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Roborl Horonjoff
Irancis X. McKoIvoy
WiIIiam }. SprouIo
Soll B. Young

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-
(docoasod) vas an inlornalionaIIy
Inovn consuIlanl on airporl dosign and profossor of
lransporlalion onginooring al llo Univorsily of
CaIifornia, BorIoIoy.
- (docoasod) vas a profossor of
civiI onginooring al Micligan Slalo Univorsily. Ho
sorvod as a consuIlanl on lransporlalion and airporl
pIanning lo fodoraI, slalo, and IocaI agoncios, as voII as
lo privalo firms in llo Unilod Slalos and abroad.
is a profossor of civiI and onviron-
monlaI onginooring al Micligan ToclnoIogicaI Univorsily.
Ho las many yoars of oxporionco in govornmonl sorvico,
consuIling, and univorsily loacling and rosoarcl in
lransporlalion pIanning, lraffic onginooring, airporl
pIanning and dosign, and aulomalod poopIo movors in
Canada and llo Unilod Slalos. Ho is aclivo in sovoraI
profossionaI sociolios and is llo 2008 rocipionl of llo
ASCI Roborl Horonjoff Avard for lis vorI in airporl
onginooring.
is an associalo profossor in llo Doparl-
monl of Avialion al Tlo Olio Slalo Univorsily and
prosidonl of llo InlornalionaI Avialion Managomonl
Group, Inc. Ho sorvos as a consuIlanl and inslruclor lo
airporls around llo vorId on issuos of airporl
managomonl, pIanning, and dosign. Dr. Young is llo
clair of llo NalionaI Acadomios Transporlalion Rosoarcl
Board Commilloo on Avialion Syslom IIanning. Ho is a
corlifiod mombor of llo Amorican Associalion of Airporl
Ixoculivos, a Iiconsod airpIano and soapIano commorciaI
piIol, and a corlifiod fIigll inslruclor.
-
Irofaco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
AcInovIodgmonls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

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Inlroduclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
CommorciaI Sorvico Avialion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Iassongor Air Carriors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
InlornalionaI Air Transporlalion . . . . . . . . . . 7
Air Cargo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
GonoraI Avialion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
CiviI Avialion Airporls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
HisloricaI Roviov of llo IogisIalivo RoIo
in Avialion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Air Commorco Acl of 1926 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
CiviI Aoronaulics Acl of 1938 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
IodoraI Airporl Acl of 1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
IodoraI Avialion Acl of 1958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Croalion of llo U.S. Doparlmonl
of Transporlalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Airporl and Airvay DovoIopmonl Acl
of 1970 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
AirIino DoroguIalion Acl of 1978 . . . . . . . . . . 31
Impacl of AirIino DoroguIalion . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Tlo Airporl and Airvay Improvomonl Acl
of 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Tlo Avialion Safoly and Capacily Acl
of 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
AIR-21: Tlo WondoII Iord Avialion
Invoslmonl Acl for llo 21sl Conlury . . . . . . . . 34
Tlo Avialion and Transporlalion Socurily
Acl of 2001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Vision 100 Conlury of Avialion
Acl of 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
NoxlGon Iinancing Roform Acl of 2007/
IAA Roaullorizalion Acl of 2009 . . . . . . . 35
Slalo RoIos in Avialion and Airporls . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Avialion Organizalions and Tloir Iunclions . . . . . . 37

IodoraI Agoncios of llo Unilod Slalos
Govornmonl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion . . . . . . . . . . 37
Transporlalion Socurily Adminislralion . . . . 42
InvironmonlaI Iroloclion Agoncy . . . . . . . . . 42
NalionaI Transporlalion Safoly Board . . . . . . 43
Slalo Agoncios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Tlo InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion
Organizalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Induslry and Trado Organizalions . . . . . . . . . 45
Roforoncos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Wob Roforoncos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
--
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DimonsionaI Slandards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Ianding Goar Conguralions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Aircrafl Woigll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Ingino Typos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Almosploric Condilions Affocling
Aircrafl Iorformanco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Air Irossuro and Tomporaluro . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Wind Spood and Diroclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Aircrafl Iorformanco Claraclorislics . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Aircrafl Spood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
IayIoad and Rango . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Runvay Iorformanco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
DocIarod Dislancos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Winglip Vorlicos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Roforoncos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Inlroduclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
A Briof Hislory of Air Trafc Managomonl . . . . . . . 96
Tlo OrganizalionaI Hiorarcly of Air Trafc
Managomonl in llo Unilod Slalos . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Tlo Air Trafc ConlroI Syslom
Command Conlor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Air Roulo Trafc ConlroI Conlors . . . . . . . . . 97
TorminaI Approacl ConlroI IaciIilios . . . . . . 98
Airporl Trafc ConlroI Tovor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
IIigll Sorvico Slalions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Air Trafc Managomonl RuIos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

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Airspaco CIassicalions and Airvays . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Airvays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
CoIorod Airvays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Viclor Airvays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
}ol Roulos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Aroa Navigalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Air Trafc Soparalion RuIos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
VorlicaI Soparalion in llo Airspaco . . . . . . . . 111
Assignod IIigll AIliludos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
IongiludinaI Soparalion in llo Airspaco . . . 111
IaloraI Soparalion in llo Airspaco . . . . . . . . . 113
NavigalionaI Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Ground-Basod Sysloms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
SaloIIilo-Basod Sysloms: GIobaI
Iosilioning Syslom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Tlo Modornizalion of Air Trafc Managomonl . . . . 127
NoxlGon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
SWIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
NoxlGon Dala Communicalions . . . . . . . . . . 130
NoxlGon InabIod Woallor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Roforoncos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
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Inlroduclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Typos of Sludios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Tlo Airporl Syslom IIan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Airporl Silo SoIoclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Tlo Airporl Maslor IIan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Tlo Airporl Irojocl IIan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Conlinuing IIanning Irocoss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Roforoncos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
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Inlroduclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
IovoIs of Iorocasling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Iorocasling Mollods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Timo Sorios Mollod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
MarIol Slaro Mollod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Iconomolric ModoIing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Iorocasling Roquiromonls and AppIicalions . . . . . . 162
Tlo Airporl Syslom IIan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Tlo Airporl Maslor IIan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Tlo Iuluro Avialion Iorocasling Invironmonl . . . . 168
Roforoncos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
-

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-
Airporl Dosign Slandards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Airporl CIassicalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
UliIily Airporls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Transporl Airporls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Runvays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Runvay Conguralions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
SingIo Runvay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
IaraIIoI Runvays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Inlorsocling Runvays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Opon-V Runvays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Combinalions of Runvay Conguralions . . . . 181
Runvay Orionlalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Tlo Wind Roso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Islimaling Runvay Iongll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Runvay Syslom Goomolric Spocicalions . . . . 201
IaraIIoI Runvay Syslom Spacing . . . . . . . . . . 205
Sigll Dislanco and IongiludinaI IroIo . . . . 207
Transvorso Gradionl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
AiroId Soparalion Roquiromonls
RoIalod lo Runvays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
ObslacIo CIoaranco Roquiromonls . . . . . . . . . 213
IAR Iarl 77 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
ICAO Annox 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
TIRIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Runvay Ind Siling Roquiromonls . . . . . . . . . 223
Taxivays and TaxiIanos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Widlls and SIopos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Taxivay and TaxiIano Soparalion
Roquiromonls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Sigll Dislanco and IongiludinaI IroIo . . . . 234
Ixil Taxivay Goomolry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Iocalion of Ixil Taxivays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Dosign of Taxivay Curvos
and Inlorsoclions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Ind-Around Taxivays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Aprons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
HoIding Aprons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
TorminaI Aprons and Ramps . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
TorminaI Apron Surfaco Gradionls . . . . . . . . 254
ConlroI Tovor VisibiIily Roquiromonls . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Roforoncos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

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-

- -
Inlroduclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
SoiI Invosligalion and IvaIualion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Tlo CBR Tosl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Tlo IIalo Boaring Tosl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Youngs ModuIus ( VaIuo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Iffocl of Irosl on SoiI Slrongll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Subgrado SlabiIizalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
IAA Iavomonl Dosign Mollods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
IquivaIonl Aircrafl Mollod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
CumuIalivo Damago IaiIuro Mollod . . . . . . 270
Dosign of IIoxibIo Iavomonls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
CBR Mollod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Iayorod IIaslic Dosign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Dosign of Rigid Iavomonls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Woslorgaards AnaIysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Iinilo IIomonl Tloory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
}oinls and }oinl Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
ConlinuousIy Roinforcod Concrolo Iavomonls . . . . 279
Dosign of OvorIay Iavomonls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Iavomonls for Iigll Aircrafl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Iavomonl IvaIualion and Iavomonl
Managomonl Sysloms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Roforoncos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288

Inlroduclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Tlo Roquiromonls for VisuaI Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Tlo Airporl Boacon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Obslruclion Iiglling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Tlo Aircrafl Ianding Oporalion . . . . . . . . . . . 293
AIignmonl Guidanco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Hoigll Informalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Approacl Iiglling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Syslom Conguralions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
VisuaI Approacl SIopo Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
VisuaI Approacl SIopo Indicalor . . . . . . . . . . 301
Irocision Approacl Iall Indicalor . . . . . . . . 302
TlrosloId Iiglling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Runvay Iiglling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Runvay Idgo Iiglls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Runvay ConlorIino and Toucldovn
Zono Iiglls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Runvay Ind Idonlior Iiglls . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

-
Taxivay Iiglling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Taxivay Idgo Iiglls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Runvay Guard Iiglls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Runvay Slop Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Runvay and Taxivay MarIing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Runvays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Runvay Dosignalors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Runvay TlrosloId MarIings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
ConlorIino MarIings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Aiming Ioinls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Toucldovn Zono MarIings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Sido Slripos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
DispIacod TlrosloId MarIings . . . . . . . . . . . 321
BIasl Iad MarIings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Taxivay MarIings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
ConlorIino and Idgo MarIings . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Taxivay HoId MarIings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Taxivay SlouIdors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Inlancod Taxivay MarIings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
CIosod Runvay and Taxivay MarIings . . . . 328
AiroId Signago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Runvay Dislanco Romaining Signs . . . . . . . . 330
Taxivay Guidanco Sign Syslom . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Taxivay Dosignalions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Typos of Taxivay Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Signing Convonlions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Sign Sizo and Iocalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Sign Oporalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Roforoncos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

Iurposo of Drainago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Dosign Slorm for Surfaco Runoff . . . . . . . . . . 343
Dolormining llo Inlonsily-Duralion
Iallorn for llo Dosign Slorm . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Dolormining llo Amounl of Runoff by
llo IAA Irocoduro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Dolormining llo Amounl of Runoff by
llo Corps of Inginoors Irocoduro . . . . . . . 358
Iayoul of Surfaco Drainago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Roforoncos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
-
Inlroduclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Tlo Iassongor TorminaI Syslom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Compononls of llo Syslom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
-

Dosign Considoralions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

TorminaI Domand Iaramolors . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
IaciIily CIassicalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
OvoraII Spaco Approximalions . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
IovoI of Sorvico Criloria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Tlo TorminaI IIanning Irocoss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Spaco Irogramming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Ollor Aroas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
OvoraII Spaco Roquiromonls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Concopl DovoIopmonl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
HorizonlaI Dislribulion Concopls . . . . . . . . . 417
VorlicaI Dislribulion Concopls . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Sclomalic Dosign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
AnaIysis Mollods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Dosign DovoIopmonl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
Tlo Apron Galo Syslom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Numbor of Galos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Ramp Clarls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Galo Sizo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Aircrafl IarIing Typo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Apron Iayoul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
Apron CircuIalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Iassongor Convoyanco lo Aircrafl . . . . . . . . . 457
Apron UliIily Roquiromonls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Roforoncos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
- -

Inlroduclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Hislory of Airporl Socurily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Airporl Socurily Irogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Socurily al CommorciaI Sorvico Airporls . . . . . . . . . 472
Iassongor Scrooning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Baggago Scrooning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
ImpIoyoo Idonlicalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Iorimolor Socurily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
VuInorabiIily Assossmonl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Socurily al GonoraI Avialion Airporls . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Iuluro Socurily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Roforoncos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
-
Inlroduclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
Capacily and DoIay Donod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Capacily and DoIay in AiroId IIanning . . . 485

