Metals Jonathan Diab

8.3.1
- Outline and examine some uses of different metals through history,
including contemporary uses as uncombined metals or as alloys

The first metals used by humans were those that were found in their elemental
form, that is, uncombined with other elements. Gold, Silver and copper can be
found as almost pure elements in various parts of the world and were initially used
to make jewellery, ornaments and tools. The ability of these metals to be beaten
and bent into various shapes and their relative scarcity made them prized
possessions.

Early uses of copper
Initially copper was used to make ornaments, tools, weapons and cooking
implements. The Egyptians made and wore copper beads and used copper pipes to
convey water. The excellent thermal conductivity of copper made it ideal as a
cooking pot, a use that continues to the present day.
One of the disadvantages of copper, regarding its use in weapons and tools, is that
it is a rather soft metal. The chance discovery that a small amount of tin added to
the copper increased the hardness of the metal was a major breakthrough.

Bronze: an alloy of copper
The deliberate addition of tin to copper to produce a much harder metal alloy,
bronze, was of such importance that this stage of human cultural development is
called the Bronze age (3000- 1000
BC
). Bronze had many advantages over copper.
Bronze cutting tools, such as axes and knives, maintain good cutting edges and are
easily resharpened. Bronze shields and armour were much stronger that any other
material available at the time. This was of strategic significance to nations waging
war on their neighbours. Bronze also casts extremely well and is very durable.
Statues many thousands of years old are evidence of the durability of bronze and
the metallurgical skills of ancient civilisations.

Contemporary uses of copper
Contemporary uses of copper are mostly related to its excellent electrical and
thermal conductivity, resistance to corrosion and ability to form a huge range of
alloys. Copper is second only to silver as an electrical conductor and is used
extensively in electrical cables and wiring, appliances, electrical generators and
motors. Copper pipes, tanks and hot water systems are used for plumbing because
copper does not corrode in hot water.
Copper piping is also used in air- conditioning units and heat exchangers such as
car radiators because it loses heat quickly. Coppers ability to form a wide range
of alloys (more than one thousand different alloys have been formed) is one of the
main reasons that copper remains one of the most important metals today.

The use of iron through history
The iron age began around 1000
BC
. During this period, iron replaced Bronze in
many applications, particularly the manufacture of tools and weapons. Pure iron
2

is, however, susceptible to corrosion (rusting) and is relatively soft. It is likely that
artisans discovered by accident that iron contaminated with carbon forms an alloy
(steel) that is more corrosion resistant and harder than pure iron. The further
discovery that the steel becomes even harder and keeps a better edge by heating it
to a moderate temperature and then dunking it is cold water meant that bronze was
eventually replaced by iron in many applications.
Although carbon steels (iron- carbon alloys) were probably first made about
1000
BC
, the large- scale production of steel did not begin until the middle of the
nineteenth century. Today there are many types of steel that have various uses,
particularly in building construction and in the manufacture of cars, machinery
and household appliances. Iron remains the most abundant, useful and important
of all metals.

Contemporary uses of metals
Copper and iron are still widely used today. However, other metals such as
aluminium and titanium are now also of considerable importance.

Aluminium
Despite being the most abundant metal in the Earths crust and possessing some
remarkable useful properties, aluminium was not used extensively until the
beginning of the twentieth century. The reason for this is that aluminium was
extremely difficult and expensive to extract from it ore, bauxite, which contains
the mineral gibbsite, Al
2
O
3
.3H
2
O, together with various impurities.
After a commercially viable method of extracting Aluminium had been
developed, the use of aluminium increased dramatically.
Due to its low density and its resistance to corrosion, aluminium has displaced
steel in many commercial and industrial situations. For example, aluminium is
used widely in building construction as roofing, window frames, appliance trim
and decorative furniture. It is also used in the manufacture of a range of domestic
utensils such as saucepans, frying pans, drink cans and cooking foil.
Aluminium is also an excellent electrical and thermal conductor and is highly
reflective, making it useful in such diverse applications as electrical transmission
lines, telescope reflectors, food packaging and saucepans.
Aluminium can be strengthened by the addition of small amounts of other metals
such as titanium to produce many alloys that are valued for their low density and
strength. As a result they are extensively used in spacecraft, aircraft and boat
construction

Titanium
Although titanium was discovered in 1791, it was not until 1910 that the pure
metal was isolated.
Titanium is the 9
th
most abundant element in the Earths crust, occurring primarily
in the minerals rutile and ilmenite. Pure titanium is a lustrous solid, similar in
appearance to stainless steel. It melts at high temperatures, has a low density and
great strength and is very resistant to corrosion. Alloys of titanium are very strong
and are used in situations where lightweight strength and resistance to high
temperatures are required, such as in jet engine components, aircraft, spacecraft
and missiles.
Titanium alloys are biocompatible and therefore can be used for surgical implants
such as artificial knee and hip joints.
Because titanium is so resistant to corrosion, it is used in marine environments as
propellers and other ship parts and in chemical factories where corrosive acids are
used. Titanium is also added to other metals such as aluminium, iron, manganese
and molybdenum to improve their strength.


Metal Properties Uses
Copper



Excellent thermal and electrical
conductor, malleable and ductile,
low reactivity, readily forms alloys


Electrical cables and wiring,
radiators, refrigeration systems,
water pipes, alloys including bronze
(casting) and brass (fittings and
fixtures)
Iron




Soft, malleable, magnetic, good
thermal and electrical conductor,
fairly reactive, readily forms alloys


Due to its susceptibility to corrosion
it is usually converted to steel,
which is used in buildings and
bridges, automobiles, machinery and
appliances
Aluminium



Low density, relatively soft when
pure, excellent thermal and electrical
conductor, malleable and ductile,
good reflector of heat and light,
readily forms alloys
Saucepans, frying pans, drink pan,
cooking foil, food packaging,
roofing, window frames, appliance
trim, decorative furniture, electrical
cables, aircraft and boat construction
Titanium Great strength, high melting point,
low density, low reactivity, readily
forms alloys


