and become lost or result in ultrasonic
noise that can mask flaw signals. Low frequencies must be used with coarse
grain structures. However, test resolution decreases when frequency is
decreased. Small defects detectable at high frequencies may be missed at
lower frequencies. In addition, variations in instrument characteristics and
settings as well as material properties and coupling conditions play a major
role in system performance. It is critical that approved testing procedures be
followed.
Q94: In general, which of the following mode of vibration would have the
greatest penetrating power in a coarse grain material if the frequency of
the wave are the same?
a) Longitudinal wave
b) Shear wave
c) Transverse wave
d) All the above modes would have the same penetrating power
Q: The random distribution of crystallographic direction in alloys with large
crystalline structures is a factor in determining:
A. Acoustic noise levels
B. Selection of test frequency
C. Scattering of sound
D. All of the above
Acoustic impedance is a measured of resistance of sound propagation
through a part.
From the table air has lower acoustic impedance than steel and for a given
energy Aluminum would travel a longer distance than steel before the same
amount of energy is attenuated.
Transmission & Reflection Animation:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Partial_transmittance.gif
Sound travels through materials under the influence of sound pressure.
Because molecules or atoms of a solid are bound elastically to one another,
the excess pressure results in a wave propagating through the solid.
The acoustic impedance (Z) of a material is defined as the product of its
density (p) and acoustic velocity (V).
Z = pV
Acoustic impedance is important in:
1. the determination of acoustic transmission and reflection at the boundary
of two materials having different acoustic impedances.
2. the design of ultrasonic transducers.
3. assessing absorption of sound in a medium.
The following applet can be used to calculate the acoustic impedance for any
material, so long as its density (p) and acoustic velocity (V) are known. The
applet also shows how a change in the impedance affects the amount of
acoustic energy that is reflected and transmitted. The values of the reflected
and transmitted energy are the fractional amounts of the total energy incident
on the interface. Note that the fractional amount of transmitted sound energy
plus the fractional amount of reflected sound energy equals one. The
calculation used to arrive at these values will be discussed on the next page.
Reflection/Transmission Energy as a function of Z
Reflection/Transmission Energy as a function of Z
Ultrasonic waves are reflected at boundaries where there is a difference in
acoustic impedances (Z) of the materials on each side of the boundary. (See
preceding page for more information on acoustic impedance.) This difference
in Z is commonly referred to as the impedance mismatch. The greater the
impedance mismatch, the greater the percentage of energy that will be
reflected at the interface or boundary between one medium and another.
The fraction of the incident wave intensity that is reflected can be derived
because particle velocity and local particle pressures must be continuous
across the boundary.
When the acoustic impedances of the materials on both sides of the boundary
are known, the fraction of the incident wave intensity that is reflected can be
calculated with the equation below. The value produced is known as the
reflection coefficient. Multiplying the reflection coefficient by 100 yields the
amount of energy reflected as a percentage of the original energy.
Since the amount of reflected energy plus the transmitted energy must equal
the total amount of incident energy, the transmission coefficient is calculated
by simply subtracting the reflection coefficient from one.
Formulations for acoustic reflection and transmission coefficients (pressure)
are shown in the interactive applet below. Different materials may be
selected or the material velocity and density may be altered to change the
acoustic impedance of one or both materials. The red arrow represents
reflected sound and the blue arrow represents transmitted sound.
Reflection Coefficient:
Note that the reflection and transmission coefficients are often expressed in
decibels (dB) to allow for large changes in signal strength to be more easily
compared. To convert the intensity or power of the wave to dB units, take the
log of the reflection or transmission coefficient and multiply this value times
10. However, 20 is the multiplier used in the applet since the power of sound
is not measured directly in ultrasonic testing. The transducers produce a
voltage that is approximately proportionally to the sound pressure. The power
carried by a traveling wave is proportional to the square of the pressure
amplitude. Therefore, to estimate the signal amplitude change, the log of the
reflection or transmission coefficient is multiplied by 20.
Using the above applet, note that the energy reflected at a water-stainless
steel interface is 0.88 or 88%. The amount of energy transmitted into the
second material is 0.12 or 12%. The amount of reflection and transmission
energy in dB terms are -1.1 dB and -18.2 dB respectively. The negative sign
indicates that individually, the amount of reflected and transmitted energy is
smaller than the incident energy.
If reflection and transmission at interfaces is
followed through the component, only a small
percentage of the original energy makes it back
to the transducer, even when loss by attenuation
is ignored. For example, consider an immersion
inspection of a steel block. The sound energy
leaves the transducer, travels through the water,
encounters the front surface of the steel,
encounters the back surface of the steel and
reflects back through the front surface on its way
back to the transducer. At the water steel
interface (front surface), 12% of the energy is
transmitted. At the back surface, 88% of the
12% that made it through the front surface is
reflected. This is 10.6% of the intensity of the
initial incident wave. As the wave exits the part
back through the front surface, only 12% of 10.6
or 1.3% of the original energy is transmitted back
to the transducer.
Incident Wave other than Normal?
Sample Question:
The figure above shown the partition of incident and reflected wave at water-
Aluminum interface at an incident angle of 20, the reflected and transmitted
wave are:
A. 60% and 40%
B. 40% and 60%
C. 1/3 and 2/3
D. 80% and 20%
Note: if normal incident the reflected 70% Transmitted 30%
Other Reading (Olympus Technical Note)
The boundary between two materials of different acoustic impedances is
called an acoustic interface. When sound strikes an acoustic interface at
normal incidence, some amount of sound energy is reflected and some
amount is transmitted across the boundary. The dB loss of energy on
transmitting a signal from medium 1 into medium 2 is given by:
dB loss of transmission = 10 log
10
[ 4Z
1
Z
2
/ (Z
1
+Z
2
)
2
]
The dB loss of energy of the echo signal in medium 1 reflecting from an
interface boundary with medium 2 is given by:
dB loss of Reflection = 10 log
10
[ (Z
1
-Z
2
)
2
/ (Z
1
+Z
2
)
2
]
For example: The dB loss on transmitting from water (Z = 1.48) into 1020
steel (Z = 45.41) is -9.13 dB; this also is the loss transmitting from 1020 steel
into water. The dB loss of the backwall echo in 1020 steel in water is -0.57
dB; this also is the dB loss of the echo off 1020 steel in water. The waveform
of the echo is inverted when Z2<Z1.
Finally, ultrasound attenuates as it progresses through a medium. Assuming
no major reflections, there are three causes of attenuation: diffraction,
scattering and absorption. The amount of attenuation through a material can
play an important role in the selection of a transducer for an application.
http://olympus-ims.com/data/File/panametrics/UT-technotes.en.pdf
6. For an ultrasonic beam with normal incidence the transmission coefficient
is given by:
http://webpages.ursinus.edu/lriley/courses/p212/lectures/node19.html#eq:acousticR
http://sepwww.stanford.edu/sep/prof/waves/fgdp8/paper_html/node2.html
Refraction and Snell's Law
When an ultrasonic wave passes through an
interface between two materials at an oblique
angle, and the materials have different indices
of refraction, both reflected and refracted waves
are produced. This also occurs with light, which
is why objects seen across an interface appear
to be shifted relative to where they really are.
For example, if you look straight down at an
object at the bottom of a glass of water, it looks
closer than it really is. A good way to visualize
how light and sound refract is to shine a
flashlight into a bowl of slightly cloudy water
noting the refraction angle with respect to the
incident angle.
V
s1
Only If this medium support shear wave i.e. Solid
V
L1
V
L1
V
L2 V
S2
Refraction takes place at an interface due to the different velocities of the
acoustic waves within the two materials. The velocity of sound in each
material is determined by the material properties (elastic modulus and density)
for that material. In the animation below, a series of plane waves are shown
traveling in one material and entering a second material that has a higher
acoustic velocity. Therefore, when the wave encounters the interface between
these two materials, the portion of the wave in the second material is moving
faster than the portion of the wave in the first material. It can be seen that this
causes the wave to bend.
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Graphics/Flash/waveRefraction.swf
http://www.ni.com/white-paper/3368/en/
Snell's Law describes the relationship between the angles and the velocities
of the waves. Snell's law equates the ratio of material velocities V1 and V2 to
the ratio of the sine's of incident (
1
) and refracted (
2
) angles, as shown in
the following equation.
Where:
V
L1
is the longitudinal wave velocity
in material 1.
V
L2
is the longitudinal wave velocity
in material 2.
Note that in the diagram, there is a reflected longitudinal wave (V
L1'
) shown.
This wave is reflected at the same angle as the incident wave because the
two waves are traveling in the same material, and hence have the same
velocities. This reflected wave is unimportant in our explanation of Snell's Law,
but it should be remembered that some of the wave energy is reflected at the
interface. In the applet below, only the incident and refracted longitudinal
waves are shown. The angle of either wave can be adjusted by clicking and
dragging the mouse in the region of the arrows. Values for the angles or
acoustic velocities can also be entered in the dialog boxes so the that applet
can be used as a Snell's Law calculator.
Snell Law
Snell Law
When a longitudinal wave moves from a slower to a faster material, there is
an incident angle that makes the angle of refraction for the wave 90
o
. This is
know as the first critical angle. The first critical angle can be found from
Snell's law by putting in an angle of 90 for the angle of the refracted ray. At
the critical angle of incidence, much of the acoustic energy is in the form of an
inhomogeneous compression wave, which travels along the interface and
decays exponentially with depth from the interface. This wave is sometimes
referred to as a "creep wave." Because of their inhomogeneous nature and
the fact that they decay rapidly, creep waves are not used as extensively as
Rayleigh surface waves in NDT. However, creep waves are sometimes more
useful than Rayleigh waves because they suffer less from surface
irregularities and coarse material microstructure due to their longer
wavelengths.
Snell Law
Refraction and mode conversion occur
because of the change in L-wave
velocity as it passes the boundary from
one medium to another. The higher the
difference in the velocity of sound
between two materials, the larger the
resulting angle of refraction. L-waves
and S-waves have different angles of
refraction because they have dissimilar
velocities within the same material.
s the angle of the ultrasonic transducer
continues to increase, L-waves move
closer to the surface of the UUT.
The angle at which the L-wave is parallel with the surface of the UUT is
referred to as the first critical angle. This angle is useful for two reasons. Only
one wave mode is echoed back to the transducer, making it easy to interpret
the data. Also, this angle gives the test system the ability to look at surfaces
that are not parallel to the front surface, such as welds.
Example: Snells Law
L-wave and S-wave refraction angles are calculated using Snells law. You
also can use this law to determine the first critical angle for any combination
of materials.
Where:
2
= angle of the refracted beam in the UUT
1
= incident angle from normal of beam in the wedge or liquid
V
1
= velocity of incident beam in the liquid or wedge
V
2
= velocity of refracted beam in the UUT
For example, calculate the first critical angle for a transducer on a plastic
wedge that is examining aluminum.
V
1
= 0.267 cm/s (for L-waves in plastic)
V
2
= 0.625 cm/s (for L-waves in aluminum)
2
= 90 degree (angle of L-wave for first critical angle)
1
= unknown
The plastic wedge must have a minimum angle of 25.29 to transmit only S-
waves into the UUT. When the S-wave angle of refraction is greater than 90,
all ultrasonic energy is reflected by the UUT.
Snell Law: First critical angle
Snell Law: 1
st
/ 2
nd
Critical Angles
Q155 Which of the following can occur when an ultrasound beam reaches the
interface of 2 dissimilar materials?
a) Reflection
b) refraction
c) mode conversion
d) all of the above
Q. Both longitudinal and shear waves may be simultaneously generated in a
second medium when the angle of incidence is:
a) between the normal and the 1st critical angle
b) between the 1st and 2nd critical angle
c) past the second critical angle
d) only at the second critical angle
Q: When angle beam contact testing a test piece, increasing the incident
angle until the second critical angle is reached results in:
A. Total reflection of a surface wave
B. 45 degree refraction of the shear wave
C. Production of a surface wave
D. None of the above
Typical angle beam assemblies make use of mode conversion and Snell's
Law to generate a shear wave at a selected angle (most commonly 30, 45,
60, or 70) in the test piece. As the angle of an incident longitudinal wave
with respect to a surface increases, an increasing portion of the sound energy
is converted to a shear wave in the second material, and if the angle is high
enough, all of the energy in the second material will be in the form of shear
waves. There are two advantages to designing common angle beams to take
advantage of this mode conversion phenomenon.
First, energy transfer is more efficient at the incident angles that generate
shear waves in steel and similar materials.
Second, minimum flaw size resolution is improved through the use of
shear waves, since at a given frequency, the wavelength of a shear wave
is approximately 60% the wavelength of a comparable longitudinal wave.
Snell Law:
http://techcorr.com/services/Inspection-and-Testing/Ultrasonic-Shear-Wave.cfm
Depth & Skip
More on Snell Law
Like light, when an incident ultrasonic wave encounters an interface to an
adjacent material of a different velocity, at an angle other than normal to the
surface, then both reflected and refracted waves are produced.
Understanding refraction and how ultrasonic energy is refracted is especially
important when using angle probes or the immersion technique. It is also the
foundation formula behind the calculations used to determine a materials first
and second critical angles.
First Critical Angle
Before the angle of incidence reaches the first critical angle, both longitudinal
and shear waves exist in the part being inspected. The first critical angle is
said to have been reached when the longitudinal wave no longer exists within
the part, that is, when the longitudinal wave is refracted to greater or equal
than 90, leaving only a shear wave remaining in the part.
Second Critical Angle
The second critical angle occurs when the angle of incidence is at such an
angle that the remaining shear wave within the part is refracted out of the part.
At this angle, when the refracted shear wave is at 90 a surface wave is
created on the part surface
Beam angles should always be plotted using the appropriate industry
standard, however, knowing the effect of velocity and angle on refraction will
always benefit an NDT technician when working with angle inspection or the
immersion technique.
The above calculator uses the following equation:
ultrasonic snells law formula
Where:
A1 = The angle of incidence.
V1 = The incident material velocity
A2 = The angle of refraction
V2 = The refracted material velocity
http://www.ndtcalc.com/calculators.html
When sound travels in a solid material, one form of wave energy can be
transformed into another form. For example, when a longitudinal waves hits
an interface at an angle, some of the energy can cause particle movement in
the transverse direction to start a shear (transverse) wave. Mode conversion
occurs when a wave encounters an interface between materials of different
acoustic impedances and the incident angle is not normal to the interface.
From the ray tracing movie below, it can be seen that since mode conversion
occurs every time a wave encounters an interface at an angle, ultrasonic
signals can become confusing at times.
Mode Conversion
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Graphics/Flash/ModeConversion/ModeConv.swf
In the previous section, it was pointed out
that when sound waves pass through an
interface between materials having different
acoustic velocities, refraction takes place at
the interface. The larger the difference in
acoustic velocities between the two
materials, the more the sound is refracted.
Notice that the shear wave is not refracted
as much as the longitudinal wave. This
occurs because shear waves travel slower
than longitudinal waves. Therefore, the
velocity difference between the incident
longitudinal wave and the shear wave is not
as great as it is between the incident and
refracted longitudinal waves.
Also note that when a longitudinal wave is reflected inside the material, the
reflected shear wave is reflected at a smaller angle than the reflected
longitudinal wave. This is also due to the fact that the shear velocity is less
than the longitudinal velocity within a given material.
Snell's Law holds true for shear waves as well as longitudinal waves and can
be written as follows
=
Where:
VL1 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1.
VL2 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 2.
VS1 is the shear wave velocity in material 1.
VS2 is the shear wave velocity in material 2.
Snell's Law
In the applet below, the shear (transverse) wave ray path has been added.
The ray paths of the waves can be adjusted by clicking and dragging in the
vicinity of the arrows. Values for the angles or the wave velocities can also be
entered into the dialog boxes. It can be seen from the applet that when a
wave moves from a slower to a faster material, there is an incident angle
which makes the angle of refraction for the longitudinal wave 90 degrees. As
mentioned on the previous page, this is known as the first critical angle and
all of the energy from the refracted longitudinal wave is now converted to a
surface following longitudinal wave. This surface following wave is sometime
referred to as a creep wave and it is not very useful in NDT because it
dampens out very rapidly.
Reflections
Creep wave
V
S1
V
S2
Beyond the first critical angle, only the shear wave propagates into the
material. For this reason, most angle beam transducers use a shear wave so
that the signal is not complicated by having two waves present. In many
cases there is also an incident angle that makes the angle of refraction for the
shear wave 90 degrees. This is known as the second critical angle and at this
point, all of the wave energy is reflected or refracted into a surface following
shear wave or shear creep wave. Slightly beyond the second critical angle,
surface waves will be generated.
Keywords:
Longitudinal creep wave
Shear creep wave
Snell Law- 1
st
& 2
nd
Critical Angles
Note that the applet defaults to compressional velocity in the second material.
The refracted compressional wave angle will be generated for given
materials and angles. To find the angle of incidence required to generate a
shear wave at a given angle complete the following:
1. Set V1 to the longitudinal wave velocity of material 1. This material could
be the transducer wedge or the immersion liquid.
2. Set V2 to the shear wave velocity (approximately one-half its
compressional velocity) of the material to be inspected.
3. Set Q2 to the desired shear wave angle.
4. Read Q1, the correct angle of incidence.
Transverse wave can be introduced into the test material by various methods:
1. Inclining the incident L-wave at an angle beyond the first critical angle, yet
short of second critical angle using a wedge.
2. In immersion method, changing the angle of the normal search unit
manipulator,
3. Off-setting the normal transducer from the center-line for round bar or pipe.
for 45 refracted transverse wave, the rule
of thumb is the offset d= 1/6 of rod diameter
Offset of Normal probe above circular object
1
R
Calculate the offset for following conditions:
Aluminum rod being examined is 6" diameter, what is the off set needed for (a)
45 refracted shear wave (b) Logitudinal wave to be generated?
(L-wave velocity for AL=6.3x10
5
cm/s, T-wave velocity for AL=3.1x10
5
cm/s,
Wave velocity in water=1.5X10
5
cm/s)
Question (a)
Refraction and mode conversion at non-perpendicular boundaries
http://static4.olympus-ims.com/data/Flash/HTML5/incident_angle/IncidentAngle.html?rev=5E62
Q1. From the above figures, if the incident angle is 50 Degree, what are the
sound wave in the steel?
Answer: 65 Degree Shear wave in steel.
Q2. If 50 Degree longitudinal wave in steel is used what is the possible
problem?
Answer: If 50 degree Longitudinal wave is generated in steel, shear wave at
28 degree is also generated and this may cause fault indications.
Calculation:
Incident angle= 7
Refracted longitudinal wave = 29.11
Refracted shear wave = 15.49
Q72. In a water immersion test, ultrasonic energy is transmitted into steel at
an incident angle of 14. What is the angle of refracted shear wave within
the material?
V
s
= 3.2 x 10
5
cm/s
V
w
= 1.5 x 10
5
cm/s
a) 45
b) 23
c) 31
d) 13
Q1. If you were requested to design a plastid shoe to generate Rayleigh wave
in aluminum, what would be the incident angle of the ultrasonic energy?
VA = 3.1 x 105 cm/s
Vp = 2.6 x 105 cm/s
a) 37
b) 57
c) 75
d) 48
In a previous page, the effect that frequency and wavelength have on flaw
detectability was discussed. However, the detection of a defect involves many
factors other than the relationship of wavelength and flaw size. For example,
the amount of sound that reflects from a defect is also dependent on the
acoustic impedance mismatch between the flaw and the surrounding material.
A void is generally a better reflector than a metallic inclusion because the
impedance mismatch is greater between air and metal than between two
metals.
Often, the surrounding material has competing reflections. Microstructure
grains in metals and the aggregate of concrete are a couple of examples. A
good measure of detectability of a flaw is its signal-to-noise ratio (S/N). The
signal-to-noise ratio is a measure of how the signal from the defect compares
to other background reflections (categorized as "noise"). A signal-to-noise
ratio of 3 to 1 is often required as a minimum.
The absolute noise level and the absolute strength of an echo from a "small"
defect depends on a number of factors, which include:
1. The probe size and focal properties.
2. The probe frequency, bandwidth and efficiency.
3. The inspection path and distance (water and/or solid).
4. The interface (surface curvature and roughness).
5. The flaw location with respect to the incident beam.
6. The inherent noisiness of the metal microstructure.
7. The inherent reflectivity of the flaw, which is dependent on its acoustic
impedance, size, shape, and orientation.
8. Cracks and volumetric defects can reflect ultrasonic waves quite differently.
Many cracks are "invisible" from one direction and strong reflectors from
another.
9. Multifaceted flaws will tend to scatter sound away from the transducer.
The following formula relates some of the variables affecting the signal-to-
noise ratio (S/N) of a defect:
Flaw geometry: Figure of merit
FOM and amplitudes responds
Sound Volume: Area x pulse length
Material properties
Rather than go into the details of this formulation, a few fundamental
relationships can be pointed out. The signal-to-noise ratio (S/N), and
therefore, the detectability of a defect:
1. Increases with increasing flaw size (scattering amplitude). The detectability
of a defect is directly proportional to its size.
2. Increases with a more focused beam. In other words, flaw detectability is
inversely proportional to the transducer beam width.
3. Increases with decreasing pulse width (delta-t). In other words, flaw
detectability is inversely proportional to the duration of the pulse (t)
produced by an ultrasonic transducer. The shorter the pulse (often higher
frequency), the better the detection of the defect. Shorter pulses
correspond to broader bandwidth frequency response. See the figure
below showing the waveform of a transducer and its corresponding
frequency spectrum.
Acoustic Volume: w
x
w
y
t
Determining cross sectional area using reflector- A Scan (6db drop)
Determining cross sectional area using reflector- C Scan
Sonic pulse volume and S/N (defect resolution)
4. Decreases in materials with high density and/or a high ultrasonic velocity.
The signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is inversely proportional to material density
and acoustic velocity.
5. Generally increases with frequency. However, in some materials, such as
titanium alloys, both the "A
flaw
" and the "Figure of Merit (FOM)" terms in the
equation change at about the same rate with changing frequency. So, in
some cases, the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) can be somewhat independent
of frequency.
Pulse Length
Pulse Length Affect Resolution
2.12: Wave Interaction or
Interference
Before we move into the next section, the
subject of wave interaction must be
covered since it is important when trying
to understand the performance of an
ultrasonic transducer. On the previous
pages, wave propagation was discussed
as if a single sinusoidal wave was
propagating through the material.
However, the sound that emanates from
an ultrasonic transducer does not
originate from a single point, but instead
originates from many points along the
surface of the piezoelectric element. This
results in a sound field with many waves
interacting or interfering with each other.
http://ichun-chen.com/ultrasonic-transducer
When waves interact, they superimpose on each other, and the amplitude of
the sound pressure or particle displacement at any point of interaction is the
sum of the amplitudes of the two individual waves. First, let's consider two
identical waves that originate from the same point. When they are in phase
(so that the peaks and valleys of one are exactly aligned with those of the
other), they combine to double the displacement of either wave acting alone.
When they are completely out of phase (so that the peaks of one wave are
exactly aligned with the valleys of the other wave), they combine to cancel
each other out. When the two waves are not completely in phase or out of
phase, the resulting wave is the sum of the wave amplitudes for all points
along the wave.
UT Transducer
UT Transducer
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/infrastructure/structures/04042/index.cfm#toc
UT Transducer- Surface creep wave transducer
UT Transducer
UT Transducer
Wave Interaction
Complete in-phase Complete out of-phase not in-phase
When the origins of the two interacting waves are not the same, it is a little
harder to picture the wave interaction, but the principles are the same. Up
until now, we have primarily looked at waves in the form of a 2Dplot of wave
amplitude versus wave position. However, anyone that has dropped
something in a pool of water can picture the waves radiating out from the
source with a circular wave front. If two objects are dropped a short distance
apart into the pool of water, their waves will radiate out from their sources and
interact with each other. At every point where the waves interact, the
amplitude of the particle displacement is the combined sum of the amplitudes
of the particle displacement of the individual waves.
With an ultrasonic transducer, the waves propagate out from the transducer
face with a circular wave front. If it were possible to get the waves to
propagate out from a single point on the transducer face, the sound field
would appear as shown in the upper image to the right. Consider the light
areas to be areas of rarefaction and the dark areas to be areas of
compression.
With an ultrasonic transducer, the waves propagate out from the transducer
face with a circular wave front. If it were possible to get the waves to
propagate out from a single point on the transducer face, the sound field
would appear as shown in the upper image to the right. Consider the light
areas to be areas of rarefaction and the dark areas to be areas of
compression.
However, as stated previously, sound waves originate from multiple points
along the face of the transducer. The lower image to the right shows what the
sound field would look like if the waves originated from just two points. It can
be seen that where the waves interact, there are areas of constructive and
destructive interference. The points of constructive interference are often
referred to as nodes.
The points of constructive interference
are often referred to as nodes
Variations in sound intensity.
Distance
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
29. It is possible for a discontinuity smaller than the transducer to produce
indications of fluctuating amplitude as the search unit is moved laterally if
testing is being performed in the:
(a) Fraunhofer zone
(b) Near field
(c) Snell field
(d) Shadow zone
5. Acoustic pressure along the beam axis moving away from the probe has
various maxima and minima due to interference. At the end of the near field
pressure is:
a) a maximum
b) a minimum
c) the average of all maxima and minima
4. For a plane wave, sound pressure is reduced by attenuation in a _______
fashion.
a) linear
b) exponential
c) random
Of course, there are more than two points of origin along the face of a
transducer. The image below shows five points of sound origination. It can be
seen that near the face of the transducer, there are extensive fluctuations or
nodes and the sound field is very uneven. In ultrasonic testing, this in known
as the near field (near zone) or Fresnel zone. The sound field is more
uniform away from the transducer in the far field, or Fraunhofer zone, where
the beam spreads out in a pattern originating from the center of the
transducer. It should be noted that even in the far field, it is not a uniform
wave front. However, at some distance from the face of the transducer and
central to the face of the transducer, a uniform and intense wave field
develops.
The sound wave exit from a transducer can be separated into 2 zones or
areas; The Near Field (Fresnel) and the Far Field (Fraunhofer).
Fresnel Field, the Near Field are region directly adjacent to the transducer
and characterized as a collection of symmetrical high and low pressure
regions cause by interference wave fronts emitting from the continuous or
near continuous sound sources.
http://blog.3bscientific.com/science_education_insight/2013/04/3b-scientific-makes-waves-with-new-physics-education-kit.html
The Near Field (Fresnel) and the Far Field (Fraunhofer).
The Near Field (Fresnel) Wave Interference (Maxima & Minima)
The sound field of a transducer is divided into two zones; the near field and
the far field. The near field is the region directly in front of the transducer
where the echo amplitude goes through a series of maxima and minima and
ends at the last maximum, at distance N from the transducer.
Near Field Effect: Because of the variations within the near field it can be
difficult to accurately evaluate flaws using amplitude based techniques.
Near Field Y
o
+
Far Field
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Distance from Transducer face