-
Approaclos lo llo AnaIysis of Capacily and DoIay . . . . 486
Iaclors Tlal Affocl AiroId Capacily . . . . . . 489
IormuIalion of Runvay Capacily llrougl
MallomalicaI Tloory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
MallomalicaI IormuIalion of DoIay . . . . . . . 490
IormuIalion of Runvay Capacily llrougl
llo Timo-Spaco Concopl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
IormuIalion of UIlimalo Capacily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
MallomalicaI IormuIalion of
UIlimalo Capacily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
AppIicalion of Toclniquos for UIlimalo
HourIy Capacily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Iaramolors Roquirod for Runvay
Capacily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
Compulalion of DoIay on Runvay Sysloms . . . . . . 520
GraplicaI Mollods for Approximaling
DoIay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
AppIicalion of Toclniquos for AnnuaI
Sorvico VoIumo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
SimuIalion ModoIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Galo Capacily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
AnaIylicaI ModoIs for Galo Capacily . . . . . . 539
Roforoncos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
-
Inlroduclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
BacIground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
IodoraI Iunding Irograms in llo Unilod Slalos . . . . . 544
Tlo Airporl DovoIopmonl Aid
Irogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Tlo Iassongor IaciIily Clargo
Irogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
Slalo and IocaI Iarlicipalion in Iinancing
Airporl Improvomonls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Bond Iinancing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
GonoraI ObIigalion Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
GonoraI Airporl Rovonuo Bonds . . . . . . . . . . 559
SpociaI IaciIily Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
IIC Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
CIC Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
Irivalizalion of Airporls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
IinanciaI IIanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
Ralo Solling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
IvaIualion of llo IinanciaI IIan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Roforoncos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
-

Inlroduclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
IoIicy Considoralions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
IoIIulion Iaclors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
Air QuaIily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
Walor QuaIily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Aircrafl and Airporl Noiso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Sound Irossuro and Sound Irossuro IovoI . . . 580
Aircrafl Noiso Iffocls and Iand-Uso
CompalibiIily . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
Dolormining llo Ixlonl of llo IrobIom . . . . 598
Iinding SoIulions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Noiso RoguIalions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Conslruclion Impacls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
SociaI Iaclors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
Iand DovoIopmonl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
DispIacomonl and RoIocalion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
IarIs, RocroalionaI Aroas, HisloricaI IIacos,
ArclooIogicaI Rosourcos,
and NaluraI and Sconic Boauly . . . . . . . . . 617
Consisloncy vill IocaI IIanning . . . . . . . . . . 618
IcoIogicaI Iaclors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
WiIdIifo, WalorfovI, IIora, Iauna,
Indangorod Spocios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
WolIands and CoaslaI Zonos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
IIood Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
Inginooring and Iconomic Iaclors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
Cosls of Conslruclion and Oporalion . . . . . . 620
Iconomic Bonols and IiscaI Roquiromonls . . . 624
Inorgy and NaluraI Rosourcos . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
Roforoncos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
-
Inlroduclion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
HoIiporls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
Tlo Naluro of HoIicoplor Transporlalion . . . 629
Claraclorislics of HoIicoplors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
Iaclors RoIalod lo HoIiporl Silo SoIoclion . . . 631
Roforoncos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648


I
n llo profaco lo llo fourll odilion of llis loxl, llo Ialo Dr. Irancis
McKoIvoy romarIod llal llo loclnoIogicaI and IogisIalivo dovoI-
opmonls roIalod lo llo air lransporlalion induslry in llo 1980s
and oarIy 1990s voro of sucl significanco llal an updaling of llo booI
vas noodod. Tlo fourll odilion, pubIislod in 1994, onlancod provious
odilions, llo firsl of vlicl vas pubIislod in 1962.
In llo 16 yoars sinco llis Iasl updalo, il may bo said llal llo
clangos lo llo praclico of airporl pIanning and dosign lavo boon
moro significanl llan in any ollor ora in llo lislory of avialion.
ImpIomonlalion of lvonly-firsl-conlury loclnoIogios las rosuIlod in
llo firsl major ovorlauI lo aircrafl and air navigalion sysloms in
gonoralions, compulor-basod anaIylicaI and dosign modoIs lavo
ropIacod anliqualod monograpls and oslimalion labIos, and liglIy
significanl goopoIilicaI ovonls lavo aII bul rovrillon llo ruIos of
pIanning, dosigning, and oporaling civiI-uso airporls.
Tloso significanl onlancomonls lo llo avialion syslom lavo
rosuIlod in uniquo claIIongos in croaling an updalod fifll odilion of
llis imporlanl and liglIy accoplod loxl. WliIo ovory allompl vas
mado lo Ioop lo llo lradilionaI slrucluro of llo booI and lo prosorvo
llo lloorolicaI slronglls for vlicl il is mosl voII Inovn, mucl of llo
maloriaI in llo provious odilion roquirod moro ropIacomonl llan
simpIy boing mado curronl. Willin llis Ialosl odilion llo roador viII
find, for oxampIo, nov and onliroIy difforonl slralogios lo oslimalo
roquirod runvay Ionglls and lloir associalod roquirod pavomonl
llicInossos. Tlis loxl allompls lo mainlain llo fIavor of provious
odilions vliIo undorslanding, for oxampIo, llal airporl navigalionaI
aids of llo provious conlury aro bocoming aII bul obsoIolo, in favor
of a digilaI, saloIIilo-basod communicalion and navigalionaI syslom,
and llal airporl financing slralogios aro in a rovoIulionary slalo, givon
anlicipalod clangos lo fodoraI avialion funding moclanisms.
Updaling llis odilion las, in facl, boon a conlinuous raco againsl
limo, as imporlanl clangos lo llo avialion syslom voro conslanlIy
occurring during llo procoss.

In Iigll of lloso claIIongos, llis fifll odilion is lopod lo again bo
llo slandard loxl for lloso inloroslod in llo fundamonlaIs of airporl
pIanning and dosign. Tlo informalion Iocalod villin lloso claplors
is appIicabIo boll for acadomic coursovorI and as a roforonco on llo
dosIs of airporl pIanning and dosign profossionaIs. As llo induslry
conlinuos lo movo forvard, il is of courso rocommondod llal
llo Ialosl dosign slandards pubIislod by llo IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, llo InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion, and
IocaI, slalo, and ollor fodoraI agoncios bo consuIlod.

-
T
lo fifll odilion of llis lisloric loxl couId novor lavo boon
croalod villoul llo caroor offorls of ils originaI aullor, llo Ialo
Dr. Roborl Horonjoff, and lis coaullor on Ialor odilions, llo
Ialo Dr. Irancis McKoIvoy. Tloir aullorslip viII aIvays bo firsl
crodilod. Updaling llis booI villoul lloir porsonaI guidanco vas
immonsoIy claIIonging. Il is onIy lopod llal lloy vouId bo salisfiod
vill Inoving lloir originaI pliIosoplios sliII form llo basis for
llis loxl. Conlribuling lo llis updalo lavo boon llo fino offorls of
Dr. WiIIiam SprouIo, vlo sludiod undor Dr. McKoIvoy and loIpod
bring lis goaI of mainlaining llo curroncy of llis loxl lo fruilion.
Many llanIs go oul lo llo inslilulions al vlicl llo originaI
aullors voro, and lloso vlo loIpod updalo llis Ialosl odilion lavo
boon, IucIy onougl lo bo ompIoyod: llo Univorsily of CaIifornia al
BorIoIoy, Micligan Slalo Univorsily, Imbry-RiddIo AoronaulicaI
Univorsily, Micligan ToclnoIogicaI Univorsily, }acobs ConsuIlancy,
and Tlo Olio Slalo Univorsily. Il is lopod llal llo sludonls, facuIly,
and profossionaIs of lloso and aII sucl inslilulions conlinuo lo find
llis loxl a vaIuabIo rosourco.
Tlis booI is dodicalod lo llo momorios of Dr. Horonjoff and
Dr. McKoIvoy, vlo lavo loIpod lo immorlaIizo llo formaI praclico of
pIanning and dosigning llo vorIds airporls. Tloir Iifos offorls lavo
rosuIlod in bolloring llo Iivos of counlIoss sludonls, profossionaIs,
and usors of civiI avialion.

Tlo Naluro of CiviI Avialion
and Airporls

Aircrafl Claraclorislics
RoIalod lo Airporl Dosign

Air Trafc Managomonl

Airporl IIanning Sludios

Iorocasling for Airporl IIanning



-

Sinco ils boginning in llo oarIy lvonlioll conlury, civiI avialion las
bocomo ono of llo mosl fascinaling, imporlanl, and compIox indus-
lrios in llo vorId. Tlo civiI avialion syslom, parlicuIarIy ils airporls,
las como lo bo llo bacIbono of vorId lransporl and a nocossily lo
lvonly-firsl-conlury lrado and commorco.
In 2008, llo commorciaI sorvico sogmonl of civiI avialion, con-
sisling of moro llan 900 airIinos and 22,000 aircrafl, carriod moro
llan 2 biIIion passongors and 85 miIIion lons of cargo on moro llan
74 miIIion fIiglls lo moro llan 1700 airporls in moro llan 180 coun-
lrios vorIdvido. MiIIions moro privalo, corporalo, and clarlor
gonoraI avialion oporalions voro conduclod al llousands of com-
morciaI and gonoraI avialion airporls llrougloul llo vorId. In many
parls of llo vorId, commorciaI sorvico and gonoraI avialion sorvo
as llo primary, if nol llo onIy mollod of lransporlalion bolvoon
communilios.
Tlo magniludo of llo impacl of llo commorciaI air lransporla-
lion induslry on llo vorId oconomy is lromondous, conlribuling
moro llan $2.6 lriIIion in oconomic aclivily, oquivaIonl lo 8 porconl
of llo vorId gross domoslic producl, and supporling 29 miIIion
jobs. In llo Unilod Slalos aIono civiI avialion is rosponsibIo for
$900 biIIon in oconomic aclivily and 11 miIIion jobs. GonoraI avia-
lion sorvos an oquaIIy imporlanl roIo in llo vorIds oconomy, pro-
viding clarlor, cargo, corporalo, modicaI, and privalo lransporl, as
voII as sucl sorvicos as aoriaI plolograply, firofiglling, survoiI-
Ianco, and rocroalion. In llo Unilod Slalos aIono, lloro aro moro
llan 225,000 rogislorod gonoraI avialion aircrafl and moro llan
600,000 rogislorod piIols.

Tlo prosonco of civiI avialion las affoclod our oconomic vay of
Iifo, il las mado clangos in our sociaI and cuIluraI viovpoinls, and
las lad a land in slaping llo courso of poIilicaI lislory.
Tlo socioIogicaI clangos brougll aboul by air lransporlalion aro
porlaps as imporlanl as lloso il las brougll aboul in llo oconomy.
IoopIo lavo boon brougll cIosor logollor and so lavo roaclod a bol-
lor undorslanding of inlorrogionaI probIoms. Induslry las found nov
vays lo do businoss. Tlo opporlunily for moro froquonl oxclangos of
informalion las boon faciIilalod, and air lransporl is onabIing moro
poopIo lo onjoy llo cuIluros and lradilions of dislanl Iands.
In roconl yoars, profound clangos in loclnoIogy and poIicy lavo
lad significanl impacls on civiI avialion and ils supporling airporl
infraslrucluro. Tlo induslry conlinuos lo grov in numbors of aircrafl,
passongors and cargo carriod, and marIols sorvod, from nonslop
sorvico on suporjumbo aircrafl bolvoon cilios laIf-vay across llo
pIanol, lo privaloIy oporalod vory Iigll jols bolvoon any of llou-
sands of smaII airporls domoslicaIIy. Grovll oncouragod from locl-
noIogicaI advancomonls counlorod vill incroasod conslrainls on llo
civiI avialion syslom duo lo incroasod capacily Iimilalions, socurily
roguIalions, and financiaI conslrainls lavo rosuIlod in ovor incroasing
claIIongos lo airporl pIanning and dosign.
CiviI avialion is lypicaIIy considorod in llroo soclors, commorciaI
sorvico avialion (moro commonIy Inovn as air carriors or airIinos),
air cargo, and gonoraI avialion. AIllougl llo Iinos bolvoon lloso lra-
dilionaI soclors aro bocoming incroasingIy bIurrod, llo roguIalions
and claraclorislics rogarding lloir individuaI oporalions aro oflon
muluaIIy oxcIusivo, and as sucl, lloso invoIvod in airporl pIanning
and dosign slouId lavo an undorslanding of oacl soclor.