In lightweight, high- strength alloys
used in high temperature
environments, e.g. spacecraft and
aircraft, pipes and linings for vats
where acids are used
Chromium Shiny silver appearance, resists
corrosion, readily forms alloys

Plating other metals, as an additive
in steel alloys, e.g. stainless steel

Cobalt Magnetic, readily forms alloys In alloys such as alnico to
manufacture permanent magnets
Nickel Magnetic, readily forms alloys As an additive in steel alloys, invar
(Fe, Ni) used in scientific
instruments, as an alloy (Ni, Cu) in
making coins, nichrome (Ni, Cr)
used in electrical heating elements
Zinc Fairly reactive but forms protective
oxide layer, readily forms alloys
In galvanising iron, in the outer
casing and negative electrode of dry
cells, alloy (brass) used in fittings
and fixtures
Gold Shiny gold appearance, excellent
thermal and electrical conductor,
unreactive, readily forms alloys
Electrical connections, jewellery,
monetary standard, dentistry




- Describe the use of common alloys including steel, brass and solder and
explain how these relate to their properties
4


Steel
Iron, in various forms of steel, is used extensively in building construction and the
manufacture of cars and other machinery. These steels usually contain small amounts
of carbon alloyed with iron. The properties of carbon steels can be changed by
altering the amounts of carbon added to the iron. Increasing the proportion of carbon
increases the strength and hardness of the steel produced. They can be further
changed by working the steel in forging and rolling processes, and by heat treatment
such as annealing, quenching and tempering.
Some specialist steels contain small amounts of other metals. For example, stainless
steel used in cutlery and sinks consists of iron alloyed with chromium and nickel.
Some steels have other metals added to form alloy steels with special properties.

Type

Element Alloying
With I ron
Major Properties

Uses

Carbon Steels
Mild steel

<0.2% C

Ductile and
malleable
Nails, chains, cables,
machinery
Structural steel 0.2- 0.5% C Hard, strong Girders, vehicles, rails
Tool steel 0.9- 1.5% C Very hard, strong Tool blades, cutlery
Alloy Steels
Stainless

10- 25% Cr, 4- 22%
Ni
Corrosion
resistant
Cutlery, sinks, hospital
items
Chrome 2-5% Cr Very hard, tough Armour plate, gears
Chrome-
vanadium
3-10% Cr, 1-5% V Great tensile
strength
Springs, car parts
Manganese 10-15% Mn Very hard,
abrasion resistant
Safes, crushers,
mechanical shovels
Molybdenum

5% Mo Strong, heat
resistant
Drive shafts, gears

Tungsten 12-20% W, 2-5% Cr,
1-3% V
Hard at high
temperatures
Cutting and grinding tools

Silicon 2-5% Si Easily
magnetised and
demagnetised
Electromagnets,
transformers

Alnico 6-12% Al, 14-20% Ni,
2-35% Co
Retains
magnetism
Permanent magnets

Invar 36% Ni Low rate of
expansion
Pendulums, surveyors
tapes

Solder
Solder is an alloy of lead and tin. It has a melting point lower than either of these pure
metals. Solder is a metal filler used to join two pieces of metal together. The solder is
melted and allowed to fill the space between the pieces to be joined, and as it cools it
solidifies, bonding the 2 pieces together. Soldering is used extensively in the
electronics industry.

Brass
Brass is an alloy consisting mostly of copper and zinc, although small amounts of
other elements such as lead, tin and aluminium may be present. Brass is resistant to
corrosion and therefore brass fasteners (screws, bolts, nails and so on) may be used in
situation where other metals would rust. Brass also has an attractive finish and is used
for decorative elements such as doorknobs and knockers.

- Explain why energy input is necessary to extract a metal from its ore.

Metals do not occur as pure substances but rather, as compounds in the form of ores.
They must be separated from the other elements by breaking down the chemical
bonds that are present between them. The chemical reactions that separate the metal
elements from unwanted elements require some form of energy to allow the reaction
to take place, usually heat. Some reactions absorb heat when breaking the chemical
bonds while others release it. The ease of extraction of a metal is directly related to
the strength of the bonds within the metal compound and to its position in the activity
series. A large amount of energy is required to mine the ore and to purify or
concentrate it. Energy is required to maintain the high temperatures needed to sustain
the chemical reactions.

- I dentify why there are more metals available for people to use now than
there were 200 years ago.

The ability of a metal to be used directly relates to its difficulty to be extracted.
Because so many metals, like aluminium, can not be extracted for use by simply
heating them, they were not able to be used many years ago. It wasnt until the
introduction of electrolysis that these metals became possible to extract from their
ores. Also, various metals that have particular uses in todays technological stage
were not needed 200 years ago. They would have been of no use and so finding an
extracting process for them would have been pointless because they proved to be
useless to the people of the time.

8.3.2

- Describe observable changes when metals react with dilute acid, water and
oxygen

Reactions of metals with oxygen
All metals except silver, platinum and gold react with oxygen to form oxides:
- Li, Na, K, Ca, Ba, react rapidly at room temperature, tarnish quickly when
exposed to air and must therefore be stored in liquid paraffin oil.
- Mg, Al, Fe, Zn react slowly at room temperature but burn vigorously if
heated in air or pure oxygen.
- Sn, Pb, Cu react slowly and then only if heated.

All the oxides formed are ionic compounds
Those metals which burn in air or oxygen form crystalline white solids which have
none of the physical properties of the original metal (lustre, strength, malleability,
conductivity). When metals slowly react at room temperature, they lose their shiny
6

lustrous appearance. Some, such as Al and Zn, become coated with a dull layer of
tightly adhering oxide which prevents further reaction.
Others such as iron form a powdery surface layer of oxide which does not impede
further reaction. When copper is heated in air it forms a black surface layer of copper
oxide.