Fresnel / Fraunhofer Zone
Near field (near zone)
or Fresnel zone
far field (far zone)
or Fraunhofer zone
Z
f
Near/ Far Fields
http://miac.unibas.ch/PMI/05-UltrasoundImaging.html
Near/ Far Fields
where is the radius of the
transducer and the wavelength.
where D is the diameter of the transducer
and the wavelength.
K= is the spread factor
K=1.22 for null edges
K=1.08 for 20dB down point (10% of peak)
Source for K, ASNT Study Guide UT by Matthew J Golis
The curvature and the area over which the sound is being generated, the
speed that the sound waves travel within a material and the frequency of the
sound all affect the sound field. Use the J ava applet below to experiment with
these variables and see how the sound field is affected.
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Physics/appletUltrasoundPropagation/Applet.html
Fresnel & Fraunhofer Zone
10dB, K-0.88
6dB, K=0.7? Or 0.56?
Q: Where does beam divergence occur?
A. Near field
B. Far field
C. At the crystal
4. A transducer has a near field in water of 35 mm. When used in contact on
steel the near zone will be about:
a) 47 mm
b) 35 mm
c) 18 mm
d) 9 mm
8. A rectangular probe, 4 mm X 8 mm, will have its maximum half angle of
divergence:
a) in the 4 mm direction
b) in the 8 mm direction
c) in no particular orientation
d) constant in all directions
Q160 Beam divergence is a function of the dimensions of the crystal and the
wavelength of the beam transmitted through a medium, and it:
a) increase if the frequency or the crystal diameter is decrease
b) Decrease if the frequency or the crystal diameter is decrease
c) increase if the frequency is increase and the diameter is decrease
d) decrease if the frequency is increase and the crustal diameter is decrease
Dead Zone - In ultrasonic testing, the interval following the initial pulse where
the transducer ring time of the crystal that prevents detection or interpretation
of reflected energy (echoes). In contact ultrasonic testing, the area just below
the surface of a test object that can not be inspected because of the
transducer is still ringing down and not yet ready to receive signals. The dead
is minimized by the damping medium behind the crystal. The dead zone
increase when the probe frequency decrease and it only found in single
crystal contact techniques.
Dead Zone - In ultrasonic testing, the interval following the initial pulse where
the transducer ring down prevents detection or interpretation of reflected
energy (echoes). In contact ultrasonic testing, the area just below the the
surface of a test object that can not be inspected because of the transducer is
still ringing down and not yet ready to receive signals
Dead Zone - The interval following the surface of a test object to the nearest
inspectable depth. Any interval following a reflected signal where no direct
echoes from discontinuities cannot be detected, due to characteristics of the
equipment.
dead zone after echo and dead zone after initial pulse, both are common
phenomena. Actually the dead zone cannot be determined as a single figure
without additional parameters, hence the echo can be recognized, however,
signal quality is important. Useful parameters are linearity or signal in a nice
ratio that can describe the echo amplitude quality within a dead zone. For this
reason standards such as GE specifications are needed to check equipment
capability. The appearance of inference effects, within the dead zone, has to
be considered as well.
Definition by: http://www.ndt.net/ndtaz/content.php?id=103
Dead Zone Illustration
http://www.ndt.net/ndtaz/content.php?id=103
Dead Zone
http://www.ni.com/white-paper/5369/en/
Q: On an A-scan display, the dead zonerefers to:
A. The distance contained within the near field
B. The area outside the beam spread
C. The distance covered by the front surface pulse with and recovery
time
D. The area between the near field and the far field
Large Reflector, a reflector larger than the extreme edge of beam / 3D away
from the Near Zone- Inverse Rule
Large Reflector Inverse Rule
Small Reflector, a reflector smaller than the extreme edge of beam / 3D away
from the Near Zone Inverse Square Rule
Small Reflector Inverse Square Rule
2.14: Resonance
Another form wave interference occurred when the normal incidence and
reflected plane wave interact within a narrow parallel interface. When the
phase of the reflected wave match that of incoming incident wave, the
amplitude of the superimposed wave doubling, creating a standing wave.
Resonance occurred when the thickness of the material is equal to half the
wave length or multiple of it. It also occur when longitudinal wave travel thru
a thin sheet of materials during immersion testing.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/waves/string.html#c3
Resonance
Q. The formula used to determine the fundamental resonance frequency is:
a) F= V/T
b) F= V/2T
c) F= T/V
d) F= VT
Transducers Piezoelectric Thickness:
The resonant phenomenon occurred when piezoelectric are electrically
excited at their characteristic (fundamental resonance) frequency.
http://bme240.eng.uci.edu/students/09s/patelnj/Ultrasound_for_Nerves/Ultrasound_Background.html
Resonance UT Testing- The diagram below shown how resonance is used
to measured thickness and detect defect. However pulse-echo methods have
been refined to perform most of function of flaw detections and resonant
instruments are rarely used.
dB is a measures of ratio of 2 values in a logarithmic scale given by following
equation:
Unlike the SPL (standard pressure level) used in noise measurement, in UT testing,
we do not know the exactly ultrasonic sound level energy generated by the probe
(neither is it necessary). The used of the ratio of 2 values given by the above equation
is used .
Ultrasonic Formula - Signal Amplitude Gain/Loss Expressed in dB
The dB is a logarithmic unit that describes a ratio of two measurements. The
equation used to describe the difference in intensity between two ultrasonic or
other sound measurements is:
where: I is the difference in sound intensity expressed in decibels (dB), P1
and P2 are two different sound pressure amplitude measurements, and the
log is to base 10.
The Decibel
The equation used to describe the difference in intensity between two
ultrasonic or other sound measurements is:
where: I is the difference in sound intensity expressed in decibels (dB), P1
and P2 are two different sound pressure measurements, and the log is to
base 10.
What exactly is a decibel?
The decibel (dB) is one tenth of a Bel, which is a unit of measure that was
developed by engineers at Bell Telephone Laboratories and named for
Alexander Graham Bell. The dB is a logarithmic unit that describes a ratio of
two measurements. The basic equation that describes the difference in
decibels between two measurements is:
where: delta X is the difference in some quantity expressed in decibels, X1
and X2 are two different measured values of X, and the log is to base 10.
(Note the factor of two difference between this basic equation for the dB and
the one used when making sound measurements. This difference will be
explained in the next section.)
Why is the dB unit used?
Use of dB units allows ratios of various sizes to be described using easy to
work with numbers. For example, consider the information in the table.
From this table it can be seen that ratios from one up to ten billion can be
represented with a single or double digit number. Ease to work with numbers
was particularly important in the days before the advent of the calculator or
computer. The focus of this discussion is on using the dB in measuring sound
levels, but it is also widely used when measuring power, pressure, voltage
and a number of other things.
Use of the dB in Sound Measurements
Sound intensity is defined as the sound power per unit area perpendicular to
the wave. Units are typically in watts/m2 or watts/cm2. For sound intensity,
the dB equation becomes:
However, the power or intensity of sound is generally not measured directly.
Since sound consists of pressure waves, one of the easiest ways to quantify
sound is to measure variations in pressure (i.e. the amplitude of the pressure
wave). When making ultrasound measurements, a transducer is used, which
is basically a small microphone. Transducers like most other microphones
produced a voltage that is approximately proportionally to the sound pressure
(P). The power carried by a traveling wave is proportional to the square of the
amplitude. Therefore, the equation used to quantify a difference in sound
intensity based on a measured difference in sound pressure becomes:
However, the power or intensity of sound is generally not measured directly.
Since sound consists of pressure waves, one of the easiest ways to quantify
sound is to measure variations in pressure (i.e. the amplitude of the pressure
wave). When making ultrasound measurements, a transducer is used, which
is basically a small microphone. Transducers like most other microphones
produced a voltage that is approximately proportionally to the sound pressure
(P). The power carried by a traveling wave is proportional to the square of the
amplitude.
I P
2
, I V
2
where I=intensity, P=amplitude, V=voltage
Therefore, the equation used to quantify a difference in sound intensity based
on a measured difference in sound pressure becomes:
(The factor of 2 is added to the equation because the logarithm of the square of a
quantity is equal to 2 times the logarithm of the quantity.)
Since transducers and microphones produce a voltage that is proportional to
the sound pressure, the equation could also be written as:
where: I is the change in sound intensity incident on the transducer and
V1 and V2 are two different transducer output voltages.
Revising the table to reflect the relationship between the ratio of the measured
sound pressure and the change in intensity expressed in dB produces
From the table it can be seen that 6 dB equates to
a doubling of the sound pressure. Alternately,
reducing the sound pressure by 2, results in a 6
dB change in intensity.
Sound Levels- Relative
Sound Levels- Relative dB
Practice:
Absolute" Sound Levels
Sound pressure level (SPL) or sound level is a logarithmic measure of the
effective sound pressure of a sound relative to a reference value. It is
measured in decibels (dB) above a standard reference level. The standard
reference sound pressure in air or other gases is 20 Pa, which is usually
considered the threshold of human hearing (at 1 kHz).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DB_SPL#Sound_pressure_level
Absolute" Sound Levels
Whenever the decibel unit is used, it always represents the ratio of two values.
Therefore, in order to relate different sound intensities it is necessary to
choose a standard reference level. The reference sound pressure
(corresponding to a sound pressure level of 0 dB) commonly used is that at
the threshold of human hearing, which is conventionally taken to be 210
5
Newton per square meter, or 20 micropascals (20Pa). To avoid confusion
with other decibel measures, the term dB(SPL) is used.
dB meter
97.3dB against standards sound pressure level
20log(P/20X10
-6
)=97.3
Absolute level =10
97.3/20
x 20 X 10
-6
=1.46564 N/M
2
Actual Sound pressure
Standard reference pressure 20 Mpa
Absolute:
The standard reference sound pressure in air or other gases is 20 Pa, which
is usually considered the threshold of human hearing (at 1 kHz).
Sound pressure level in dB as a ratio to
standard reference in logarithmic scale.
Absolute:
76db= 20log(P/20 Pa)
Log(P/20 Pa)=3.8dB
P= 10
3.8
x 20 Pa
=126191 Pa
http://www.ncvs.org/ncvs/tutorials/voiceprod/equation/chapter9/index.html
Actual Sound pressure
Standard reference pressure 20 Mpa
Exercise:
Find the absolute sound level in Pa for the following measurement of air
traffic noise.
Exercise: ANSWER
Find the absolute sound level in Pa for the following measurement of air
traffic noise.
SPL= 95.8 dB= 20log(P/20x10
-6
)
log(P/20x10-6)= 95.8/20
P= 10
95.8/20
x 20x10
-6
P= 1.233 N/M
2
#
Practice:
dB
Relative dB: Example Calculation 1
Two sound pressure measurements are made using an ultrasonic
transducer. The output voltage from the transducer is 600 mv for the first
measurement and 100 mv for the second measurement. Calculate the
difference in the sound intensity, in dB, between the two measurements?
The sound intensity changed by -15.56dB. In other words, the sound
intensity decreased by 15.56 dB
Example Calculation 2
If the intensity between two ultrasonic measurements increases by 6 dB, and
the first measurement produces a transducer output voltage of 30 mv, what
was the transducer output voltage for the second measurement?
Example Calculation 3
Consider the sound pressure difference between the threshold of human
hearing, 0 dB, and the level of sound often produce at a rock concert, 120 dB.
How much is the rock concert sound greater than that of the threshold of
human hearing.
What is the absolute rock concert sound pressure?
Practice Makes Perfect
28. An advantage of using lower frequencies during ultrasonic testing is that:
(a) Near surface resolution is improved
(b) Sensitivity to small discontinuities is improved
(c) Beam spread is reduced
(d) Sensitivity to unfavorable oriented flaws is improved
Q104: If an ultrasonic wave is transmitted through an interface of two
materials in which the first material has a higher acoustic impedance value
but the same velocity value as the secong material, the angle of refraction
will be:
a) A greater than the incidence
b) Less than the angle of incidence
c) The same as the angle of incidence
d) Beyond the critical angle.
Section 3: Equipment & Transducers

Content: Section 3: Equipment & Transducers
3.9: Couplants
Continues Next Page
3.16 Error Analysis
The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the
conversion of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the
basis for ultrasonic testing. The active element is the heart of the transducer
as it converts the electrical energy to acoustic energy, and vice versa. The
active element is basically a piece of polarized material (i.e. some parts of the
molecule are positively charged, while other parts of the molecule are
negatively charged) with electrodes attached to two of its opposite faces.
When an electric field is applied across the material, the polarized molecules
will align themselves with the electric field, resulting in induced dipoles within
the molecular or crystal structure of the material.
This alignment of molecules will cause the material to change dimensions.
This phenomenon is known as electrostriction. In addition, a permanently-
polarized material such as quartz (SiO2) or barium titanate (BaTiO3) will
produce an electric field when the material changes dimensions as a result of
an imposed mechanical force. This phenomenon is known as the
piezoelectric effect. Additional information on why certain materials produce
this effect can be found in the linked presentation material, which was
produced by the Valpey Fisher Corporation.
Keyword:
SiO2- Quartz
BaTiO3- Barium Titanate
Electric field is applied causing dimensional change: electrostriction
Electric field is generated by dimensional change: piezoelectric effect
Fig. 5.10: Basic design of a single
transducer Ultrasound head
Piezoelectric materials have two nice
properties:
1. Piezoelectric materials change their
shape upon the application of an
electric field as the orientation of the
dipoles changes.
2. Conversely, if a mechanical forces
is applied to the crystal a the
electric field is changed producing a
small voltage signal.
The piezoelectric crystals thus function
as the transmitter as well as the
receiver!
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/EquipmentTrans/PiezoelectricEffect.ppt
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/EquipmentTrans/PiezoelectricElements.ppt
Piezoelectric crystals
http://www.ndt-kits.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/What-is-piezoelectric-transducer.gif
http://www.ndt-kits.com/blog/?cat=7
The active element of most acoustic transducers used today is a piezoelectric
ceramic, which can be cut in various ways to produce different wave modes.
A large piezoelectric ceramic element can be seen in the image of a
sectioned low frequency transducer. Preceding the advent of piezoelectric
ceramics in the early 1950's, piezoelectric crystals made from quartz crystals
and magnetostrictive materials were primarily used. The active element is still
sometimes referred to as the crystal by old timers in the NDT field. When
piezoelectric ceramics were introduced, they soon became the dominant
material for transducers due to their good piezoelectric properties and their
ease of manufacture into a variety of shapes and sizes. They also operate at
low voltage and are usable up to about 300C. The first piezoceramic in
general use was (1) barium titanate, and that was followed during the 1960's
by (2) lead Zirconate Titanate compositions, which are now the most
commonly employed ceramic for making transducers. New materials such as
piezo-polymers and composites are also being used in some applications.
Keywords:
(1) Barium Titanate
(2) Lead Zirconate Titanate
The thickness of the active element is determined by the desired frequency of
the transducer. A thin wafer element vibrates with a wavelength that is twice
its thickness. Therefore, piezoelectric crystals are cut to a thickness that is
the desired radiated wavelength. The higher the frequency of the transducer,
the thinner the active element. The primary reason that high frequency
contact transducers are not produced is because the element is very thin and
too fragile.
The fundamental frequency of the transducer is determined by its thickness:
From the equation, it can be seen that for high frequency transducer, the
thickness is very thin , thus fragile; making its only suitable for immersion
techniques only.
Piezoelectric crystals may be X or Y cut depending on which orientation they
are sliced. The crystals used in UT testing are X cut, due to the mode of
vibration they produced (longitudinal wave). This means that the crystal is
sliced with it main axis perpendicular with the X axis.
Q153 A quartz crystal cut so that its major faces are parallel to the X, Y axes
and perpendicular to the X axis is called:
a) a Y-cut crystal/ longitudinal wave
b) a Y-cut crystal/ shear wave
c) a X-cut crystal/ longitudinal wave
d) a X-cut crystal/ shear wave
e) a XY-cut crystal/ longitudinal wave
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html
3.1.1: Type of Piezoelectric Crystal
Quartz is a Silicon Oxide (SiO
3
)
Lithium Sulphate LiSO
4
Decomposed 130C
Barium Titanate (BaTiO
3
) Curies point 120C
Lead Metaniobate (PBNbO
6
)
Lead Zirconate Titanate (PBZrO
3
. PbTiO
3
)* Curies point 350C
*Pb[Zr
x
Ti
1-x
]O
3
(0x1).
Quartz is a Silicon Oxide (SiO
3
) crystal found naturally and X cut across
the crustal give compression wave, a Y cut produces shear wave.
Advantages:
1. Resistance to wear
2. insoluble in water
3. resistance to ageing
4. easy to cut to give the required frequency
Disadvantage
1. It is inefficient, needs a lot of energy to
produce small amount of ultrasound
2. Quart crystals are susceptible to
damages (nor robust)
3. High voltage to produce low frequency
sound
Quartz
SiO3-Silicon Quartz
4
, grows from Lithium Sulphate solution by
evaporation.
Advantages:
1. Lithium Sulphate is the most efficient receiver of ultrasound
2. It has low electric impedance
3. Operate well at low voltage
4. it does not age
5. it has very good resolution
6. crystals are easily damp and give a short pulse length
Disadvantage
1. It dissolves in water
2. It breaks easily
3. It decomposed at temperature above 130C (what is Curie temperature?)
All of which make it unsuitable for industrial used, except for medical
ultrasonic where the temperature restriction is not a concern.
4
Followings are Piezoelectric crystals- Polarized crystals made by heating up
powders to high temperatures, pressing them into shape and allowthem to
cool in a very strong electric fields.
Heat applied
Heat applied
Pressed Powders
Fused polarized PZT
Barium Titanate (BaTiO
3
) are polarized crystals made by baking Barium
Titanate at 1250C and cooling in a 2KV/mm electric field.
Advantages
It is efficient ultrasound generator
It requires low voltage
It has good sensitivity
Disadvantages
Its curies point is about only 120C, above which it loss it functionality
It deteriorated over time
BaTiO
3
BaTiO
3
Lead Metaniobate (PBNbO
6
) crystals are made the similar way as
Barium Titanate
Advantages
It has high internal damping
It gives narrow pulse of ultrasound, which gives good resolution
Disadvantage
It has much less sensitivity than Lead Zirconate Titanate PZT
Fig. 3: Comparison between PZT (left) and 1-3 piezocomposite transducer
(right) on a prospect wedge
Fig. 4: Comparison between lead Metaniobate (left) and 1-3 piezocomposite
transducer (right) for a WSY70-4 probe
http://www.ndt.net/article/splitt/splitt_e.htm
Lead Zirconate Titanate (PBZrO
3
. PbTiO
3
)* is the best all round crystal
for industrial use.
Advantages
It has high Curies point 350C
It has good resolution
It does not dissolved in water
It is tough
It does not dissolve in water
It is easily damp.
Other Transducer> Polyvinylchloride probe for high frequency 15MHz, giving
high resolution and very high sensitivity.
*Pb[Zr
x
Ti
1-x
]O
3
(0x1).
Lead Zirconate Titanate PZT Curies point 350C
350 C
350C is also goof for:
In physics and materials science, the Curie temperature (Tc), or Curie point,
is the temperature where a material's permanent magnetism changes to
induced magnetism. The force of magnetism is determined by magnetic
moments. The Curie temperature is the critical point where a material's
intrinsic magnetic moments change direction. Magnetic moments are
permanent dipole moments within the atom which originate from electrons'
angular momentum and spin. Materials have different structures of intrinsic
magnetic moments that depend on temperature. At a material's Curie
Temperature those intrinsic magnetic moments change direction.
Permanent magnetism is caused by the alignment of magnetic moments and
induced magnetism is created when disordered magnetic moments are forced
to align in an applied magnetic field. For example, the ordered magnetic
moments (ferromagnetic, figure 1) change and become disordered
(paramagnetic, figure 2) at the Curie Temperature. Higher temperatures make
magnets weaker as spontaneous magnetism only occurs below the Curie
Temperature. Magnetic susceptibility only occurs above the Curie
Temperature and can be calculated from the Curie-Weiss Law which is
derived from Curie's Law.
Lead zirconium Titanate is an intermetallic inorganic compound with the
chemical formula Pb[Zr
x
Ti
1-x
]O
3
(0x1). Also called PZT, it is a ceramic
perovskite material that shows a marked piezoelectric effect, which finds
practical applications in the area of electroceramics. It is a white solid that is
insoluble in all solvents.
Lead zirconium Titanate PZT
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead_zirconate_titanate
http://www.ndt.net/article/platte2/platte2.htm
Properties of Piezoelectric Materials
Ceramic Transducer
67. Which of the following transducer materials is the most efficient receiver
of ultrasonic energy?
(a) Lead metaniobate
(b) Quartz
(c) Lithium sulphate
(d) Barium titanate
69. An advantage of using lithium sulphate in search units it that:
(a) It is one of the most efficient generators of ultrasonic energy
(b) It is one of the most efficient receivers of ultrasonic energy
(c) It is insoluble
(d) It can withstand temperatures as high as 700C
67A. Which of the following transducer materials is the most efficient
transmitter of ultrasonic energy?
(a) Lead metaniobate
(b) Quartz
(c) Lithium sulphate
(d) Barium titanate
17. Which of the following is the least efficient receiver of ultrasonic Energy?
(a) Quartz
(b) Lithium sulphate
(c) Lead metaniobate
(d) Barium titanate
21. An advantage of using a ceramic transducer in search units is that:
(a) It is one of the most efficient generators of ultrasonic energy
(b) It is one of the most efficient receivers of ultrasonic energy
(c) It has a very low mechanical impedance
(d) It can withstand temperatures as high as 700
o
C
73. Which of the following is the most durable piezoelectric material?
(a) Barium titanate
(b) Quartz
(c) Dipotassoiumtartrate
(d) Rochelle salt
The transducer is a very important part of the ultrasonic instrumentation
system. As discussed on the previous page, the transducer incorporates a
piezoelectric element, which converts electrical signals into mechanical
vibrations (transmit mode) and mechanical vibrations into electrical signals
(receive mode). Many factors, including material, mechanical and electrical
construction, and the external mechanical and electrical load conditions,
influence the behavior of a transducer. Mechanical construction includes
parameters such as the radiation surface area, mechanical damping, housing,
connector type and other variables of physical construction. As of this writing,
transducer manufacturers are hard pressed when constructing two
transducers that have identical performance characteristics.
Transducer
Transducer
A cut away of a typical contact transducer is shown above. It was previously
learned that the piezoelectric element is cut to the desired wavelength. To
get as much energy out of the transducer as possible, an impedance
matching is placed between the active element and the face of the transducer.
Optimal impedance matching is achieved by sizing the matching layer so that
its thickness is of the desired wavelength. This keeps waves that were
reflected within the matching layer in phase when they exit the layer (as
illustrated in the image to the top). (HOW?)
For contact transducers, the matching layer is made from a material that has
an acoustical impedance Zbetween the active element and steel.
Immersion transducers have a matching layer with an acoustical impedance
Zbetween the active element and water.
Contact transducers also incorporate a wear plate to protect the matching
layer and active element from scratching.
Matching Layer: Immersion & Delay Transducers
As wear plate
/2
/4
Active Element
Matching Layer
Backing
Transducer Cut-Out
Transducer
The Active Element (Crystal)
The active element, which is piezo or ferroelectric material, converts
electrical energy such as an excitation pulse from a flaw detector into
ultrasonic energy. The most commonly used materials are polarized
ceramics which can be cut in a variety of manners to produce different wave
modes. New materials such as piezo polymers and composites are also
being employed for applications where they provide benefit to transducer
and system performance.
Backing (Damping)
The backing is usually a highly attenuative, high density material that is used
to control the vibration of the transducer by absorbing the energy radiating
from the back face of the active element. When the acoustic impedance
of the backing matches the acoustic impedance of the active element,
the result will be a heavily damped transducer that displays good range
resolution but may be lower in signal amplitude. If there is a mismatch in
acoustic impedance between the element and the backing, more sound
energy will be reflected forward into the test material. The end result is a
transducer that is lower in resolution due to a longer waveform duration, but
may be higher in signal amplitude or greater in sensitivity.
Note on Backing:
The backing material supporting the crystal has a great influence on the
damping characteristics of a transducer.
Using a backing material with an impedance similar to that of the active
element will produce the most effective damping. Such a transducer will have
a wider bandwidth resulting in higher sensitivity.
As the mismatch in impedance between the active element and the backing
material increases, material penetration increases but transducer sensitivity is
reduced.
Keywords:
Backing impedance mismatch small: Higher sensitivity
Backing impedance mismatch high: Higher penetration.
Wear Plate
The basic purpose of the transducer wear plate is to protect the transducer
element from the testing environment. In the case of contact transducers, the
wear plate must be a durable and corrosion resistant material in order to
withstand the wear caused by use on materials such as steel.
Matching Layer (Wear Plate)
For immersion, angle beam, and delay line transducers the wear plate has
the additional purpose of serving as an acoustic transformer between the
high acoustic impedance of the active element and the water, the wedge
or the delay line all of which are of lower acoustic impedance.
This is accomplished by selecting a
matching layer that is
wavelength thick and of the desired
acoustic impedance (the active
element is nominally wavelength).
The choice of the wear surface
thickness is based upon the idea of
superposition that allows waves
generated by the active element to be
in phase with the wave reverberating
in the matching layer as shown in
Figure (4).
When signals are in phase, their amplitudes are additive, thus a greater
amplitude wave enters the test piece. Figure (12) shows the active element
and the wear plate, and when they are in phase. If a transducer is not tightly
controlled or designed with care and the proper materials, and the sound
waves are not in phase, it causes a disruption in the wave front.
Transducers
Transducers
http://www.ndt-kits.com/Angle-Beam-Ultrasonic-Transducer-UT0013-s-381-428.html
Transducer Efficiency, Bandwidth and Frequency
Some transducers are specially fabricated to be more efficient transmitters
and others to be more efficient receivers. A transducer that performs well in
one application will not always produce the desired results in a different
application. For example, sensitivity to small defects is proportional to the
product of the efficiency of the transducer as a transmitter and a receiver.
Resolution, the ability to locate defects near the surface or in close proximity
in the material, requires a highly damped transducer.
Resolution: BS4331 Pt 3. the
recommended resolution should
be able to distinguished two
discrete echoes less than two
wavelength apart. By discrete
echoes mean they are split by
more than 6dB.
(Vertical spatial resolution)
50% Amplitude or
6dB line.
50% Amplitude or
6dB line.
2
2
In the early days of ultrasonic testing we used the 100, 91 and 85mm steps,
at the radius end of the V1 block to test resolving power. However, today
this is regarded as too crude a test and BS 4331 Part 3 (now obsolete)
recommended that we should be able to recognise two discrete echoes less
than two wavelengths apart. By discrete echoes they mean split by more
than 6dB, or to more than half the total height of the signals.
It is also important to understand the concept of bandwidth, or range of
frequencies, associated with a transducer. The frequency noted on a
transducer is the central or center frequency and depends primarily on the
backing material.
Highly damped transducers will respond to frequencies above and below the
central frequency. The broad frequency range provides a transducer with high
resolving power. Less damped transducers will exhibit a narrower frequency
range and poorer resolving power, but greater penetration.
The central frequency will also define the capabilities of a transducer. Lower
frequencies (0.5MHz-2.25MHz) provide greater energy and penetration in a
material, while high frequency crystals (15.0MHz-25.0MHz) provide reduced
penetration but greater sensitivity to small discontinuities. High frequency
transducers, when used with the proper instrumentation, can improve flaw
resolution and thickness measurement capabilities dramatically. Broadband
transducers with frequencies up to 150 MHz are commercially available.
Transducer Damping
Highly damped transducers will
respond to frequencies above and
below the central frequency. The
broad frequency range provides a
transducer with high resolving
power.
Less damped transducers will
exhibit a narrower frequency range
and poorer resolving power, but
greater penetration.
Transducer Damping- Low Damping
Transducer Damping- High Damping
48. A more highly damped transducer crystal results in:
(a) Better resolution
(b) Better sensitivity (mistake)
(c) Lower sensitivity
(d) Poorer resolution
Typical sound velocities
Wavelength in mm for Steel
Transducer (Backing) Damping:
Highly damped transducers will respond to frequencies above and below
the central frequency. The broad frequency range provides a transducer
with high resolving power.
Less damped transducers will exhibit a narrower frequency range and
poorer resolving power, but greater penetration.
Instrumentation Filtered Band Width:
1. Broad band instrument means a wide array of frequencies could be
processed by the instrument. The frequencies shown will be a close
representation of the actual electrical signal measured by the receiver
transducer. The S/N may not be very good, the shape of the amplitude
tend to be the actual representation.
2. Narrow band instrument, suppressed a portion of frequencies above and
below the center frequency. With the high frequencies noise suppressed,
gain could be increase, leading to improved sensitivity. However the shape
and relative amplitude of pulse frequency components often altered
Instrumentation Band Width:
8. Receiver noise must often be filtered out of a test system. Receiver
amplifier noise increases proportionally to:
a) the square root of the amplifier bandwidth
b) the inverse square of the amplifier bandwidth
c) attenuation
d) temperature
The central frequency will also define the capabilities of a transducer.
1. Lower frequencies (0.5MHz-2.25MHz) provide greater energy and
penetration in a material,
2. while high frequency crystals (15.0MHz-25.0MHz) provide reduced
penetration but greater sensitivity to small discontinuities. High frequency
transducers, when used with the proper instrumentation, can improve flaw
resolution and thickness measurement capabilities dramatically.
Transducer Damping
Transducer Damping
Transducer Damping at -20dB
Transducer Damping at -14dB
Transducer Damping
Transducer Damping
Wave form Duration at -10dB
Wave form Duration at -14dB
Wave form Duration at -14dB with Band Width at -6dB
Wave form Duration at -14dB with Band Width at -10dB
The relation between MHz bandwidth and waveform duration is shown
in Figure below. The scatter is wider at -40 dB because the 1% trailing end of
the waveform contains very little energy and so has very little effect on the
analysis of bandwidth. Because of the scatter it is most appropriate to specify
waveforms in the time domain (microseconds) and spectra in the frequency
domain.
The approximate relations shown in Figure (6) above, can be used to assist in
transducer selection. For example, if a -14 dB waveform duration of one
microsecond is needed, what frequency transducer should be selected?
From the graph, a bandwidth of approximately 1 to 1.2 MHz corresponds
to approximately 1 microsecond -14 dB waveform duration. Assuming a
nominal 50% fractional bandwidth transducer, this calculates to a nominal
center frequency of 2 to 2.4 MHz. Therefore, a transducer of 2.25 MHz or
3.5 MHz may be applicable.
Transducers are constructed to withstand some abuse, but they should be
handled carefully. Misuse, such as dropping, can cause cracking of the wear
plate, element, or the backing material. Damage to a transducer is often
noted on the A-scan presentation as an enlargement of the initial pulse.
The sound that emanates from a piezoelectric transducer does not originate
from a point, but instead originates from most of the surface of the
piezoelectric element. Round transducers are often referred to as piston
source transducers because the sound field resembles a cylindrical mass in
front of the transducer. The sound field from a typical piezoelectric transducer
is shown below. The intensity of the sound is indicated by color, with lighter
colors indicating higher intensity.
Since the ultrasound originates from a number of points along the transducer
face, the ultrasound intensity along the beam is affected by constructive and
destructive wave interference as discussed in a previous page on wave
interference. These are sometimes also referred to as diffraction effects. This
wave interference leads to extensive fluctuations in the sound intensity near
the source and is known as the near field. Because of acoustic variations
within a near field, it can be extremely difficult to accurately evaluate flaws in
materials when they are positioned within this area.
The pressure waves combine to form a relatively uniform front at the end of
the near field. The area beyond the near field where the ultrasonic beam is
more uniform is called the far field. In the far field, the beamspreads out in a
pattern originating from the center of the transducer. The transition between
the near field and the far field occurs at a distance, N, and is sometimes
referred to as the "natural focus" of a flat (or unfocused) transducer. The
near/far field distance, N, is significant because amplitude variations that
characterize the near field change to a smoothly declining amplitude at this
point. The area just beyond the near field is where the sound wave is well
behaved and at its maximum strength. Therefore, optimal detection results
will be obtained when flaws occur in this area.
Near Field
For a piston source transducer of radius (a), frequency (f), and velocity (V) in
a liquid or solid medium, the applet below allows the calculation of the
near/far field transition point. In the J ava applet below, the radius (a) and the
near field/far field distance can be in metric or English units (e.g. mm or inch),
the frequency (f) is in MHz and the sound velocity (V) is in metric or English
length units per second (e.g. mm/sec or inch/sec). J ust make sure the length
units used are consistent in the calculation.
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/EquipmentTrans/applet_3_3/applet_3_3.htm
Spherical or cylindrical focusing changes the structure of a transducer field by
"pulling" the N point nearer the transducer. It is also important to note that the
driving excitation normally used in NDT applications are either spike or
rectangular pulsars, not a single frequency. This can significantly alter the
performance of a transducer. Nonetheless, the supporting analysis is widely
used because it represents a reasonable approximation and a good starting
point.
Beam Spreads
http://www.eclipsescientific.com/Software/ESBeamToolAScan/index.html
Probe Dimension & Spread angle
,,.
Probe Dimension & Spread angle
,,.
Probe dimension & Z
f
, ,
,,.
Probe dimension & Z
f,
,
,,.
As discussed on the previous page, round transducers are often referred to
as piston source transducers because the sound field resembles a cylindrical
mass in front of the transducer. However, the energy in the beamdoes not
remain in a cylinder, but instead spreads out as it propagates through the
material. The phenomenon is usually referred to as beam spread but is
sometimes also referred to as beam divergence or ultrasonic diffraction. It
should be noted that there is actually a difference between beamspread and
beam divergence. Beam spread is a measure of the whole angle from side to
side of the main lobe of the sound beam in the far field. Beam divergence is a
measure of the angle from one side of the sound beam to the central axis of
the beam in the far field. Therefore, beam spread is twice the beam
divergence.
Far field, or Fraunhofer zone
Although beam spread must be considered when performing an ultrasonic
inspection, it is important to note that in the far field, or Fraunhofer zone, the
maximum sound pressure is always found along the acoustic axis (centerline)
of the transducer. Therefore, the strongest reflections are likely to come from
the area directly in front of the transducer.
Beam spread occurs because the vibrating particle of the material (through
which the wave is traveling) do not always transfer all of their energy in the
direction of wave propagation. Recall that waves propagate through the
transfer of energy from one particle to another in the medium. If the particles
are not directly aligned in the direction of wave propagation, some of the
energy will get transferred off at an angle. (Picture what happens when one
ball hits another ball slightly off center). In the near field, constructive and
destructive wave interference fill the sound field with fluctuation. At the start of
the far field, however, the beam strength is always greatest at the center of
the beam and diminishes as it spreads outward.
As shown in the applet below, beam spread is largely determined by the
frequency and diameter of the transducer. Beam spread is greater when
using a low frequency transducer than when using a high frequency
transducer. As the diameter of the transducer increases, the beam spread will
be reduced.
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Graphics/toplinks-rev2.swf
Near/ Far Fields
Near field, constructive and
destructive wave interference fill the
sound field with fluctuation
- reverberence
Far field, however, the
beam strength is always
greatest at the center of the
beam and diminishes as it
spreads outward.
Beam angle is an important consideration in transducer selection for a couple
of reasons. First, beam spread lowers the amplitude of reflections since
sound fields are less concentrated and, thereby weaker. Second, beam
spread may result in more difficulty in interpreting signals due to reflections
from the lateral sides of the test object or other features outside of the
inspection area. Characterization of the sound field generated by a transducer
is a prerequisite to understanding observed signals.
Numerous codes exist that can be used to standardize the method used for
the characterization of beam spread. American Society for Testing and
Materials ASTM E-1065, addresses methods for ascertaining beam shapes in
Section A6, Measurement of Sound Field Parameters. However, these
measurements are limited to immersion probes. In fact, the methods
described in E-1065 are primarily concerned with the measurement of beam
characteristics in water, and as such are limited to measurements of the
compression mode only. Techniques described in E-1065 include pulse-echo
using a ball target and hydrophone receiver, which allows the sound field of
the probe to be assessed for the entire volume in front of the probe.
For a flat piston source transducer, an approximation of the beam spread may
be calculated as a function of the transducer diameter (D), frequency (F), and
the sound velocity (V) in the liquid or solid medium. The applet below allows
the beam divergence angle (1/2 the beam spread angle) to be calculated.
This angle represents a measure from the center of the acoustic axis to the
point where the sound pressure has decreased by one half (-6 dB) to the side
of the acoustic axis in the far field.
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/EquipmentTrans/applet_3_4/applet_3_4.htm
Ultrasonic transducers are manufactured for a variety of applications and can
be custom fabricated when necessary. Careful attention must be paid to
selecting the proper transducer for the application. A previous section on
Acoustic Wavelength and Defect Detection gave a brief overview of factors
that affect defect detectability. From this material, we know that it is important
to choose transducers that have the desired;
frequency, (thickness of piezoelectric material)
bandwidth, (Back damping)
Focusing (curvature probe)
to optimize inspection capability. Most often the transducer is chosen either to
enhance the sensitivity or resolution of the system. Transducers are classified
into groups according to the application.
3.5.1 Contact transducers
are used for direct contact inspections, and are generally hand manipulated.
They have elements protected in a rugged casing to withstand sliding contact
with a variety of materials. These transducers have an ergonomic design so
that they are easy to grip and move along a surface. They often have
replaceable wear plates to lengthen their useful life. Coupling materials of
water, grease, oils, or commercial materials are used to remove the air gap
between the transducer and the component being inspected.
Contact Transducers
Contact probe
Contact Transducer
http://static2.olympus-ims.com/data/Flash/dual.swf?rev=6C5C
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/ultrasonic-transducers/dualelement/
43. Which of the following is a disadvantage of contact testing?
(a) Ability to maintain uniform coupling on rough surface
(b) Ease of field use
(c) Greater penetrating power than immersion testing
(d) Less penetrating power than immersion testing
3.5.2 Immersion transducers
In immersion testing, the transducer do not contact the component. These
transducers are designed to operate in a liquid environment and all
connections are watertight. Immersion transducers usually have an
impedance matching layer that helps to get more sound energy into the water
and, in turn, into the component being inspected. Immersion transducers can
be purchased with a (1) planer, (2) cylindrically focused or (3) spherically
focused lens. A focused transducer can improve the sensitivity and axial
resolution by concentrating the sound energy to a smaller area. Immersion
transducers are typically used inside a water tank or as part of a squirter or
bubbler system in scanning applications.
Unfocused & Focused
Focusing Ration in water/steel (F=4)
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/ndt-tutorials/flaw-detection/beam-characteristics/
Focused Transducer (Olympus)
Z
B
= Beginning of the Focal Zone
F
Z
= Focal Zone
Z
E
= End of the Focal Zone
D = Element Diameter
Focal Length Equation:
The focal length F is determined by following equation;
Where:
F = Focal Length in water
R = Curvature of the focusing lens
n = Ration of L-velocity of epoxy to L-velocity of water
F
Focal Length Variations
Focal Length Variations due to Acoustic Velocity and Geometry of the Test
Part. The measured focal length of a transducer is dependent on the material
in which it is being measured. This is due to the fact that different materials
have different sound velocities. When specifying a transducers focal length it
is typically specified for water. Since most materials have a higher velocity
than water, the focal length is effectively shortened. This effect is caused by
refraction (according to Snells Law) and is illustrated in Figure (18).
Focal Length Variations
This change in the focal length can be predicted by Equation (13).
For example, given a particular focal length and material path, this equation
can be used to determine the appropriate water path to compensate for the
focusing effect in the test material.
Eqn. 13
WP = F MP.(C
tm
/C
w
)
WP = Water Path
MP = Material Depth
F = Focal Length in Water
C
tm
= Sound Velocity in the Test Material
C
w
= Sound Velocity in the water
In addition, the curvature of surface of the test piece can affect focusing.
Depending on whether the entry surface is concave or convex, the sound
beam may converge more rapidly than it would in a flat sample or it may
spread and actually defocus.
Cylindrical & Spherical Focused
Cylindrical & Spherical Focused
18. Which of the following is an advantage of a focused transducer?
(a) Extended useful range
(b) Reduced sensitivity in localised area
(c) Improved signal to noise ratio over an extended range
(d) Higher resolution over a limited range
79. What type of search unit allows the greatest resolving power with
standard ultrasonic testing equipment?
(a) Delay tip
(b) Focused
(c) Highly damped
(d) High Q
18. Which of the following is an advantage of a focused transducer?
(a) Extended useful range
(b) Reduced sensitivity in localised area
(c) Improved signal to noise ratio over an extended range
(d) Higher resolution over a limited range
67. A divergent sound beam is produced by:
(a) Concave mirror
(b) Convex mirror
(c) Convex lens
(d) None of the above
78. Which of the following is not an advantage of a focused transducer?
(a) High sensitivity to small flaws
(b) Deep penetration
(c) High resolving power
(d) Not much affected by surface roughness
79. What type of search unit allows the greatest resolving power with
standard ultrasonic testing equipment?
(a) Delay tip
(b) Focused
(c) Highly damped
(d) High Q
3.5.3 Dual element transducers
contain two independently operated elements in a single housing. One of the
elements transmits and the other receives the ultrasonic signal. Active
elements can be chosen for their sending and receiving capabilities to provide
a transducer with a cleaner signal, and transducers for special applications,
such as the inspection of course grained material. Dual element transducers
are especially well suited for making measurements in applications where
reflectors are very near the transducer since this design eliminates the ring
down effect that single-element transducers experience (when single-element
transducers are operating in pulse echo mode, the element cannot start
receiving reflected signals until the element has stopped ringing from its
transmit function). Dual element transducers are very useful when making
thickness measurements of thin materials and when inspecting for near
surface defects. The two elements are angled towards each other to create a
crossed-beam sound path in the test material.
Keywords: For near surface effects
Fresnel zone (near zone)
Ring down effect
For a single crystal probe the length of the initial pulse is the dead zone and
any signal from a reflector at a shorter distance than this will be concealed
in the initial pulse. We deliberately delay the initial pulse beyond the left of
the time base, by mounting the transducers of a twin (or double) crystal
probe onto plastic wedges. This and the focusing of the crystals reduces the
dead zone considerably and it is only where the transmission and receptive
beams do not overlap that we cannot assess flaws.
A twin or double crystal probe is designed to minimise the problem of dead
zone. A twin crystal probe has two crystals mounted on Perspex shoes
angled inwards slightly to focus at a set distance in the test material. Were
the crystals not angled, the pulse would be reflected straight back into the
transmitting crystal.
The Perspex shoes hold the crystals away from the test surface so that the
initial pulse does not appear on the CRT screen. The dead zone is greatly
reduced to the region adjoining the test surface, where the transmission and
reception beams do not overlap.
There are other advantages
1. Double crystal probes can be focused
2. Can measure thin plate
3. Can detect near surface flaws
4. Has good near surface resolution
Disadvantages
1. Good contact is difficult with curved surfaces
2. Difficult to size small defects accurately as the width of a double crystal
3. probe is usually greater than that of a single crystal probe
4. The amplitude of a signal decreases the further a reflector is situated
5. from the focal distance - a response curve can be made out.
Therefore single and twin crystal probes are complementary.
Other Reading (Olympus): Dual element transducers utilize separate
transmitting and receiving elements, mounted on delay lines that are usually
cut at an angle (see diagram on page 8). This configuration improves near
surface resolution by eliminating main bang recovery problems. In addition, the
crossed beam design provides a pseudo focus that makes duals more
sensitive to echoes from irregular reflectors such as corrosion and pitting.
One consequence of the dual element design is a sharply defined distance/
amplitude curve. In general, a decrease in the roof angle or an increase in
the transducer element size will result in a longer pseudo-focal distance and
an increase in useful range, as shown in Figure (13).
Advantages:
Improves near surface resolution (sensitivity?)
Provide a pseudo focus (improve sensitivity in the Far Zone?)
Less affected by surface roughness due to the pseudo focus effect
Disadvantage(?)
The pseudo focus by tilting the active elements (roof angle?) reduces the
useful range of transducer?
Figure (13).
Duo Elements Transducer
Roof Angle
Transmitting
Crystal
Receiving
Crystal
Acoustic
Barrier
Casing
Cross Beam
Sound path
3.5.4 Delay line transducers
provide versatility with a variety of replaceable options. Removable delay line,
surface conforming membrane, and protective wear cap options can make a
single transducer effective for a wide range of applications. As the name
implies, the primary function of a delay line transducer is to introduce a time
delay between the generation of the sound wave and the arrival of any
reflected waves. This allows the transducer to complete its "sending" function
before it starts its "listening" function so that near surface resolution is
improved. They are designed for use in applications such as high precision
thickness gauging of thin materials and delamination checks in composite
materials. They are also useful in high-temperature measurement applications
since the delay line provides some insulation to the piezoelectric element from
the heat.
Delay Lined Transducer:
Advantages:
1. Heavily damped transducer combined with the use of a delay line provides
excellent near surface resolution
2. Higher transducer frequency improves resolution
3. Improves the ability to measure thin materials or find small flaws while
using the direct contact method
4. Contouring available to fit curved parts
Applications:
1. Precision thickness gauging
2. Straight beam flaw detection
3. Inspection of parts with limited contact areas
4. Replaceable Delay Line Transducers
5. Each transducer comes with a standard delay line and retaining ring
6. High temperature and dry couple delay lines are available
7. Requires couplant between transducer and delay line tip
Other Reading (Olympus): Delay Line Transducers
Delay line transducers are single element longitudinal wave transducers
used in conjunction with a replaceable delay line. One of the reasons for
choosing a delay line transducer is that near surface resolution can be
improved.
The delay allows the element to stop vibrating before a return signal from the
reflector can be received. When using a delay line transducer, there will be
multiple echoes from end of the delay line and it is important to take these
into account. Another use of delay line transducers is in applications in
which the test material is at an elevated temperature. The high
temperature delay
line options listed in this catalog (page 16, 17, 19) are not intended for
continuous contact, they are meant for intermittent contact only.
Advantages:
Improve near surface resolution
High temperature contact testing
Delay Lined Transducer
Delay lined Transducer
TR-Probe / Dual Crystal Probe- Transmitting Receiving Probe
http://www.weldr.net/simple/skill/html/content_10802.htm
Probe Delay with TR-Probe
Cross Talk at High Gain
Probe Delay
Probe Delay
Delay Line UT 1 Lab 8
www.youtube.com/embed/lelVZ9OGli8
3.5.5 Angle beam transducers
Angle beam transducer and wedges are typically used to introduce a
refracted shear wave into the test material. Transducers can be purchased in
a variety of (1) fixed angles or in (2) adjustable versions where the user
determines the angles of incidence and refraction.
In the fixed angle versions, the angle of refraction that is marked on the
transducer is only accurate for a particular material, which is usually steel.
The angled sound path allows the sound beam to be reflected fromthe
backwall to improve detectability of flaws in and around welded areas. They
are also used to generate surface waves for use in detecting defects on the
surface of a component.
Angle Beam Transducers- Angle beam transducers are typically used to
locate and/or size flaws which are oriented non-parallel to the test surface.
2L