CommorciaI sorvico avialion, supporlod by llo vorIds airIinos, is by
far llo mosl voII Inovn, mosl uliIizod, and mosl liglIy roguIalod
sogmonl of civiI avialion. Il is llo sogmonl of llo induslry rosponsibIo
for providing pubIic air lransporlalion bolvoon llo vorIds cilios.
In llo Unilod Slalos, domoslic commorciaI air sorvico accommo-
dalod noarIy 650 miIIion onpIaning passongors in 2008, fIying
approximaloIy 570 biIIion passongor-miIos, rofIocling a sIigll docIino
foIIoving llo mosl roconl surgo in llo grovll of air lransporlalion
sinco llo mid-lvonlioll conlury, and forocaslod lo carry moro llan
1 biIIion passongors by 2020, as iIIuslralod in Iig. 1-1.
Inlorcily lravoI, of courso, is nol soIoIy avaiIabIo llrougl commor-
ciaI sorvico avialion. Inlorcily lravoI may bo accommodalod using
oillor privalo modos of lransporlalion, mosl commonIy via privalo
aulomobiIo lravoI, or llrougl ollor modos of pubIic lransporlalion,
sucl as bus, raiI, or slip. Irivalo aulomobiIo lravoI, accounls for
-

noarIy 90 porconl of llo lolaI inlorcily (dofinod as lrips groalor llan

50 mi in dislanco) lravoI in llo Unilod Slalos, and pubIic lransporla-
lion or common-carrior lravoI (bus, raiI, and air) accounls for llo
romaining porlion.
Sinco llo Ialor laIf of llo lvonlioll conlury, lloro las boon a
sloady incroaso in ovoraII lravoI, by privalo aulomobiIo and pubIic
lransporlalion. Air lransporlalion las lad llo groalosl incroaso in
ovoraII passongors sorvod. In llo Unilod Slalos, llis poriod las aIso
vilnossod a dramalic roduclion in raiI lravoI oxcopl for llo raiI mar-
Iols in llo Norlloasl Unilod Slalos. Tloso roIalionslips aro slovn in
TabIo 1-1.
As iIIuslralod in TabIo 1-2, air lransporlalion in llo Unilod Slalos
accounls for llo vasl majorily of domoslic lravoI for lrips oxcooding
750 mi, and approximaloIy ono llird of lrips 500 lo 750 mi in Iongll. In
aII, air lransporlalion accounls for approximaloIy 70 porconl of llo
Unilod Slalos pubIic inlorcily lransporlalion. Will llo oxcoplion of
lravoI lo Canada and Moxico, air lransporlalion sorvos noarIy 100 por-
conl of lravoI bolvoon llo Unilod Slalos and inlornalionaI doslinalions.
In many parls of llo vorId llo uso of privalo aulomobiIo is mucl
Ioss significanl, and llo uso of raiI lransporlalion is mucl moro prov-
aIonl. Hovovor, grovll in commorciaI avialion in marIols sucl as
Iuropo and India aro forocasl lo laIo groalor numbors of passongors
off llo raiIs and onlo airIinos.
Mucl of llo lisloricaI grovll in air carrior lransporlalion las boon
IargoIy crodilod lo llo 1978 IodoraI AirIino DoroguIalion Acl, vlicl
aIIovod air carriors lo frooIy onlor and compolo in domoslic marIols in
- - --
- --
0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
Year
2000 2010 2020 2030
200,000
400,000
600,000
800,000
1,000,000
1,200,000
Historical Forecast
Revenue Passengers (thousands)
Revenue Passenger-Miles (millions)

U.S. Buroau of Transporlalion Slalislics.
--
- -

-

-
-

-



llo Unilod Slalos, and opon sIios agroomonls llrougloul llo 1990s
bolvoon nalions lo aIIov for moro sorvico bolvoon inlornalionaI dosli-
nalions. Tlo mosl roconl grovll in air lransporlalion is allribulabIo lo
clanging airIino businoss modoIs, sucl as llo omorgonco of llo Iov-
cosl carrior (ICC), as voII as incroasing numbors of inlornalionaI opon
sIios agroomonls llal lavo proIiforalod sinco 2000.
-

-- -
CommorciaI air carriors aro dofinod in llo Unilod Slalos as lloso llal
oporalo undor TilIo 14 Iarl 121 of llo U.S. Codo of IodoraI RoguIa-
lions lo provido scloduIod air lransporlalion lo llo pubIic. In llo
Unilod Slalos, lloso airIinos aro calogorizod by lloir annuaI rovonuos.
Major airIinos aro lloso llal gonoralo al Ioasl $1 biIIion in annuaI rov-
onuos. NalionaI carriors gonoralo bolvoon $100 miIIion and $1 biIIion
in annuaI rovonuos, and rogionaI carriors gonoralo bolvoon $25 miIIion
and $100 miIIion in annuaI rovonuos.
InlornalionaI air carriors rocoivo oporaling corlificalos as pro-
scribod by slandards sol by llo InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organi-
zalion (ICAO) and dofinod by llo counlry in vlicl llo airIino is
basod. HisloricaIIy, inlornalionaI air carriors voro ovnod and opor-
alod by lloir nalions, lonco llo lorm fIag carriors. In roconl yoars,
mosl of llo lradilionaI inlornalionaI carriors lavo boon lransforrod lo
privalo ovnorslip. In addilion, lloro las boon an omorgonco of nov
inlornalionaI air carriors, mosl foIIoving llo ICC modoI of sorving
poinl-lo-poinl marIols for faros llal aro on llo vloIo far Iovor llan
lloir lisloricaI airIino counlorparls. Tlo omorgonco of llo ICC modoIs
in Iuropo and moro roconlIy in llo Iar Iasl and India aro rosuIling
in a lromondous grovll in avialion aclivily in lloso rogions.
Air carriors using aircrafl vill Ioss llan 75 soals providing sclod-
uIod or unscloduIod air clarlor sorvicos oporaling undor TilIo 14
Iarl 121 of llo U.S. Codo of IodoraI RoguIalions aro Inovn as rogionaI
air carriors. Tloso carriors oporaling aircrafl vill Ioss llan 30 soals
and lloso llal oporalo undor TilIo 14 Iarl 135 of llo U.S. Codo of
IodoraI RoguIalions aro Inovn as commulor air carriors. If sorvico
froquoncy bolvoon cily pairs is providod Ioss llan 5 limos vooIIy,
lloso carriors aro Inovn as air laxi oporalors.
In 2008, lloro voro ovor 700 air laxis, commulor and smaII rogionaI
air carriors oporaling moro llan 2750 aircrafl, ovor 50 porconl of
vlicl voro rogionaI jol aircrafl. Six lundrod and forly lvo airporls in
llo Unilod Slalos rocoivod sorvico by smaII rogionaI and commulor
airIinos. RogionaI and commulor air sorvico is llo soIo providor of
pubIic air lransporlalion lo 492 airporls in llo Unilod Slalos (sourco:
RAA). Tlrougloul llo 1980s and 1990s, commulor airIino grovll
vas oncouragod by lloir incroasing roIos as codo-slaro parlnors vill
major air carriors. In 2006, ovor 95 porconl of aII passongors lravoIing
on commulor and rogionaI air carriors purclasod lloir licIols llrougl
lloso codo-slaro parlnorslips. TabIo 1-3 iIIuslralos llo grovll of llo
commulor and rogionaI carriors sinco 1970.
-
AIllougl inlornalionaI air lransporl vas inauguralod in llo mid-
1930s, rapid grovll did nol bogin unliI 1950. Sinco llal limo llo
avorago annuaI grovll ralo in llo numbor of vorIdvido passongors

vas noarIy 14 porconl in llo 1960s, sIigllIy Ioss llan 7 porconl in llo
1970s, and sIigllIy Ioss llan 5 porconl in llo 1980s. As iIIuslralod in
Iig. 1-2, vorIdvido grovll in air lransporlalion las incroasod by
moro llan 60 porconl bolvoon 1990 and 2005.

Originaling as llo lransporl of maiI by air in llo oarIy parl of llo
lvonlioll conlury, air cargo las como lo bo dofinod as a $40 biIIion

---
--
--
-
-

--
0
1950 1960 1970 1980
Year
1990 2010 2000
500,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
2,000,000
2,500,000
Revenue Passengers (thousands)
Revenue Passenger-Miles (millions)
- --
-

induslry focusod on llo air lransporl of maiI, buII froigll, ligl-vaIuo

goods, and aII ollor rovonuo gonoraling payIoad ollor llan passon-
gors and lloir Iuggago. As iIIuslralod in Iig. 1-3, llo lransporl of air
cargo las incroasod lromondousIy sinco llo mid-lvonlioll conlury,
vill ils groalosl ralo of grovll occurring sinco llo Ialo 1980s.
Tlo lop 50 carriors of air cargo in llo gIobaI air cargo induslry
carriod noarIy ono-lundrod biIIion froigll-lon-miIos of cargo in 2008.
ApproximaloIy 15 porconl of llo air cargo lransporlod gIobaIIy is por-
formod by induslry Ioadors and oxcIusivo cargo carriors IodIx and
UIS. Tlo majorily of air cargo is lransporlod by air carriors, using
aircrafl dosignod oxcIusivoIy for air cargo carriago, as voII as on com-
morciaI passongor aircrafl. Cargo carriod on commorciaI passongor
aircrafl is oflon roforrod lo as boIIy cargo as llo cargo is slovod in
llo boIIy of llo passongor aircrafl. Cargo carriod on aircrafl dosignod
oxcIusivoIy for llo carriago of cargo is oflon roforrod lo as paIollo or
conlainorizod cargo, doscribing llo conlainors villin vlicl cargo
is slovod and llo paIollos usod lo Ioad and unIoad cargo. Cargo
oporalions using oacl lypo aircrafl poso uniquo claIIongos for airporl
pIanning and dosign.
Tlo goograplic dislribulion of vorId air lransporl is aIso of
inlorosl. Ior slalislicaI purposos ICAO las dividod llo vorId inlo six
rogions: Asia and Iacific, Iuropo, Norll Amorica, Ialin Amorican,
Caribboan, and llo MiddIo Iasl.
WliIo sIigllIy moro llan 60 porconl of aII lraffic is gonoralod in
Norll Amorica and Iuropo, llo roIalivo grovll ralos of lraffic in
llo Asian and Iacific rogion, as voII as in llo MiddIo Iasl, is
oxpoclod lo dominalo vorIdvido air lransporlalion grovll, rofIocling
llo grovll of imporlanco of llis aroa in llo poIilicaI, sociaI, and
oconomic soclors.

1990 1995 2000 2005 1985 1980
Year
1975 1970 1965 1960 1955
100,000
90,000
80,000
70,000
60,000
50,000
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
R
e
v
e
n
u
e

T
o
n
-
M
i
l
e
s

(
m
i
l
l
i
o
n
s
)
Mail
Freight

Tlo air cargo marIol is forocasl lo lripIo bolvoon 2008 and 2030,
Iod by llo grovll of air froigll domand lo Clina, as iIIuslralod by
llo forocasl porconlago dislribulion of vorIdvido air cargo aclivily
in TabIo 1-4. Il is forocasl llal incroasing porconlagos of air cargo
vouId bo slippod on dodicalod cargo aircrafl, roquiring llo nood
for oxpandod oxcIusivo air cargo faciIilios al airporls llrougloul
llo vorId.