Reaction of Metals with water
Some metals react with water or steam while others do not:
- Li, Na, K, Ca, Ba react with water at room temperature
- Mg, Al, Zn, Fe react with steam at elevated temperatures
- Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Au, Pt do not react at all

When reaction occurs with water the products are hydrogen gas and a metal
hydroxide. The formation of hydrogen in this reaction can be confirmed by collecting
a sample of the gas produced and introducing a lighted splint. A small explosion or
pop confirms the presence of hydrogen. An acid- base indicator such as
phenolphthalein or litmus can be used to confirm the production of hydroxide ions.
When pieces of lithium, calcium and barium are dropped into water, bubbles of
colourless gas form: with lithium and barium a colourless solution of lithium or
barium hydroxide results, but with calcium a suspension of insoluble white calcium
hydroxide forms. Sodium and potassium react very vigorously (often with an
explosion as the hydrogen ignites in air)
When a piece of freshly cleaned magnesium ribbon is held in the mouth of a flask of
vigorously boiling water, a white deposit (of magnesium oxide) forms on the ribbon
as the magnesium reacts with steam. Steam needs to be heated significantly above
100
o
C for the reaction with Aluminium, iron and zinc to occur. With steam the
product is oxide, not hydroxide.

Reactions of metals with acids
A number of metals that do not react with water will react with dilute acids. Metals
such as magnesium, zinc and iron react quite readily with cold dilute hydrochloric or
sulfuric acid to produce hydrogen gas and salts. In fact, the laboratory preparation of
hydrogen usually employs the reaction of zinc with dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric
acid. Metals more reactive than magnesium, such as Sodium, potassium, and calcium,
react explosively with dilute hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acids. Less reactive metals
such as coper, silver and gold do not react with these acids. The reaction is also
characterised by a fizzying sound and bubbles being formed. Zinc, for example, reacts
with dilute hydrochloric acid to form bubbles of colourless hydrogen gas and a clear
solution of zinc chloride.

- Describe and justify the criteria used to place metals into an order of activity
based on their ease of reaction with oxygen, water and dilute acids.

The order of metals by reactivity is called the activity series. The series places the
metals into order from most reactive to least reactive by comparing their abilities to
react with oxygen (air), water and dilute acids. We can use the overall reactivity of
metals with oxygen, water and dilute acids to arrive at the following activity series in
which {} symbolise very similar reactivity levels:

{Na, K} > {Li, Ca, Ba} > {Mg, Al, Fe, Zn} > {Sn, Pb} > Cu > {Ag, Au, Pt}

By using galvanic cells to calculate a more accurate measurement of a metals
reactiveness, we get the following reactivity series:

K Na Li Ba Ca Mg Al Zn Fe Sn Pb Cu Ag Pt Au

The sequence is an activity series for the common metals. All the reactions here
involve the metal atoms losing electrons to become metal ions. The series lists the
metals in order of decreasing ease of losing electrons: metals to the left lose electrons
more easily than metals to the right.
Loss of electrons means oxidation, so the activity series lists the metals in order of
decreasing ease of oxidation: K, Na, Li are more easily oxidised than Ag, Pt, Au.

- I dentify the reaction of metals with acids as requiring the transfer of
electrons

Acids are substances, which in solution produce hydrogen ions H
+
. When metals react
with acid, they form hydrogen gas. It isnt the acid that reacts with the metal, but
rather the hydrogen in the acid. This reaction causes a change in the ions in which
some mixtures will oxidise (lose electrons) while others will undergo reduction (gain
electrons). Both may occur at the same time. This is called a redox reaction
(reduction-oxidation) or electron-transfer reaction. These reactions cause the atoms of
metals to lose electrons and become positive ions.

- Outline examples of the selection of metals for different purposes based on
their reactivity, with a particular emphasis on current developments in the
use of metals.

Metals are usually used in certain areas because of their reactivity levels with certain
other substances or elements, usually oxygen, water and dilute acids.

Gold is known to be the most unreactive metal currently used. It retains its shiny
lustre and resists corroding, explaining why it has been used for thousands of years as
jewellery and ornaments.

Magnesium is a very reactive metal and is usually used as a sacrificial anode,
meaning that it is purposely used to corrode before other metals. For example, ships
and wharfs sometimes have large blocks of magnesium attached so that they can react
with the oxygen before the steel used does. When burned in oxygen, magnesium
produces a bright white light. This characteristic of it has caused it to be used in
photographic flashbulbs and is actively used in modern fireworks.

Calcium is also an extremely reactive metal and its use is restricted to certain
situations where its reactivity can be used to advantage. It is added to some steels to
remove traces of remaining unwanted oxygen, sulphur and phosphorus. It is also used
in electronic vacuum tubes to react with oxygen, allowing for a much more effective
vacuum.

8

Zinc is used to coat iron. Iron is dipped into molten zinc helping to protect it in two
ways. The first, the zinc forms a protective coating for the iron, excluding all oxygen
and reacts with the air to form an impervious layer that protects the iron from
corrosion. The second is, if the zinc does happen to become exposed, it acts as a
sacrificial anode, reacting with the oxygen and allowing the iron to last longer. Zincs
reactivity also allows it to be used in dry cells and button cells in which it oxidises,
losing electrons which travel through an external circuit, producing an electric
current.

Tin and chromium are widely used to coat other metals, usually steel, because of their
shiny appearance and their low reactivity. They do no react with air and water very
easily, resisting corrosion. They are used to coat many steels. Tin is used as a coating
for food cans such as baked beans and canned fruit because of its low reactivity.
Chromium was used to coat the bumpers of many older cars. Both tin and chromium
form an oxide layer which protects the underlying metal from corrosion.

- Outline the relationship between the relative activities of metals and their
positions on the periodic table

A comparison of the activity series for metals with the position of these metals in the
periodic table reveals some interesting relationships. The activity series shows that
Group 1 metals are the most reactive followed by Group 2 metals. Group 3 (Al)
comes next in reactivity followed by some transition metals (Zn, Fe), then the metals
of Group 4 (Sn, Pb). At the end of the series are more transition metals (Cu, Ag, Pt,
Au). The activity series also shows that in Groups 1 and 2 reactivity increases from
top to bottom (Li to k, Mg to Ba). The relative reactivity of metals also correlates well
with an important physical property called first ionisation energy.