2S
1L
Angle Beam Transducers
2L

2S
1L
Angle Beam Transducers
Angle Beam Transducers- Mode Conversion
Figure (15) below shows the relationship between the incident angle and the
relative amplitudes of the refracted or mode converted longitudinal, shear,
and surface waves that can be produced from a plastic wedge into steel.
Angle Beam Transducers- Common Terms
= Refracted angle T= Thickness LEG1=LEG2= T/Cos
V PATH= 2x LEG= 2T/Cos SKIP= 2.T Tan
Angle Beam Transducers- Common Terms

= Refracted angle T= Thickness Surface Distance= S.Sin
Depth= S.Cos
Angle Beam Transducers- Longitudinal / Shear Wave Inspection

Many AWS inspections are performed using refracted shear waves.
However, grainy materials such as austenitic stainless steel may require
refracted longitudinal waves or other angle beam techniques for successful
inspections.
Angle Beam Transducer
http://static4.olympus-ims.com/data/Flash/wedge_weld.swf?rev=EF60
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/ultrasonic-transducers/dualelement/
3.5.6 Normal incidence shear wave transducers
Normal Incidence Shear Wave transducers incorporate a shear wave crystal
in a contact transducer case. These transducers are unique because they
allow the introduction of shear waves directly into a test piece without the use
of an angle beam wedge. Rather than using the principles of refraction,
as with the angle beam transducers, to produce shear waves in a material,
the crystal itself produces the shear wave (Y-cut). Careful design has enabled
manufacturing of transducers with minimal longitudinal wave contamination.
The ratio of the longitudinal to shear wave components is generally below -
30dB.
Because shear waves do not propagate in liquids, it is necessary to use a
very viscous couplant when making measurements with these. When using
this type of transducer in a through transmission mode application, it is
important that direction of polarity of each of the transducers is in line with
the other. If the polarities are 90 off, the receiver may not receive the signal
from the transmitter.
Application of Normal incidence shear wave transducers
Typically these transducers are used to make shear velocity measurements
of materials. This measurement, along with a longitudinal velocity
measurement can be used in the calculation of Poissons Ratio, Youngs
Modulus, and Shear Modulus. These formulas are listed below for reference.
Keys:
S = Poissons Ratio
V
L
= Longitudinal Velocity
V
T
= Shear Velocity
r = Material Density
E = Youngs Modulus
G = Shear Modulus
Normal incidence shear wave transducers
http://static3.olympus-ims.com/data/Flash/shear_wave.swf?rev=3970
Normal incidence shear wave transducers
Advantages:
1. Generate shear waves which propagate perpendicular to the test surface
2. For ease of alignment, the direction of the polarization of shear wave is
nominally in line with the right angle connector
3. The ratio of the longitudinal to shear wave components is generally below
-30 dB
Applications:
1. Shear wave velocity measurements
2. Calculation of Young's Modulus of elasticity and shear modulus (see
Technical Notes, page 46)
3. Characterization of material grain structure
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/ultrasonic-transducers/shear-wave/
3.5.7 Paint brush transducers
Paint brush transducers are used to scan wide areas. These long and narrow
transducers are made up of an array of small crystals that are carefully
matched to minimize variations in performance and maintain uniform
sensitivity over the entire area of the transducer. Paint brush transducers
make it possible to scan a larger area more rapidly for discontinuities. Smaller
and more sensitive transducers are often then required to further define the
details of a discontinuity.
3.5.8 Wheel Transducer
Wheel Transducer Probe Features:
The main driving advantage of this dry coupled solid contact wheel probe is
that it works to overcome problems with couplant contamination (application
& removal) as well as eliminating the practicalities of immersion systems.
The "tyre" or delay material is constructed of hydrophilic polymers which have
acoustic properties that lend themselves ideally to the implementation of
ultrasonics. Applications include thickness measurement, composite
inspection, delamination detection and general flaw detection.
Q: A special scanning device with the transducer mounted in a tire-like
container filled with couplant is commonly called:
A. A rotating scanner
B. An axial scanner
C. A wheel transducer
D. A circular scanner
Q: A wheel transducer scanning method is consider as:
A. Contact method
B. Immersion method
C. Wheel method
D. Not allowed
UT Technician At works- Salute!
Some transducer manufacturers have lead in the development of transducer
characterization techniques and have participated in developing the AIUM
Standard Methods for Testing Single-Element Pulse-Echo Ultrasonic
Transducers as well as ASTM-E 1065 Standard Guide for Evaluating
Characteristics of Ultrasonic Search Units.
Additionally, some manufacturers perform characterizations according to
AWS, ESI, and many other industrial and military standards. Often,
equipment in test labs is maintained in compliance with MIL-C-45662A
Calibration System Requirements. As part of the documentation process, an
extensive database containing records of the waveform and spectrum of each
transducer is maintained and can be accessed for comparative or statistical
studies of transducer characteristics.
Manufacturers often provide time and frequency domain plots for each
transducer. The signals below were generated by a spiked pulser. The
waveform image on the left shows the test response signal in the time domain
(amplitude versus time). The spectrum image on the right shows the same
signal in the frequency domain (amplitude versus frequency). The signal path
is usually a reflection from the back wall (fused silica) with the reflection in the
far field of the transducer.
TRANSDUCER EXCITATION
As a general rule, all of our ultrasonic transducers are designed for negative
spike excitation. The maximum spike excitation voltages should be limited to
approximately 50 volts per mil of piezoelectric transducer thickness. Low
frequency elements are thick, and high frequency elements are thin.
A negative-going 600 volt fast rise time, short duration, spike excitation can
be used across the terminals on transducers 5.0 MHz and lower in frequency.
For 10 MHz transducers, the voltage used across the terminals should be
halved to about 300 volts as measured across the terminals.
Although negative spike excitation is recommended, continuous wave or tone
burst excitations may be used. However there are limitations to consider
when using these types of excitation. First, the average power dissipation to
the transducer should not exceed 125 mWto avoid overheating the
transducer and depoling the crystal.
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/5072pr/
Excitation: Spiked Pulser (negative spike excitation)
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/5072pr/
Time
T
Pulse Width @50%
0V
10%
90%
Square Wave Spiked Pulser: (negative spike excitation)
Square wave has controlled rise and fall times with directly adjustable voltage
and pulse width. Precautions on the average power dissipation to the
transducer should not exceed 125 mWto avoid overheating the transducer
and depoling the crystal.
Adjustable Pulse width
Adjustable Voltage
Time
0V
Pulse energy: Broad band versus Narrow band.
0.1 1.0 5.0 10 20
0