GonoraI avialion is llo lorm usod lo dosignalo aII fIying dono ollor
llan by llo commorciaI air sorvico carriors. GonoraI avialion opora-
lions rango from IocaI rocroalionaI fIying lo gIobaI businoss lrans-
porl, porformod on aircrafl nol oporaling undor llo fodoraI avialion
roguIalions for commorciaI air carriors.
WliIo, by dofinilion, gonoraI avialion oporalions carry no
commorciaI passongors, il is oslimalod llal moro llan 166 miIIion
poopIo lravoIod by gonoraI avialion on noarIy 20 miIIion fIiglls in
2008. During 2007, gonoraI avialion accounlod for noarIy 75 porconl
of aII aircrafl oporalions in llo Unilod Slalos (sourco: IAA TAI). Gon-
oraI avialion supporls moro llan 1.3 miIIion jobs and conlribulos
moro llan $103 biIIion annuaIIy lo llo Unilod Slalos oconomy.
As of 2008, lloro voro approximaloIy 225,000 gonoraI avialion
aircrafl rogislorod in llo Unilod Slalos and an oslimalod 340,000 air-
crafl vorIdvido (sourco: GAMA). Tloso aircrafl rango in lypo and
sizo from smaII singIo-ongino propoIIor aircrafl lo Iargo jol aircrafl, lo

-









-
-

uIlraIigll aircrafl, lo loIicoplors. GonoraI avialion aircrafl aro

sorvod by noarIy 20,000 Ianding faciIilios in llo Unilod Slalos aIono.
GonoraI avialion aclivily las oxporioncod a docIino in aclivily
bolvoon 1980 and 2008, as iIIuslralod in Iig. 1-4. Dospilo llis roconl
lisloricaI docIino, gonoraI avialion aclivily is forocasl lo incroaso vill
llo proIiforalion of nov aircrafl loclnoIogy vlicl is oxpoclod lo
roduco llo cosl of gonoraI avialion oporalions. Tlis forocasl grovll in
gonoraI avialion, combinod vill nov loclnoIogios, viII poso inlorosl-
ing claIIongos for airporl pIanning and dosign.
-
Airporls sorving civiI avialion rango from privalo nonpavod slrips
llal sorvo Ioss llan ono privaloIy oporalod aircrafl por day lo major
inlornalionaI airporls covoring lons of llousands of acros, sorving
lundrods of llousands of fIiglls and lundrods of miIIions of pas-
songors annuaIIy. In llo Unilod Slalos lloro aro approximaloIy 20,000
rocognizod civiI airporls, mosl of vlicl aro privaloIy ovnod and
cIosod lo gonoraI pubIic uso. Of llo approximaloIy 5200 airporls
opon lo llo pubIic, approximaloIy 700 aro corlifiod lo accommodalo
commorciaI air sorvico, vill llo romaining sorving gonoraI avialion
oxcIusivoIy.
Airporls curronlIy sorving al Ioasl 2500 onpIanod passongors
using commorciaI air sorvico aro Inovn as - -.
- aro dosignalod as lloso commorciaI airporls sorving
al Ioasl 10,000 annuaI onpIanod passongors. Airporls sorving Ioss llan
2500 annuaI onpIanod passongors aro considorod
- GonoraI avialion airporls dosignod lo accommodalo smaIIor
0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980
Year
1990 2010 2000
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,000
45,000
Total Hours (thousands)
- -

singIo and lvin-ongino aircrafl aro considorod basic uliIily airporls.
Tloso gonoraI avialion airporls llal accommodalo Iargor aircrafl aro
considorod gonoraI uliIily airporls.
Tlo Unilod Slalos IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion (IAA), llo
govornmonlaI body vill adminislralivo ovorsigll lo llo nalions
civiI avialion syslom, calogorizos airporls llrougl ils NalionaI IIan
of Inlogralod Airporl Sysloms (NIIAS). As iIIuslralod in Iig. 1-5 llo
NIIAS rocognizos approximaloIy 3400 airporls considorod by llo
IAA lo bo ossonliaI lo civiI avialion and cIassifios lloso airporls by
llo IovoIs of commorciaI sorvico aclivily villin lloir rospoclivo sland-
ard molropoIilan slalislicaI aroas (SMSAs).
Irimary airporls aro furllor cIassifiod inlo vlal aro Inovn as
lub cIassificalions (nol lo bo confusod vill llo airIino lub and
spoIo roulo modoIs). Tlo lub cIassificalions usod by llo IAA aro
Iargo lub primary, modium lub primary, smaII lub primary, and
nonlub primary airporls. Iargo lubs aro lloso airporls llal accounl
for al Ioasl 1 porconl of llo lolaI annuaI passongor onpIanomonls in
llo Unilod Slalos. Modium lubs accounl for al Ioasl 0.25 bul Ioss
llan 1 porconl of llo lolaI passongor onpIanomonls. SmaII lubs
accounl for al Ioasl 0.05 porconl bul Ioss llan 0.25 porconl, and non-
lubs accounl for Ioss llan 0.05 porconl bul al Ioasl 10,000 annuaI
onpIanod passongors. Tlo numbor of airporls, by lub cIassificalion,
is iIIuslralod in TabIo 1-5.
RoIiovor airporls aro airporls nol curronlIy sorving roguIar com-
morciaI sorvico bul lavo boon dosignalod by llo IAA as gonoraI
avialion-lypo airporls llal provido roIiof vlon nocossary lo com-
morciaI sorvico airporls, lypicaIIy by accommodaling ligl voIumos
of gonoraI avialion aclivily villin a molropoIilan aroa and accom-
modaling commorciaI sorvico oporalions vlon llo noarby commor-
ciaI sorvico airporl is cIosod or ollorviso cannol accommodalo
normaI oporalions. Airporls aro lypicaIIy givon roIiovor slalus if lloy
-
383
Primary
139
Commercial
Service
270
Reliever
2,564
General
Aviation
3,356 Existing
3,254 Public Owned
102 Private Owned
3,411
NPIAS Airports
(Of the 5,190 existing public use
airports, 65% are NPAS)
55 Proposed
3
Primary
6
Commercial
Service
2
Reliever
44
General
Aviation
-

aro Iocalod villin an SMSA of popuIalion of al Ioasl 5,000,000 or

vloro passongor onpIanomonls oxcood 250,000 annuaIIy. In addilion,
llo airporl musl lavo al Ioasl 100 aircrafl basod al llo fioId or landIo
al Ioasl 25,000 ilinoranl oporalions annuaIIy. RoIiovor airporls,
aIllougl nol sorving roguIar commorciaI sorvico oporalions, aro
among llo busiosl airporls in llo Unilod Slalos.
WliIo mosl of llo airporls in llo Unilod Slalos aro privaloIy
ovnod and oporalod, llo majorily of pubIic uso airporls aro in facl
pubIicIy ovnod. IubIic uso airporls, and commorciaI sorvico airporls
in parlicuIar, aro lypicaIIy ovnod and oporalod by IocaI municipaIi-
lios, counlios, slalos, or somo pubIic aullorily lypicaIIy ovorsoon
by roprosonlalivos from a combinalion of IocaI and rogionaI jurisdic-
lions. Tloro aro a fov pubIic uso airporls llal aro oporalod by privalo
airporl managomonl companios bul raroIy do privalo firms acluaIIy
ovn llo proporly on vlicl llo airporl is Iocalod. As sucl, in llo
Unilod Slalos, mosl pIanning and dosign programs al civiI pubIic uso
airporls musl go llrougl oxlonsivo govornmonlaI procossos for uIli-
malo approvaI and oflon funding supporl.
WliIo llo Unilod Slalos las by far llo groalosl numbor of com-
morciaI sorvico and gonoraI avialion airporls in llo vorId, many of
llo vorIds Iargosl and mosl imporlanl airporls aro Iocalod aII ovor
llo gIobo. TabIo 1-6 Iisls llo vorIds busiosl airporls.
- --

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-

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-
-


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-
-

-
-

-
-

A
i
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p
o
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s

C
o
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c
i
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I
n
l
o
r
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a
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i
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a
I
.

-
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-
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-

Conlrary lo llo ovnorslip slrucluros in llo Unilod Slalos, airporls

vorIdvido lavo lradilionaIIy boon ovnod and oporalod by lloir
rospoclivo fodoraI govornmonls llrougl lloir minislrios of lransporl,
lovovor many aro incroasingIy bocoming privalizod lo oporalo as for-
profil businoss onlilios.
- -
Boll in llo Unilod Slalos and inlornalionaIIy, IogisIalivo aclions laIon
by fodoraI and slalo govornmonls lavo lad a profound impacl on llo
grovll of civiI avialion and llo pIanning and dosign of ils airporls.
As oarIy as 1911, llo Iosl Offico Doparlmonl slovod an inlorosl
in civiI avialion, parlicuIarIy llo lransporlalion of maiI by air, and
from llon on llo doparlmonl did mucl lo oncourago civiI avialion.
Allompls lo oblain fodoraI approprialions for air-maiI bogan in 1912
bul mol vill IillIo succoss unliI 1916, vlon an approprialion for
oxporimonlaI purposos vas mado. In 1918, llo firsl air-maiI roulo in
llo Unilod Slalos vas oslabIislod bolvoon Waslinglon, D.C. and
Nov YorI Cily. Al llo slarl of llis sorvico llo fIying oporalions voro
conduclod by llo War Doparlmonl bul Ialor llal yoar llo Iosl Offico
Doparlmonl looI ovor llo onliro oporalion vill ils ovn oquipmonl
and piIols. Sorvico vas inauguralod bolvoon Nov YorI Cily and
Clicago in 1919 and vas oxlondod lo San Irancisco in 1920.
Tlo Iosl Offico Doparlmonl, laving domonslralod llo praclicaI-
ily of moving maiI by air, dosirod lo lurn ovor llo oporalion lo privalo
onlorpriso. By 1925, llo dovoIopmonl vorI of llo govornmonl lad
roaclod a slago vloro privalo oporalion soomod foasibIo. Accord-
ingIy, IogisIalion pormilling llo Iosl Offico Doparlmonl lo conlracl
vill privalo oporalors for llo carriago of maiI by air vas providod by
llo Air MaiI Acl of 1925 (KoIIy Acl). Hovovor, il vas nol unliI 1926
llal a numbor of conlracl roulos voro oponod. Somo of llo oarIy con-
lraclors voro llo Iord Molor Company, Booing Air Transporl (prod-
ocossor of Unilod AirIinos), and NalionaI Air Transporl.

Tlo firsl yoar of llo carriago of maiI aIso sav llo passago of llo firsl
fodoraI Iav doaIing vill air commorco, llo Air Commorco Acl of 1926
(IubIic Iav 64-254). AIllougl llis Iav providod roguIalory moas-
uros, il did moro lo aid and oncourago civiI avialion llan lo roguIalo.
Tlo principaI provisions of llis acl voro as foIIovs:
1. AII aircrafl ovnod by Unilod Slalos cilizons oporaling in
common-carrior sorvico or in connoclion vill any businoss
musl bo rogislorod.
2. AII aircrafl musl bo corlificalod and oporalod by corlifiod
airmon.