- I dentify the importance of first ionisation energy in determining the relative
reactivity of metals

The first ionisation energy of an element is the energy required to remove an electron
from a gaseous atom of the element. It is the energy change for the process:

Y
(g)
Y
+
(g)
+ e
-


Where Y is any element. By determining the strength of the first ionisation of a metal,
an overall judgement of reactivity can be made about the metal. The first ionisation
energy measures the ease of removing an electron from a metal atom: the lower the
ionisation energy, the easier it is to remove an electron.

The relative ease with which a metal loses its valence electrons is a major factor
affecting its reactivity. Very reactive metals such as potassium and sodium lose their
valence electrons relatively easily. Less reactive metals such as copper do not lose
their valence electrons as readily, and gold and silver rarely lose their electrons at all.
Ionisation energy is a measure of the energy needed to remove an electron from the
electrostatic attractive force of the positively charged nucleus. The ionisation energy
of an atom or ion is defined as the amount of energy required to remove the most
loosely bound electron from the atom or ion in the gaseous state. The energy required
to remove the first electron from an atom is called the first ionisation energy. In
general, reactive metals tend to have low ionisation energies and less reactive metals
have higher ionisation energies. The reactivity of metals increase as their ionisation
energy decreases.

8.3.3

- I dentify an appropriate model that has been developed to describe atomic
structure

There are many models that have been created to represent the atomic structure but
the most accepted is Bohrs model in which atoms exist with a nucleus filled with
neutrons and protons and are orbited by electrons in different energy levels or shells.
The negatively charged electrons continuously move around the atom by electro-static
forces caused by the positive charged protons.

- Outline the history of the development of the periodic table including its
origins, the original data used to construct it and the predictions made after
is constructions.

Early in the nineteenth century as more and more elements became known, attempts
were made to see patterns in their properties. In 1829 with about 40 elements known,
the German chemist, Dobereiner, drew attention to several groups of three elements
(which he called triads) with very similar properties;

Lithium, sodium, potassium
Calcium, strontium, barium
Chlorine, bromine, iodine

In 1864 with over 60 known elements, John Newlands, an Englishman, proposed a
law of octaves: when the elements were arranged in order of increasing atomic
weight, the eighth element starting from a given one is a kind of repetition of the first
like the eighth note in an octave of music. His law identified many similarities
among the elements, but erroneously required similarities where none existed.

In 1869, Dimitri Mendeleev, a Russian, and Lothar Meyer, a German, independently
produced the forerunner of the modern periodic table. They arranged the elements in
order of increasing atomic weight, and placed elements having similar properties
under one another to obtain a table which illustrated what they called the periodic
law:

Properties of the elements vary periodically with their atomic weights.

This table was far more successful than that of Newlands, primarily because
Mendeleev recognised that there were probably elements in existence that had not
been discovered at that time. He left gaps in his table in order to place similar
elements to fill the gaps. He was able to go further, predicting the properties of six
such elements, three of which he called eka-silicon, eka-boron and eka-aluminium in
which eka means like.

10

Over the following years, atomic weights became more accurately known and some
discrepancies emerged in this periodic table. In a few cases, in order to fit similar
elements under one another, it was necessary to invert the order of atomic weights.
This problem was resolved in 1914 when the British scientist, Henry Moseley,
determined what we now call the atomic number of each of the elements. He
proposed that it, rather than atomic weight, was the basic feature, which determined
properties. Moseley proposed a modified periodic law:

Properties of the elements vary periodically with their atomic numbers.

This law puts argon and potassium, cobalt and nickel and tellurium and iodine in their
right orders.
Once it was recognised that properties were depedent upon the number of protons
(atomic number) and hence upon the numbers of electrons, tendencies towards
relating the layout of the periodic table to electron configuration developed, and so
the current form of the table was gradually devised.

- Explain the relationship between the position of elements in the Periodic
table and

Electrical Conductivity
Across a period, the electrical conductivity of elements decreases because elements
are less metallic. Non metals do not have free mobile electrons in their crystal lattice.
Down a group, the electrical conductivity of elements increases because they are more
metallic. Down a group, the valence shell is further away from the nucleus and can
more easily escape into the lattice.


Ionisation Energy
Ionization energy in the energy required to remove an electron from an atom of the
element in the gaseous state. Across a period, the ionization energy increases because
the atomic radius decreases across a period. The valence electrons closer to the
nucleus experience a stronger nuclear pull. Down a group, the ionization energy
decreases because the atomic radius is bigger and outer electrons are not as attracted
to the nucleus of atoms.


Atomic Radius
When the atomic radius of elements is plotted against atomic number, a pattern
emerges in which there are a set of sharp maxima, corresponding to the alkali metals
(Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs Group 1). The minima occur at the noble gases (Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe,
Rn Group 8). This means that atomic radius decreases from left to right across any
period of the table. Going down a group, the atomic radius increases. This occurs
because each new period adds another electron shell or energy level that is more
distant from the nucleus than the previous energy level.

Melting Point
The melting points of the elements also show a slight pattern when graphed against
atomic number. There is a sharp set of minima that correspond to the noble gases. The
maxima are less well defined: the first two correspond to the elements carbon and
silicon while the others correspond to transition metals. Across a period, the melting
point increases from group 1 to group 4 then decrease from group 5 to group 8. The
lattice changes from metallic bonding to covalent network and then covalent
molecular. Down a group, it decreases from groups 1 to 4 and increases from groups 5
to 8

Boiling Point
Across a period, the boiling point increases from group 1 to group 4 then decrease
from group 5 to group 8. The lattice changes from metallic bonding to covalent
network and then covalent molecular. Down a group, it decreases from groups 1 to 4
and increases from groups 5 to 8

Combing Power (Valency)
The combining power of a group increases down the periodic table. Across the
periodic table, the combining power decreases.


Electronegativity
The electronegativity of an element is a measure of the ability of an atom of that
element to attract bonding electrons towards itself when it forms compounds.
Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period (omitting noble gases)
and decreases from top to bottom.
We can decide whether two elements form an ionic or covalent compound by using
the following guideline:

If the difference in electronegativities of two elements is greater than 1.5, the
elements will form an ionic compound; otherwise the compound will be
covalent.