5

1
0

1
5

2
0

2
5

3
0
Frequency MHz
E
n
e
r
g
y

(
d
B
)
Narrow band
Broad band
UT Flaw Detector Olympus EPOCH 600
Other tests may include the following:
Electrical Impedance Plots provide important information about the design
and construction of a transducer and can allow users to obtain electrically
similar transducers from multiple sources.
Beam Alignment Measurements provide data on the degree of alignment
between the sound beam axis and the transducer housing. This information is
particularly useful in applications that require a high degree of certainty
regarding beam positioning with respect to a mechanical reference surface.
Beam Profiles provide valuable information about transducer sound field
characteristics. Transverse beam profiles are created by scanning the
transducer across a target (usually either a steel ball or rod) at a given
distance from the transducer face and are used to determine focal spot size
and beam symmetry. Axial beam profiles are created by recording the pulse-
echo amplitude of the sound field as a function of distance fromthe
transducer face and provide data on depth of field and focal length.
Effects of Probe Frequencies:
1. Higher frequencies give better resolution
2. Higher frequencies give better sensitivity
3. Lower frequencies give better penetration
4. Lower frequencies less attenuation
5. Lower frequencies probe wider beam spread with more coverage to detect
reflectors and reflectors with unfavorable orientation.
6. Higher frequencies the beams are more focused and the sensitivity and
resolution are better.
Effects of Probe Sizes:
1. The larger the probe produce more energy thus more penetration
2. Small probe small near zone
3. The larger the probe the poorer the contacts on a curve substrate.
Single or Double Crustal Probe Selection:
1. Single crystal probe should be used for material thickness 15mm and
above, according to the probe the near zone
2. Single crystal probe should be used for thickness above 30mm
3. Double crystal should be used for thin material
As noted in the ASTM E1065 Standard Guide for Evaluating Characteristics
of Ultrasonic Transducers, the acoustic and electrical characteristics which
can be described from the data, are obtained from specific procedures that
are listed below:
Frequency Response--The frequency response may be obtained from one
of two procedures: shock excitation and sinusoidal burst.
Sinusoidal excitation.
Shock excitation
Relative Pulse-Echo Sensitivity--The relative pulse-echo sensitivity may be
obtained from the frequency response data by using a sinusoidal burst
procedure. The value is obtained from the relationship of the amplitude of the
voltage applied to the transducer and the amplitude of the pulse-echo signal
received from a specified target.
Time Response--The time response provides a means for describing the
radio frequency (RF) response of the waveform. A shock excitation, pulse-
echo procedure is used to obtain the response. The time or waveform
responses are recorded from specific targets that are chosen for the type of
transducer under evaluation, for example, immersion, contact straight beam,
or contact angle beam.
Frequency Response--The frequency response of the above transducer has
a peak at 5 MHz and operates over a broad range of frequencies. Its
bandwidth (4.1 to 6.15 MHz) is measured at the -6 dB points, or 70% of the
peak frequency. The useable bandwidth of broadband transducers, especially
in frequency analysis measurements, is often quoted at the -20 dB points.
Transducer sensitivity and bandwidth (more of one means less of the other)
are chosen based on inspection needs.
Complex Electrical Impedance--The complex electrical impedance may be
obtained with commercial impedance measuring instrumentation, and these
measurements may provide the magnitude and phase of the impedance of
the search unit over the operating frequency range of the unit. These
measurements are generally made under laboratory conditions with minimum
cable lengths or external accessories and in accordance with specifications
given by the instrument manufacturer. The value of the magnitude of the
complex electrical impedance may also be obtained using values recorded
from the sinusoidal burst.
Sound Field Measurements--The objective of these measurements is to
establish parameters such as the on-axis and transverse sound beam profiles
for immersion, and flat and curved transducers. These measurements are
often achieved by scanning the sound field with a hydrophone transducer to
map the sound field in three dimensional space. An alternative approach to
sound field measurements is a measure of the transducer's radiating surface
motion using laser interferometry.
In high-technology manufacturing, part design and simulation of part
inspection is done in the virtual world of the computer. Transducer modeling
is necessary to make accurate predictions of how a part or component might
be inspected, prior to the actual building of that part. Computer modeling is
also used to design ultrasonic transducers.
As noted in the previous section, an ultrasonic transducer may be
characterized by detailed measurements of its electrical and sound radiation
properties. Such measurements can completely determine the response of
any one individual transducer.
There is ongoing research to develop general models that relate electrical
inputs (voltage, current) to mechanical outputs (force, velocity) and vice-versa.
These models can be very robust in giving accurate prediction of transducer
response, but suffer from a lack of accurate modeling of physical variables
inherent in transducer manufacturing. These electrical-mechanical response
models must take into account the physical and electrical components in the
figure below.
The Thompson-Gray Measurement Model, which makes very accurate
predictions of ultrasonic scattering measurements made through liquid-solid
interfaces, does not attempt to model transducer electrical-mechanical
response. The Thompson-Gray Measurement Model approach makes use of
reference data taken with the same transducer(s) to deconvolve electro-
physical characteristics specific to individual transducers. See Section 5.4
Thompson-Gray Measurement Model.
The long term goal in ultrasonic modeling is to incorporate accurate models of
the transducers themselves as well as accurate models of pulser-receivers,
cables, and other components that completely describe any given inspection
setup and allow the accurate prediction of inspection signals.
3.9: Couplants
A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the transmission of
ultrasonic energy from the transducer into the test specimen. Couplant is
generally necessary because the acoustic impedance mismatch between air
and solids (i.e. such as the test specimen) is large. Therefore, nearly all of the
energy is reflected and very little is transmitted into the test material. The
couplant displaces the air and makes it possible to get more sound energy
into the test specimen so that a usable ultrasonic signal can be obtained. In
contact ultrasonic testing a thin film of oil, glycerin or water is generally used
between the transducer and the test surface.
Couplant
Immersion Method - Water as a couplant
When scanning over the part or making precise measurements, an immersion
technique is often used. In immersion ultrasonic testing both the transducer
and the part are immersed in the couplant, which is typically water. This
method of coupling makes it easier to maintain consistent coupling while
moving and manipulating the transducer and/or the part.
Squirter Column (bubbler)- Water as a couplant
Couplant
Couplant
As discussed on the previous page, one of the essential features of ultrasonic
measurements is mechanical coupling between the transducer and the solid
whose properties or structure are to be studied. This coupling is generally
achieved in one of two ways. In immersion measurements, energy is coupled
between the transducer and sample by placing both objects in a tank filled
with a fluid, generally water. In contact measurements, the transducer is
pressed directly against the sample, and coupling is achieved by the
presence of a thin fluid layer inserted between the two. When shear waves
are to be transmitted, the fluid is generally selected to have a significant
viscosity.
Electromagnetic-acoustic transducers (EMAT) acts through totally different
physical principles and do not need couplant. When a wire is placed near the
surface of an electrically conducting object and is driven by a current at the
desired ultrasonic frequency, eddy currents will be induced in a near surface
region of the object. If a static magnetic field is also present, these eddy
currents will experience Lorentz forces of the form
F = I x B
F the Lorentz force is the body force per unit volume, I is the induced
dynamic current density, and B is the static magnetic induction.
The most important application of EMATs has been in nondestructive
evaluation (NDE) applications such as (1) flaw detection or (2) material
property characterization. Couplant free transduction allows operation without
contact at elevated temperatures and in remote locations. The coil and
magnet structure can also be designed to excite complex wave patterns and
polarizations that would be difficult to realize with fluid coupled piezoelectric
probes. In the inference of material properties from precise velocity or
attenuation measurements, using EMATs can eliminate errors associated
with couplant variation, particularly in contact measurements.
F is the body force per unit volume, I is the induced dynamic current
density, and B is the static magnetic induction.
EMAT
A number of practical EMAT configurations are shown below. In each, the
biasing magnet structure, the coil, and the forces on the surface of the solid
are shown in an exploded view. The first three configurations will excite
beams propagating normal to the surface of the half-space and produce
beams with radial, longitudinal, and transverse polarizations, respectively.
The final two use spatially varying stresses to excite beams propagating at
oblique angles or along the surface of a component. Although a great number
of variations on these configurations have been conceived and used in
practice, consideration of these three geometries should suffice to introduce
the fundamentals.
http://www.mie.utoronto.ca/labs/undel/index.php?menu_path=menu_pages/projects_menu.html&content_path=content_pages/fac2_2.html&main_menu=projects&side_menu=page1&sub_side_menu=s2
Electromagnetic acoustic transducer
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_acoustic_transducer
Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) is a transducer for non-contact
sound generation and reception using electromagnetic mechanisms. EMAT is
an ultrasonic nondestructive testing (NDT) method which does not require
contact or couplant, because the sound is directly generated within the
material adjacent to the transducer. Due to this couplant-free feature, EMAT
is particularly useful for automated inspection, and hot, cold, clean, or dry
environments. EMAT is an ideal transducer to generate Shear Horizontal (SH)
bulk wave mode, Surface Wave, Lamb waves and all sorts of other guided-
wave modes in metallic and/or ferromagnetic materials. As an emerging
ultrasonic testing (UT) technique, EMAT can be used for thickness
measurement, flaw detection, and material property characterization. After
decades of research and development, EMAT has found its applications in
many industries such as primary metal manufacturing and processing,
automotive, railroad, pipeline, boiler and pressure vessel industries.
Comparison between EMAT and Piezoelectric Transducers
As an Ultrasonic Testing (UT) method, EMAT has all the advantages of UT
compared to other NDT methods. J ust like piezoelectric UT probes, EMAT
probes can be used in pulse echo, pitch-catch, and through-transmission
configurations. EMAT probes can also be assembled into phased array
probes, delivering focusing and beam steering capabilities.
Advantages
Compared to piezoelectric transducers, EMAT probes have the following
advantages:
1. No couplant is needed. Based on the transduction mechanism of EMAT,
couplant is not required. This makes EMAT ideal for inspections at
temperatures below the freezing point and above the evaporation point of
liquid couplants. It also makes it convenient for situations where couplant
handling would be impractical.
2. EMAT is a non-contact method. Although proximity is preferred, a physical
contact between the transducer and the specimen under test is not required.
3. Dry Inspection. Since no couplant is needed, the EMAT inspection can be
performed in a dry environment.
4. Less sensitive to surface condition. With contact-based piezoelectric
transducers, the test surface has to be machined smoothly to ensure
coupling. Using EMAT, the requirements to surface smoothness are less
stringent; the only requirement is to remove loose scale and the like.
5. Easier for sensor deployment. Using piezoelectric transducer, the wave
propagation angle in the test part is affected by Snells law. As a result, a
small variation in sensor deployment may cause a significant change in
the refracted angle.
6. Easier to generate SH-type waves. Using piezoelectric transducers, SH
wave is difficult to couple to the test part. EMAT provide a convenient
means of generating SH bulk wave and SH guided waves.
Challenges and Disadvantages
The disadvantages of EMAT compared to piezoelectric UT can be
summarized as follows:
1. Low transduction efficiency. EMAT transducers typically produce raw
signal of lower power than piezoelectric transducers. As a result, more
sophisticated signal processing techniques are needed to isolate signal
from noise.
2. Limited to metallic or magnetic products. NDT of plastic and ceramic
material is not suitable or at least not convenient using EMAT.
3. Size constraints. Although there are EMAT transducers as small as a
penny, commonly used transducers are large in size. Low-profile EMAT
problems are still under research and development. Due to the size
constraints, EMAT phased array is also difficult to be made fromvery
small elements.
4. Caution must be taken when handling magnets around steel products.
Applications of EMATs
EMAT has been used in a broad range of applications and has potential to be
used in many other applications. A brief and incomplete list is as follows.
1. Thickness measurement for various applications
2. Flaw detection in steel products
3. Plate lamination defect inspection
4. Bonded structure lamination detection
5. Laser weld inspection for automotive components
6. Various weld inspection for coil join, tubes and pipes.
7. Pipeline in-service inspection.
8. Railroad and wheel inspection
9. Austenitic weld inspection for power industry
10. Material characterization
http://mdienergy.com/emat.html
Cross-sectional view of a spiral coil EMAT exciting radially polarized shear
waves propagating normal to the surface.
http://www-ndc.me.es.osaka-
u.ac.jp/pmwiki_e/pmwiki.php?n=Research.EMATs
EMAT Transducer
Cross-sectional view of a tangential field EMAT for exciting polarized
longitudinal waves propagating normal to the surface.
Cross-sectional view of a normal field EMAT for exciting plane polarized
shear waves propagating normal to the surface.
EMATS
The bulk-shear-wave EMAT
consists of a pair of permanent
magnets and a spiral-elongated
coil. Driving currents in the coil
generate the electromagnet
forces (Lorentz force and
magnetostriction force) parallel
to the surface to generate the
shear waves propagating
normal to the surface
Cross-sectional view of a meander coil EMAT for exciting obliquely
propagating L or SV waves, Rayleigh waves, or guided modes (such as Lamb
waves) in plates.
Cross-sectional view of a periodic permanent magnet EMAT for exciting
grazing or obliquely propagating horizontally polarized (SH) waves or guided
SH modes in plates.
Practical EMAT designs are relatively narrowband and require strong
magnetic fields and large currents to produce ultrasound that is often weaker
than that produced by piezoelectric transducers. Rare-earth materials such as
Samarium-Cobalt and Neodymium-Iron-Boron are often used to produce
sufficiently strong magnetic fields, which may also be generated by pulsed
electromagnets.
The EMAT offers many advantages based on its couplant-free operation.
These advantages include the abilities to operate in remote environments at
elevated speeds and temperatures, to excite polarizations not easily excited
by fluid coupled piezoelectrics, and to produce highly consistent
measurements.
These advantages are tempered by low efficiencies, and careful electronic
design is essential to applications.
Ultrasonic pulser-receivers are well suited to general purpose ultrasonic
testing. Along with appropriate transducers and an oscilloscope, they can be
used for flaw detection and thickness gauging in a wide variety of metals,
plastics, ceramics, and composites. Ultrasonic pulser-receivers provide a
unique, low-cost ultrasonic measurement capability
The pulser section of the instrument generates short, large amplitude electric
pulses of controlled energy, which are converted into short ultrasonic
pulses when applied to an ultrasonic transducer. Most pulser sections
have very low impedance outputs to better drive transducers. Control
functions associated with the pulser circuit include:
1. Pulse length or damping (The amount of time the pulse is applied to the
transducer.)
2. Pulse energy (The voltage applied to the transducer. Typical pulser circuits
will apply from 100 volts to 800 volts to a transducer.)
100 volts to 800 volts (1KV~2KV could be used)
Transducer Cut-out
Pulse characteristics
Pulse length
N= Pulse Rate
Pulse energy
Pulse Length: BS4331 Pt2.
Pulse length
N= Pulse Rate
Pulse energy
Pulse Length: A long pulse length may be 15 wavelength , a short pulse
length may be only 2 and a normal pulse length usually about 5 .
The longer the pulse length the more energy, thus more penetrating, however
the resolution and sensitivity deteriorated.
Pulse Length
Pulse Length
Pulse Length
Pulse Length
Pulse Length and Wave form
Pulse Length and Wave form Quality Factor
Two different pulses with the same frequency, but different duration (pulse
length), i.e. Number of oscillations. The shortest pulse has a wider dispersion
of frequencies, i.e. a greater bandwidth.
Wave form Quality Factor
Pulse Length / Quality factor
Q Factor = fo /(f1-f2)
Pulse-Echo mode of operation, narrow band excitation (tone burst).
Conventional air-coupled transducer with passive matching layers
http://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/13/5/5996/htm
Two types of excitation: Sinusoidal/Shock.
Pulse-echo mode of operation, wideband excitation (spike). 1. (Red) Air-
coupled transducer with active matching layer. 2. (Blue) Conventional air-
coupled transducer with passive matching layers.
/4 impedance
matching layers
Modulus of the electrical impedance of the piezocomposite disk vs frequency.
Circles: experimental measurements, solid red line: theoretical calculation.
Z= pV
Sensitivity in pulse-echo mode of operation wideband excitation (spike). 1.
(Red) Air-coupled transducer with active matching layer. 2. (Blue)
Conventional air-coupled transducer with passive matching layers
Transducers
Damping:
Shock wave transducer and low damped transducer : Shock wave
transducers should always be used for wall thickness measurement. For
smaller wall thicknesses this is as important for the pulse separation as is the
frequency itself. For large wall thickness the shock wave is required also for a
perfect start and stop trigger of the time measurement. Low damped
transducers are not recommended.
http://www.ndt.net/article/rohrext/us_pk/us_pk_e.htm
In the receiver section the voltage signals produced by the transducer, which
represent the received ultrasonic pulses, are amplified. The amplified radio
frequency (RF) signal is available as an output for display or capture for
signal processing. Control functions associated with the receiver circuit
include:
1. Signal rectification (The RF signal can be viewed as positive half wave,
negative half wave or full wave.)
2. Filtering to shape and smooth return signals
3. Gain, or signal amplification
4. Reject control
The pulser-receiver is also used in material characterization work involving
sound velocity or attenuation measurements, which can be correlated to
material properties such as elastic modulus. In conjunction with a stepless
gate and a spectrum analyzer, pulser-receivers are also used to study
frequency dependent material properties or to characterize the performance
of ultrasonic transducers.
Pulse/Beam Characteristics
High frequency, short duration pulse exhibit better depth resolution but allow
less penetration. A short time duration pulse only a few cycle is known as
broad band pulse, because its frequency domain equivalent is large. Such
pulse exhibit good depth resolution.
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/ndt-tutorials/thickness_gage/transducers/beam_characteristics/
Transducers of the kind most commonly used for ultrasonic gauging will have
these fundamental functional properties, which in turn affect the properties of
the sound beam that they will generate in a given material:
Type - The transducer will be identified according to its design and function
as a contact, delay line, or immersion type. Physical characteristics of the test
material such as surface roughness, temperature, and accessibility, as well
as its sound transmission properties and the range of thickness to be
measured, will all influence the selection of transducer type.
Diameter - The diameter of the active transducer element, which is normally
housed in a somewhat larger case. Smaller diameter transducers are often
most easily coupled to the test material, while larger diameters may couple
more efficiently into rough surfaces due to an averaging effect. Larger
diameters are also required for design reasons as transducer frequency
decreases.
Frequency - The number of wave cycles completed in one second, normally
expressed in Kilohertz (KHz) or Megahertz (MHz). Most ultrasonic gauging is
done in the frequency range from 500 KHz to 20 MHz, so most transducers
fall within that range, although commercial transducers are available from
below 50 KHz to greater than 200 MHz. Penetration increases with lower
frequency, while resolution and focal sharpness increase with higher
frequency.
Waveform duration - The number of wave cycles generated by the
transducer each time it is pulsed. A narrow bandwidth transducer has more
cycles than a broader bandwidth transducer. Element diameter, backing
material, electrical tuning and transducer excitation method all impact
waveform duration. A short wave duration (broadband response) is desirable
in most thickness gauging applications.
Bandwidth - Typical transducers for thickness gauging do not generate
sound waves at a single pure frequency, but rather over a range of
frequencies centered at the nominal frequency designation. Bandwidth is the
portion of the frequency response that falls within specified amplitude limits.
Broad bandwidth is usually desirable in thickness gauging applications
involving contact, delay line, and immersion transducers.
Sensitivity - The relationship between the amplitude of the excitation pulse
and that of the echo received from a designated target. This is a function of
the energy output of the transducer.
Beam profile - As a working approximation, the beam from a typical
unfocused disk transducer is often thought of as a column of energy
originating from the active element area that travels as a straight column for a
while and then expands in diameter and eventually dissipates, like the beam
from a spotlight.
In fact, the actual beam profile is complex, with pressure gradients in both the
transverse and axial directions. In the beam profile illustration below, red
represents areas of highest energy, while green and blue represent lower
energy.
The exact shape of the beam in a given case is determined by transducer
frequency, transducer diameter, and material sound velocity. The area of
maximum energy a short distance beyond the face of the transducer marks
the transition between beam components known as the near field and the far
field, each of which is characterized by specific types of pressure gradients.
Near field length is an important factor in ultrasonic flaw detection, since it
affects the amplitude of echoes from small flaws like cracks, but it is usually
not a significant factor in thickness gauging applications.
Focusing - Immersion transducers can be focused with acoustic lenses to
create an hourglass-shaped beam that narrows to a small focal zone and
then expands. Certain types of delay line transducers can be focused as well.
Beam focusing is very useful when measuring small diameter tubing or other
test pieces with sharp radiuses, since it concentrates sound energy in a small
area and improves echo response.
Attenuation - As it travels through a medium, the organized wave front
generated by an ultrasonic transducer will begin to break down due to
imperfect transmission of energy through the microstructure of any material.
Organized mechanical vibrations (sound waves) turn into random mechanical
vibrations (heat) until the wave front is no longer detectable. This process is
known as sound attenuation. Attenuation varies with material, and increases
proportionally to frequency. As a general rule, hard materials like metals are
less attenuating than softer materials like plastics. Attenuation ultimately limits
the maximum material thickness that can be measured with a given gage
setup and transducer, since it determines the point at which an echo will be
too small to detect.
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/ndt-tutorials/thickness_gage/transducers/beam_characteristics/
15. A significant limitation of a lower frequency, single element transducer is:
a) Scatter of sound beam due to microstructure of test object
b) Increased grain noise or hash
c) (Less beam spread
d) Impaired ability to display discontinuities just below the entry surface
How & Why ?
Reasoning: Pulse/Beam Characteristics
High frequency, short duration pulse exhibit better depth resolution but allow
less penetration.
Lower frequency, longer duration pulse.
Tone burst generators are often used in high power ultrasonic applications.
They take low-voltage signals and convert them into high-power pulse trains
for the most power-demanding applications. Their purpose is to transmit
bursts of acoustic energy into a test piece, receive the resulting signals, and
then manipulate and analyze the received signals in various ways. High
power radio frequency (RF) burst capability allows researchers to work with
difficult, highly attenuative materials or inefficient transducers such as EMATs.
A computer interface makes it possible for systems to make high speed
complex measurements, such as those involving multiple frequencies.
Tone burst generators
Tone burst generators
http://www.seekic.com/circuit_diagram/Signal_Processing/SINGLE_TONE_BURST_GENERATOR.html
Arbitrary waveform generators permit the user to design and generate
virtually any waveform in addition to the standard function generator signals
(i.e. sine wave, square wave, etc.). Waveforms are generated digitally from a
computer's memory, and most instruments allow the downloading of digital
waveform files from computers.
Ultrasonic generation pulses must be varied to accommodate different types
of ultrasonic transducers. General-purpose highly damped contact
transducers are usually excited by a wideband, spike-like pulse provided by
many common pulser/receiver units. The lightly damped transducers used in
high power generation, for example, require a narrowband tone-burst
excitation from a separate generator unit. Sometimes the same transducer
will be excited differently, such as in the study of the dispersion of a material's
ultrasonic attenuation or to characterize ultrasonic transducers.
Section of biphase modulated spread spectrum ultrasonic waveform
http://www.mpi-ultrasonics.com/content/mmm-signal-processing-examples
In spread spectrum ultrasonics (see spread spectrum page), encoded sound
is generated by an arbitrary waveform generator continuously transmitting
coded sound into the part or structure being tested. Instead of receiving
echoes, spread spectrum ultrasonics generates an acoustic correlation
signature having a one-to-one correspondence with the acoustic state of the
part or structure (in its environment) at the instant of measurement. In its
simplest embodiment, the acoustic correlation signature is generated by cross
correlating an encoding sequence (with suitable cross and auto correlation
properties) transmitted into a part (structure) with received signals returning
from the part (structure).
When computer systems were first introduced decades ago, they were large,
slow-working devices that were incompatible with each other. Today, national
and international networking standards have established electronic control
protocols that enable different systems to "talk" to each other. The Electronics
Industries Associations (EIA) and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) developed standards that established common terminology
and interface requirements, such as EIA RS-232 and IEEE 802.3. If a system
designer builds equipment to comply with these standards, the equipment will
interface with other systems. But what about analog signals that are used in
ultrasonics?
Data Signals: Input versus Output
Consider the signal going to and from ultrasonic transducers. When you
transmit data through a cable, the requirement usually simplifies into
comparing what goes in one end with what comes out the other. High
frequency pulses degrade or deteriorate when they are passed through
any cable. Both the height of the pulse (magnitude) and the shape of the
pulse (wave form) change dramatically, and the amount of change
depends on the data rate, transmission distance and the cable's electrical
characteristics. Sometimes a marginal electrical cable may perform
adequately if used in only short lengths, but the same cable with the same
data in long lengths will fail. This is why system designers and industry
standards specify precise cable criteria.
1. Recommendation: Observe manufacturer's recommended practices for
cable impedance, cable length, impedance matching, and any
requirements for termination in characteristic impedance.
2. Recommendation: If possible, use the same cables and cable dressing for
all inspections.
Cable Electrical Characteristics
The most important characteristics in an electronic cable are impedance,
attenuation, shielding, and capacitance. In this page, we can only review
these characteristics very generally, however, we will discuss capacitance in
more detail.
Impedance (Ohms) represents the total resistance that the cable presents to
the electrical current passing through it. At low frequencies the impedance is
largely a function of the conductor size, but at high frequencies conductor size,
insulation material, and insulation thickness all affect the cable's impedance.
Matching impedance is very important. If the system is designed to be 100
Ohms, then the cable should match that impedance, otherwise error-
producing reflections are created.
Attenuation is measured in decibels per unit length (dB/m), and provides an
indication of the signal loss as it travels through the cable. Attenuation is very
dependent on signal frequency. A cable that works very well with low
frequency data may do very poorly at higher data rates. Cables with lower
attenuation are better.
Shielding is normally specified as a cable construction detail. For example,
the cable may be unshielded, contain shielded pairs, have an overall
aluminum/mylar tape and drain wire, or have a double shield. Cable shields
usually have two functions: to act as a barrier to keep external signals from
getting in and internal signals from getting out, and to be a part of the
electrical circuit. Shielding effectiveness is very complex to measure and
depends on the data frequency within the cable and the precise shield design.
A shield may be very effective in one frequency range, but a different
frequency may require a completely different design. System designers often
test complete cable assemblies or connected systems for shielding
effectiveness.
Capacitance in a cable is usually measured as picofarads per foot (pf/m). It
indicates how much charge the cable can store within itself. If a voltage signal
is being transmitted by a twisted pair, the insulation of the individual wires
becomes charged by the voltage within the circuit. Since it takes a certain
amount of time for the cable to reach its charged level, this slows down and
interferes with the signal being transmitted. Digital data pulses are a string of
voltage variations that are represented by square waves. A cable with a high
capacitance slows down these signals so that they come out of the cable
looking more like "saw-teeth," rather than square waves. The lower the
capacitance of the cable, the better it performs with high speed data.
Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed in a number of different
formats. The three most common formats are know in the NDT world as:
A-scan,
B-scan
C-scan presentations
D-scan presentations.
Each presentation mode provides a different way of looking at and evaluating
the region of material being inspected. Modern computerized ultrasonic
scanning systems can display data in all three presentation forms
simultaneously.
Data Presentation:
Data Presentation:
A-Scan Presentation
The A-scan presentation displays the amount of
received ultrasonic energy as a function of time.