3. Aullorily vas givon lo llo Socrolary of Commorco lo oslab-
Iisl air lraffic ruIos.
4. Tlo Socrolary of Commorco vas aullorizod lo oslabIisl,
oporalo, and mainlain Iigllod civiI airvays.
In drafling llo IogisIalion, Congross roIiod considorabIy upon llo
procodonls in marilimo Iav. An anaIogy vas uliIizod bolvoon llo roIo
of llo govornmonl in mooling valor navigalion noods and llo roIo of
llo govornmonl in air navigalion. In valor navigalion lloso sorvicos
incIudod llo signing, Iiglling, and marIing of clannoIs, safoly inspoc-
lion of slips and oporaling porsonnoI, assislanco in llo dovoIopmonl
and improvomonl of porls and valorvays, and Iavs concorning llo
oporalions of llo induslry. Tlo provision of docIs and lorminaI faciI-
ilios voro llo rosponsibiIily of IocaI govornmonl or llo privalo soclor
of llo oconomy. Tloroforo, llo IogisIalion vas adoplod in sucl a
framovorI vlicl loId llal airporls voro anaIogous lo llo docIs of
valorborno lransporlalion |30].
Undor llo Air Commorco Acl, conlroI of air lransporlalion vas
dividod among sovoraI govornmonl agoncios. Tlo air-maiI conlracls
voro Iol by llo Iosl Offico Doparlmonl, air-maiI ralos voro subjocl lo
roguIalion by llo Inlorslalo Commorco Commission, and mallors
laving lo do vill rogislralion, corlificalion, and airvays voro voslod
in llo Buroau of Air Commorco in llo Doparlmonl of Commorco. Tlo
rosuIl of llis dividod jurisdiclion vas a IacI of coordinalion in llo
offorls of govornmonl lo dovoIop llo air lransporlalion induslry. In
addilion, llo Acl spocificaIIy prolibilod any dirocl fodoraI funding
for airporl dovoIopmonl.
-
Tlo Air Commorco Acl of 1926 lad boon passod boforo llo carriago
of maiI and passongors lad dovoIopod inlo a subslanliaI businoss
onlorpriso. Tlo faiIuro of llis IogisIalion lo provido adoqualo oco-
nomic conlroI Iod lo vaslofuI and doslruclivo compolilivo praclicos.
Tlo carriors lad IillIo socurily in lloir roulos and lloroforo couId nol
allracl privalo invoslors and dovoIop lraffic voIumos sufficionl lo
acliovo oconomic slabiIily. Tloso parlicuIar voaInossos in llo oxisl-
ing IogisIalion Iod lo llo onaclmonl of llo CiviI Aoronaulics Acl of
1938 (IubIic Iav 76-706). Tlis acl dofinod in a prociso mannor llo
roIo of llo fodoraI govornmonl in rospocl lo llo oconomic plasos of
air lransporl. Il croalod ono indopondonl agoncy lo foslor and rogu-
Ialo air lransporl in Iiou of llo llroo agoncios oporaling undor llo Air
Commorco Acl. Tlis nov agoncy vas caIIod llo CiviI Aoronaulics
Aullorily (nol lo bo confusod vill llo CiviI Aoronaulics Adminis-
lralion). Il consislod of a fivo-mombor aullorily, a llroo-mombor air
safoly board, and an adminislralor. Tlo fivo-mombor aullorily vas
principaIIy concornod vill llo oconomic roguIalion of air carriors,
-

llo safoly board vas an indopondonl body for llo invosligalion of

accidonls, and llo concorns of llo adminislralor doaIl primariIy vill
conslruclion, oporalion, and mainlonanco of llo airvays.
During llo firsl yoar and a laIf of ils oxislonco a numbor of
organizalionaI difficuIlios aroso villin llo CiviI Aoronaulics Aullorily.
As a rosuIl, Irosidonl IranIIin D. RoosovoIl, acling villin llo aullor-
ily granlod lo lim in llo Roorganizalion Acl of 1939 (55 Slal. 561),
roorganizod llo CiviI Aoronaulics Aullorily and croalod lvo sopa-
ralo agoncios, llo CiviI Aoronaulics Board and llo CiviI Aoronaulics
Adminislralion. Tlo fivo-mombor aullorily romainod as an indo-
pondonl agoncy and bocamo Inovn as llo CiviI Aoronaulics Board,
llo Air Safoly Board vas aboIislod and ils funclions givon lo llo
CiviI Aoronaulics Board, and llo adminislralor bocamo llo load of
an agoncy villin llo Doparlmonl of Commorco Inovn as llo CiviI
Aoronaulics Adminislralion (CAA). Tlo dulios of llo originaI fivo-
mombor aullorily voro unclangod, oxcopl llal corlain rosponsi-
biIilios, sucl as accidonl invosligalion, voro addod bocauso of llo
aboIilion of llo Air Safoly Board. Tlo adminislralor, in addilion lo
rolaining llo funclions of suporvising conslruclion, mainlonanco,
and oporalion of llo airvays, vas roquirod lo undorlaIo llo admin-
islralion and onforcomonl of safoly roguIalions and llo adminislra-
lion of llo Iavs vill rogard lo aircrafl oporalion. SubsoquonlIy,
llo adminislralor bocamo diroclIy rosponsibIo lo llo Socrolary of
Commorco (1950).
Tlo CiviI Aoronaulics Acl, IiIo ils prodocossor llo Air Commorco
Acl, aullorizod llo fodoraI govornmonl lo oslabIisl, oporalo, and
mainlain llo airvays, bul again, aullorizalion for aclivoIy aiding air-
porl dovoIopmonl vas IacIing. Tlo acl, lovovor, aullorizod llo
oxpondiluro of fodoraI funds for llo conslruclion of Ianding aroas
providod llo adminislralor corlifiod llal sucl Ianding aroa vas roa-
sonabIy nocossary for uso in air commorco or in llo inlorosls of
nalionaI dofonso. Tlo acl aIso diroclod llo adminislralor lo maIo a
survoy of airporl noods in llo Unilod Slalos and roporl lo Congross
aboul llo dosirabiIily of fodoraI parlicipalion and llo oxlonl lo vlicl
llo fodoraI govornmonl slouId parlicipalo.
In accordanco vill llo roquiromonls of llo Acl, llo CiviI
Aoronaulics Aullorily conduclod a dolaiIod survoy of llo airporl
noods of llo nalion. An advisory commilloo vas appoinlod, com-
posod of roprosonlalivos of inloroslod fodoraI agoncios (boll miIilary
and civiI), slalo avialion officiaIs, airporl managors, airIino roprosonl-
alivos, and ollors. A roporl vas submillod lo Congross on Marcl 23,
1939 (Houso Documonl 245, 76ll Congross, 1sl Sossion). Somo of llo
moro imporlanl rocommondalions in llis roporl voro as foIIovs:
1. DovoIopmonl and mainlonanco of an adoqualo syslom of air-
porls and soapIano basos slouId bo rocognizod in principIo as
a mallor of nalionaI concorn.

2. Sucl a syslom slouId bo rogardod, undor corlain condilions,
as a propor objocl of fodoraI oxpondiluro.
3. In passing upon appIicalions for fodoraI oxpondiluro on air-
porl dovoIopmonl or improvomonl, llo liglosl proforonco
slouId bo givon lo airporls vlicl aro imporlanl lo llo main-
lonanco of safo and officionl oporalion of air lransporlalion
aIong llo major lrado roulos of llo nalion, and lo lloso ron-
doring spociaI sorvico lo llo nalionaI dofonso.
4. Al sucl limos as llo nalionaI poIicy incIudos llo maIing of
granls lo IocaI unils of govornmonl for pubIic-vorIs purposos,
or any vorI-roIiof aclivily, a proporlion of llo funds invoIvod
slouId bo aIIocalod lo airporl purposos. Sucl purposos slouId
bo givon proforonco as rondoring an imporlanl sorvico lo llo
IocaIilios concornod and al llo samo limo boing of parlicuIar
imporlanco lo llo nalions commorco and dofonso.
5. Wlonovor omorgoncy pubIic-vorIs programs may bo lormi-
nalod, or vlon sucl programs may bo curlaiIod lo a dogroo nol
onabIing adoqualo airporl dovoIopmonl lo conlinuo, or vlon
llo Congross for ollor roasons may dolormino fodoraI assis-
lanco for airporls slouId bo conlinuod llrougl annuaI appro-
prialions for llal purposo, basod upon annuaI roporls vlicl
slouId incIudo a roviov of llo gonoraI slalus of llo nalions
airporl syslom and of llo vorI roconlIy dono or curronlIy in
courso of boing dono, and rocommondalions for fuluro vorI in
llo inlorosl of dovoIoping and mainlaining a syslom adoqualo
lo nalionaI noods, oxpondiluros al lloso poriods slouId bo Iim-
ilod lo projocls of oxcoplionaI nalionaI inlorosl.
6. In connoclion vill sucl pubIic-vorIs or vorI-roIiof pro-
grams as normaIIy invoIvo joinl conlribulions by llo fodoraI
govornmonl and by IocaI govornmonl, lloro slouId bo a
provision of suppIomonlary funds lo onabIo llo fodoraI
govornmonl lo incroaso ils slaro of llo lolaI oxponso, in
any proporlion juslifiod by llo imporlanco of llo projocl.
7. AII appIicalions for fodoraI airporl granls from sucl a suppIo-
monlary approprialion slouId bo prosonlod llrougl agoncios
of slalo govornmonl.
8. In dociding upon llo visdom and proprioly of granling any
sucl appIicalions, and llo priorily llal slouId bo givon lo llom,
considoralion slouId bo givon lo llo aoronaulicaI poIicy of llo
slalo in quoslion, vill roforonco lo sucl mallors as llo slalos
poIicy in prolocling llo approaclos lo airporls, llo slalos poIicy
in rospocl lo llo ompIoymonl of any laxos coIIoclod on llo fuoI
usod in aircrafl, and any moasuros laIon by llo slalo lo insuro
llo propor mainlonanco of airporls and llo mainlonanco of roa-
sonabIo clargos for llo sorvicos givon llom.
-

9. Tlo dolaiIod pIans for llo Iocalion and dovoIopmonl of any

airporl vill rospocl lo vlicl lloro is fodoraI conlribulion of
any Iind, slouId bo subjocl lo llo approvaI of llo fodoraI
agoncy clargod vill llo oslabIislmonl of civiI airvays, Iand-
ing aroas, and nocossary air navigalion faciIilios.
10. Tloro slouId bo no dirocl fodoraI conlribulion lo llo cosl of
mainlaining airporls, ollor llan fodoraI airporls, oxcopl llal
llo adminislralor of llo CiviI Aoronaulics Aullorily may, in
accordanco vill llo CiviI Aoronaulics Acl and so far as avaiI-
abIo funds pormil, assumo llo cosl of oporaling any Iiglling
oquipmonl and ollor air navigalion faciIily as a parl of llo
cosl of oporalion of llo fodoraI airvays syslom.
Tlo airporl survoy submillod in 1939 vas updalod vill nov
sludios compIolod in 1940. Conlinuing sludios voro mado llrougl
llo var yoars. WliIo firsl imporlanco vas allaclod lo llo miIilary
roquiromonls, caro vas laIon vlonovor possibIo lo anlicipalo llo
noods of poslvar civiI avialion. During llo var yoars llo fodoraI gov-
ornmonl, llrougl llo CAA, sponl $353 miIIion for llo dovoIopmonl
of miIilary Ianding aroas in llo conlinonlaI Unilod Slalos. Tlis doos
nol incIudo funds sponl by llo miIilary agoncios. During llo samo
poriod llo CAA sponl $9.5 miIIion for llo dovoIopmonl of Ianding
aroas in llo Unilod Slalos soIoIy for civiI purposos.