Reactivity
The reactivity between metals and non-metals on the periodic table differ. For
metallic elements, reactivity decreases from left to right across a period of the table
and increases from top to bottom down a group. Reactivity for non-metals increases
from left to right across a period and decreases from top to bottom down a group.




12

8.3.4

- Define the mole as the number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12
(avogadros number)

There are 6.02 x 10
23
atoms in 12g of carbon. Since 6.02 x 10
23
atoms of carbon have
a mass of 12 grams, then for titanium (atomic weight 48), 6.02 x 10
23
atoms (each
which are 4 times as heavy as carbon) must have a mass of 4 x 12 = 48 grams. If for
any element we take the mass, which in grams is numerically equal to the atomic
weight, then it contains 6.02 x 10
23
atoms. Therefore, a mole of a substance is that
quantity which contains as many elementary units (atoms, molecules, ions etc.) as
there are in exactly 12 grams of the carbon-12 isotope. We call this number (6.02 x
10
23
) the Avogadro Constant.
The molar mass is the mass of a mole of the substance. It can be used for both
elements and compounds.
- Compare mass changes in samples of metals when they combine with
oxygen

Number of moles = Mass / Mass of one mole
= Mass / Molar Mass
= Mass / atomic or molecular weight in grams

Divide mass by atomic or molecular weight to find number of moles
Similarly, Multiply Number of Moles by atomic or molecular weight to find Mass

Number of atoms = Number of moles x the Avogadro Constant
Or Molecules = Number of Moles x 6.02 x 10
23


Multiply the Number of Moles by 6.02 x 10
23
to find the number of atoms or
molecules
Similarly, Divide Number of atoms or molecules by 6.02 x 10
23
to find the Number of
Moles.

To convert Mass to Atoms or Molecules, we must go through moles. That is;

Mass Moles Atoms or Molecules

- Describe the contribution of Gay-Lussac to the understanding of gaseous
reactions and apply this to an understanding of the mole concept

After studying the volumes in which gases reacted, Gay-Lussac, in 1808, proposed
the law of combing volumes: When measured at constant temperature and pressure,
the volumes of gases taking part in a chemical reaction show simple whole number
ratios to one another. Gay-Lussacs findings played a critical role in developing the
mole concept in that his findings helped to develop the idea to use ratios to make
hypothesis

- Recount Avogadros law and describe its importance in developing the mole
concept

Avogadro, using the findings of Gay-Lussac, proposed the following: When measured
at the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes of gases contain the same
number of molecules. Avogadros hypothesis allowed chemists to use quantitative
analyses of compounds and reactions to determine formulae for compounds and hence
relative atomic masses for elements.

- Distinguish between empirical formulae and molecular formulae

The empirical formula of a compound is the formula that tells us the ratio in which
the atoms are present in the compound.
The molecular formula o a compound is the formula that tells us how many of each
type of atom are present in a molecule of the compound. The empirical formula of a
compound specifies the simplest whole- number ratio of the numbers of atoms or ions
of each element in the compound. This contrasts with the molecular formula, which
specifies the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule. For the
compound hydrogen peroxide, the molecular formula is H
2
O
2
. Each Hydrogen
peroxide molecule contains 2 hydrogen atoms and 2 oxygen atoms bonded together.
However, the empirical formula of hydrogen peroxide is HO. This represents the
simplest whole- number ratio of the numbers of atoms of each element.
In many compounds, such as water (H
2
O), ammonia (NH
3
) and carbon dioxide (CO
2
),
the empirical and molecular formulas are the same. Where the empirical and
molecular formulas are different, the molecular formula is always a multiple of the
empirical formula.
It is possible for different compounds to have the same empirical formula but they
have to have different molecular formulas. Acetylene and benzene are two
compounds with the empirical formula CH. The molecular formulas for these
compounds are C
2
H
2
and C
6
H
6
respectively.
The empirical formula of a substance can be established experimentally. This is
achieved by determining the percentage composition of the substance by chemical
analysis. This is then used to calculate the empirical formula of the substance.

8.3.5

- Define the terms mineral and ore with reference to economic and non-
economic deposits of natural resources

A Mineral is a pure (or nearly pure) crystalline compound that occurs in the Earths
crust. They are termed minerals based upon the above criteria, not on the economics
of a particular mine.
An Ore is a compound or mixture of compounds from which it is economic (or
commercially profitable) to extract a desired substance such as a metal. If the mineral
is present in sufficient quantity to make the mining and extraction of the metal
economically viable, than it is called an ore.

- Describe the relationship between the commercial prices of common metals,
their actual abundances and relative costs of production

There are many factors that affect the price of metals in society. Factors that affect the
price of metals are:
14

The abundance and location of ores of the metal (less abundant
ores will generally attract higher royalties and so will be more
expensive)
The cost of extracting the metal from the ore
The cost of transporting the metal or its ores to the required
location (rare metals or their ores may need to be shipped from
remote locations, while for abundant metals, conveniently located
ore deposits can be used)
The world-wide demand for the metal; if the demand is high, the
price rises; if it slumps, price falls: the supply and demand factor
These factors affect the cost of one metal relative to another. General economic
conditions such as booming or stagnating economies also affect metal prices, but they
generally have a similar effect on all metals.


- Explain why ores are non-renewable resources

Metal ores are non-renewable resources. They were formed when the earth was
formed and there is no way of forming anymore of them.

- Describe the separation process, chemical reactions and energy
considerations involved in the extraction of copper from one of its ores

Copper is principally extracted from sulfide ores, particularly chalcopyrite (CuFeS
2
).
The copper ore may be on the surface and easy to excavate, or may be underground
and require more sophisticated methods of excavation. The crude ore from the mine
often contains less than 0.5% copper by mass and must be milled before the metal can
be extracted. Milling refers to the concentration or purification of an ore. Copper is
concentrated using a method called froth flotation. In this process, air is bubbled
through a suspension of the pulverised ore in water containing a flotation agent. The
desired copper mineral particles adhere to rising bubbles and are skimmed off as
froth, leaving the unwanted silicate minerals to settle out. In this way, the copper ore
is separated from the gangue.
The concentrated ore, which is now about 15% copper, is then roasted in air, which
converts the FeS to FeO but leaves the CuS unaffected.