The relative amount of received energy is
plotted along the vertical axis and the elapsed
time (which may be related to the sound energy
travel time within the material) is displayed
along the horizontal axis. Most instruments with
an A-scan display allow the signal to be
displayed in its:
natural radio frequency form (RF),
as a fully rectified RF signal, or
as either the positive or negative half of the RF
signal.
In the A-scan presentation, relative discontinuity size can be estimated by
comparing the signal amplitude obtained from an unknown reflector to that
from a known reflector. Reflector depth can be determined by the position of
the signal on the horizontal sweep.
In the A-scan presentation, relative discontinuity size can be estimated by
comparing the signal amplitude obtained from an unknown reflector to that
from a known reflector. Reflector depth can be determined by the position of
the signal on the horizontal sweep.
Reflector depth
Relative discontinuity size
A-Scan
A-Scan
http://static3.olympus-ims.com/data/Flash/HTML5/a_scan/A-scan.html?rev=F2E2
In the illustration of the A-scan presentation to the right, the initial pulse
generated by the transducer is represented by the signal IP, which is near
time zero, the transducer is scanned along the surface of the part, four other
signals are likely to appear at different times on the screen. When the
transducer is in its far left position, only the IP signal and signal A, the sound
energy reflecting from surface A, will be seen on the trace. As the transducer
is scanned to the right, a signal from the backwall BW will appear later in time,
showing that the sound has traveled farther to reach this surface. When the
transducer is over flaw B, signal B will appear at a point on the time scale that
is approximately halfway between the IP signal and the BWsignal. Since the
IP signal corresponds to the front surface of the material, this indicates that
flaw B is about halfway between the front and back surfaces of the sample.
When the transducer is moved over flaw C, signal C will appear earlier in time
since the sound travel path is shorter and signal B will disappear since sound
will no longer be reflecting from it.
B-Scan
B-Scan
http://static2.olympus-ims.com/data/Flash/HTML5/B_Scan/B-scan.html?rev=5E4D
B-Scan Presentation
The B-scan presentations is a profile (cross-sectional) view of the test
specimen. In the B-scan, the time-of-flight (travel time) of the sound energy is
displayed along the vertical axis and the linear position of the transducer is
displayed along the horizontal axis. From the B-scan, the depth of the
reflector and its approximate linear dimensions in the scan direction can be
determined. The B-scan is typically produced by establishing a trigger gate on
the A-scan. Whenever the signal intensity is great enough to trigger the gate,
a point is produced on the B-scan. The gate is triggered by the sound
reflecting from the backwall of the specimen and by smaller reflectors within
the material. In the B-scan image above, line A is produced as the transducer
is scanned over the reduced thickness portion of the specimen. When the
transducer moves to the right of this section, the backwall line BWis
produced. When the transducer is over flaws B and C, lines that are similar to
the length of the flaws and at similar depths within the material are drawn on
the B-scan. It should be noted that a limitation to this display technique is that
reflectors may be masked by larger reflectors near the surface.
It should be noted that a limitation to this display technique is that reflectors
may be masked by larger reflectors near the surface.
Masked by Cabove
Q: In a B-scan display, the length of a screen indication from a discontinuity is
related to:
A. A discontinuitys thickness as measured parallel to the ultrasonic beam
B. The discontinuitys length in the direction of the transducer travel
C. Both A and B
C-Scan Presentation
The C-scan presentation provides a plan-type view of the location and size of
test specimen features. The plane of the image is parallel to the scan pattern
of the transducer. C-scan presentations are produced with an automated data
acquisition system, such as a computer controlled immersion scanning
system. Typically, a data collection gate is established on the A-scan and the
amplitude or the time-of-flight of the signal is recorded at regular intervals as
the transducer is scanned over the test piece. The relative signal amplitude or
the time-of-flight is displayed as a shade of gray or a color for each of the
positions where data was recorded. The C-scan presentation provides an
image of the features that reflect and scatter the sound within and on the
surfaces of the test piece.
C-Scan
http://www.ndt.net/article/pohl/pohl_e.htm
The (1) relative signal
amplitude or (2) the time-
of-flight is displayed as a
shade of gray or a color
for each of the positions
where data was recorded.
C-Scan
C-Scan / A-Scan
High resolution scans can produce very detailed images. Below are two
ultrasonic C-scan images of a US quarter. Both images were produced using
a pulse-echo technique with the transducer scanned over the head side in an
immersion scanning system. For the C-scan image on the left, the gate was
setup to capture the amplitude of the sound reflecting from the front surface of
the quarter. Light areas in the image indicate areas that reflected a greater
amount of energy back to the transducer. In the C-scan image on the right,
the gate was moved to record the intensity of the sound reflecting from the
back surface of the coin. The details on the back surface are clearly visible
but front surface features are also still visible since the sound energy is
affected by these features as it travels through the front surface of the coin.
C-Scan
The D scan- The D scan gives a side view of the defect seen from a
viewpoint normal to
the B scan. It is usually automated, and shows the length, depth and
through thickness of a defect. The D scan should not be confused with the
delta technique.
The D scan- The D scan gives a side view of the defect seen from a
viewpoint normal to
the B scan. It is usually automated, and shows the length, depth and
through thickness of a defect. The D scan should not be confused with the
delta technique.
AUT Displays
3.16 Error Analysis
All measurements, including ultrasonic measurements, however careful and
scientific, are subject to some uncertainties. Error analysis is the study and
evaluation of these uncertainties; its two main functions being to allow the
practitioner to estimate how large the uncertainties are and to help him or her
to reduce them when necessary. Because ultrasonics depends on
measurements, evaluation and minimization of uncertainties is crucial.
In science the word "error" does not mean "mistake" or "blunder" but rather
the inevitable uncertainty of all measurements. Because they cannot be
avoided, errors in this context are not, strictly speaking, "mistakes." At best,
they can be made as small as reasonably possible, and their size can be
reliably estimated.
To illustrate the inevitable occurrence of uncertainties surrounding attempts at
measurement, let us consider a carpenter who must measure the height of a
doorway to an X-ray vault in order to install a door. As a first rough
measurement, she might simply look at the doorway and estimate that it is
210 cm high. This crude "measurement" is certainly subject to uncertainty. If
pressed, the carpenter might express this uncertainty by admitting that the
height could be as little as 205 or as much as 215 cm.
If she wanted a more accurate measurement, she would use a tape measure,
and she might find that the height is 211.3 cm. This measurement is certainly
more precise than her original estimate, but it is obviously still subject to some
uncertainty, since it is inconceivable that she could know the height to be
exactly 211.3000 rather than 211.3001 cm, for example.
There are many reasons for this remaining uncertainty. Some of these causes
of uncertainty could be removed if enough care were taken. For example, one
source of uncertainty might be that poor lighting is making it difficult to read
the tape; this could be corrected by improved lighting.
On the other hand, some sources of uncertainty are intrinsic to the process of
measurement and can never be entirely removed. For instance, let us
suppose the carpenter's tape is graduated in half-centimeters. The top of the
door will probably not coincide precisely with one of the half-centimeter marks,
and if it does not, then the carpenter must estimate just where the top lies
between two marks. Even if the top happens to coincide with one of the
marks, the mark itself is perhaps a millimeter wide, so she must estimate just
where the top lies within the mark. In either case, the carpenter ultimately
must estimate where the top of the door lies relative to the markings on her
tape, and this necessity causes some uncertainty in her answer.
By buying a better tape with closer and finer markings, the carpenter can
reduce her uncertainty, but she cannot eliminate it entirely. If she becomes
obsessively determined to find the height of the door with the greatest
precision that is technically possible, she could buy an expensive laser
interferometer. But even the precision of an interferometer is limited to
distances on the order of the wavelength of light (about 0.000005 meters).
Although she would now be able to measure the height with fantastic
precision, she still would not know the height of the doorway exactly.
Furthermore, as the carpenter strives for greater precision, she will encounter
an important problem of principle. She will certainly find that the height is
different in different places. Even in one place, she will find that the height
varies if the temperature and humidity vary, or even if she accidentally rubs
off a thin layer of dirt. In other words, she will find that there is no such thing
as one exact height of the doorway. This kind of problem is called a "problem
of definition" (the height of the door is not well-defined and plays an important
role in many scientific measurements).
Our carpenter's experiences illustrate what is found to be generally true. No
physical quantity (a thickness, time between pulse-echoes, a transducer
position, etc.) can be measured with complete certainty. With care we may be
able to reduce the uncertainties until they are extremely small, but to
eliminate them entirely is impossible.
In everyday measurements we do not usually bother to discuss uncertainties.
Sometimes the uncertainties are simply not interesting. If we say that the
distance between home and school is 3 miles, it does not matter (for most
purposes) whether this means "somewhere between 2.5 and 3.5 miles" or
"somewhere between 2.99 and 3.01 miles." Often the uncertainties are
important, but can be allowed for instinctively and without explicit
consideration. When our carpenter comes to fit her door, she must know its
height with an uncertainty that is less than 1 mm or so. However, as long as
the uncertainty is this small, the door will (for all practical purposes) be a
perfect fit, x-rays will not leak out, and her concern with error analysis will
come to an end.
The quality factor Qof tuned circuit, search units or individual transducer
element is a performance measurement of their frequency selectivity. It is thru
ration of search unit fundamental (resonance ) frequency f
o
to the band width
(f
2
-f
1
) at 3dB down point at both sides.
Quality Factor Q
3.18.1 Pulse Echo Method
1. The advantages of pulse echo method is that the deflector could be locate
and assess accurately from one side of specimen.
2. The disadvantage ids that the sound path has to travel twice the distance,
thus more attenuations.
3.18.2 Through Transmission Techniques
Two probes are used, positioned on opposite sides. The present of reflector is
indicated by reduction or loss of receiving signal amplitude.
1. The advantages is that the sound has to travel a single path, thus material
with higher attenuation could be checked, thicker material could be
checked and higher frequency with improved sensitivity and resolution
could be realized.
2. The disadvantages is that there is no indication of depth, access to both
sides of specimen is required and
change in coupling condition may
be mistaken as defect. More
elaborate set-up
3.18.3 The Tandem Techniques
The tandem method employed 2 probe on the same side , with each other
spaced at a predetermined length. One transmitting signal the other set to
received signal if reflected from a defect,\. The distance between the probe
depends on the probe angle, material thickness and the depth of expected
defects. The techniques are used to find for defectes at predetermined depth
such as in the root of double V weld.
The Tandem Techniques
Illustration showing the inspection of one
zone. Phased array technology allows the
simultaneous inspection of all zones with
the same probe. Phased array offers
complete coverage of the weld with one
probe on either side of the weld.
Illustration showing the inspection of
one zone. With conventional UT
technology several probes are needed
to cover all zones.
Phased array: Complete coverage
with two probes
Conventional UT: Complete
coverage with > 24 probes
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/pipewizard/
3.18.4 Immersion Methods
In immersion method, compressional probe is mounted on a bridge immersed
in water. The probe could be normal to the test piece as compressional probe
or the bridge could be tilted to generate shear wave of various shear angle.
Probe frequency of 25MHz is not uncommon for immersion method unlike the
contact methods where the thin crustal may be too fragile to handle.
During the set-up of immersion methods, the water path between the probe
and the material surface is delay off the screen, so that the Zero starting point
at the screen represent the front surface of the test material.
It is important to note that the longitudinal velocity in steel is 4 times of that of
water, so the testing of steel the water gap should be greater than one quarter
( ) of steel thickness
Gap water > Steel Thickness, <
(e.g. for 100mm steel the water gap shall be >25mm)
T
T
3. What is reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference?
http://light-and-sound-project.wikispaces.com/3.+What+is+reflection,+refraction,+diffraction,+and+interference%3F
What exactly is reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference?
Reflection occurs when a wave hits something and then bounces it off it.
Refraction is the bending of a wave caused by a change in its speed as it
moves from one medium to another.
Diffraction occurs when an object causes a wave to change direction and
bend around it. Interference is when two or more waves overlap and combine
to make a new wave of lesser or more amplitude.
This picture shows how reflection of light works
and the names of the beams in a reflection.
Reflection
In this picture there is two different beams, and those beams create angles.
The beams are referred to as the reflected beam and the incident beam. The
dotted line is the line that is perpendicular to the mirror, and it splits the large
angle into the two different angles. The first angle is the angle of reflection,
and it is formed by the reflected beam and the perpendicular line. The other
angle is the angle of incidence which is formed by the incident beam and the
perpendicular line. These two angles are always the same measure, although
it sometimes might be a larger or smaller angle.
This picture shows how water waves will diffract around an island. This
picture also shows constructive and destructive interference.
The diffraction happens in this picture when the water waves pass between
the two rocks. When the waves get onto the other side of the two rocks the
waves are shaped as an arc (a U shape). The constructive and destructive
interference happens by the rock in the middle of the picture to the left. The
waves that are passing between the two rocks meet up with the waves
passing around the one rock to the left, and the waves combine. Some waves
will cancel each other out, and some will add to each other and make a
bigger amplitude.
This diagram shows an interference. In this diagram it happens to be
constructive interference, but this is not the only type of interference.
How do reflection, refraction, and diffraction relate to light?
Reflection happens when a light is turned on, and it is in an enclosed area. If
someone is in a enclosed area, and a light is turned on they are going to be
able to see it. Then the light will continue, hit a wall, and it would reflect back
to the human eye.
Refraction happens when light
is shown through another
material, and it changes the
way it is being shown. An
example is when you fill a cup
with water, and then you place
a pencil in the water. When you
look at the pencil from the side
it looks as though the pencil is
broken where the pencil enters
the water. This is due to
refraction, and the bending of
the waves before it enters your
eyes. This picture shows the
broken pencil experiment.
Diffraction happen when light tries to go through an opening. If you are in a
dark hallway, and a room has a light on, you will be able to see he light, but it
will only light up a section of the hallway, and you won't be in the light until
you are almost directly in front of the room.
Interference
Interference
Interference
Expert at Works-Salute!
Expert at Works-Salute!
Section 4: Measurement Techniques
Content: Section 4: Measurement Techniques
4.2: Angle Beams
4.14: Exercises
Expert at works
Pulse-echo ultrasonic measurements can determine the location of a
discontinuity in a part or structure by accurately measuring the time required
for a short ultrasonic pulse generated by a transducer to travel through a
thickness of material, reflect from the back or the surface of a discontinuity,
and be returned to the transducer. In most applications, this time interval is a
few microseconds or less. The two-way transit time measured is divided by
two to account for the down-and-back travel path and multiplied by the
velocity of sound in the test material. The result is expressed in the well-
known relationship:
d = vt/2 or v = 2d/t
where d is the distance from the surface to the discontinuity in the test piece,
v is the velocity of sound waves in the material, and t is the measured
round-trip transit time.
d
2
= vt
d
1
= vt
= d
1
+d
2
2vt 2vt
A-Scan
A Scan
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/MeasurementTech/applet_4_1/applet_4_1.htm
Precision ultrasonic thickness gages usually operate at frequencies between
500 kHz and 100 MHz, by means of piezoelectric transducers that generate
bursts of sound waves when excited by electrical pulses. A wide variety of
transducers with various acoustic characteristics have been developed to
meet the needs of industrial applications. Typically,
1. lower frequencies are used to optimize penetration when measuring thick,
highly attenuating or highly scattering materials,
2. while higher frequencies will be recommended to optimize resolution in
thinner, non-attenuating, non-scattering materials.
0.5 MHz ~ 100 MHz
In thickness gauging, ultrasonic techniques permit quick and reliable
measurement of thickness without requiring access to both sides of a part.
Accuracy's as high as 1 micron or 0.0001 inch can be achieved in some
applications. It is possible to measure most engineering materials
ultrasonically, including metals, plastic, ceramics, composites, epoxies, and
glass as well as liquid levels and the thickness of certain biological specimens.
On-line or in-process measurement of extruded plastics or rolled metal often
is possible, as is measurements of single layers or coatings in multilayer
materials. Modern handheld gages are simple to use and very reliable.
4.2: Angle Beams I
Angle Beam Transducers and wedges are typically used to introduce a
refracted shear wave into the test material. An angled sound path allows the
sound beam to come in from the side, thereby improving detectability of flaws
in and around welded areas.
= Angle of reflection, T=Material thickness, S= Sound path,
Surface distance = Sin x S, Depth= Cos x S
A-Scan
Angle Beam Transducers and wedges are typically used to introduce a
refracted shear wave into the test material. The geometry of the sample
below allows the sound beam to be reflected from the back wall to improve
detectability of flaws in and around welded areas.
= Angle of reflection, T=Material thickness, S= Sound path,
Skip = 2(T x Tan), Leg = T/Cos, V Path = 2 x Leg
A-Scan
Flaw Location and Echo Display
Dead Zone
Near Surface Detectability with Angle Beam Transducer
Flaw Location
Flaw Location with Angle Beam Transducer
Why angle beam assemblies are used
Cracks or other discontinuities perpendicular to the surface of a test piece, or
tilted with respect to that surface, are usually invisible with straight beam test
techniques because of their orientation with respect to the sound beam.
Perpendicular cracks do not reflect any significant amount of sound energy
from a straight beam because the beam is looking at a thin edge that is much
smaller than the wavelength, and tilted cracks may not reflect any energy
back in the direction of the transducer. This situation can occur in many types
of welds, in structural metal parts, and in many other critical components. An
angle beam assembly directs sound energy into the test piece at a selected
angle. A perpendicular crack will reflect angled sound energy along a path
that is commonly referred to as a corner trap, as seen in the illustration below.
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/applications/angle-beam-transducers/
The angled sound beam is highly sensitive to cracks perpendicular to the far
surface of the test piece (first leg test) or, after bouncing off the far side, to
cracks perpendicular to the coupling surface (second leg test). A variety of
specific beam angles and probe positions are used to accommodate different
part geometries and flaw types. In the case of angled discontinuities, a
properly selected angle beam assembly can direct sound at a favorable angle
for reflection back to the transducer.
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/applications/angle-beam-transducers/
How they work -- Snell's Law
A sound beam that hits a surface at perpendicular incidence will reflect
straight back. A sound beam that hits a surface at an angle will reflect forward
at the same angle.
Sound energy that is transmitted from one material to another bends in
accordance with Snell's Law of refraction. Refraction is the bending of a
sound beam (or any other wave) when it passes through a boundary between
two materials of different velocities. A beam that is traveling straight will
continue in a straight direction, but a beam that strikes a boundary at an angle
will be bent according to the formula:
Typical angle beam assemblies make use of mode conversion and Snell's
Law to generate a shear wave at a selected angle (most commonly 30, 45,
60, or 70 degrees) in the test piece. As the angle of an incident
longitudinal wave with respect to a surface increases, an increasing
portion of the sound energy is converted to a shear wave in the second
material, and if the angle is high enough, all of the energy in the second
material will be in the form of shear waves.
There are two advantages to designing common angle beams to take
advantage of this mode conversion phenomenon:
(1) First, energy transfer is more efficient at the incident angles that
generate shear waves in steel and similar materials.
(2) Second, minimum flaw size resolution is improved through the use of
shear waves, since at a given frequency, the wavelength of a shear
wave is approximately 60% the wavelength of a comparable longitudinal
wave, and minimum flaw size resolution increases as the wavelength of
a sound beam gets smaller.
Selecting the right angle beam assembly
The parameters that affect angle beam performance include not only the
(1)beam angle generated by the wedge, but also (2) transducer frequency
and (3) element size. The optimum beam angle will generally be governed
by the geometry of the test piece and the orientation of the discontinuities
that the test is intended to find. Transducer frequency affects penetration
and flaw resolution:
1. As frequency increases, the distance the sound wave will travel in a given
material decreases, but resolution of small discontinuities improves.
2. As frequency decreases, the distance the sound wave will travel increases
but the minimum detectable flaw size will become larger.
3. Similarly, larger element sizes may decrease inspection time by increasing
coverage area, but the reflected echo amplitude from small discontinuities
will decrease. Smaller element sizes will increase reflection amplitude from
small discontinuities, but the inspection may take longer because the
smaller beam covers less area.
These conflicting factors must be balanced in any given application, based on
specific test requirements.
Contoured wedges
The IIW recommends the use of a contoured wedge whenever the gap
between the wedge and the test surface exceeds 0.5 mm (approximately
0.020 in.). Under this guideline, a contoured wedge should be used whenever
part radius is less than the square of a wedge dimension (length or width)
divided by four:
where
R = radius of test surface
W = width of wedge if testing in axial orientation, length of wedge if testing in
circumferential orientation
Of course switching to a small wedge, if possible within the parameters of
inspection requirements, will improve coupling on curved surfaces. As a
practical matter, contouring should be considered whenever signal strength
diminishes or couplant noise increases to a point where the reliability of an
inspection is impaired.
Focused dual element angle beams
The vast majority of angle beam assemblies use single element, unfocused
transducers. However, in some tests involving highly attenuating or scattering
materials such as coarse grain cast stainless steel, focused dual element
angle beams are useful. Because they have separate transmitting and
receiving elements, dual element transducers can typically be driven at higher
excitation energies without noise problems associated with ringdown or
wedge noise. Focusing permits a higher concentration of sound energy at a
selected depth within the test piece, increasing sensitivity to discontinuities in
that region.
High temperature wedges
Standard angle beam assemblies are designed for use at normal
environmental temperatures only. For situations where metal must be
inspeced at elevated temperature, special high temperature wedges are
available. Some of these wedges will tolerate brief contact with surfaces as
hot as 480 C or 900 F. However, it is important to note that high
temperature wedges require special attention with regard to the sound path
they generate. With any high temperature wedge, sound velocity in the wedge
material will decrease as it heats up, and thus the refracted angle in metals
will increase as the wedge heats up. If this is of concern in a given test,
refracted angle should be verified at actual operating temperature. As a
practical matter, thermal variations during testing will often make precise
determination of the actual refracted angle difficult.
Surfaces as hot as 480 C / 900 F
http://www.namicon.com/products.xpg?catid=84&prodid=43
snap-in
threaded
steel with a shear wave velocity of approximately 3,250 M/S or 0.1280 in/uS.
There are many sizing methods, these include:
4.3.1 Crack Tip Diffraction
When the geometry of the part is relatively uncomplicated and the orientation
of a flaw is well known, the length (a) of a crack can be determined by a
technique known as tip diffraction. One common application of the tip
diffraction technique is to determine the length of a crack originating from on
the backside of a flat plate as shown below. In this case, when an angle beam
transducer is scanned over the area of the flaw, the principle echo comes
from the base of the crack to locate the position of the flaw (Image 1). A
second, much weaker echo comes from the tip of the crack and since the
distance traveled by the ultrasound is less, the second signal appears earlier
in time on the scope (Image 2).
Crack Tip Diffraction Methods
No animation.
Crack height (a) is a function of the ultrasound velocity (v) in the material, the
incident angle (Q2) and the difference in arrival times between the two signal
(dt). Since the incident angle and the thickness of the material is the same in
both measurements, two similar right triangle are formed such that one can
be overlayed on the other. A third similar right triangle is made, which is
comprised on the crack, the length dt and the angle Q2. The variable dt is
really the difference in time but can easily be converted to a distance by
dividing the time in half (to get the one-way travel time) and multiplying this
value by the velocity of the sound in the material. Using trigonometry an
equation for estimating crack height from these variables can be derived as
shown below.
Crack Tip Diffraction Method
The equation is complete once
distance dt is calculated by dividing
the difference in time between the
two signals (dt) by two and
multiplying this value by the sound
velocity.
4.3.2 6 dB Drop Sizing-
For Large Reflector (greater than beam width), i.e. there is no BWE.
6 dB Drop Method
6 dB Drop Method
6 dB Drop Method
www.youtube.com/embed/hsR17WA3nHg
6 dB Drop Method
4.3.3 The 20 dB drop sizing method
We can use a beam plot to find the edge of a defect by using the edge of
the sound beam.
If we know the width of a beam at a certain distance from the crystal, we
can mark the distance across a defect from where the extreme edges of
the beam touch each end of the defect and then subtract the beamwidth to
get the defect size.
When the signal from the defect drops by 20dB from its peak, we judge
that the edge of the beam is just touching the end of the defect. We can
find the width of the sound beam at that range by consulting the beam plot
that we have made
Note: The peak of the defect is normally taken as being the last peak on
the screen before the probe goes off the end of the defect, not necessarily
the maximum signal from a defect.
20 dB Drop Method
20 dB Drop Sizing- For Small Reflector (smaller than beam width).
To use this method the transducer beam width need to be first determined.
Construction of a beam edge plot -20dB Normal Beam
Find the hole at a depth of 13mm on an IOW block with a 0 degree probe and
maximise the signal. Move the probe until you get the highest signal you
can from the hole, then turn the signal to FSH using gain. Mark the position
of the middle of the probe on the side of the block.
Move the probe to one side until the signal drops to 10%FSH (-20dB) and
mark the centre of the probe on the side of the block.
Move the probe to the other side of the hole until the signal drops to
10%FSH (-20dB) and mark the centre of the probe on the block.
Use the distances between the marks on the block to plot the beam on a
piece of graph paper. Measure 13mm depth on the paper then mark the
distances of the probe centre at -20dB from the beam centre at 100%FSH
on either side.
Now find the 25mm hole and maximise the signal, turning it to 100%FSH.
Move the probe to either side of the hole marking the centre of the probe
on the side of the block where the signal drops by 20dB.
Measure 25mm on the paper and use the distances on the block to plot the
beam dimensions at 25mm.
Repeat using the 32mm hole. J oin up the points marking the probe centre
at 20dB to obtain a beam plot.
Note that we have only drawn the beam width in one plane, so the probe
must be marked accordingly and used to measure defects in this plane.
We use knowledge of the beam spread to size defects, find the edges and
hence their width, length and sometimes orientation.
Construction of a beam edge plot -20dB Angle Beam
4.3.4 Equalization Back Wall Sizing- The probe moving off the edges of
the reflector until the amplitude is equal to the rising BWE
4.3.5 Maximum Amplitude Techniques
The technique is used for small reflector. The probe moving off the edges of
the reflector until the amplitude is maximum and the line joining the boundary
is the size of reflector cluster.
4.3.6 The DGS Method
Distance Gain Size Method. The technique is used to find the equivalent
reflector size by comparing the gain between the flaw and the known size
reflector.
Ultrasonic scanning systems are used for automated data acquisition and
imaging. They typically integrate a ultrasonic instrumentation, a scanning
bridge, and computer controls. The signal strength and/or the time-of-flight of
the signal is measured for every point in the scan plan. The value of the data
is plotted using colors or shades of gray to produce detailed images of the
surface or internal features of a component. Systems are usually capable of
displaying the data in A-, B- and C-scan modes simultaneously. With any
ultrasonic scanning system there are two factors to consider:
how to generate and receive the ultrasound.
how to scan the transducer(s) with respect to the part being inspected.
Automatic Scanning
The most common ultrasonic scanning systems involve the use of an
immersion tank as shown in the image above. The ultrasonic transducer and
the part are placed under water so that consistent coupling is maintained by
the water path as the transducer or part is moved within the tank. However,
scanning systems come in a large variety of configurations to meet specific
inspection needs. In the image to the right, an engineer aligns the heads of a
squirter system that uses a through-transmission technique to inspect aircraft