Al llo ond of WorId War II, ovor 500 airporls conslruclod for llo
miIilary by llo CAA voro docIarod surpIus and voro lurnod ovor lo
cilios, counlios, and slalos for airporl uso. Tlo inlorosl in adoqualo
airporl faciIilios by various poIilicaI subdivisions of govornmonl
conlinuod. Tlo noods voro mado Inovn lo Congross by various
inlorosls. As a rosuIl, llo Houso of Roprosonlalivos passod a rosoIu-
lion (H.R. 598, 78ll Congross) dirocling llo CAA lo maIo a survoy of
nood for a syslom of airporls and Ianding aroas llrougloul llo
Unilod Slalos and roporl bacI lo Congross.
Tlo rosuIls of llis survoy voro compIolod in 1944 (Houso Docu-
monl 807, 78ll Congross, 2nd Sossion) and conlainod llo foIIoving
principaI rocommondalions:
1. Tlal Congross aullorizo an approprialion lo llo Offico of llo
Adminislralor of CiviI Aoronaulics nol lo oxcood $100 miIIion
annuaIIy lo bo usod in a program of fodoraI aid lo pubIic
agoncios for llo dovoIopmonl of a nalionvido syslom of
pubIic airporls adoqualo lo mool llo prosonl and immodialo
fuluro noods of civiI aoronaulics. Tlo adminislralor bo
aullorizod lo aIIocalo sucl funds for any conslruclion vorI
invoIvod in conslrucling, improving, or ropairing an airporl,
incIuding llo conslruclion, aIloralion, and ropair of airporl

buiIdings ollor llan langars, and llo romovaI, Iovoring,
marIing, and Iiglling of airporl obslruclions, for llo acqui-
silion of any Iands or proporly inlorosl nocossary oillor for
any sucl conslruclion or lo prolocl airporl approaclos, for
maIing fioId and spocificalions, suporvising and inspocling
conslruclion vorI, and for any nocossary fodoraI oxponsos
in llo adminislralion of llis program.
2. Tlal sucl a program can bo conduclod in cooporalion vill
llo slalo and ollor nonfodoraI pubIic agoncios on a basis lo bo
dolorminod by llo Congross. Tlal llo fodoraI conlribulion bo
dolorminod by llo Congross in passing llo nocossary onabIing
IogisIalion. A good procodonl for llo proporlionalo slaring of
cosls oxisls in llo pubIic-roads program vlicl las oporalod
salisfacloriIy for many yoars on a 50-50 basis.
3. Tlal any projocl for vlicl fodoraI aid is roquoslod musl mool
vill llo approvaI of llo adminislralor of CiviI Aoronaulics as
lo scopo of dovoIopmonl and cosl, conform lo CiviI Aoronau-
lics Adminislralion slandards for Iocalion, Iayoul, grading,
drainago, paving, and Iiglling and aII vorI lloroon bo sub-
jocl lo llo inspoclion and approvaI of llo CiviI Aoronaulics
Adminislralion.
4. In ordor lo parlicipalo in llo fodoraI-aid program, a slalo slaII
a. IslabIisl and ompovor an officiaI body oquippod lo con-
ducl ils slaro of llo program.
b. Havo IogisIalion adoqualo for llo cIoaring and proloclion
of airporl approaclos, and sucl ollor IogisIalion as may
bo nocossary lo vosl in ils poIilicaI subdivisions aII povors
nocossary lo onabIo llom lo parlicipalo llrougl llo slalo
as sponsors of airporl projocls.
c. Havo no spociaI lax on avialion faciIilios, fuoI, oporalions,
or businossos, llo procoods of vlicl aro nol usod onliroIy
for avialion purposos.
d. Insuro llo oporalion of aII pubIic airporls pubIic inlorosl,
villoul unjusl discriminalion or unroasonabIo clargos.
o. Insuro llo propor oporalion and mainlonanco of aII pubIic
airporls villin ils jurisdiclion.
f. MaIo airporls dovoIopod vill fodoraI aid avaiIabIo for
unroslriclod uso by Unilod Slalos govornmonl aircrafl
villoul clargo ollor llan an amounl sufficionl lo covor
llo cosl of ropairing damago dono by sucl aircrafl.
g. Roquiro llo inslaIIalion al aII airporls for vlicl fodoraI
funds lavo boon providod for a slandard accounling and
fiscaI roporling syslom salisfaclory lo llo adminislralor.
-

5. Tlal sponsors of projocls bo roquirod lo onlor inlo conlracls

vill llo CiviI Aoronaulics Adminislralion onsuring llo
propor mainlonanco and proloclion of airporls dovoIopod
vill fodoraI aid and lloir oporalion in llo pubIic inlorosl.
Tlo rocommondalions conlainod in llo airporl noods survoy
roporl voro vrillon inlo an airporl dovoIopmonl biII, inlroducod inlo
llo Houso of Roprosonlalivos (H.R. 5024) bul no aclion vas laIon on
il. Aflor oxlonsivo loarings in boll lousos of Congross, llo Sonalo
passod an airporl biII (S. 2) in 1945 and Ialor llal yoar llo Houso
passod a biII (H.R. 3615). Tlo Ianguago in lloso lvo biIIs difforod in
sovoraI rospocls. Ono of llo principaI difforoncos vas llo mollod
ompIoyod in clannoIing funds lo llo municipaIilios. Tlo Sonalo biII
providod llal funds bo clannoIod lo llo municipaIilios llrougl
approprialo slalo avialion organizalions unIoss a slalo did nol lavo
an approprialo agoncy lo landIo llo mallor. Tlo Houso biII pormillod
clannoIing of funds oillor llrougl llo slalo or diroclIy lo a munici-
paIily or ollor poIilicaI subdivision of govornmonl. Tlo subslilulo
biII agrood lo in conforonco conformod moro noarIy lo llo Houso Ian-
guago. Anollor difforonco lad lo do vill llo sizo of llo discrolionary
fund, vlicl, insload of boing apporlionod among llo slalos by a fixod
formuIa, vouId bo avaiIabIo for uso by llo adminislralor al lis soIo
dolorminalion. Tlo Houso biII providod 25 porconl of llo lolaI appro-
prialion for airporl dovoIopmonl as a discrolionary fund, llo Sonalo
biII 35 porconl. Tlo compromiso roaclod in conforonco rolainod llo
Houso vorsion. Ollor difforoncos vlicl voro vorIod oul in confor-
onco concornod vlollor or nol llo cosls of llo acquisilion of Iand and
inlorosl in airspaco slouId bo oIigibIo for fodoraI aid, projocl sponsor-
slip roquiromonls, and llo roimbursomonl for damago lo pubIic air-
porls causod by fodoraI agoncios.
Tlo conforonco roporl vas approvod by llo Congross and llo
IodoraI Airporl Acl of 1946 vas onaclod (IubIic Iav 79-377). Knovn
as llo IodoraI Airporl-Aid Irogram, approprialions of $500 miIIion
ovor a 7-yoar poriod voro aullorizod for projocls villin llo Unilod
Slalos pIus $20 miIIion for projocls in AIasIa, Havaii, Iuorlo Rico,
and llo Virgin IsIands. In I950, llo 7-yoar poriod vas oxlondod an
addilionaI 5 yoars (IubIic Iav 81-846). Hovovor, annuaI appropria-
lions approvod by Congross voro mucl Ioss llan llo amounls aullor-
izod by llo acl.
Tlo originaI acl providod llal a projocl slaII nol bo approvod for
fodoraI aid unIoss sufficionl funds aro avaiIabIo for llal porlion of
llo projocl vlicl is nol lo bo paid by llo Unilod Slalos.
IocaI govornmonls oflon roquirod 2 lo 3 yoars lo maIo arrango-
monls for raising funds. Mosl of llo Iargor projocls aro financod
IocaIIy llrougl llo saIo of bonds. Tlis mollod of financing roquiros
IogisIalion al llo IocaI IovoI and, in somo casos, aIso al llo slalo IovoI.
GonoraI obIigalion bonds normaIIy roquiro approvaI by llo oIocloralo.

Irograms lo inform llo pubIic on llo noods for airporl improvomonl
musl bo carofuIIy pIannod and oxoculod. Tlus, aflor llo compIolion
of lloso ovonls, IocaI govornmonls froquonlIy found llal sufficionl
fodoraI funds voro nol approprialod lo malcl IocaI funds, and llo
projocls voro doIayod. Anollor compIainl of IocaI govornmonls lad
boon llal Congross faiIod lo fuIfiII ils obIigalion, sinco llo amounl
approprialod by Congross foII far slorl of llo amounl aullorizod by
llo IodoraI Airporl Acl. Tloso doficioncios as voII as ollor mallors
voro incorporalod in a biII (S. I855). Hoarings on llo biII voro loId
boforo llo subcommilloo of llo Commilloo on Inlorslalo and Ioroign
Commorco of llo Unilod Slalos Sonalo in I955. Roprosonlalivos of llo
CounciI of Slalo Govornmonls, llo Amorican MunicipaI Associalion, llo
NalionaI Associalion of Slalo Avialion OfficiaIs, airporl and induslry
lrado associalions, and individuaIs voro unanimous in llo fooIing
llal air lransporlalion lad roaclod a slago of malurily vloro many
airporls voro voofuIIy inadoqualo and groalor financiaI assislanco
from llo fodoraI govornmonl vouId bo roquirod lo mool llo curronl
noods of avialion. Aflor mucl dobalo, llo biII vas approvod by llo
Irosidonl (IubIic Iav 84-211).
Tlis amonding acl mado no clango in llo basic poIicios and pur-
posos oxprossod in llo originaI acl. Tloro voro no clangos in llo
roquiromonls vill rospocl lo llo adminislralion of llo granls aullor-
izod, sucl as llo dislribulion and apporlionmonl of funds, llo oIigi-
biIily of llo various lypos of airporl conslruclion, sponsorslip
roquiromonls, olc. Tlo primary purposo of llo acl vas lo subslilulo
for llo procoduro of aullorizing annuaI approprialions for airporl
projocls, provisions granling subslanliaI annuaI conlracl aulloriza-
lion in spocific amounls ovor a poriod of four fiscaI yoars. Airporl
sponsors voro llus furnislod assuranco llal fodoraI funds vouId bo
avaiIabIo al llo limo projocls voro lo bo undorlaIon.
Tlis Iav providod $40 miIIion for fiscaI yoar I956 and $60 miIIion
for oacl of fiscaI yoars I957, I958, and I959 for airporl conslruclion in
llo conlinonlaI Unilod Slalos. Il aIso providod $2.5 miIIion in fiscaI
yoar I956 and $3 miIIion for llo llroo succooding fiscaI yoars for air-
porl conslruclion in AIasIa, Havaii, Iuorlo Rico, and llo Virgin
IsIands. Bosidos llo $42.5 miIIion mado avaiIabIo in fiscaI yoar I956 by
IubIic Iav 84-2II, Congross approvod an addilionaI approprialion of
$20 miIIion for airporl projocls.

Ior a numbor of yoars lloro lad boon a groving concorn aboul llo
division of rosponsibiIily in avialion mallors among difforonl agon-
cios of llo fodoraI govornmonl. UnIiIo liglvay or ollor forms of
lransporl, avialion is uniquo in ils roIalion lo llo fodoraI govornmonl.
Il vas lisloricaIIy llo onIy modo vloso oporalions aro conduclod
aImosl vloIIy villin fodoraI jurisdiclion, and ono subjocl lo IillIo or
-

no roguIalion by slalos or IocaI aullorilios. Tlus, llo fodoraI govorn-

monl boars virluaIIy compIolo rosponsibiIily for llo promolion and
suporvision of llo induslry in llo pubIic inlorosl. Tlo miIilary inlor-
osl and llo onliro nalionaI dofonso concopl aro aIso inlimaloIy roIalod
lo avialion.
Rocognizing llal llo domands on llo fodoraI govornmonl in llo
yoars aload vouId bo subslanliaI, llo diroclor of llo Buroau of llo
Budgol roquoslod a roviov of avialion-faciIilios probIoms in 1955. A
roporl vas issuod Ialor llal yoar rocommonding llal a sludy of Iong-
rango noods for avialion faciIilios and aids bo undorlaIon and llal
sucl a sludy bo mado undor llo diroclion of an individuaI of nalionaI
ropulalion.
Irosidonl Dvigll D. Iisonlovor accoplod lloso rocommonda-
lions and appoinlod Idvard I. Curlis as lis SpociaI Assislanl for
Avialion Mallors in 1957. Curlis vas clargod vill llo rosponsibiIily
of proparing a comprolonsivo avialion-faciIilios pIan vlicl vouId
provido llo basis for llo limoIy inslaIIalion of loclnicaIIy adoqualo
aids, for oplimum coordinalion of llo offorls of llo civiI and miIilary
doparlmonls, and for offoclivo parlicipalion by slalo and IocaI aullor-
ilios and llo aircrafl oporalors in mooling faciIilios roquiromonls.
Curlis compIolod lis roporl and submillod il lo llo Irosidonl. In llis
roporl Curlis slalod llal il las bocomo ovidonl llal llo fundamonlaI
roason for our provious faiIuros Iios vill llo inabiIily of our govorn-
monlaI organizalions lo Ioop paco vill llo lromondous grovll in
privalo, commorciaI, and miIilary avialion vlicl las occurrod in llo
Iasl 20 yoars. Curlis rocommondod llo consoIidalion of aII avialion
funclions, ollor llan miIilary, inlo ono indopondonl agoncy rosponsi-
bIo onIy lo llo Irosidonl. Hovovor, llo roporl rocognizod llal lo
dovoIop nov managomonl slrucluros and poIicy, lo coordinalo pro-
posaIs villin llo oxoculivo brancl and lo oblain IogisIalion impIo-
monling a nov pormanonl organizalion migll bo as Iong as 2 or
3 yoars. Tlo mosl urgonl mallor roquiring allonlion vas in llo aroa
of air lraffic conlroI. Tlo coIIision of lvo aircrafl ovor llo Grand
Canyon in 1956 providod llo impolus for rapid IogisIalivo aclion for
romodying midair coIIisions. Curlis rocommondod llal, as an inlorim
moasuro, lloro bo croalod an Airvays Modornizalion Board vloso
funclion vas lo dovoIop, modify, losl, and ovaIualo sysloms, proco-
duros, faciIilios, and dovicos, as voII as dofino llo porformanco clar-
aclorislics lloroof, lo mool llo noods for safo and officionl navigalion
and lraffic conlroI of aII civiI and miIilary avialion oxcopl for lloso
noods of miIilary agoncios vlicl aro pocuIiar lo air varfaro and pri-
mariIy of miIilary concorn, and soIocl sucl sysloms, procoduros, faciI-
ilios, and dovicos vlicl viII bosl sorvo sucl noods and viII promolo
maximum coordinalion of air lraffic conlroI and air dofonso sysloms.
Tlo board vas lo consisl of llo Socrolary of Commorco, llo Socrolary
of Dofonso, and an indopondonl clairman.