2CuFeS
2 (S)
+ 3O
2 (g)
2CuS
(s)
+ 2FeO
(s)
+ 2SO
2 (g)

the product is then heated at 1100
o
C with ground limestone, sand and additional
concentrated ore. This converts the FeO to a molten slag and converts the copper(11)
sulfide to copper(1) sulfide.

FeO
(s)
+ SiO
2 (s)
FeSiO
3 (l)

In the final smelting step, the copper(1) sulfide is roasted in air so that part of it is
converted to copper(1) oxide.

2Cu
2
S
(s)
+ 3O
2 (g)
2Cu
2
O
(s)
+ 2SO
2 (g)

The two copper(1) compounds, copper(1) sulfide and copper (1) oxide, then react
together to form copper metal and sulphur dioxide.

2Cu
2
O
(s)
+ Cu
2
S
(s)
6Cu
(l)
+ SO
2 (g)

This process requires a significant input of energy to maintain the temperatures
required for this reaction.
The smelting process produces crude copper of about 98% purity, with is called
blister copper because of the bubbly appearance produced by escaping sulphur
dioxide. To obtain the 99.9% purity required for electrical wiring, the blister copper is
refined electrolytically.
The impure blister copper is cast into slabs and made the anode (positive electrode) of
an electrolytic cell. The cathode is a thin sheet of pure copper and the electrolyte is
copper(11) sulfate solution, acidified with sulfuric acid.

The copper and reactive metal impurities (such as zinc, iron and nickel) present in the
anode dissolve and enter the solution as ions. As the anode slab dissolves, the more
inert metal impurities such as gold, silver and platinum fall to the bottom of the cell.
In a finely divided state, they form an anode slime, which is a profitable source of
these metals.

A small voltage is used so that pure copper deposits at the cathode (negative
electrode). The ions of the more reactive metals remain in solution. These are
removed periodically so that their concentrations do not build up sufficiently to cause
them to also deposit at the cathode. The copper that deposits at the cathode is
extremely pure because almost all of the impurities present in the blister copper have
been removed

- Recount the steps taken to recycle aluminium

To recycle aluminium, used drink cans, car engines, boats and household appliances
are collected and transported to a central processing plant where the aluminium is
separated from impurities like labelling, food remnants and dirt. Sometimes, the
aluminium is separated into groups of different aluminium alloys after the first
separating procedure. It is then smelted in order to recast the metal into ingots. These
ingots are then transported back to producers who use them to recreate new products.














16
















Water

8.4.1

- Define the terms solute, solvent and solution

Solutions - mixtures containing quantities of dissolved substances. Solutions are
defined as homogeneous mixtures.
Solute - the substance that is dissolved in another substance or solution
Solvent - the liquid that does the dissolving

- I dentify the importance of water as a solvent

Water is the most widely used solvent both by humans and by nature. In all living
matter most of the chemical reactions responsible for life occur in water solutions,
or aqueous solutions. Water dissolves nutrients from soil and carries them in solution
to living cells. Water also carries waste products away from cells (again in solution).
The human body is over two thirds water, with blood, our life-maintaining transport
system, being over 80% water. Without water, blood would not be able to flow in
arteries, veins and capillaries and transport essential nutrients and waste products.
Water is also a major component of our lymph system, and the moisture lining our
lungs allows the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide to be transferred between the air
we breathe and our respiratory system.

- Compare the state, percentage and distribution of water in the biosphere,
lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere

Liquid water covers nearly 70% of the Earths surface in the form of oceans, seas,
lakes, ground water and rivers, which are collectively referred to as the hydrosphere.
Water also occurs in vast quantities beneath the surface as ground water stored in
aquifers, layers of water-bearing rocks. The Great Artesian Basin from Queensland
through NSW and into Victoria and SA is an example.
The polar ice caps cover another portion of our planet, dominating the regions north
of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic circle. The solid water found in the
polar ice caps, above the snowline at higher altitudes and in glaciers, usually contains
lower concentrations of dissolved salts because water generally freezes as a pure
substance.

Our atmosphere contains varying amounts of gaseous water, water vapour, in the
range 0-5%. Although this represents only a small percentage of the atmosphere, it
allows for the transport of vast quantities of water through the Earths water cycle.

Water in the Lithosphere can occur as moisture or permafrost within solid and rocks,
and as water of crystallisation within minerals. Water of crystallisation or water of
hydration refers to water molecules that form part of the crystal structure of many
ionic substances. Common examples are hydrated copper (11) sulfate, CuSO
4
.5H
2
O,
which has 5 water molecules associates with each formula unit, and hydrated Sodium
Carbonate, Na
2
CO
3
.10H
2
O.

Zone of the
Earth
Water Present as % of the zone that is water
Atmosphere Vapour or tiny liquid droplets
(in clouds)
0.5 to 5%
Hydrosphere Liquid (with other substances
dissolved in it) and solids (in
polar icecaps)
>95% in oceans, >99% in
polar icecaps, lakes and rivers
Lithosphere As ground water and chemically
bound as water of
crystallisation in many minerals
<10% (though the lithosphere
probably contains more water
than the hydrosphere)
Living Matter Liquid (with other substances
dissolved in it)
Between 60 and 90% overall
but 50% to 75% in humans
(decreases with age) and up to
95% in jellyfish

- Outline the significance of the different states of water on Earth in terms of
water as:

o A constituent of cells and its role as both a solvent and a raw
material in metabolism

Water is a necessity for all types of living matter. It is used as a raw
material in the chemical reactions that constitute life. It is used as a
solvent in which life processes (reactions) occur. It also acts as a
transport medium for bringing nutrients to cells and removing waste
products. Lastly, it acts as a thermal regulator by smoothing out sudden
and large temperature variations.