composite structures. In this system, the ultrasound travels through columns
of forced water which are scanned about the part with a robotic system. A
variation of the squirter system is the "Dripless Bubbler" scanning system,
which is discussed below.
Dripless Bubbler
It is often desirable to eliminate the need for the water coupling and a number
of state-of-the-art UT scanning systems have done this. Laser ultrasonic
systems use laser beams to generate the ultrasound and collect the resulting
signals in an noncontact mode. Advances in transducer technology has lead
to the development of an inspection technique known as air-coupled
ultrasonic inspection. These systems are capable of sending ultrasonic
energy through air and getting enough energy into the part to have a useable
signal. These system typically use a through-transmission technique since
reflected energy from discontinuities are too weak to detect.
The second major consideration is how to scan the transducer(s) with respect
to the part being inspected. When the sample being inspected has a flat
surface, a simple raster-scan can be performed. If the sample is cylindrical, a
turntable can be used to turn the sample while the transducer is held
stationary or scanned in the axial direction of the cylinder. When the sample
is irregular shaped, scanning becomes more difficult. As illustrated in the
beam modeling animation, curved surface can steer, focus and defocus the
ultrasonic beam. For inspection applications involving parts having complex
curvatures, scanning systems capable of performing contour following are
usually necessary.
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Graphics/Flash/AppleScan/Apple2.swf
Changes in ultrasonic wave propagation speed, along with energy losses,
from interactions with a materials microstructures are often used to
nondestructively gain information about a material's properties.
Measurements of sound velocity and ultrasonic wave attenuation can be
related to the elastic properties that can be used to characterize the texture of
polycrystalline metals. These measurements enable industry to replace
destructive microscopic inspections with nondestructive methods.
Of interest in velocity measurements are longitudinal wave, which propagate
in gases, liquids, and solids. In solids, also of interest are transverse (shear)
waves. The longitudinal velocity is independent of sample geometry when the
dimensions at right angles to the beam are large compared to the beam area
and wavelength. The transverse velocity is affected little by the physical
dimensions of the sample.
Pulse-Echo and Pulse-Echo-Overlap Methods
Rough ultrasonic velocity measurements are as simple as measuring the time
it takes for a pulse of ultrasound to travel from one transducer to another
(pitch-catch) or return to the same transducer (pulse-echo). Another method
is to compare the phase of the detected sound wave with a reference signal:
slight changes in the transducer separation are seen as slight phase changes,
from which the sound velocity can be calculated. These methods are suitable
for estimating acoustic velocity to about 1 part in 100. Standard practice for
measuring velocity in materials is detailed in ASTM E494.
ASTM E494 - 10
Measuring Ultrasonic Velocity in Materials
Active Standard ASTM E494 | Developed by Subcommittee: E07.06
Book of Standards Volume: 03.03
Precision Velocity Measurements (using EMATs)
Electromagnetic-acoustic transducers (EMAT) generate ultrasound in the
material being investigated. When a wire or coil is placed near to the surface
of an electrically conducting object and is driven by a current at the desired
ultrasonic frequency, eddy currents will be induced in a near surface region. If
a static magnetic field is also present, these currents will experience Lorentz
forces of the form
F = J x B
where F is a body force per unit volume, J is the induced dynamic current
density, and B is the static magnetic induction.
EMATs
http://www.resonic.com/emar_how_it_works.html
http://www.resonic.com/error%20scan.swf
http://www.resonic.com/scan2.swf
The most important application of EMATs has been in nondestructive
evaluation (NDE) applications such as flaw detection or material property
characterization. Couplant free transduction allows operation without contact
at elevated temperatures and in remote locations. The coil and magnet
structure can also be designed to excite complex wave patterns and
polarizations that would be difficult to realize with fluid coupled piezoelectric
probes. In the inference of material properties from precise velocity or
attenuation measurements, use of EMATs can eliminate errors associated
with couplant variation, particularly in contact measurements.
Differential velocity is measured using a T1-T2---R fixed array of EMAT
transducer at 0, 45, 90 or 0, 90 relative rotational directions depending on
device configuration:
EMAT Driver Frequency: 450-600 KHz (nominal)
Sampling Period: 100 ns
Time Measurement Accuracy:
-- Resolution 0.1 ns
-- Accuracy required for less than 2 KSI Stress Measurements:
Variance 2.47 ns
-- Accuracy required for texture: Variance 10.0 Ns
------ W440 < 3.72E-5
------ W420 < 1.47E-4
------ W400 < 2.38E-4
Time Measurement Technique
Fourier Transform-Phase-Slope determination of delta time between received
RF bursts (T2-R) - (T1-R), where T2 and T1 EMATs are driven in series to
eliminate differential phase shift due to probe liftoff.
Slope of the phase is determined by linear regression of weighted data points
within the signal bandwidth and a weighted y-intercept. The accuracy obtained
with this method can exceed one part in one hundred thousand (1:100,000).
Ultrasonic wave propagation is influenced by the microstructure of the
material through which it propagates. The velocity of the ultrasonic waves is
influenced by the elastic moduli and the density of the material, which in turn
are mainly governed by the amount of various phases present and the
damage in the material. Ultrasonic attenuation, which is the sumof the
(1)absorption and the (2)scattering, is mainly dependent upon the damping
capacity and scattering from the grain boundary in the material. However, to
fully characterize the attenuation required knowledge of a large number of
thermo-physical parameters that in practice are hard to quantify.
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Relative measurements such as the change of attenuation and simple
qualitative tests are easier to make than absolute measure. Relative
attenuation measurements can be made by examining the exponential decay
of multiple back surface reflections. However, significant variations in
microstructural characteristics and mechanical properties often produce only
a relatively small change in wave velocity and attenuation. Absolute
measurements of attenuation are very difficult to obtain because the echo
amplitude depends on factors in addition to amplitude.
The most common method used to get quantitative results is to use an
ultrasonic source and detector transducer separated by a known distance. By
varying the separation distance, the attenuation can be measured from the
changes in the amplitude. To get accurate results, the influence of coupling
conditions must be carefully addressed. To overcome the problems related to
conventional ultrasonic attenuation measurements, ultrasonic spectral
parameters for frequency-dependent attenuation measurements, which are
independent from coupling conditions are also used. For example, the ratio of
the amplitudes of higher frequency peak to the lower frequency peak, has
been used for microstructural characterization of some materials.
Attenuation:
A
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t
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Attenuation:
Spread spectrum ultrasonics makes use of the correlation of continuous
signals rather than pulse-echo or pitch-catch techniques.
Spread spectrum ultrasonics is a patented new broad band spread-spectrum
ultrasonic nondestructive evaluation method. In conventional ultrasonics, a
pulse or tone burst is transmitted, then received echoes or through-
transmission signals are received and analyzed.
In spread spectrum ultrasonics, encoded sound is continuously transmitted
into the part or structure being tested. Instead of receiving echoes, spread
spectrum ultrasonics generates an acoustic correlation signature having a
one-to-one correspondence with the acoustic state of the part or structure (in
its environment) at the instant of the measurement. In its simplest
embodiment, the acoustic correlation signature is generated by cross
correlating an encoding sequence, with suitable cross and auto correlation
properties, transmitted into a part (structure) with received signals returning
from the part (structure).
Section of bi-phase modulated spread spectrum ultrasonic waveform
Multiple probes may be used to ensure that acoustic energy is propagated
through all critical volumes of the structure. Triangulation may be incorporated
with multiple probes to locate regions of detected distress. Spread spectrum
ultrasonics can achieve very high sensitivity to acoustic propagation changes
with a low level of energy.
Spread Spectrum UT
Two significant applications of Spread Spectrum Ultrasonics are:
1. Large Structures that allow ultrasonic transducers to be "permanently"
affixed to the structures, eliminating variations in transducer registration
and couplant. Comparisons with subsequent acoustic correlation
signatures can be used to monitor critical structures such as fracture
critical bridge girders. In environments where structures experience a
great many variables such as temperature, load, vibration, or
environmental coupling, it is necessary to filter out these effects to obtain
the correct measurements of defects.
In the example below, simulated defects were created by setting a couple of
steel blocks on the top of the bridge girder.
Spread Spectrum UT
2. Piece-part assembly line environments where transducers and couplant
may be precisely controlled, eliminating significant variations in transducer
registration and couplant. Acoustic correlation signatures may be statistically
compared to an ensemble of known "good" parts for sorting or
accepting/rejecting criteria in a piece-part assembly line environment.
Impurities in the incoming steel used to forge piece parts may result in sulfite
stringer inclusions. In this next example simulated defects were created by
placing a magnetized steel wire on the surface of a small steel cylindrical
piston used in hydraulic transmissions.
Two discrimination technique are tested here, which are SUF-1 and SUF-2,
with the latter giving the best discrimination between defect conditions. The
important point being that spread spectrum ultrasonics can be extremely
sensitive to the acoustic state of a part or structure being tested, and
therefore, is a good ultrasonic candidate for testing and monitoring, especially
where scanning is economic unfeasible.
EMATs with Spread Spectrum Ultrasonic
http://www.resonic.com/emar_how_it_works.html
http://www.resonic.com/error%20scan.swf
http://www.resonic.com/scan2.swf
Signal processing involves techniques that improve our understanding of
information contained in received ultrasonic data. Normally, when a signal is
measured with an oscilloscope, it is viewed in the time domain (vertical axis is
amplitude or voltage and the horizontal axis is time). For many signals, this is
the most logical and intuitiveway to view them. Simple signal
processing often involves the use of gates to isolate the signal of interest or
frequency filters to smooth or reject unwanted frequencies.
When the frequency content of the signal is of interest, it makes sense to view
the signal graph in the frequency domain. In the frequency domain, the
vertical axis is still voltage but the horizontal axis is frequency.
Display
Time/Magnitude
domain
Frequency
/Magnitude domain
The frequency domain display shows how much of the signal's energy is
present as a function of frequency. For a simple signal such as a sine wave,
the frequency domain representation does not usually show us much
additional information. However, with more complex signals, such as the
response of a broad bandwidth transducer, the frequency domain gives a
more useful view of the signal.
Fourier theory says that any complex periodic waveform can be decomposed
into a set of sinusoids with different amplitudes, frequencies and phases. The
process of doing this is called Fourier Analysis, and the result is a set of
amplitudes, phases, and frequencies for each of the sinusoids that makes up
the complex waveform. Adding these sinusoids together again will reproduce
exactly the original waveform. A plot of the frequency or phase of a sinusoid
against amplitude is called a spectrum.
Fourier Analysis
Fourier Analysis
Fourier Analysis
The following Fourier J ava applet, adapted with permission of Stanford
University, allows the user to manipulate discrete time domain or frequency
domain components and see the relationships between signals in time and
frequency domains.
The top row (light blue color) represents the real and imaginary parts of the
time domain. Normally the imaginary part of the time domain signal is
identically zero.
The middle row (peach color) represents the the real and imaginary parts of
the frequency domain.
The bottom row (light green color) represents the magnitude (amplitude) and
phase of the frequency domain signal. Magnitude is the square root of the
sum of the squares of the real and imaginary components. Phase is the
angular relationship of the real and imaginary components. Ultrasonic
transducer manufactures often provide plots of both time domain and
frequency domain (magnitude) signals characteristic of each transducer. Use
this applet to explore the relationship between time and frequency domains.
Fourier Analysis
Exercise: Try replicating time domain signal in the upper left box with a
pattern similar to the image on the right. Note the resulting bandwidth in the
frequency domain (magnitude) in the lower left box. Next try changing the
magnitude, perhaps more of a "mountain" shape tapering to zero. Note that
"narrowing" the magnitude, results in more cycles in the time domain signal.
In nondestructive evaluation of structural material defects, the size, shape,
and orientation are important flaw parameters in structural integrity
assessment. To illustrate flaw reconstruction, a multiviewing ultrasonic
transducer system is shown below. A single probe moved sequentially to
achieve different perspectives would work equally as well. The apparatus and
the signal-processing algorithms were specifically designed at the Center for
Nondestructive Evaluation to make use of the theoretical developments in
elastic wave scattering in the long and intermediate wavelength regime.
4.10.1 Pulse Echo Method
Pulse Echo Method
Amplitude loss: Inverse Square Law
Influence of Shadow on axial defects
Influence of reflector orientation on signal
Influence of reflector size on signal
4.10.2 Pitch-Catch Methods
Advantage:
Sensitive to near surface defect
Capable of penetrating thicker material due to pitch-catch mode.
Disadvantage:
It measures only sound energy loss at the receiver, without giving details
information of location.
Pitch-Catch Methods- Tandem
Pitch-Catch Methods- Tandem
Pitch-Catch Methods- Through Transmission
Video on Through Transmission Methods
www.youtube.com/embed/bRgCLb2cDU4?list=UUSOUDD4-FPV4tzqvUnquwXQ
4.10.3 Immersion Methods
For immersion testing of steel and aluminum in water, the water path shall be
at least 1for every 4thickness of the specimen (or of specimen thickness
minimum). If the transducer is too close, the 2
nd
front reflection will appeared
between the 1
st
front reflection and the 1
st
backwall echo and this may be
wrong interpreted as discontinuity.
Immersion Methods- The water path shall be of specimen thickness
minimum.
Minimum + [ (?)]
Q. In immersion testing, to remove the second water reflection (2nd entry
surface signal) from between the entry surface signal and the first back
reflection, you should:
a) Increase repetition rate
b) Decrease frequency
c) Decrease sweep length
d) Increase water depth
Immersion Methods- The water path shall be of specimen thickness
minimum. (plus 6mm)
Minimum + [ (?)]
Modified Immersion Methods- Bubbler Chamber
Modified Immersion Methods Irrigation Dam
Angle Beam Immersion Methods
Note the small front surface reflection. This due to the inclined incident angle
reflected away from the transducer.
Angle Beam Immersion Methods- Pipe & Tubing Testing
.
Angle Beam Immersion Methods- Weld Testing
Other Reading (Olympus)- Angle Beam Immersion Methods
Immersion transducers offer three major advantages over contact transducers:
1. Uniform coupling reduces sensitivity variations.
2. Reduction in scan time due to automated scanning.
3. Focusing of immersion transducers increases sensitivity to small reflectors.
Focusing Configurations
Immersion transducers are available in three different configurations:
unfocused (flat),
spherically (spot) focused, and
cylindrically (line) focused.
Focusing is accomplished by either the addition of a lens or by
curving the element itself. The addition of a lens is the most
common way to focus a transducer.
Cylindrical
Spherical
An unfocused transducer may be used in general applications or for
penetration of thick materials. A spherically focused transducer is commonly
used to improve sensitivity to small flaws and a cylindrical focus is typically
used in the inspection of tubing or bar stock. Examples of spherical and
cylindrical focusing are shown in Figure (17) below.
Unfocused transducer
By definition, the focal length of a transducer is the distance from the face
of the transducer to the point in the sound field where the signal with the
maximum amplitude is located. In an unfocused transducer, this occurs at a
distance from the face of the transducer which is approximately equivalent
to the transducers near field length. Because the last signal maximum occurs
at a distance equivalent to the near field, a transducer, by definition, can not
be acoustically focused at a distance greater than its near field.
Focus may be designated in three ways:
FPF (Flat Plate Focus) - For an FPF focus, the lens is designed to produce
a maximum pulse/echo response from a flat plate target at the distance
indicated by the focal length
PTF (Point Target Focus) - For a PTF focus, the lens is designed to produce
a maximum pulse/echo response from a small ball target at the distance
indicated by the focal length
OLF (Optical Limit Focus) - The OLF designation indicates that the lens is
designed according to the lens makers formula from physical
optics and without reference to any operational definition of
focal length. The OLF designation describes the lens and
ignores diffraction effects.
Video on Immersion Testing
www.youtube.com/embed/W07-Z9at=UUSOUDD4-FPV4tzqvUnquwXQ
Q1: Which of the following scanning methods could be classified as an
immersion type test?
A. Tank in which the transducer and test piece are immersed
B. Squirter bubbler method in which the sound is transmitted in a column of
flowing water
C. Scanning with a wheel-type transducer with the transducer inside a liquid
filled tire
D. All of the above
Q2: In an immersion test of a piece of steel or aluminum, the water distance
appears on the display as a fairly wide space between the initial pulse and
the front surface reflection because of:
A. Reduced velocity of sound in water as compared to test specimen
B. Increased velocity of sound in water as compared to test specimen
C. Temperature of the water
D. All of the above
Scanning Patterns
The energy of the generated sound depend on the pulse repetition rate, the
higher the repetition rate the higher the energy and the sound able to
penetrate thicker material. However if the PRR is excessive, ghost signal
may formed, this is due to the fact that the next sequence of pulse is
generated before the expected returning signal reaching the receiver.
1. The pulse repetition frequency or pulse repetition rate PRR:
is the number of pulse of ultrasonic energy that leave the probe in a given
time (per second). Each pulse of energy that leave the probe must return
before the next pulse leave, otherwise they will collide causing ghost
echoes.
2. Transit time: The time taken for the pulse to travel from the probe and
return
3. Clock interval: The time between pulse leaving the probe.
The transit time must be shorter than the Clock interval else, ghost signal may
formed. Typically the Clock interval should be 5 time the transit time.
PRR- Pulse Repetitive Frequency/Rate and Maximum Testable Thickness
Clock interval = 1/PRR
When Transit time = Clock interval
For pulse echo method:
Maximum testable length = x Velocity x Clock interval
Typically the Clock interval should be 5 time the transit time, i.e. the sound
path should travel 5 times the maximum testable length. (1st BWE, 2nd BWE,
3rd BWE, 4th BWE to 5th BWE.)
Note: The Clock interval has neglected the time occupied by each pulse.
Pulse Repetition Rate and Penetration
Pulse Repetition Rate and Near Surface Sensitivity
Following are signal interferences that may produce non-relevant UT
indications:
1. Electrical interference
2. Transducer interference
3. Test specimen geometric interference
4. Test specimen surface interferences
5. Test material structure interferences
6. Test material internal mode conversion interference
7. UT techniques induced interferences (In correct PRR/ Band width/
Frequency selection/ Excessive Beam Spread/ etc.)
Transducer Interference- Transducer internal reflections & Mode conversion
may cause interference
Specimen Surface Interference
Excessive surface roughness,
air bubbles on the surface (on the transducer front, specimen front and back
for immersion techniques.
Surface wave for testing near the edges
Specimen Surface Interference
?
?
Specimen Surface Interference- You can determined whether the signal is
from the surface wave or the refracted wave simply by touching the surface
ahead of the wave (assuming the velocity of surface wave at 0.9 of the shear
wave)
Mode Conversion Interference
The mode conversion interference during testing of long cylindrical specimen
with longitudinal wave often appeared after the first back wall echo. The
signal can be easily distinguished and ignore.
Material Geometric Interference
False signals may generated due to the test specimen structural
configurations resulting in spurious signals.
Non Relevant Indications
Transducer with Excessive Beam Spread may generate signal, usually after
the 1
st
BWE. The example below the convex surface defocused the beam
and lead to excessive beam spread, using a proper contoured probe may
eliminate the problem. However excessive contour may results in generation
of surface wave.
Non Relevant Indication
Large grain size especially casting may cause excessive hash or grass signal.
Properly selecting probe with lower frequency may relieve the problem.
However this can only de accomplished with reduction in sensitivity.
Non Relevant Indication
Large grain size at heat affected zone HAZ (CGHAZ) may cause localized
signal due to large grain size. The signal may be wrongly assessed as a
defect.
Non Relevant Indications
The geometric abnormalities at root penetration and weld surface (crown)
may reflect the sound path, returning to the receiver as signals. To
distinguished the non relevant indications, finger touching will damped the
signals. Further testing may be necessary to ensure the signals were not from
the surface defects like surface crack. Any near surface indication that are
unusually consistent could be a non relevant indication.
4.14: Exercises
4.14-1: Compared 6 dB Drop Sizing with Equalization Technique
The 6 dB Method
For Large Reflector (greater than beam width), i.e. there is no BWE.
Compared 6 dB Drop Sizing with Equalization Technique
The Equalization Back Wall Sizing- The probe moving off the edges of the
reflector until the amplitude is equal to the rising BWE
Q1 What is the correct water path between the transducer and the steel front
surface to focused a transducer for a area of interest at below a steel
surface?
Given that:
Focal length of transducer in water = 6
Velocity of sound in water= 1484 m/s
Velocity of sound in steel = 5920 m/s
Equivalent depth in water for steel depth = 4x = 2
The water path= 6- 2= 4
Break Time
mms://a588.l3944020587.c39440.g.lm.akamaistream.net/D/588/
39440/v0001/reflector:20587?BBC-
UID=e5203c9d59fef1a79c12d8c601e839f58db16f7d5d6448f556
74c540f1856834&SSO2-UID=
Section 5: Calibration Methods
Content: Section 5: Calibration Methods
5.5: Exercises
5.6: Video Time
Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and adjusting the precision and
accuracy of measurement equipment. In ultrasonic testing, several forms of
calibration must occur. First, the electronics of the equipment must be
calibrated to ensure that they are performing as designed. This operation is
usually performed by the equipment manufacturer and will not be discussed
further in this material. It is also usually necessary for the operator to perform
a "user calibration" of the equipment. This user calibration is necessary
because most ultrasonic equipment can be reconfigured for use in a large
variety of applications. The user must "calibrate" the system, which includes
the equipment settings, the transducer, and the test setup, to validate that the
desired level of (1) precision and (2) accuracy are achieved. The term
calibration standard is usually only used when an absolute value is measured
and in many cases, the standards are traceable back to standards at the
National Institute for Standards and Technology.
Calibrations
In ultrasonic testing, there is also a need for reference standards. Reference
standards are used to establish a general level of consistency in
measurements and to help interpret and quantify the information contained in
the received signal. Reference standards are used to validate that the
equipment and the setup provide similar results from one day to the next and
that similar results are produced by different systems. Reference standards
also help the inspector to estimate the size of flaws. In a pulse-echo type
setup, signal strength depends on both the size of the flaw and the distance
between the flaw and the transducer. The inspector can use a reference
standard with an artificially induced flaw of known size and at approximately
the same distance away for the transducer to produce a signal. By comparing
the signal from the reference standard to that received from the actual flaw,
the inspector can estimate the flaw size.
This section will discuss some of the more common calibration and reference
specimen that are used in ultrasonic inspection. Some of these specimens
are shown in the figure above. Be aware that there are other standards
available and that specially designed standards may be required for many
applications. The information provided here is intended to serve a general
introduction to the standards and not to be instruction on the proper use of the
standards.
Introduction to the Common Standards
Calibration and reference standards for ultrasonic testing come in many
shapes and sizes. The type of standard used is dependent on the NDE
application and the form and shape of the object being evaluated. The
material of the reference standard should be the same as the material being
inspected and the artificially induced flaw should closely resemble that of the
actual flaw. This second requirement is a major limitation of most standard
reference samples. Most use drilled holes and notches that do not closely
represent real flaws. In most cases the artificially induced defects in reference
standards are better reflectors of sound energy (due to their flatter and
smoother surfaces) and produce indications that are larger than those that a
similar sized flaw would produce. Producing more "realistic" defects is cost
prohibitive in most cases and, therefore, the inspector can only make an
estimate of the flaw size. Computer programs that allow the inspector to
create computer simulated models of the part and flaw may one day lessen
this limitation.
The IIW Type Calibration Block
The IIW Type Calibration Block
The IIW Type 2 Calibration Block
The IIW Type I Calibration Block
EN12223:1999 Calibration Block
The IIW Phase Array Calibration Block
The IIW Calibration Block
1
st
Check Index / Check Range
2
nd
Check Angle
2
nd
Check Angle
Find probe angle
Find Index/Range/Resolution
The IIW Phase Array Calibration Block
3
rd
Check Resolution
V2 Calibration Block
The IIW 2 Calibration Block
Check focal point
Check probe angle
Check range
Can not Check resolution
Calibration Blocks
Calibration Blocks- Area Amplitude Block
The standard shown in the above figure is commonly known in the US as an
IIW type reference block. IIW is an acronym for the International Institute of
Welding. It is referred to as an IIW "type" reference block because it was
patterned after the "true" IIW block but does not conform to IIWrequirements
in IIS/IIW-23-59. "True" IIW blocks are only made out of steel (to be precise,
killed, open hearth or electric furnace, low-carbon steel in the normalized
condition with a grain size of McQuaid-Ehn #8) where IIW "type" blocks can
be commercially obtained in a selection of materials. The dimensions of "true"
IIW blocks are in metric units while IIW "type" blocks usually have English
units. IIW "type" blocks may also include additional calibration and references
features such as notches, circular groves, and scales that are not specified by
IIW. There are two full-sized and a mini versions of the IIW type blocks. The
Mini version is about one-half the size of the full-sized block and weighs only
about one-fourth as much. The IIW type US-1 block was derived the basic
"true" IIW block and is shown below in the figure on the left. The IIW type US-
2 block was developed for US Air Force application and is shown below in the
center. The Mini version is shown on the right.
IIW Blocks- US-1
IIW Type US-1
IIW Blocks- IIW Type US-2
IIW Blocks- IIW Type Mini
V1/5, A2 Block
IIW type blocks are used to calibrate instruments for both angle beam and
normal incident inspections. Some of their uses include setting metal-distance
and sensitivity settings, determining the sound exit point and refracted angle
of angle beam transducers, and evaluating depth resolution of normal beam
inspection setups. Instructions on using the IIW type blocks can be found in
the annex of American Society for Testing and Materials Standard E164,
Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Contact Examination of Weldments.
The Miniature Angle-Beam or ROMPAS Calibration Block
ROMPAS Calibration Block
AWS Shear Wave
Distance/Sensitivity
Calibration (DSC) Block
DSC Block, Mini block, Rompas Block are all mini blocks.
A block that closely resembles the miniature angle-beam block and is used in
a similar way is the DSC AWS Block. This block is used to determine the
beam exit point and refracted angle of angle-beam transducers and to
calibrate distance and set the sensitivity for both normal and angle beam
inspection setups. Instructions on using the DSC block can be found in the
annex of American Society for Testing and Materials Standard E164,
A block that closely resembles the miniature angle-beam block and is used in
a similar way is the DSC AWS Block. This block is used to determine the
beam exit point and refracted angle of angle-beam transducers and to
calibrate distance and set the sensitivity for both normal and angle beam
inspection setups. Instructions on using the DSC block can be found in the
DSC AWS Block
Calibration Range Using DSC AWS Block
www.youtube.com/embed/TEQ8Qrz4D-A
AWS Shear Wave Distance Calibration (DC) Block
AWS Shear Wave Distance Calibration (DC) Block
The DC AWS Block is a metal path distance and beam exit point calibration
standard that conforms to the requirements of the American Welding Society
(AWS) and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO). Instructions on using the DC block can be found in the
AWS Resolution Calibration (RC) Block
The RC Block is used to determine the resolution of angle beam transducers
per the requirements of AWS and AASHTO. Engraved Index markers are
provided for 45, 60, and 70 degree refracted angle beams.
The RC Block is used to determine the resolution of angle beam transducers
per the requirements of AWS and AASHTO. Engraved Index markers are
provided for 45, 60, and 70 degree refracted angle beams.
30 FBH Resolution Reference Block
The 30 FBH resolution reference block is used to evaluate the near-surface
resolution and flaw size/depth sensitivity of a normal-beam setup. The block
contains number 3 (3/64"), 5 (5/64"), and 8 (8/64") ASTM flat bottom holes at
ten metal-distances ranging from 0.050 inch (1.27 mm) to 1.250 inch (31.75
mm).
Miniature Resolution Block
The miniature resolution block is used to evaluate the near-surface resolution
and sensitivity of a normal-beam setup It can be used to calibrate high-
resolution thickness gages over the range of 0.015 inches (0.381 mm) to
0.125 inches (3.175 mm).
Step and Tapered Calibration Wedges
Step and tapered calibration wedges come in a large variety of sizes and
configurations. Step wedges are typically manufactured with four or five steps
but custom wedge can be obtained with any number of steps. Tapered
wedges have a constant taper over the desired thickness range.
Distance/Sensitivity (DS) Block
The DS test block is a calibration standard used to check the horizontal
linearity and the dB accuracy per requirements of AWS and AASHTO.
Area Amplitude Blocks provide standards for discontinuities of different size
at the same depth
Distance Amplitude Blocks provide standards for discontinuities of same size