Congross vas rocoplivo lo llis rocommondalion and passod llo
Airvays Modornizalion Acl of 1957 (IubIic Iav 85-133) oslabIisling
llo board for a 3-yoar lorm.
In llo moanlimo, lloro voro moro midair coIIisions and roporls of
noar missos voro givon vido circuIalion. CoslIy disagroomonls
bolvoon llo CAA and llo miIilary on llo lypo of navigalionaI aids lo
bo usod on llo airvays no doubl aIso spurrod CongrossionaI aclion.
As a rosuIl, insload of laIing 2 or 3 yoars lo croalo a singIo avialion
agoncy as vas prodiclod, llo Congross aclod favorabIy on llo IogisIa-
lion villin a yoar of llo passago of llo Airvays Modornizalion Acl.
Tlis IogisIalion is Inovn as llo IodoraI Avialion Acl of 1958 (IubIic
Iav 85-726). Tlis Iav suporsodod llo CiviI Aoronaulics Acl of 1938
bul nol llo IodoraI Airporl Acl of 1946.
Tlo principaI provisions of llo Iav insofar as organizalionaI
clangos voro concornod aro as foIIovs:
1. Tlo IodoraI Avialion Agoncy vas croalod as an indopondonl
agoncy vill an adminislralor diroclIy rosponsibIo lo llo
Irosidonl. Tlo agoncy incorporalod llo funclions of llo CiviI
Aoronaulics Adminislralion and llo Airvays Modornizalion
Board, boll of vlicl voro aboIislod.
2. Tlo CiviI Aoronaulics Board vas rolainod as an indopon-
donl agoncy incIuding aII ils funclions oxcopl ils safoly
ruIo-maIing povors, vlicl voro lransforrod lo llo IodoraI
Avialion Agoncy.
-
Ior many yoars il lad boon arguod llal lloro lad boon a proIiforalion of
fodoraI aclivilios vill rogard lo lransporlalion. Ior oxampIo, llo Buroau
of IubIic Roads vas parl of llo Doparlmonl of Commorco vloroas llo
IodoraI Avialion Agoncy vas an indopondonl agoncy. Il vas foIl by dif-
foronl lransporl inlorosls llal lloro vas a IacI of coordinalion and offoc-
livo adminislralion of llo lransporlalion programs of llo fodoraI gov-
ornmonl rosuIling in a IacI of a sound nalionaI lransporlalion poIicy. Il
is inlorosling lo nolo llal llo firsl IogisIalivo proposaI in llis diroclion
dalos bacI lo 1874. Hovovor, in roconl yoars, llo invoIvomonl of llo
fodoraI govornmonl in llo dovoIopmonl of llo lransporlalion sysloms
of llo nalion las boon onormous, roquiring mucl moro coordinalion
among fodoraI lransporl aclivilios llan ovor boforo. Will llis as a bacI-
ground, a Cabinol-IovoI Doparlmonl of Transporlalion (DOT) vas cro-
alod loadod by llo Socrolary of Transporlalion (IubIic Iav 89-670). Tlo
doparlmonl bogan lo funclion on ApriI 1, 1967.
Tlo agoncios and funclions lransforrod lo llo Doparlmonl of
Transporlalion roIalod lo air lransporlalion incIudod llo IodoraI
Avialion Agoncy in ils onliroly and llo safoly funclions of llo CiviI
-

Aoronaulics Board, incIuding llo rosponsibiIily for invosligaling and

dolormining llo probabIo causo of aircrafl accidonls, and ils appoIIalo
safoly funclions invoIving roviov on appoaI of llo susponsion, modi-
ficalion, or doniaI of corlificalos or Iiconsos. Tlo namo of llo IodoraI
Avialion Agoncy vas clangod lo llo IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion
(IAA). Tlo adminislralor is sliII appoinlod by llo Irosidonl bul
roporls diroclIy lo llo Socrolary of Transporlalion.
A NalionaI Transporlalion Safoly Board (NTSB) vas oslabIislod
by llo samo acl vlicl croalod llo Doparlmonl of Transporlalion lo
dolormino llo causo or probabIo causo of lransporlalion accidonls
and roporling llo facls, condilions, and circumslancos roIaling lo
sucl accidonls for aII modos of lransporlalion. AIllougl croalod
by llo acl vlicl oslabIislod llo DOT, llo board in carrying oul ils
funclions is indopondonl of llo socrolary and ollor officos and offic-
ors of llo doparlmonl. Tlo board consisls of fivo mombors appoinlod
by llo Irosidonl and annuaIIy roporls diroclIy lo Congross.
Tlo croalion of llo DOT did nol aIlor any IogisIalion in llo IodoraI
Avialion Acl of 1958, vill llo oxcoplion of llo lransfor of llo safoly func-
lions from llo CiviI Aoronaulics Board lo llo NalionaI Transporlalion
Safoly Board. In llo acl of oslabIisling llo nov doparlmonl, lovovor,
lloro vas a slalulory roquiromonl lo oslabIisl an Offico of Noiso Abalo-
monl lo provido poIicy guidanco vill rospocl lo inloragoncy aclivilios
roIalod lo llo roduclion of lransporlalion noiso. Will llo inlroduclion of
jol aircrafl in 1958 llo compIainls againsl aircrafl noiso incroasod signifi-
canlIy. As a rosuIl, in 1968 llo IodoraI Avialion Acl vas amondod by
Congross (IubIic Iav 90-411) lo roquiro noiso abalomonl roguIalions. Ils
principaI purposo vas lo oslabIisl noiso IovoIs vlicl aircrafl manufac-
lurors cannol oxcood in llo dovoIopmonl of nov aircrafl.

In llo mid-1960s, as air lraffic vas oxpanding al a fairIy rapid paco,
air lraffic doIays golling inlo and oul of major airporls bogan lo
incroaso rapidIy. AIong vill llo doIays in llo air, congoslion vas aIso
laIing pIaco on llo ground in parIing aroas, on accoss roads, and in
lorminaI buiIdings. Il vas ovidonl llal lo roduco congoslion subslan-
liaI financiaI rosourcos vouId bo roquirod for invoslmonl in airvay
and airporl improvomonls. Ior airporls aIono il vas oslimalod llal
$13 biIIion in nov capilaI improvomonls vouId bo roquirod for pubIic
airporls in llo poriod 1970 lo 1980. Tlo amounl of monoy aullorizod
by llo IodoraI Airporl Acl of 1946 vas insufficionl lo assisl in financ-
ing sucl a vasl program. Tlo normaI and anlicipalod sourcos of rov-
onuo avaiIabIo lo pubIic airporls voro aIso nol sufficionl lo raiso llo
roquirod funds for capilaI oxpondiluros. Il vas arguod llal mucl of
llo congoslion in llo air al major airporls vas duo lo a IacI of funds
lo modornizo llo airvays syslom. Iunds for airporl dovoIopmonl
camo from llo budgol of llo IAA aullorizod by Congross oacl yoar

and nol from llo IodoraI Airporl Acl. Tlo doficioncios in airporl and
airvay dovoIopmonl voro documonlod in sovoraI roporls. Il vas llo
consonsus of induslry and govornmonl llal llo onIy vay lo provido
llo funds noodod for airporls and airvays vas llrougl incroasod or
nov laxos imposod upon llo usors of llo air lransporl syslom. Il vas
aIso arguod llal llo rovonuos from lloso laxos slouId bo spocificaIIy
oarmarIod for avialion and nol go lo llo gonoraI fund. Tlo concopl of
oslabIisling a lrusl fund simiIar lo llal of llo nalionaI liglvays pro-
gram vas agrood upon. IinaIIy aflor mucl dobalo in Congross, llo
Airporl and Airvay DovoIopmonl Acl of 1970 and llo Airporl and
Airvay Rovonuo Acl of 1970 voro onaclod (IubIic Iav 91-258).
As finaIIy passod, llo acl vas dividod inlo lvo soclions: TilIo I
dolaiIod llo airporl assislanco programs and oslabIislod a financing
program for airporl granls, airvays lardvaro acquisilion, and
rosoarcl and dovoIopmonl, TilIo II croalod llo Airporl and Airvay
Trusl Iund and oslabIislod llo pallorn of avialion oxciso laxos vlicl
vouId provido llo rosourcos upon vlicl llo TilIo I capilaI programs
vouId dopond llrougl 1980. Tlo oxciso laxos adoplod consislod of a
lax on domoslic passongor licIols, a load lax on inlornalionaI pas-
songor doparluros, a fIovago lax on aII fuoI usod by gonoraI avialion,
and lax on aII air cargo vaybiIIs. In addilion, an annuaI aircrafl rogis-
lralion lax vas Ioviod on aII aircrafl (commorciaI and gonoraI avia-
lion) pIus an annuaI voigll surlax for aII aircrafl voigling in oxcoss
of 2500 Ib. IinaIIy, rovonuos from oxisling laxos on aircrafl liros and
lubos voro lransforrod from llo Higlvay Trusl Iund lo llo Airporl
and Airvay Trusl Iund.
Tlo amounl of lloso oxciso laxos voro clangod in llo Omnibus
Budgol RoconciIialion Acl of 1990 (IubIic Iav 101-508) and curronlIy
consisls of a 10 porconl lax on domoslic passongor licIols, a $6 load
lax on inlornalionaI passongor doparluros, a 17.5 conls a gaIIon fIov-
ago lax on aII fuoI usod by gonoraI avialion, and a 6.25 porconl lax on
aII air cargo vaybiIIs.
Significanl clangos from llo IodoraI Airporl Acl voro as foIIovs:
I. Tlo provision of funds lo IocaI agoncios for airporl syslom
pIanning and maslor pIanning
2. Tlo omplasis on airporls sorvod by air carriors and gonoraI
avialion airporls lo roIiovo congoslod air carrior airporls
3. Tlo provision of funds for commulor sorvico airporls
4. Tlo roquiromonl llal llo IAA issuo airporl oporaling corlifi-
calos lo onsuro llal airporls voro adoqualoIy oquippod for
safo oporalions
5. Irovision of roquiromonls lo onsuro llal airporl projocls did
nol advorsoIy affocl llo onvironmonl and voro consislonl
vill Iong-rango dovoIopmonl pIans of llo aroa in vlicl llo
projocl vas proposod
-