o A habitat in which temperature extremes are less than in nearby
terrestrial habitats

Water acts as an essential habitat for life forms such as fish, algae and
bacteria: it is the place they live. Water bodies have an advantage of
land habitats in that the fluctuation of temperatures is a lot less extreme
and the temperature of these habitats change in very small amounts.
18


o An agent of weathering of rocks both as liquid and as solid

Water is an essential weathering and eroding agent of the Earth. When
geological action produces mountains, water erodes them away over
many millennia. There are three main process:
Rain and rivers wash loose material to lower altitudes and
eventually to the sea
Glaciers cut a swathe (pass through something causing great
damage, destruction or change) from mountain tops through
weaker rocks to the oceans
A freeze-thaw mechanism sees liquid water seep into small
cracks in rocks, freeze and expand and so widen the crack until
large fragments of rock break away

o A natural resource for humans and other organisms

Humans use water:
For drinking, food preparation and washing
For irrigating crops and watering livestock
As a working fluid in electricity generating stations and as a
coolant in them and in many other industries
For generating electricity directly (hydro-electricity)
In industry as a reactant, solvent and cleaning agent, for waste
disposal and settling dust
As a mode of transport (ships)
For recreational purposes (swimming, boating, skiing) and for
aesthetic enjoyment

8.4.2

- Construct Lewis electron-dot structures of water, ammonia and hydrogen
sulphide to identify the distribution of electrons



- Compare the molecular structures of water, ammonia and hydrogen
sulphide, the differences in their molecular shapes and in their melting and
boiling points


Melting Point
(C)
Boiling Point (C) Molecular Weight
Water (H
2
O) 0 100 18
Ammonia (NH
3
) -78 -33 17
Hydrogen Sulfide
(H
2
S)
-86 -60 34

- Describe the hydrogen bonding between molecules

A hydrogen bond is a type of intermolecular force that involves a hydrogen atom
bonded to an oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine atom in one molecule becoming attached to
an oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine atom in a different molecule. Oxygen, nitrogen and
fluorine are the three most electronegative elements because they have very strong
electron-attracting power. Hydrogen bonds are much stronger than ordinary dipole-
dipole forces. Their relative strength arises from the facts that the hydrogen nucleus (a
bare proton only) is extremely small and that the fluorine, nitrogen and oxygen atoms
are strongly electron attracting. The strength of a hydrogen bond is typically about
one-tenth that of a normal covalent bond.

- I dentify the water molecule as a polar molecule

In water molecules, the electron pairs are shared unevenly: the electrons spend more
time near on nucleus than the other. In water, H
2
O, the shared pair of electrons spends
more time near the oxygen atom than near the hydrogen atom. Covalent bonds in
which the electrons are unequally shared are called polar covalent bonds. A pair of
equal and opposite charges separated in space as in the O-H molecule is called dipole.
Polar molecules are molecules that have a net dipole.
Diatomic molecules that have a polar covalent bond are
polar molecules. However, for polyatomic molecules, the
presence of polar covalent bonds does not guarantee that
20

the molecule will be polar. This is because two or more dipoles in the one molecule
may cancel each other out.
As the diagram shows (on the right), in a water molecule, the O-H forces are acting in
the same direction, creating a net dipole.
To decide whether a particular molecule is polar or not:
o Use electronegativities to decide whether it contains any polar bond(s)
o Use the shape of the molecule to decide whether the polar bonds
cancel out (to produce a non-polar molecule) or combine to produce a
net dipole (polar molecule)

- Describe the attractive forces between polar molecules as dipole-dipole
forces
Because polar molecules have positive and negative ends, they are able to line up so
that the positive end of one molecule attracts the negative end of another molecule as
shown below.


Therefore, electrostatic attraction holds the molecules to one another more strongly
than would be the case for non-polar molecules. These electrostatic attractions are
called dipole-dipole forces.

- Explain the following properties of water in terms of its intermolecular
forces:
o Surface tension

Surface tension is a measure of the resistance of a liquid to increasing
its surface area. The higher the value, the greater the tendency of the
liquid to form a spherical drop rather than spread out as a thin film. A
molecule in the surface layer of a liquid experiences intermolecular
forces only from molecules below and beside it. These unbalanced
forces on surface molecules result in a downward or inward force,
acting on surface molecules. This is why liquids display surface
tension. The stronger the intermolecular forces, the greater will be the
surface tension of a liquid.

o Viscosity

Viscosity is a measure of the resistance to being poured or to flowing
through a tube. The higher the viscosity, the less easily the liquid
flows. Honey and motor oil have a higher viscosity than water for
example. Flowing involves molecules moving over other molecules.
There are two factors that affect the ease with which molecules can
move over one another. The first is the size and complexity of the of
the molecules themselves. The other factor is intermolecular forces.
The stronger the forces of attraction between pairs of molecules, the
more resistance there is to flow.

o Boiling and Melting points

The melting and boiling points of water are much higher than would be
anticipated for a molecule of its size. The melting and boiling points of
water are much higher than for molecules of similar mass, therefore
reflecting the strength of the hydrogen bonds between its small polar
molecules. In an ice crystal the covalently bonded molecules are
arranged in a regular patter, with each molecule being hydrogen
bonded to four other water molecules. When ice melts, heat energy is
absorbed, increasing the kinetic energy of the molecules so they can
break free of the relatively strong hydrogen bonds in the ice lattice.