at the different depth
The ASTM basic set of Area/Distance Amplitude Blocks consists of ten, two
inches diameter blocks
The ASTM basic set of Area/Distance Amplitude Blocks consisits of ten, two
inches diameter blocks
Distance/Area-Amplitude Blocks
Distance/area amplitude correction blocks typically are purchased as a ten-
block set, as shown above. Aluminum sets are manufactured per the
requirements of ASTM E127 and steel sets per ASTM E428. Sets can also be
purchased in titanium. Each block contains a single flat-bottomed, plugged
hole. The hole sizes and metal path distances are as follows:
3/64" at 3"
5/64" at 1/8", 1/4", 1/2", 3/4", 11/2", 3", and 6"
8/64" at 3" and 6"
Sets are commonly sold in 4340 Vacuum melt Steel, 7075-T6 Aluminum, and
Type 304 Corrosion Resistant Steel. Aluminum blocks are fabricated per the
requirements of ASTM E127, Standard Practice for Fabricating and Checking
Aluminum Alloy Ultrasonic Standard Reference Blocks. Steel blocks are
fabricated per the requirements of ASTM E428, Standard Practice for
Fabrication and Control of Steel Reference Blocks Used in Ultrasonic
Inspection.
ASTM E 127
Area-Amplitude Blocks
Area-amplitude blocks are also usually purchased in an eight-block set and
look very similar to Distance/Area-Amplitude Blocks. However, area-
amplitude blocks have a constant 3-inch metal path distance and the hole
sizes are varied from 1/64" to 8/64" in 1/64" steps. The blocks are used to
determine the relationship between flaw size and signal amplitude by
comparing signal responses for the different sized holes. Sets are commonly
sold in 4340 Vacuum melt Steel, 7075-T6 Aluminum, and Type 304 Corrosion
Resistant Steel. Aluminum blocks are fabricated per the requirements of
ASTM E127, Standard Practice for Fabricating and Checking Aluminum Alloy
Ultrasonic Standard Reference Blocks. Steel blocks are fabricated per the
requirements of ASTM E428, Standard Practice for Fabrication and Control of
Steel Reference Blocks Used in Ultrasonic Inspection.
Distance-Amplitude #3, #5, #8 FBH Blocks
Distance-amplitude blocks also very similar to the distance/area-amplitude
blocks pictured above. Nineteen block sets with flat-bottom holes of a single
size and varying metal path distances are also commercially available. Sets
have either a #3 (3/64") FBH, a #5 (5/64") FBH, or a #8 (8/64") FBH. The
metal path distances are 1/16", 1/8", 1/4", 3/8", 1/2", 5/8", 3/4", 7/8", 1", 1-1/4",
1-3/4", 2-1/4", 2-3/4", 3-14", 3-3/4", 4-1/4", 4-3/4", 5-1/4", and 5-3/4". The
relationship between the metal path distance and the signal amplitude is
determined by comparing signals from same size flaws at different depth.
Sets are commonly sold in 4340 Vacuum melt Steel, 7075-T6 Aluminum, and
Type 304 Corrosion Resistant Steel. Aluminum blocks are fabricated per the
requirements of ASTM E127, Standard Practice for Fabricating and Checking
Aluminum Alloy Ultrasonic Standard Reference Blocks. Steel blocks are
fabricated per the requirements of ASTM E428, Standard Practice for
Fabrication and Control of Steel Reference Blocks Used in Ultrasonic
Inspection.
Key Words:
Distance Amplitude Blocks
DSC Distance sensitivity calibration
DC Distance calibration
SC Sensitivity calibration
AWS RC AWS Resolution Calibration.
Q56: On the area-amplitude ultrasonic standard test blocks, the flat-bottomed
holes in the blocks are:
A. All of the same diameter
B. Different in diameter, increasing by 1/64 inch increments from the
No. 1 block to the No. 8 block
C. Largest in the No. 1 block and smallest in the No. 8 block
D. Drilled to different depths from the front surface of the test block
Q: A primary purpose of a reference standard is:
A. To provide a guide for adjusting instrument controls to reveal
discontinuities that are considered harmful to the end use of the
product.
B. To give the technician a tool for determining exact discontinuity size
C. To provide assurance that all discontinuities smaller than a certain
specified reference reflector are capable of being directed by the test.
D. To provide a standard reflector which exactly simulates natural
discontinuities of a critical size.
5.2.1: Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC)
Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC): Acoustic signals from the same
reflecting surface will have different amplitudes at different distances from the
transducer. Distance amplitude correction (DAC) provides a means of
establishing a graphic reference level sensitivity as a function of sweep
distance on the A-scan display. The use of DAC allows signals reflected from
similar discontinuities to be evaluated where signal attenuation as a function
of depth has been correlated. Most often DAC will allow for loss in amplitude
over material depth (time), graphically on the A-scan display but can also be
done electronically by certain instruments. Because near field length and
beam spread vary according to transducer size and frequency, and materials
vary in attenuation and velocity, a DAC curve must be established for each
different situation. DAC may be employed in both longitudinal and shear
modes of operation as well as either contact or immersion inspection
techniques.
DAC Curve
http://www.huatecgroup.com/china-digital_portable_dac_avg_curves_ultrasonic_flaw_detector_ut_flaw_detector_fd350-632512.html
DAC- Distance Amplitude Correction
DAC- Distance Amplitude Correction
DGS- Distance Gain Size
A distance amplitude correction curve is constructed from the peak amplitude
responses from reflectors of equal area at different distances in the same
material. A-scan echoes are displayed at their non-electronically
compensated height and the peak amplitude of each signal is marked on the
flaw detector screen or, preferably, on a transparent plastic sheet attached to
the screen. Reference standards which incorporate side drilled holes (SDH),
flat bottom holes (FBH), or notches whereby the reflectors are located at
varying depths are commonly used. It is important to recognize that
regardless of the type of reflector used, the size and shape of the reflector
must be constant. Commercially available reference standards for
constructing DAC include ASTM Distance/Area Amplitude and ASTM E1158
Distance Amplitude blocks, NAVSHIPS Test block, and ASME Basic
Calibration Blocks.
The following applet shows a test block with a side drilled hole. The
transducer was chosen so that the signal in the shortest pulse-echo path is in
the far-field. The transducer may be moved finding signals at depth ratios of 1,
3, 5, and 7. Red points are "drawn" at the peaks of the signals and are used
to form the distance amplitude correction curve drawn in blue. Start by
pressing the green "Test now!" button. After determining the amplitudes for
various path lengths (4), press "Draw DAC" and then press the green "Test
now!" button.
DAC Java
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/CalibrationMeth/applet2/applet2.htm
Developing a Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC) Curve
Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC) provides a means of establishing a
graphic reference level sensitivity as a function of sweep distance on the A-
scan display. The use of DAC allows signals reflected from similar
discontinuities to be evaluated where signal attenuation as a function of depth
may be correlated. In establishing the DAC curve, all A-scan echoes are
displayed at their non-electronically compensated height.
Construction of a DAC involves the use of reference standards which
incorporate side drilled holes (SDH), flat bottom holes (FBH), or notches
whereby the reflectors are located at varying depths. It is important to
recognize regardless of the type of reflector that is used in constructing the
DAC, the size and shape of the reflector must be constant over the sound
path distance. Commercially available reference standards for constructing
DAC include ASTM Distance/Area Amplitude and ASTM E1158 Distance
Amplitude blocks, NAVSHIPS Test block, and ASME Basic Calibration
Blocks.
Sequence for constructing a DAC curve when performing a straight
beam contact inspection on 1 thick material.
1.) Using a suitable reference standard, calibrate the sweep for a distance
appropriate for the material to be inspected, i.e.. using a 1thick standard,
calibrate the sweep for 2of material travel.
Back Wall Echo
Back Wall Echo
Sweep 2/ Distance 1
2.) This example represents the use a 1 3/4thick reference standard with
1/8side drilled holes located at 1/4 T and 3/4 T respectively. T being equal
to the block thickness.
3.) Position the transducer over the 1/4T hole and peak the signal to
approximately 80% FSH (Full screen height), mark the peak of the echo on
the display using a suitable marker, and record the gain setting.
4.) With no further adjustments to the gain control, position the transducer
over the 3/4T hole and peak the signal, mark the peak of the echo on the
display.
5.) To complete the DAC curve connect the dots with a smooth line. The
completed curve represents the reference level sensitivity for this application.
Plotting DAC Curve
DAC Curve
DAC Curve
Gain Control for FSH: It should be remember that the dB is a means of
comparing signals. All UT sets are different and a FSH with a gain controls of
36dB in one UT set and be at FSH at another UT set with a gain control
reading of 26dB.
The gain controls allow us to set sensitivity and form the basis of Ultrasonic
Sizing Techniques.
Birring NDT Series, Ultrasonic Distance Amplitude Correction - DAC
www.youtube.com/embed/qUqaF0PnLGA?list=UUZncq6J Fram3pfQDlzGggwA
Alta Vista UT Calibration DAC Curve
www.youtube.com/embed/VNgMKlp43I8
5.2.2: Finding the probe index
Exit Point
A2 Block
Exit Point- A5 Block
5.2.3: Checking the probe angle
Probe Angles- A2 Block
Probe Angles- A5 Block
5.2.4: Calibration of shear waves for range V1 Block
Calibration of shear waves for range V1 Block
1
st
Echo from circular Section
Echo from 100mm circular Section
Calibration of shear waves for range V2 Block
25 mm radius from V2 Block
50 mm radius from V2 Block
100 mm radius from K2 Block
Shear Wave Distance Calibration IIW Block & DSC Blocks
www.youtube.com/embed/RmtHmtOozic
Exit Point /Range/Probe Angle calibration using IIW Block (Repeat-Code1)
www.youtube.com/embed/Qr0dGNuq9yY
5.2.5: Dead Zone
Determine the dead zone by finding the hole echo which is easily
identifiable from the probe noise at the shortest range
Dead Zone
Determine the dead zone by
finding the hole echo which is
easily identifiable from the probe
noise at the shortest range
5.2.6: 20 dB Profile- A5 Block
20 dB Profile
Probe Beam Line of Symmetry
20 dB Profile
Probe Beam Sound Pressure
5.2.7: Transfer Correction
Methods of compensating for transfer and attenuation loss differences for
0attenuation 000compression probes and for shear wave compression
probes. These are based on obtaining similar echo responses on both the
calibration block and on the component.
For 0degree probes backwall echoes are used to probes establish transfer
and attenuation correction.
For shear wave probes two identical probes are used in pitch-catchin
order to obtain what are effectively backwall echoes.
either method cannot be used if the either component does not have a
convenient parallel section.
Example:
0 degree Probe Calibration
40mm thick block Gain to achieve FSH
Example:
0 degree Probe Calibration
30mm thick block Gain to achieve FSH
TRANSFER & ATTENUATION CORRECTION:
0 degree Probes
If the results are plotted on
log -linear paper they will
form straight parallel lines
provided that there is no
attenuation difference if an
attenuation difference
occurs then the resultant
lines will no longer be
parallel.
Transfer and Attenuation Correction: Shear Probe
The principle for obtaining transfer correction for shear wave probes is the
same as it was for compression probes except that backwall echoes are
replaced by pitch --catch responses.
5.2.8: Linearity Checks (Time Base / Equipment Gain / Vertical Gain)
5.2.8.1: Linearity of time base
General
This check may be carried out using a standard calibration block eg A2,
and a compressional wave probe. The linearity should be checked over a
range at least equal to that which is to be used in subsequent testing.
Method
a) Place the probe on the 25mm thickness of the A2 block and adjust the
controls to display ten BWEs.
b) Adjust the controls so that the first and last BWEs coincide with the scale
marks at 1 and 10.
c) Increase the gain to bring successive backwall echoes to 80% FSH. The
leading edge of each echo should line up with the appropriate reticules
line.
d) Record any deviations at approximately half screen height. Deviations
should be expressed as a percentage of the range between the first and
last echoes displayed (ie 225mm).
Tolerance
Unless otherwise specified by the testing standard, a tolerance of 2% is
considered acceptable.
Frequency of checking
This check shall be carried out at least once per week.
Ultrasonic Testing - Horizontal Linearity (Calibration)
www.youtube.com/embed/NuS6j0SmjKQ
5.2.8.2: Linearity of Equipment Gains
General
This is a check on both the linearity of the amplifier within the set and the
calibrated gain control. It can be carried out on any calibration block
containing a side-drilled hole and should be the probe to be used in
subsequent testing. Reject/suppression controls shall be switched off.
Method
Position the probe on a calibration block to obtain a reflected signal from a
small reflector eg 1.5mm hole in the A2 block.
Adjust the gain to set this signal to 80% FSH and note the gain setting (dB).
- Increase the gain by 2dB and record the amplitude of the signal.
- Remove the 2dB and return the signal to 80% FSH.
- Reduce the gain by 6dB and record signal amplitude.
- Reduce the gain by a further 12dB (18 intotal) and record signal amplitude.
- Reduce the gain by a further 6dB (24 in total) and record signal amplitude.
Tolerance
Frequency of checking
The check shall be carried out at least once per week.
5.2.8.3a: Linearity of vertical display to EN12668-1
Procedure: Test the ultrasonic instrument screen linearity by altering the
amplitude of a reference input using an external calibrated attenuator and
observing the change in the signal height on the ultrasonic instrument
screen. Report the gain setting at the beginning of the test. Check the
linearity at prescribed intervals from 0 dB to - 26 dB of full screen height.
Repeat the test for centre frequencies for of each filter as measured in 9.5.2.
Using the same set-up shown in Figure 6 set the external calibrated attenuator
to 2 dB and adjust the input signal and the gain of the ultrasonic instrument
so the signal is 80 % of full screen height. Without changing the gain of the
ultrasonic instrument switch the external calibrated attenuator to the values
given in the Table 4. For each setting measure the amplitude of the signal on
the ultrasonic instrument screen.
Extract from: BS EN 12668-1:2010 Non-destructive testing- Characterization and verification of ultrasonic examination equipment
Part 1: Instruments
Figure 6 General purpose set-up for equipment
5.2.8.3b: Linearity of vertical display to ASTM E317-01
Vertical Limit and Linearity:
SignificanceVertical limit and linearity have significance when echo signal
amplitudes are to be determined from the display screen or corresponding
output signals, and are to be used for evaluation of discontinuities or
acceptance criteria. A specified minimum trace deflection and linearity limit
may
be required to achieve the desired amplitude accuracy. For other situations they
may not be important, for example, go/no-go examinations with flaw alarms
or evaluation by comparison with a reference level using calibrated gain
controls.
This practice describes both the two-signal ratio technique (Method A) and the
input/output attenuator technique (Method B).
Extract from: ASTM E317-01 Standard Practice for Evaluating Performance Characteristics of Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Examination
Instruments and Systems without the Use of Electronic Measurement Instruments
Note: Method A: two-signal ratio technique collecting 2 signal from the
reflectors of same size at different depth.
Method A:
6.3.2.1 ApparatusA test block is required that produces two non interfering
signals having an amplitude ratio of 2 to 1. These are compared over the
usable screen height as the instrument gain is changed. The two amplitudes
will be referred to as HA and HB (HA > HB). The two signals may occur in
either screen order and do not have to be successive if part of a multiple-
echo pattern. Unless otherwise specified in the requesting document, any
test block that will produce such signals at the nominal test settings specified
can be used. For many commonly used search units and test conditions, the
test block shown in Fig. 1 will usually be satisfactory when the beam is
directed along the H dimension toward the two holes. The method is
applicable to either contact or immersion tests; however, if a choice exists,
the latter may be preferable for ease of set-up and coupling
stability(more)
Q61: The vertical linear range of a test instrument may be determined by
obtaining ultrasonic responses from:
a) a set of distance amplitude blocks
b) steel ball located at several different water path distances
c) a set of area amplitude blocks
d) all of the above
Curvature in the surface of a component will
have an effect on the shape of the ultrasonic
beam. The image to the right shows the beam
from a focused immersion probe being
projected on to the surface of a
component. Lighter colors represent areas of
greater beam intensity. It can be seen that
concave surfaces work to focus the beam and
convex surfaces work to defocus the
beam. Similar effects are also seen with
contact transducers. When using the
amplitude of the ultrasonic signal to size flaws
or for another purpose, it is necessary to
correct for surface curvature when it is
encountered. The "correction" value is the
change in amplitude needed to bring signals
from a curved surface measurement to the flat
surface or DAC value.
convex surfaces work to defocus the beam
Concave surfaces work to focus the beam
Concave surface contour-
Focusing effects
Concave surfaces work to focus the beam
Concave surface contour-
Focusing effects
Q In an immersion method, the incident sound path enter the specimen
interface with convex geometry, the sound path on entry into the specimen,
the convex surface works to
a) De-focus the sound
b) Focus the sound
c) Has no effect on the focusing or de-focusing the sound
d) Reflected totally all the incident sound.
Q In transmitting sound energy into a part shown below in a immersion testing,
the sound beam will be:
a) diverge
b) converge
c) Straight into
d) Will not enter
A curvature correction curve can be generated experimentally in a manner
similar to that used to generate a DAC curve, This simply requires a
component with a representative reflector at various distances below the
curved surface. Since any change in the radius will change the focus of the
sound beam, it may be necessary to develop reference standards with a
range of surface curvatures.
However, computer modeling can also be used to generate a close
approximation of the curvature correction value. Work by Ying and Baudry
(ASME 62-WA175, 1962) and by Birchak and Serabian (Mat. Eval. 36(1),
1978) derived methods for determining "correction factors" to account for
change in signal amplitude as a function of the radius of curvature of convex,
cylindrical components.
An alternative model for contact and immersion probe inspection was more
recently by researchers at the Center for NDE at Iowa State University. This
mathematical model further predicts transducer radiation patterns using the
Gauss-Hermite model, which has been used extensively for simulation of
immersion mode inspections.
The resulting model allows computationally efficient prediction of the full
ultrasonic fields in the component for
1. any frequency, including broadband measurements.
2. both circular and rectangular crystal shapes.
3. general component surface curvature
4. both normal and oblique incidence (e.g., angle beam wedges) transducers.
When coupled with analytical models for defect scattering amplitudes, the
model can be used to predict actual flaw waveforms. The image shown
above was generated with this model.
The plot to the right shows an example curvature correction curve and DAC
curve. This curvature correction curve was generated for the application of
detecting a #4 flat bottom hole under a curved surface as shown in the
sketch and photograph. An immersion techniques was used generate a
shear wave since the reflective surface of the target flaw was not parallel with
the surface. The DAC curve drops monotonically since the water path
ensures that the near field of the sound beam is always outside the part. The
correction factor starts out negative because of the focusing effect of the
curved surface. At greater depths, the correction factor is positive due to the
increased beam spread beyond the focal zone caused by the surface
curvature.
Curvature Corrections
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/CalibrationMeth/table/table.htm
A table of correction values and the DAC and curvature correction curves for
different size radiuses can be found at the following link.
Curvature Correction
Curvature Correction
What are standards?
Standards are documented agreements containing technical specifications or
other precise criteria to be used consistently as rules, guidelines, or
definitions of characteristics, in order to ensure that materials, products,
processes, and services are fit for their purpose.
For example, the format of the credit cards, phone cards, and "smart" cards
that have become commonplace is derived from an ISO International
Standard. Adhering to the standard, which defines such features as an
optimal thickness (0.76 mm), means that the cards can be used worldwide.
An important source of practice codes, standards, and recommendations for
NDT is given in the
Annual Book of the American Society of Testing and Materials,
ASTM. Volume 03.03, Nondestructive Testing
is revised annually, covering acoustic emission, eddy current, leak testing,
liquid penetrant, magnetic particle, radiography, thermography, and
ultrasonics.
There are many efforts on the part of the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) and other standards organizations, both national and
international, to work through technical issues and harmonize national and
international standards.
Reference Reflectors:
are used as a basis for establishing system performance and sensitivity.
Spherical reflectors are often used in immersion techniques for assessing
sound fields.
1. Omni direction
2. Sphere directivity patterns reduce reflectance as compare with plane
reflector
3. Sphere of any materials could be used, however steel balls are often
preferred.
Reference Reflectors are used as a basis for establishing system
performance and sensitivity.
5.5: Exercises
80. The 50 mm diameter hole in an IIW block is used to:
(a) Determine the beam index point
(b) Check resolution
(c) Calibrate angle beam distance
(d) Check beam angle
81. The 100 mm radius in an IIW block is used to:
(a) Calibrate sensitivity level
(b) Check resolution
(c) Calibrate angle beam distance
(d) Check beam angle
5.6: Video Time
http://v.pps.tv/play_315ARS.html
Birring NDT Series, UT of Welds Part 1 of 2 - CALIBRATION
https://www.youtube.com/embed/SRJ ktrHUlM4
Birring NDT Series, Ultrasonic Testing #4, Angle Beam Shear Wave UT as
per AWS D1.1
www.youtube.com/embed/vXcAI-Zci30
Section 6: Selected Applications
& Techniques
Content: Section 6: Selected Applications & Techniques
6.3: Weldments (Welded J oints)
6.4: Pipe & Tube
6.5: Echo Dynamic
6.7: Material Properties-Elastic Modulus Measurements
6.1.1 Casting Defects & Discontinuities
Casting Defects & Discontinuities
Casting Defects & Discontinuities- A Cold Shut is caused when a molten
metal is poured over solidified metal without fusing.
Casting Defects & Discontinuities Hot tear or shrinkage crack forms
when the molten section of unequal thickness solidified and the shrinkage
stress tear the partially molten apart.
Micro-shrinkage is usually many small subsurface holes that appear at the
gate of casting / can also occur when molten metal must flow from a thin
section into thicker section of casting.
Blow hole are small hole at the surface of the casting caused by gas which
comes from the mold itself. (wet sand mould forming steam resulting in blow-
hole)
Porosity is caused by entrapped gas. It is usually subsurface or surface
depending on the mold design.
Casting Defects & Discontinuities- Hot Tear
Casting Defects & Discontinuities- Blister
Casting Defects & Discontinuities- Porosity
Casting Defects & Discontinuities - Mismatch
Casting Defects & Discontinuities- Cold Shut
Casting Defects & Discontinuities- Missrun
Casting Defects & Discontinuities- Misrun
Casting Defects & Discontinuities- Blow Hole
Casting Defects & Discontinuities- Gas Porosity
Casting Defects & Discontinuities- Cold Shut
Casting Defects & Discontinuities- Shrinkage Cavity
Casting Defects & Discontinuities- Assorted
6.1.2 Processing Defects & Discontinuities
Processing Defects & Discontinuities
Salute to the Steel Workers!
Processing Defects & Discontinuities- Lamination formed when the
casting defects are flatten during rolling, forging, extrusion or other
mechanical working processes.
Processing Defects & Discontinuities- Stringers formed when the billet is
rolled into shape the casting non metallic inclusions are squeezed into long
and thinner inclusions.
Processing Defects & Discontinuities- Forging lap is caused by folding of
metal on the surface, usually when some of the metal is squuaed ot between
the two dies.
Processing Defects & Discontinuities- Forging burst is a rupture causes
by forging at improper temperature. The burst may be internal or external.
Processing Defects & Discontinuities
6.1.3 Welding Defects & Discontinuities
Welding Defects & Discontinuities
Welding Defects & Discontinuities- Incomplete Penetration
Welding Defects & Discontinuities- Slag Inclusion
Welding Defects & Discontinuities- Cluster Porosity
Welding Defects & Discontinuities- Lack of Sidewall Fusion (with Slag
entrapped)
Welding Defects & Discontinuities- Wagon Track
(slag inclusion at hot pass)
Welding Defects & Discontinuities- Burn Thru
Welding Defects & Discontinuities- Offset with LOP
Welding Defects & Discontinuities- Excessive Penetration
Welding Defects & Discontinuities- Internal (Root) Under Cut
Welding Defects & Discontinuities- Transverse Crack
Welding Defects & Discontinuities- Tungsten Inclusion
Welding Defects & Discontinuities- Root Pass Porosity
6.1.4 Service Induced Defects & Discontinuities
Service Induced Defects & Discontinuities
http://failure-analysis.info/2010/05/analyzing-material-fatigue/
Service Induced Defects & Discontinuities- Fatigue Cracks
Figure 4-24 In a carbon steel sample, metallographic section through a
thermal fatigue crack indicates origin at the toe of an attachment weld. Mag.
50X, etched.
Figure 4-26 Metallographic cross-section of a superheated steam outlet that
failed from thermal fatigue. Unetched.
Figure 4-36 Weld detail used to join a carbon steel elbow (bottom) to a weld
overlaid pipe section (top) in high pressure wet H2S service. Sulfide stress
cracking (SSC) occurred along the toe of the weld (arrow), in a narrow zone
of high hardness.
Figure 4-37 High magnification photomicrograph of SSC in pipe section
shown in Figure 4-36.
Figure 4-38 Failure of DMW joining 1.25Cr-0.5Mo to Alloy 800H in a Hydro-
dealkylation (HAD) Reactor Effluent Exchanger. Crack propagation due to
stresses driven at high temperature of 875F (468C) and a hydrogen
partial pressure of 280 psig (1.93 MPa).
Figure 4-57 Vibration induced fatigue of a 1-inch socket weld flange in a
thermal relief system shortly after startup.
Figure 4-58 Cross-sectional view of the crack in the socket weld in Figure 4-
57.
Figure 5-1 Localized amine corrosion at the weld found in piping from
reboiler to regenerator tower in an MEA unit. Many other similar cases found,
some going as deep as half thickness. They were originally found and
mistaken as cracks with shear wave UT inspection.
Figure 5-2 Hot Lean Amine Corrosion of Carbon Steel:
Figure 5-3 Preferential weld corrosion in lean amine (Reference 5)
Figure 5-46 Overhead interstage knockout drum vapor outlet nozzle.
Figure 5-47 Carbonate cracking adjacent to a weld (Reference 6).
Figure 5-48 Metallographic sample showing intergranular carbonate
cracking developed after 6 months service (Reference 6).lean amine
(Reference 5)
Figure 5-49 Most cracks originate in base metal but this weldment
contained a crack that originated at the root and propagated through the weld
metal. Other cracks appear to have initiated in the HAZ (Reference 7).
Rail Inspection
One of the major problems that railroads have faced since the earliest days is
the prevention of service failures in track. As is the case with all modes of
high-speed travel, failures of an essential component can have serious
consequences. The North American railroads have been inspecting their
most costly infrastructure asset, the rail, since the late 1920's. With increased
traffic at higher speed, and with heavier axle loads in the 1990's, rail
inspection is more important today than it has ever been. Although the focus
of the inspection seems like a fairly well-defined piece of steel, the testing
variables present are significant and make the inspection process challenging.
Rail inspections were initially performed solely by visual means. Of course,
visual inspections will only detect external defects and sometimes the subtle
signs of large internal problems.
The need for a better inspection method became a high priority because of a
derailment at Manchester, NY in 1911, in which 29 people were killed and 60
were seriously injured. In the U.S. Bureau of Safety's (now the National
Transportation Safety Board) investigation of the accident, a broken rail was
determined to be the cause of the derailment. The bureau established that the
rail failure was caused by a defect that was entirely internal and probably
could not have been detected by visual means. The defect was called a
transverse fissure (example shown on the bottom). The railroads began
investigating the prevalence of this defect and found transverse fissures were
widespread.
Transverse Fissure
Transverse Fissure
Transverse Fissure
One of the methods used to inspect rail is ultrasonic inspection. Both
normal- and angle-beam techniques are used, as are both pulse-echo and
pitch-catch techniques. The different transducer arrangements offer different
inspection capabilities. Manual contact testing is done to evaluate small
sections of rail but the ultrasonic inspection has been automated to allow
inspection of large amounts of rail.
Fluid filled wheels or sleds
are often used to couple the
transducers to the rail.
Sperry Rail Services, which
is one of the companies that
perform rail inspection, uses
Roller Search Units (RSU's)
comprising a combination of
different transducer angles
to achieve the best
inspection possible. A
schematic of an RSU is
shown below.
6.3: Weldments (Welded Joints)
6.3.1: UT of Weldments (Welded Joints)
The most commonly occurring defects in welded joints are porosity, slag
inclusions, lack of side-wall fusion, lack of inter-run fusion, lack of root
penetration, undercutting, and longitudinal or transverse cracks.
With the exception of single gas pores all the defects listed are usually well
detectable by ultrasonics. Most applications are on low-alloy construction
quality steels, however, welds in aluminum can also be tested. Ultrasonic flaw
detection has long been the preferred method for nondestructive testing in
welding applications. This safe, accurate, and simple technique has pushed
ultrasonics to the forefront of inspection technology.
Ultrasonic weld inspections are typically performed using a straight beam
transducer in conjunction with an angle beam transducer and wedge. A
straight beam transducer, producing a longitudinal wave at normal incidence
into the test piece, is first used to locate any laminations in or near the heat-
affected zone. This is important because an angle beam transducer may not
be able to provide a return signal from a laminar flaw.
UT Calculator
Flaw Detection- Depth Determination
The second step in the inspection involves using an angle beam transducer
to inspect the actual weld. Angle beam transducers use the principles of
refraction and mode conversion to produce refracted shear or longitudinal
waves in the test material. [Note: Many AWS inspections are performed using
refracted shear waves. However, material having a large grain structure, such
as stainless steel may require refracted longitudinal waves for successful
inspections.] This inspection may include the root, sidewall, crown, and heat-
affected zones of a weld. The process involves scanning the surface of the
material around the weldment with the transducer. This refracted sound wave
will bounce off a reflector (discontinuity) in the path of the sound beam. With
proper angle beam techniques, echoes returned from the weld zone may
allow the operator to determine the location and type of discontinuity.
T = Plate Thickness
= Shear wave angle
LEG = T/Cos , V path= 2 x LEG.
Skip = 2.T Tan
https://www.mandinasndt.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=32%253A
ut-angle-beam-calculator&catid=12%253Atools&Itemid=18
https://www.nde-ed.org/GeneralResources/Formula/AngleBeamFormula/AngleBeamTrig.htm
Flaw Detection- Triangulations of reflector
= Refracted angle T= Thickness LEG1=LEG2= T/Cos
V PATH= 2x LEG= 2T/Cos SKIP= 2.T Tan
Flaw Detection- Triangulations of reflector

= Refracted angle T= Thickness Surface Distance= S.Sin
Depth= S.Cos
To determine the proper scanning area for the weld, the inspector must first
calculate the location of the sound beam in the test material. Using the
refracted angle, beam index point and material thickness, the V-path and skip
distance of the sound beam is found. Once they have been calculated, the
inspector can identify the transducer locations on the surface of the material
corresponding to the crown, sidewall, and root of the weld.
6.3.2 Weld Scanning
Expert at works
Typical Scanning Patterns:
Typically the weld should be inspected in the 1
st
or 2
nd
leg (1
st
Skip).
Typically scanning patterns
Weld Scanning
Weld Scanning
Weld Scanning
Weld Scanning
Echo Dynamic- Position of Defects
Sometimes it will be possible to differentiate between these 2 defects simply
by plotting their position within the weld zone:
Plate Weld Scanning
Plate Weld Scanning
Plate Weld Scanning
Plate Weld Scanning
Plate Weld Scanning
52. One of the most apparent characteristics of a discontinuity echo, as
opposed to a non-relevant indication is:
(a) Lack of repeatability
(b) Sharp, distinct signal
(c) Stable position with fixed transducer position
(d) High noise level
58. What useful purpose may be served by maintaining grass on the baseline?
(a) To estimate casting grain size
(b) To provide a reference for estimating signal to noise ratio
(c) To verify adequate coupling to the test piece
(d) All of the above
62. Which of the following conditions would be most likely to cause strong,
interfering surface waves?
(a) High frequency transducers
(b) Testing on a small diameter surface
(c) Testing on a flat surface
(d) Testing on a curved surface with a contoured wedge and transducer
6.4: Pipe & Tube
Pipe & Tube
Pipe & Tube
Experts at work
Pipe Scanning
Pipe Scanning
Pipe Scanning
48.59
o
max
30
o
max
Pipe Scanning
Pipe Scanning
Pipe Scanning- thickness/OD ratio
Pipe Scanning- thickness/OD ratio
When the t/OD ratio = .2 , t=.2OD, ID=OD-2t= OD-.4OD= .6OD
max = Sin
-1
(ID/OD), max = Sin
-1
(0.6), max = 37 Max.
For the sound path to scans the inner face the maximum shear angle shall be
37 Max. Therefore 45 /60 /70 probe can not scan the pipe inner face.
Q. Calculate the maximum shear wave angle and the range for 360
revolution scanning when the shear wave angle is 45.
Given that the OD=6Thickness=3/4
Answer:
(a)
The maximum shear wave angle = Sin
-1
(ID/OD) = Sin
-1
(2.25/3)
= 48.6 Max.
(b) ?
Question part B
b
a
a/Sin A = b/Sin B
2.25/ Sin 45 = b / Sin B, 3.182= b/ Sin B,
c = a.Sin B, Sin B= c/a
3.182= b/c x 2.25, b/c= 1.414
c
35. During immersion testing of pipe or tubing the incident longitudinal wave
angle must be limited to a narrow range. The reason for the upper limit is:
(a) To avoid complete reflection of ultrasound from the test piece
(b) To prevent formation of Rayleigh waves
(c) To prevent formation of shear waves
(d) To avoid saturating the test piece with ultrasound
6.5: Echo Dynamic
Expert at works
Echo Dynamic of Discontinuity- Flaw detection
Echo Dynamic of Discontinuity- Flaw Detection
Echo Dynamic of Discontinuity- Flaw detections
Echo Dynamic of Discontinuity- Improper flaw orientation
Echo Dynamic of Discontinuity- Reflection angle
Echo Dynamic of Discontinuity- Angles of reflection
Echo Dynamic of Discontinuity- Perfect flaw orientation
Echo Dynamic of Discontinuity- Vertical near surface flaw
Echo Dynamic of Discontinuity- Tandem Techniques
Echo Dynamic
Echo Dynamic- Root Concavity
Echo Dynamic
Echo Dynamic
Echo Dynamic
Echo Dynamic
Echo Dynamic
Crack
Echo Dynamic
Echo Dynamic
Echo Dynamic
Echo Dynamic
Threadlike defects, point defects and flat planar defects orientated near-
normal to the beam axis all produce an echo response which has a single
peak
Echo Dynamic
The echo response from a large slag inclusion or a rough crack is likely to
have multiple peaks:
Echo Dynamic
In case ait will be difficult to determine whether the defect is slag or a crack.
Rotational- Swivelor orbitalprobe movements may help:
Echo Dynamic
Typical Echo Dynamic Patterns
Echo Dynamic
Echo Dynamic
Q. A smooth flat discontinuity whose major plane is not perpendicular to the
direction of sound propagation may be indicated by:
A. An echo amplitude comparable in magnitude to the back surface reflection
B. A complete loss of back surface reflection
C. An echo amplitude larger in magnitude than the back surface reflection
D. All of the above
Offshore NDT
Expert at works
Hanger Pin Testing using Shear Wave
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/infrastructure/structures/04042/index.cfm#toc
Physical Dimension
Physical Dimension
Physical Dimension
Physical Dimension
Reporting: Basic Pin Information
Reporting: Scanning Report Top of Pin
Reporting: Scanning Report Bottom of Pin
Mock-Up
Mock-Up
Mock-Up
Mock-Up
Mock-Up
Reporting: Basic Pin Information
Hanger Pin Testing using Shear Wave
Pitch and Catch Methods- Echo Dynamic
Pitch and Catch Methods- Set-up
Pitch and Catch Methods- Echo Dynamic
6.7: Material Properties-
Elastic Modulus Measurements
Elastic Modulus Measurement
Application:
Measurement on Young's Modulus and Shear Modulus of Elasticity, and
Poisson's ratio, in non-dispersive isotropic engineering materials.
Background:
1. Young's Modulus of Elasticity is defined as the ratio of stress (force per
unit area) to corresponding strain (deformation) in a material under tension
or compression.
2. Shear Modulus of Elasticity is similar to the ratio of stress to strain in a
material subjected to shear stress.
3. Poisson's Ratio is the ratio of transverse strain to corresponding axial
strain on a material stressed along one axis.
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/applications/elastic-modulus-measurement/
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/applications/?347[search][sCategoryId][1166017122]=1166017163&347[search][submit]=Search
Elastic Modulus Measurement Youngs Modulus & Shear Modulus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear_modulus
Elastic Modulus Measurement- Poisson Ratio
These basic material properties, which are of interest in many manufacturing
and research applications, can be determined through computations based
on measured sound velocities and material density.
Sound velocity can be easily measured using ultrasonic pulse-echo
techniques with appropriate equipment. The general procedure outlined
below is valid for any (1) homogeneous, (2) isotropic, (3) non-dispersive
material (velocity does not change with frequency).
This includes most common metals, industrial ceramics, and glasses as long
as cross sectional dimensions are not close to the test frequency wavelength.
Rigid plastics such as polystyrene and acrylic can also be measured,
although they are more challenging due to higher sound attenuation.
Keyword:
non-dispersive material (velocity does not change with frequency).
Rubber cannot be characterized ultrasonically because of its high dispersion
and nonlinear elastic properties. Soft plastics similarly exhibit very high
attenuation in shear mode and as a practical matter usually cannot be tested.
In the case of anisotropic materials, elastic properties vary with direction, and
so do longitudinal and/or shear wave sound velocity. Generation of a full
matrix of elastic moduli in anisotropic specimens typically requires six
different sets of ultrasonic measurements.
Porosity or coarse granularity in a material can affect the accuracy of
ultrasonic modulus measurement since these conditions can cause variations
in sound velocity based on grain size and orientation or porosity size and
distribution, independent of material elasticity.
Keyword:
anisotropic materials, elastic properties vary with direction
Equipment:
The velocity measurements for modulus calculation are most commonly
made with precision thickness gages such as models 38DL PLUS and 45MG
with Single Element software, or a flaw detector with velocity measurement
capability such as the EPOCH series instruments. Pulser/receivers such as
the Model 5072PR or 5077PR can also be used with an oscilloscope or
waveform digitizer for transit time measurements.
This test also requires two transducers appropriate to the material being
tested, for pulse-echo sound velocity measurement in longitudinal and shear
modes. Commonly used transducers include an M112 or V112 broadband
longitudinal wave transducer (10 MHz) and a V156 normal incidence shear
wave transducer (5 MHz). These work well for many common metal and fired
ceramic samples. Different transducers will be required for very thick, very
thin, or highly attenuating samples. Some cases may also require use of
through transmission techniques, with pairs of transducers positioned on
opposite sides of the part. It is recommended that in all cases the user consult
Olympus for specific transducer recommendations and assistance with
instrument setup.
The test sample may be of any geometry that permits clean pulse/echo
measurement of sound transit time through a section on thickness. Ideally
this would be a sample at least 0.5 in. (12.5 mm) thick, with smooth
parallel surfaces and a width or diameter greater than the diameter of the
transducer being used. Caution must be used when testing narrow
specimens due to possible edge effects that can affect measured pulse
transit time. Resolution will be limited when very thin samples are used
due to the small changes in pulse transit time across short sound paths.
For that reason we recommend that samples should be at least 0.2 in. (5
mm) thick, preferably thicker. In all cases the thickness of the test sample
must be precisely known.
Keywords:
1. Caution must be used when testing narrow specimens due to possible
edge effects that can affect measured pulse transit time.
2. Resolution will be limited when very thin samples are used due to the
small changes in pulse transit time across short sound paths.
UT Thickness Gauge
UT Thickness Gauge
Testing Procedure: Equipment Used.
Measure the (1) longitudinal and (2) shear wave sound velocity of the test
piece using the appropriate transducers and instrument setup.
The shear wave measurement will require use of a specialized high viscosity
couplant such as our SWC. A Model 38DL PLUS a 45MG thickness gage
can provide a direct readout of material velocity based on an entered sample
thickness, and an EPOCH series flaw detector can measure velocity through
a velocity calibration procedure. In either case, follow the recommended
procedure for velocity measurement as described in the instrument's
operating manual. If using a pulser/receiver, simply record the round-trip
transit time through an area of known thickness with both longitudinal and
shear wave transducers, and compute:
Question: For measurement of shear wave velocity is normal incident
transverse wave used? (hint by the used of highly viscous couplant
requirement)
Testing Procedure: Velocity Measurements & Calculations
Velocity= Distance / ( Round trip traverse time)
Convert units as necessary to obtain velocities expressed as inches per
second or centimeters per second. (Time will usually have been measured in
microseconds, so multiply in/uS or cm/uS by 10
6
to obtain in/S or cm/S.) The
velocities thus obtained may be inserted into the following equations.
Poisson Ratio (v) =
Youngs Modulus =
Shear Modulus =
Velocity & Equations
Poisson Ratio (v) =
Youngs Modulus (E) =
Shear Modulus (G) = ,
V
L
, V
S
= Longitudinal and Shear Velocity
v = Poisson ratio
p = Material density
Note on units: If sound velocity is expressed in cm/S and density in g/cm
3
,
then Young's modulus will be expressed in units of dynes/cm
2
. If English units
of in/S and lbs/in
3
are used to compute modulus in pounds per square inch
(PSI), remember the distinction between "pound" as a unit of force versus a
unit of mass. Since modulus is expressed as a force per unit area, when
calculating in English units it is necessary to multiply the solution of the above
equation by a mass/force conversion constant of (1 / Acceleration of Gravity)
to obtain modulus in PSI. Alternately, if the initial calculation is done in metric
units, use the conversion factor 1 psi = 6.89 x 104 dynes/cm
2
. Another
alternative is to enter velocity in in/S, density in g/cm 3, and divide by a
conversion constant of 1.07 x 104 to obtain modulus in PSI.
Experts at work
1.0 Background:
Although most ultrasonic flaw detection and thickness gauging is performed
at normal environmental temperatures, there are many situations where it is
necessary to test a material that is hot. This most commonly happens in
process industries, where hot metal pipes or tanks must be tested without
shutting them down for cooling, but also includes manufacturing situations
involving hot materials, such as extruded plastic pipe or thermally molded
plastic immediately after fabrication, or testing of metal ingots or castings
before they have fully cooled. Conventional ultrasonic transducers will
tolerate temperatures up to approximately 50 C or 125 F. At higher
temperatures, they will eventually suffer permanent damage due to internal
disbonding caused by thermal expansion. If the material being tested is hotter
than approximately 50 C or 125 F, then high temperature transducers and
special test techniques should be employed.
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/applications/high-temperature-ultrasonic-testing/
This application note contains quick reference information regarding selection
of high temperature transducers and couplants, and important factors
regarding their use. It covers conventional ultrasonic testing of materials at
temperatures up to approximately 500C or 1000F. In research applications
involving temperatures higher than that, highly specialized waveguide
techniques are used. They fall outside the scope of this note.
Testing Methods used:
Methods used to increase the useful range for high temperature application
are:
Delay Line
High temperature Couplants
Testing Techniques & Equipment Requirements
Temperature Limitation:
Conventional ultrasonic
transducers 50C
transducers 50C
http://amazingunseentravel.blogspot.com/2011_08_28_archive.html
transducers 50C
transducers 50C
transducers 50C
http://www.wisdompetals.com/index.php/photos/138-wonder-of-the-world-crescent-lake-in-gopi-deser
transducers 50C
http://www.wisdompetals.com/index.php/photos/138-wonder-of-the-world-crescent-lake-in-gopi-deser
- 50
http://www.cc6uu.com/science/article/raiders/2407
High Temperature Conventional UT-
Good Till & No-More.
2.0 Methods used for H.Temperature Scanning
2.1 Transducers- H.Temperature Delay Line Material
Panametrics-NDT high temperature transducers fall into two categories,
dual element transducers and
delay line transducers.
In both cases, the delay line material (which is internal in the case of duals)
serves as thermal insulation between the active transducer element and the
hot test surface.
For design reasons, there are no high temperature contact or immersion
transducers in the standard product line. High temperature duals and delay
line transducers are available for both thickness gaging and flaw detection
applications. As with all ultrasonic tests, the best transducer for a given
application will be determined by specific test requirements, including the
material, the thickness range, the temperature, and in the case of flaw
detection, the type and size of the relevant flaws.
(1a) Thickness gaging
The most common application for high temperature thickness gaging is
corrosion survey work, the measurement of remaining metal thickness of hot
pipes and tanks with corrosion gages such as Models 38DL PLUS and 45MG.
Most of the transducers that are designed for use with Olympus corrosion
gages are suitable for high temperature use. The commonly used D790
series transducers can be used on surfaces as hot as 500 C or 930 F. For a
complete list of available corrosion gaging duals that includes temperature
specifications, see this link: Corrosion Gage Duals.
For precision thickness gaging applications using the Models 38DL PLUS or
Model 45MG with Single Element software ,such as hot plastics, any of the
standard Microscan delay line transducers in the M200 series (including gage
default transducers M202, M206, M207, and M208) can be equipped with
high temperature delay lines. DLHT-1, -2, and -3 delay lines may be used on
surfaces up to 260 C or 500 F. DLHT-101, -201, and -301 delay lines may
be used on surfaces up to 175 C or 350 F. These delay lines are listed in
the Delay Line Option Chart.
In challenging applications requiring low frequency transducers for increased
penetration, the Videoscan Replaceable Face Transducers and appropriate
high temperature delay lines can also be used with 38DL PLUS and 45MG
thickness gages incorporating the HP (high penetration) software option.
Custom transducer setups will be required. Standard delay lines for this
family of transducers can be used in contact with surfaces as hot as 480 C
or 900 F. For a full list of transducers and delay lines, see this link:
Replaceable Face Transducers.
(1b) Flaw detection
As in high temperature thickness gaging applications, high temperature flaw
detection most commonly uses dual element or delay line transducers. All
standard Panametrics-NDT flaw detection duals offer high temperature
capability. Fingertip, Flush Case, and Extended Range duals whose
frequency is 5 MHz or below may be used up to approximately 425 C or
800 F, and higher frequency duals (7.5 and 10 MHz) may be used up to
approximately 175 C or 350 F. For a full list of transducers in this category,
see this link: Flaw Detection Duals.
All of the Videoscan Replaceable Face Transducers can be used with
appropriate high temperature delay lines in flaw detection applications. The
available delay lines for this family of transducers can be used in contact with
surfaces as hot as 480 C or 900 F. For a full list of transducers and delay
lines suitable for various maximum temperatures, see this link: Replaceable
Face Transducers.
Applications involving thin materials are often best handled by the delay line
transducers in the V200 series (most commonly the V202, V206, V207, and
V208), any of which can be equipped with high temperature delay lines.
DLHT-1, -2, and -3 delay lines may be used on surfaces up to 260 C or 500
F. DLHT-101, -201, and -301 delay lines may be used on surfaces up to 175
C or 350 F. These transducers and delay lines are listed on the Delay Line
Transducer List.
We also offers special high temperature wedges for use with angle beam
transducers, the ABWHT series for use up to 260 C or 500 F and the
ABWVHT series for use up to 480 C or 900 F. Detailed information on
available sizes is available from the Sales Department.
2.2 High Temperature Couplants
Most common ultrasonic couplants such as propylene glycol, glycerin, and
ultrasonic gels will quickly vaporize if used on surfaces hotter than
approximately 100 C or 200 F. Thus, ultrasonic testing at high temperatures
requires specially formulated couplants that will remain in a stable liquid or
paste form without boiling off, burning, or releasing toxic fumes. It is important
to be aware of the specified temperature range for their use, and use them
only within that range. Poor acoustic performance and/or safety hazards may
result from using high temperature couplants beyond their intended range.
At very high temperatures, even specialized high temperature couplants must
be used quickly since they will tend to dry out or solidify and no longer
transmit ultrasonic energy. Dried couplant residue should be removed from
the test surface and the transducer before the next measurement.
Note that normal incidence shear wave coupling is generally not possible at
elevated temperatures because commercial shear wave couplants will liquify
and lose the very high viscosity that is necessary for transmission of shear
waves.
We offer two types of high temperature couplant:
Couplant E - UltrathermRecommended for use between 500 and
970 F (260 to 520 C)
Couplant G - Medium Temperature Couplant Recommended for use at
temperatures up to 600 F (315 C).
For a complete list of couplants available from Olympus, along with further
notes on each, please refer to the application note on Ultrasonic Couplants.
Keyword:
Note that normal incidence shear wave coupling is generally not possible at
elevated temperatures because commercial shear wave couplants will liquify
and lose the very high viscosity that is necessary for transmission of shear
waves.
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/applications/normal-incidence-shear-wave-transducers/
http://static5.olympus-ims.com/data/Flash/shear_wave.swf?rev=3970
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/ultrasonic-transducers/shear-wave/
2.3 Test Techniques
The following factors should always be taken into consideration in
establishing a test procedure for any high temperature application:
Transducer Time of Contacts
All standard high temperature transducers are designed with a duty cycle in
mind. Although the delay line insulates the interior of the transducer, lengthy
contact with very hot surfaces will cause significant heat buildup, and
eventually permanent damage to the transducer if the interior temperature
becomes hot enough. For most dual element and delay line transducers, the
recommended duty cycle for surface temperatures between approximately
90 C and 425 C (200 F to 800 F) is no more than ten seconds of contact
with the hot surface (five seconds is recomended), followed by a minimum of
one minute of air cooling. Note that this is guideline only; the ratio of contact
time to cooling time becomes more critical at the upper end of a given
transducer's specified temperature range.
As a general rule, if the outer case of the transducer becomes too hot to
comfortably hold with bare fingers, then the interior temperature of the
transducer is reaching a potentially damaging temperature and the transducer
must be allowed to cool down before testing continues.
Some users have employed water cooling to accelerate the cooling process,
however Olympus publishes no official guidelines for water cooling and its
appropriateness must be determined by the individual user
Keyword:
10 second contact follows by 60 second air cooling
Water cooling is not guarantee by Olympus NDT
Coupling Technique: The combination of transducer duty cycle requirements
and the tendency of couplants to solidify or boil off at the upper end of their
usable thickness range requires quick work on the part of the operator. Many
users have found the best technique to be to apply a drop of couplant to the
face of the transducer and then press the transducer firmly to the test surface,
without twisting or grinding it (which can cause transducer wear). Any dried
couplant residue should be removed from the transducer tip between
measurements.
2.4 Equipment Functions
Freeze Function
Olympus Epoch series flaw detectors and all thickness gages have freeze
functions that can be used to freeze the displayed waveform and reading. The
freeze function is very useful in high temperature measurements because it
allows the operator to capture a reading and quickly remove the transducer
from the hot surface. With gages, the fast screen update mode should be
used to help minimize contact time.
High Gain Boost
Gain Boost: The 38DL PLUS and 45MG gages have user adjustable gain
boost functions, as do all Epoch series flaw detectors. Because of the higher
attenuation levels associated with high temperature measurements, it is often
useful to increase gain before making measurements.
3.0 High Temperature Testing and Variability
3.1 Velocity Variation:
Sound velocity in all materials changes with temperature, slowing down as
the material heats up. Accurate thickness gaging of hot materials always
requires velocity recalibration. In steel, this velocity change is approximately
1% per 55C or 100F change in temperature. (The exact value varies
depending on the alloy.) In plastics and other polymers, this change is much
greater, and can approach 50% per 55C or 100F change in temperature up
to the melting point. If a temperature/velocity plot for the material is not
available, then a velocity calibration should be performed on a sample of the
test material at the actual test temperature. The temperature compensation
software function in the 38DL PLUS gage can be used to automatically adjust
velocity for known elevated temperatures based on a programmed
temperature/velocity constant.
Keyword:
Velocity change of -1% (minus) per 55C or 100F change in temperature
Temperature versus velocity plot
Keyword:
Velocity change of -1% (minus) per 55C or 100F change in temperature
Temperature versus velocity plot
3.2 Zero Recalibration:
When performing thickness gaging with dual element transducers, remember
that the zero offset value for a given transducer will change as it heats up due
to changes in transit time through the delay line. Thus, periodic re-zeroing is
necessary to maintain measurement accuracy. With Olympus corrosion
gages this can be quickly and easily done through the gage's auto-zero
function; simply press the 2nd Function > DO ZERO keys.
3.3 Increased Attenuation:
Sound attenuation in all materials increases with temperature, and the effect
is much more pronounced in plastics than in metals or ceramics. In typical
fine grain carbon steel alloys, attenuation at 5 MHz at room temperature is
approximately 2 dB per 100 mm one-way sound path (equivalent to a round
trip path of 50 mm each way). At 500C or 930C, attenuation increases to
approximately 15 dB per 100 mm of sound path. This effect can require use
of significantly increased instrument gain when testing over long sound paths
at high temperature, and can also require adjustment to distance/amplitude
correction (DAC) curves or TVG (Time Varied Gain) programs that were
established at room temperature.
Temperature/attenuation effects in polymers are highly material dependent,
but will be typically be several times greater than the above numbers for steel.
In particular, long high temperature delay lines that have heated up may
represent a significant source of total attenuation in a test.
Keyword:
In typical fine grain carbon steel alloys, attenuation at 5 MHz at room
temperature is approximately 2 dB per 100 mm one-way sound path
(equivalent to a round trip path of 50 mm each way).
At 500C or 930C, attenuation increases to approximately 15 dB per 100
mm of sound path.
3.4 Angular Variation in Wedges:
With any high temperature wedge, sound velocity in the wedge material will
decrease as it heats up, and thus the refracted angle in metals will increase
as the wedge heats up. If this is of concern in a given test, refracted angle
should be verified at actual operating temperature. As a practical matter,
thermal variations during testing will often make precise determination of the
actual refracted angle difficult.
Keyword:
As a practical matter, thermal variations during testing will often make precise
determination of the actual refracted angle difficult.
Discussion: An offshore installation of Topside to J acket Legs, hot
conventional Ultrasonic Testing at elevated temperature below 500 C was
proposed. What are the critical information to be reviewed?
Hints:
High temperature testing methods used & limitations
Variability due to high temperature & concerns
1.0 TOFD Basic Theory
TOFD is usually performed using longitudinal waves as the primary detection
method. Ultrasonic sensors are placed on each side of the weld. One sensor
sends the ultrasonic beam into the material and the other sensor receives
reflected and diffracted ultrasound from anomalies and geometric reflectors.
TOFD provides a wide area of coverage with a single beam by exploiting
ultrasonic beam spread theory inside the wedge and the inspected material.
When the beam comes in contact with the tip of a flaw, or crack, diffracted
energy is cast in all directions. Measuring the time of flight of the diffracted
beams enables accurate and reliable flaw detection and sizing, even if the
crack is off-oriented to the initial beam direction.
During typical TOFD inspections, A-scans are collected and used to create B-
scan (side view) images of the weld. Analysis is done on the acquisition unit
or in post-analysis software, positioning cursors to measure the length and
through-wall height of flaws.
Keywords:
Tip Diffraction
Off-oriented to the initial beam direction
Time of Flight
A-scan / B-scan
Post analysis software
Main Benefits of TOFD for Weld Inspection
Based on diffraction, so relatively indifferent to weld bevel angles and flaw
orientation
Uses time of arrival of signals received from crack tips for accurate defect
positioning and sizing
Precise sizing capability makes it an ideal flaw monitoring method
Quick to set up and perform an inspection, as a single beam offers a large
area of coverage
Rapid scanning with imaging and full data recording
Can also be used for corrosion inspections
Required equipment is more economical than phased array, due to
conventional nature (single pulser and receiver) and use of conventional
probes
Highly sensitive to all weld flaw types
TOFD offers rapid weld inspection with excellent flaw detection and sizing
capacities. The diffraction technique provides critical sizing capability with
relative indifference to bevel angle or flaw orientation. TOFD can be utilized
on its own or in conjunction with other NDT techniques.
More Reading on Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD)
Time of flight diffraction (TOFD) detects flaws using the signals diffracted from
the flaws extremities. Two angled compression wave probes are used in
transmit-receive mode, one each side of the weld. The beam divergence is
such that the majority of the thickness is inspected, although, for thicker
components, more than one probe separation may be required. When the
sound strikes the tip of a crack, this acts as a secondary emitter which
scatters sound out in all directions, some in the direction of the receiving
probe. A lateral wave travelling at the same velocity as the compression
waves, travels directly from the transmitter to the receiver. The time difference
between the lateral wave and the diffracted signal from the flaw
provides a measure of its distance from the scanned surface.
If the flaw is large enough in the through wall dimension, it may
be possible to resolve the tip diffracted signals from its top and
bottom, thereby allowing the through wall height of the flaw to be
measured.
http://www.iteglobal.com/services/advanced-ndt/time-of-flight-diffraction-tofd/
Due to the low amplitude of the diffracted signals, TOFD is usually carried out
using a preamplifier and hardware designed to improve signal-to-noise
performance. As the probes are scanned along the weld, the RF A-Scan
signals are digitised and displayed in the form of a grey-scale image showing
flaws as alternating white and black fringes.
Depending on which direction the probes are moved over the component
surface, it is possible to construct end-view; (B-scan TOFD) or side-view
(D-scan TOFD) cross-sectional slices. TOFD can also utilise Synthetic
Aperture focusing or beam modelling software to minimise the effects of
beam divergence, thereby providing more accurate location and sizing
information.
TOFD is generally recognised as the most accurate ultrasonic technique for
measuring the through-wall height of planar flaws that lie perpendicular to the
surface and as a method for detecting and quantifying crevice corrosion at the
weld root. At present, national standards for the application of TOFD exist,
however, no acceptance criteria have been agreed upon.
The TOFD technique is suited for the detection and sizing of all types of
embedded flaws, especially those planar in nature. However, the detection of
small near the scan surface flaws can be more difficult due to the presence of
the lateral wave response which often occupies several millimeters of the
depth axis on images.
Tips Diffractions
TOFD
Diffracted wave from upper end of crack
Diffracted wave from lower end of crack
Crack
Back-wall echo
Receiver Transmitter
Diffracted wave from lower end of crack
Diffracted
wave from
upper end of
crack
Lateral wave
Crack height can be calculate by measuring propagation
delayed time of diffraction wave
TOFD
2.0 Application Examples
2.1 TOFD for Weld Root Corrosion and Erosion
For piping and other flow systems, certain conditions exist that lead to
corrosion and erosion in the weld root and the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of
the weld. The contributing factors are often metallurgical, chemical, or flow
related, and the resulting metal loss can lead to failure of the weld/base metal.
The shape of the corroded or eroded weld or base metal can make ultrasonic
inspection extremely difficult to apply, thus impeding accurate detection and
measurement of anomalies.
The time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) technique proves to be a valid option for
evaluating weld root corrosion and erosion, as well as similar conditions such
as FAC (flow-accelerated corrosion). The goal of any of these inspections is
to accurately measure the wall thickness, the weld, and the HAZ. The
unpredictable shape of the remaining material often makes pulse-echo
ultrasonic inspection ineffective.
http://www.olympus-ims.com/en/applications/tofd-for-weld-root-corrosion-and-erosion/
TOFD has been used for some time for general weld inspections. It has
proven to be a rapid and easily deployable method with an excellent capacity
for sizing. One of the inherent strengths of TOFD for detection and sizing
purposes is its relative indifference to the orientation of defects because of its
primary use of diffracted versus reflected energy.
The TOFD technique utilizes two transducers: a transmitter transducer floods
the inspected region with sound in the forward direction; on the opposite side
of the weld, a receiver transducer is positioned to receive diffracted and
reflected energy from the back wall or from anomalies present in the region.
Common pulse-echo techniques can be misdirected by the shape of the
region, resulting in imprecise measurement and assessment.
Figure 5-3 Preferential weld corrosion in lean amine (Reference 5)
Figure 5-2 Hot Lean Amine Corrosion of Carbon Steel:
Weld Root Corrosion and Erosion
Pulse-echo shear wave beam being reflected at an off angle.
Illustration of diffracted energy reflecting off weld root/HAZ in all directions.
For these types of weld inspections, TOFD is typically performed from three
positions for each weld: (1) centered on the weld, (2) offset to the left, and (3)
offset to the right.
Scanning from these particular positions helps to achieve the best results.
This method ensures detection of the highest point of material loss,
determines from which side of the weld the erosion/corrosion indications are
originating, and eliminates any masking caused by the back wall signal.
Depending on the instrument, these scans can be run concurrently or in
separate acquisitions.
TOFD is deployed by scanning the weld with a semiautomatic or fully
automatic scanner. Scan settings are set to determine scan resolution. The
resulting data file can be saved indefinitely for review and comparison to
future scans. After data is acquired, it is analyzed to identify any areas of
concern, either directly on the instrument or in post-analysis software. Shifts
in data (time/depth) are measured in order to assess the severity of metal
loss. The cursors can then be positioned to define areas for depth or
thickness measurement readings. Weld defects such as porosity, lack of
fusion, and cracking can also be detected when scanning for corrosion and
erosion.
Scan of weld with cursor positioned on an uncorroded area; A-scan shows
good lateral wave and back wall signal with no indications in between.
Scan of weld with cursor positioned on a corroded area; A-scan shows shift in
time of back wall signal from material loss.
Measurement of good area shows thickness as 7.39 mm; TOFD (m-r) reading
shows the distance between the positioned cursors.
Measurement of corroded area shows thickness as 5.28 mm; cursors are
positioned at top of plate (0) and highest point of material loss. In this
example, there is 2.11 mm of material loss due to corrosion.
TOFD for Corrosion Measurement Equipment (Typical)
OmniScan SX or MX2 (PA or UT models, depending on the number of
channels desired and if phased array capability is needed).
TOFD circumferential scanner (HST-Lite or similar, depending on the
desired number of probe holders and other application specifics; for
example, pipe versus plate).
TOFD probe and wedges (various frequencies, angles, and materials).
Couplant delivery system, WTR-SPRAYER-8L or similar.
TomoViewAnalysis or OmniPC post-analysis software (optional).
TOFD Benefits for Corrosion/Erosion Measurement
Rapid scanning.
Cost effective.
Auditable and retrievable permanent data sets.
Accurate sizing capability.
Excellent detection, even on irregularly shaped areas of metal loss.
Fast post-acquisition analysis results.
Portable and user-friendly TOFD scanning packages.
2.2 TOFD for Weld- TOFD Parallel Scanning
Overview on Scanning Direction
Most typical TOFD inspections are performed with the send and receive
transducers on opposite sides of the weld and scanning movement parallel to
the weld axis. The main purpose of this perpendicular(defined by beam to
weld relationship) scanning is to quickly perform weld inspection with the weld
cap or re-enforcement in place. This technique can give location in the scan
axis, the indication length, height of indication and flaw characterization
information. One of the weaknesses of this technique is the lack of index
positioning (or where between the probes) the indication is located. This
information is usually obtained with complimentary pulse echo ultrasonics
when the weld is left in place.
? Carriage movement
direction
Perpendicular Scanning
Scanning direction parallelto the weld axis. Beam direction perpendicular
to the weld axis.
One of the weaknesses of this technique is the lack of index positioning (or
where between the probes) the indication is located.
Parallel TOFD scanning, where the scan direction and beam direction are the
same is less used, for obvious reasons of not being able to cover the entire
length of weld rapidly, more complex movement pattern required of scanner
mechanisms, and complexity of the data output of an entire weld inspected.
This technique does have advantages when it is possible to be performed.
Typical PerpendicularWeld Scanning Setup and Data Collected. Data is
side view of weld from scan start to scan finish down the weld. Position of
encoder and scanning direction are highlighted.
Typical ParallelWeld Scanning Setup and Data Collected. Data is side view
of weld from scan start to scan finish across the weld. Position of encoder and
scanning direction are highlighted.
Benefit of TOFD Parallel Scanning
Although perpendicular TOFD scanning down the weld can give highly
accurate depth measurement, generally speaking a parallel scan will give
more accurate depth information as well as flaw information, and location in
the index position in the weld. With perpendicular scanning, no index position
is possible without multiple offset scans being performed or complimentary
NDT techniques to position the flaw. In parallel scanning Index position is
ascertained by locating the minimum time peak, which corresponds to when
the indication is centered between the two probes. For these reasons this
technique is often used in critical crack sizing inspections, as well as change
monitoring, in other words, monitoring a crack or other defect for growth until
it reaches a critical level at which time it is repaired or replaced. For these
reasons the technique is often performed on critical components that are
costly to shut down for repair, often in the Power Generation industry. More
information is often gathered from the flaw as diffraction occurs across the
flaw instead of just down the flaw.
Offshore Installations
Section 7:
Reference Material
Content: Section 7: Reference Material
7.3: Video Time
Acoustic Properties - Piezoelectric Materials
Acoustic Properties - Transducers
Acoustic Properties - Metals
Acoustic Properties - Powdered Metals
Acoustic Properties - Liquid Metals
Acoustic Properties - Plastics, Resins
Acoustic Properties - Rubber
Acoustic Properties - Ceramics
Acoustic Properties - Wood
Acoustic Properties - Liquids
Acoustic Properties - Liquid Gases
Acoustic Properties - Gases
Acoustic Properties - Vapors
Acoustic Properties - Body Tissue
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Reference%20Information/matproperties.htm
Auld, B.A., Acoustic Fields and Waves in Solids, Vol I & II, 2nd edition Krieger
Publishing Company, February 1990; ISBN: 089874783X
Cartz, Louis, Nondestructive Testing : Radiography, Ultrasonics, Liquid
Penetrant, Magnetic Particle, Eddy Current, ASM Intl; ISBN: 0871705176
Krautkramer, J osef and Krautkramer, Herbert, Ultrasonic Testing of Materials,
4th/revised edition, Springer Verlag, November 1990, ISBN: 0387512314
Diederichs, Rolf and Ginzel, Ed, Nondestructive Testing Encyclopedia, UT
Formulae, NDT net
http://www.ndt.net/ndtaz/ndtaz.php
Ultrasonic Characterization of Materials, NIST, Materials Reliability Division
7.3: Video Time
Calibrating 70 Probe with IIW Block (50%FSH on 1.5mm SDH) to AWS D1.1
(Repeat-Code1)
www.youtube.com/embed/Qr0dGNuq9yY
Section 8: Ultrasonic Inspection Quizzes
Content: Section 8: Ultrasonic Inspection Quizzes
Ultrasonic Inspection Quizzes
Ultrasonic Inspection Quizzes
https://www.nde-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Quiz/UT%20Quizzes.htm
http://www.ndtcalc.com/index.php?page=quiz&method=ut&qs=10
http://www.studyblue.com/notes/note/n/ut-asnt-level-ii/deck/6278710

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Preparatory Notes for

ASNT NDT Level III Examination

Distance from Transducer face

Section 3: Equipment & Transducers

Angle Beam Transducers- Common Terms

Angle Beam Transducers- Longitudinal / Shear Wave Inspection

Flaw Detection- Triangulations of reflector

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