8.4.3

- Explain changes, if any, to particles and account for those changes when
the following types of chemicals interact with water
o A soluble ionic compound such as sodium chloride

When ionic substances such as sodium chloride (NaCl), baking soda
(sodium hydrogen carbonate, NaHCO
3
) or Epsom salts (magnesium
sulfate, MgSO
4
) dissolve in water, they break up into their basic
structural units which are ions. These irons then move freely and
independently of one another through the solution. The reason why
most ionic compounds dissolve in water is that polar water molecules
have a strong attraction for charged ions: the negative end of the water
molecule, the O atom, attaches to positive ions while the positive end,
the H atoms, attach to negative ions. We say that the ions become
hydrated. When an ionic solid dissolves, the following takes place:
The electrostatic forces of attraction between the positive and
negative ions of the ionic solid must be overcome as the crystal
dissolves.
Intermolecular forces between some polar water molecules
must be overcome, to make space for the positive and negative
ions.
Attractive forces must form between the positive and negative
ions and surrounding water molecules.
Sometimes ionic substances crystallise from aqueous solution with the
molecules of water still attached to the ions. Water that becomes bound
to a pure substance during crystallisation is called water of
crystallisation. Salts that contain water of crystallisation are called
hydrates. The term anhydrous is used to describe forms of salt that do
not contain water of crystallisation.

o A soluble molecule compound such as sucrose
22


When a substance such as sucrose dissolves in water, the crystals of
the solid break up and disperse throughout the solvent and they break
up right down to the molecular level. A molecular substance only
dissolves in water can form stronger attachments to the molecules than
the intermolecular forces in the molecular substance. Generally, the
only molecular substances which dissolve in water are the ones that
have very polar molecules or ones that can form hydrogen bonds with
water. Common sugars, such as sucrose, contain many O-H groups.
Water can hydrogen bond to these and so sugars are soluble in water.

o A soluble or partially soluble molecular element or compound such
as iodine, oxygen or hydrogen chloride

Non-polar molecules like oxygen and iodine are slightly soluble in
water. The solvent-solute interactions are weak dispersion forces and
because they are quite weak, the solubilities of such substances are
quite low. In addition, there are some polar molecular substances that
dissolve in water by chemically reacting with it. An example is
hydrogen chloride; this is a covalent gas. It dissolves readily in water
to form hydrogen and chloride ions:

HCl
(g)
+ H
2
O
(l)
H
3
O
+
(aq)
+ Cl
-
(aq)




o A covalent network structure substance such as silicon dioxide

Covalent lattices such as diamond and silicon dioxide are insoluble in
water. This is because water is not able to breakup the strong covalent
bonds between the particles (atoms) in these lattice solids. When put
into water, these solids remain unchanged.

o A substance with large molecules, such as cellulose or polyethylene

Synthetic plastics such as polyethylene and polyester similarly to
covalent network structure substances consist of very large molecules
and for the same reason are insoluble in water. In living matter there
are many large covalent molecules, typically with molecular weights
into the hundreds of thousands, namely cellulose. There are discrete
molecules of these substances, they are so large and held to one
another in such orderly fashions by hydrogen bonds that water is not
able to separate them from one another and so they are insoluble.

- Analyse the relationship between the solubility of substances in water and
the polar nature of the water molecule

Bonding Type Solubility in water Examples
Ionic - Most are soluble NaCl, MgSO
4
, Cu(NO
3
)
2

Polar Molecular - Soluble if H bonds possible Ethanol, Glucose
- Soluble by reacting with it
- If none of the above,
insoluble
HCl, HNO
3
, H
2
SO
4
, NH
3

Ether, Dichloromethane
Non-polar Molecular - Some are slightly soluble
- Most are insoluble
I
2
, O
2

CCl
4
, benzene, paraffin
wax
Very Large Molecules - Insoluble if highly
structured

- A few soluble
- Cellulose, structural
proteins, synthetic
polymers (plastics)
- starch, glucose, enzymes
Covalent Lattices - Insoluble Diamond, SiO
2

Metals - Insoluble
- Soluble if they react with
water
- Al, Zn, Fe
- Li, Na, K, Ca, Ba



A general rule is Like dissolves like which expanded means:

Polar (including ionic) substances dissolves in polar solvents such as water
and do not dissolve in non-polar solvents such as hexane. Non-polar
substances dissolve in non-polar solvents but do not dissolve in polar ones.

Covalent lattices (network solids) do not dissolve in any solvents.

8.4.4

- I dentify some combinations of solutions which will produce precipitates,
using solubility data

A solid produced by reaction between two clear solutions is called a precipitate. Such
reactions are called precipitation reactions.



- Describe a model that traces the movement of ions when solution and
precipitation occur

When an ionic substance dissolves in water, it breaks up into ions, which move
independently through the solution. When a solution becomes saturated, ions still
continue to break away from the crystals of solid and do move into the solution, but in
addition an equal number of ion pairs from the solution precipitate out onto the solid.
The following experiment demonstrates this.
24

Suppose we have a saturated solution of lead nitrate in contact with lead nitrate
crystals. Let us now add some lead nitrate crystals that contain radioactive lead.
Radioactive lead is identical to ordinary lead except that it emits a special form of
radiation called beta rays, which can easily be detected with a radiation counter. We
find that just after adding this radioactive lead nitrate solid, all the radioactivity is in
the solid: there is none in the solution even though the total concentration of lead ions
in the solution does not change. Eventually the same fraction of the lead ions in the
solution is radioactive as in the solid. This is shown below.

This experiment shows that some lead ions move from the solid into the solution,
though this does not change he concentration of lead ions in the solution. This must
mean that some lead ions (and nitrate ions) move back from the solution to the solid
to balance things out.
This experiment, and many others like it, show that when a solid is in contact
with its saturated solution there is a dynamic balance between dissolution and
precipitation: both occurring, but at rates so that there is no overall change in the
concentration in the solution. We call this dynamic equilibrium.

- I dentify the dynamic nature of ion movement in a saturated dissolution

When a solid is in contact with its saturated solution there is a dynamic balance
between dissolution and precipitation: both are occurring, but at equal rates so that
there is no overall change in concentration in the solution. We call this dynamic
equilibrium. We say that the solid is in equilibrium with the solution. For example
when solid lead nitrate is in contact with its saturated solution in water, the lead and
nitrate ions in the solid will continue to dissolve at a certain rate and the ions in the
solution will continue to precipitate at the same rate so that there is no change in the
concentration of ions in the solution.

- Describe the molarity of a solution as the number of moles of solute per litre
of solution using: C=n/V