6. Irovision for lorminaI faciIily dovoIopmonl in non-rovonuo

producing pubIic aroas
7. Tlo roquiromonl llal llo IAA dovoIop a NalionaI Airporl
Syslom IIan (NASI)
To bo oIigibIo for fodoraI aid, airporl ovnorslip vas roquirod lo
bo voslod in a pubIic agoncy and llo airporl musl bo incIudod in llo
NASI. Tlis pIan vas roviovod and rovisod as nocossary lo Ioop il
curronl. Il vas proparod by llo IAA and submillod lo Congross by
llo Socrolary of Transporlalion. Tlo pIan spocifiod, in lorms of gon-
oraI Iocalion and lypo of dovoIopmonl, llo projocls considorod nocos-
sary lo provido a syslom of pubIic airporls adoqualo lo anlicipalo and
mool llo noods of civiI aoronaulics. Tloso projocls incIudod aII lypos
of airporl dovoIopmonl oIigibIo for fodoraI aid undor llo acl and voro
nol Iimilod lo any cIassos or calogorios of pubIic airporls. Tlo pIan
vas basod on projoclod noods ovor 5- and 10-yoar poriods.
Bocauso of llo mounling pubIic concorn for llo onlancomonl of
llo onvironmonl, llo acl spocificaIIy slalod llal aullorizod projocls
provido for llo proloclion and onlancomonl of llo naluraI rosourcos
and llo quaIily of llo onvironmonl of llo nalion. Tlo Socrolary of
Transporlalion vas roquirod lo consuIl vill llo Socrolary of llo Inlo-
rior and llo Socrolary of HoaIll, Iducalion and WoIfaro rogarding llo
offocl of corlain projocls on naluraI rosourcos and vlollor aII possi-
bIo slops lavo boon laIon lo minimizo sucl advorso offocls. Tlo Acl
roquirod llal airporl sponsors provido llo opporlunily for pubIic
loarings for llo purposo of considoring llo sociaI, oconomic, and
onvironmonlaI offocl on any projocl invoIving llo Iocalion of an air-
porl, llo Iocalion of a runvay, and a runvay oxlonsion. In addilion,
llo NalionaI InvironmonlaI IoIicy Acl of 1969 (IubIic Iav 91-190),
supporlod by a IrosidonliaI Ixoculivo Ordor (11514, Marcl 5, 1970),
roquirod llo proparalion of dolaiIod onvironmonlaI impacl slalo-
monls for aII major airporl dovoIopmonl aclions significanlIy affocl-
ing llo quaIily of llo onvironmonl. Tlo onvironmonlaI impacl slalo-
monl vas roquirod lo incIudo llo probabIo impacl of llo proposod
projocl on boll llo luman and naluraI onvironmonl, incIuding impacl
on ocoIogicaI sysloms sucl as viIdIifo, fisl, and marino Iifo, and any
probabIo advorso onvironmonlaI offocls vlicl couId nol bo avoidod
if llo projocl vas impIomonlod. Tlo Acl aIso slipuIalod llal no airporl
projocl invoIving airporl Iocalion, a major runvay oxlonsion, or run-
vay Iocalion couId bo approvod for fodoraI funding unIoss llo gov-
ornor of llo slalo in vlicl llo projocl vas Iocalod corlifiod lo llo
Socrolary of Transporlalion llal lloro vas roasonabIo assuranco llal
llo projocl vouId compIy vill appIicabIo air and valor quaIily
slandards. IinaIIy llo projocl lad lo bo consislonl vill llo pIans of
ollor agoncios for dovoIopmonl of llo aroa, and llo airporl sponsor
lad lo assuro llo govornmonl llal adoqualo lousing vas avaiIabIo
for any dispIacod poopIo. Tlo Avialion Safoly and Noiso Abalomonl

Acl of 1979 (IubIic Iav 96-193) amondod llis IogisIalion lo pIaco
incroasod omplasis on roducing llo noiso impacls of airporls. Tlus
ono of llo principaI difforoncos bolvoon llo IodoraI Airporl Aid Iro-
gram and llo Airporl DovoIopmonl Aid Irogram vas llo omplasis
on onvironmonlaI proloclion in llo Iallor.
Tlo Airporl and Airvay DovoIopmonl Acl mado no monlion con-
corning spocific slandards for dolormining airporls lo bo incIudod in
llo NalionaI Airporl Syslom IIan. Il did slalo, lovovor, llal
Tlo IIan slaII sol forll, for al Ioasl a lon-yoar poriod, llo lypo and osli-
malod cosl of an airporl dovoIopmonl considorod by llo Socrolary lo bo
nocossary lo provido a syslom of pubIic airporls adoqualo lo anlicipalo
and mool llo noods of civiI aoronaulics, lo mool llo roquiromonls in
supporl of llo nalionaI dofonso as dolorminod by llo Socrolary of
Dofonso, and lo mool llo spociaI noods of llo IoslaI Sorvico. In formu-
Ialing and rovising llo pIan, llo Socrolary slaII laIo inlo considoralion,
among ollor llings, llo roIalionslip of oacl airporl lo llo rosl of llo
lransporlalion syslom in llo parlicuIar aroa, lo llo forocaslod loclno-
IogicaI dovoIopmonls in aoronaulics, and lo dovoIopmonls forocaslod in
llo ollor modos of lransporlalion.
Will llis and ollor poIicy guidoIinos, llo IAA dovoIopod onlry
criloria vlicl doscribod a broad and baIancod airporl syslom. Tlo
1980 NASI, for oxampIo, incIudod aboul 3600 airporl Iocalions, indi-
caling llal llo fodoraI inlorosl in dovoIoping a basic airporl syslom
oxlondod voII boyond llo major airporls vill scloduIod airIino sorv-
ico. In an offorl lo provido a safo and adoqualo airporl for as many
communilios as possibIo, NASI criloria voro dovoIopod lo incIudo
llo gonoraI avialion airporls vlicl sorvo smaIIor cilios and lovns.
Tlo NASI airporl onlry criloria ovoIvod from boll poIicy and
IogisIalivo considoralions and focusod on lvo broad calogorios of air-
porls, lloso vill scloduIod sorvico and lloso villoul significanl
scloduIod sorvico in llo gonoraI avialion and roIiovor calogory. Air-
porls vill scloduIod sorvico voro incIudod in NASI bocauso of lloir
uso by llo gonoraI pubIic, IogisIalivo provisions vlicl spocificaIIy
dosignalod airporls lo rocoivo dovoIopmonl funds, and lloir uso by
CAB corlifiod carriors. Commulor airporls voro idonlifiod in NASI
slarling in 1976, vlon IogisIalion vas onaclod vlicl dosignalod llom
as a lypo of air carrior airporl and providod llom vill spociaI dovoI-
opmonl funds. Aboul 70 porconl of llo airporls in llo NASI voro
gonoraI avialion Iocalions vlicl mol llo criloria of viabiIily bocauso
of llo numbor of basod aircrafl or aircrafl aclivily, and vlicl pro-
vidod roasonabIo accoss for aircrafl ovnors and usors lo lloir com-
munily. RoIiovor airporls lavo boon incIudod as a soparalo NASI
calogory sinco llo 1960s vlon Congross dosignalod spociaI funding
for llo purposo of roIioving congoslion in Iargo molropoIilan aroas by
providing addilionaI gonoraI avialion capacily.
-

Tlo AirIino DoroguIalion Acl (IubIic Iav 95-504) vas passod by
Congross in Oclobor 1978. Tlis IogisIalion oIiminalod llo slalulory
aullorily for llo oconomic roguIalion of llo passongor airIino indus-
lry in llo Unilod Slalos. Il providod llal llo CiviI Aoronaulics Board
vouId bo aboIislod in 1985. Tlo IogisIalion vas inlondod lo incroaso
compolilion in llo passongor airIino induslry by plasing oul fodoraI
aullorily lo oxorciso roguIalory conlroIs during llo poriod of limo
bolvoon 1978 and 1985. Tlo principaI provisions of llis IogisIalion:
1. Roquirod llo CAB lo pIaco maximum roIianco on compolilion
in ils roguIalion of inlorslalo airIino sorvico, vliIo conlinuing
lo onsuro llo safoly of air lransporlalion, lo mainlain sorvico
lo smaII communilios, and lo provonl praclicos vlicl voro
doomod anlicompolilivo in naluro.
2. Roquirod CAB approvaI of airIino acquisilions, consoIida-
lions, morgors, purclasos, and oporaling conlracls, llo bur-
don lo provo llal an aclion vas anlicompolilivo in naluro vas
pIacod upon llo parly claIIonging llal aclion.
3. Iormillod carriors lo clango ralos villin a rango of roason-
abIonoss from llo slandard induslry faro villoul prior CAB
approvaI, llo CAB vas aullorizod lo disaIIov a faro clango
if il considorod llo clango prodalory.
4. Irovidod inlorslalo carriors an oxomplion from slalo roguIa-
lion of ralos and roulos.
5. Roquirod llo CAB lo aullorizo nov roulos and sorvicos llal
voro consislonl vill llo pubIic convonionco and nocossily.
6. AIIovod carriors lo bo granlod oporaling riglls lo any roulo
on vlicl onIy ono ollor carrior vas providing sorvico and on
vlicl ollor airIinos voro aullorizod lo provido sorvico bul
voro nol acluaIIy providing a minimum IovoI of sorvico. If
moro llan ono airIino vas providing sorvico on llis roulo, llo
CAB vas roquirod lo dolormino if llo granling of addilionaI
roulo aullorily vas consislonl vill llo pubIic convonionco
and nocossily boforo aIIoving addilionaI carriors lo sorvico
llo roulo. An airIino nol providing llo spocifiod minimum
IovoI of sorvico on a roulo (dormanl aullorily) couId bogin
providing sucl sorvico and rolain ils aullorily. Ollorviso,
llo CAB vas roquirod lo rovoIo llo unusod aullorily.
7. Irovidod for an aulomalic marIol onlry program, vloroby
airIinos couId bogin sorvico on ono addilionaI roulo oacl yoar
during llo poriod 1979 lo 1981 villoul formaI CAB approvaI.
Iacl carrior vas aIso pormillod lo prolocl ono of ils oxisling
roulos oacl yoar by docIaring il as inoIigibIo for aulomalic
marIol onlry by anollor airIino.

8. Aullorizod llo CAB lo ordor an airIino lo conlinuo lo pro-
vido ossonliaI air lransporlalion sorvico and, for a 10-yoar
poriod, lo provido subsidios or sooI ollor viIIing carriors lo
onsuro llo conlinualion of ossonliaI sorvico.
9. Roquirod llo CAB lo dolormino villin 1 yoar of llo onacl-
monl of llo IogisIalion vlal il considorod lo bo ossonliaI air
lransporlalion sorvico for oacl poinl boing sorvicod al llo
limo of onaclmonl of llo IogisIalion.
10. Roquirod llo CAB and llo Doparlmonl of Transporlalion lo
dolormino moclanism by vlicl llo slalo and IocaI govorn-
monls slouId slaro llo cosl of subsidios from llo fodoraI gov-
ornmonl lo prosorvo smaII communily air sorvico and lo maIo
poIicy rocommondalions lo Congross on llis mallor.
11. Ixomplod from mosl CAB roguIalion commulor aircrafl
voigling Ioss llan 18,000 Ib and carrying fovor llan
56 passongors.
12. Mado commulor and inlraslalo air carriors oIigibIo for llo
fodoraI Ioan guaranloo program.
13. Irovidod llal llo domoslic roulo aullorily of llo board
vouId coaso in 1981, ils aullorily ovor domoslic faros, acqui-
silions, and morgors vouId coaso in 1983, and llo board
vouId bo aboIislod (sunsol) in 1985.
14. Irovidod llal aflor llo board vas aboIislod, llo IocaI sorvico
carrior subsidy program vas lo bo lransforrod lo llo Doparl-
monl of Transporlalion, llo foroign air lransporlalion aullor-
ily of llo board vas lo bo lransforrod lo llo Transporlalion
and }uslico Doparlmonls, in consuIlalion vill llo Slalo
Doparlmonl, and llo maiI subsidy program vas lo bo lrans-
forrod lo llo U.S. IoslaI Sorvico.

In llo Unilod Slalos prior lo 1978, air carriors appIiod lo llo CiviI
Aoronaulics Board (CAB) for pormission lo sorvo marIols. Tlo CAB
granlod air carriors sorvico lo marIols vill a dolorminod oporaling
and faro scloduIo. Upon doroguIalion, air carriors frooIy onlorod nov
marIols, incroasing llo numbor of marIols sorvod, incroasing compo-
lilion and Iovoring ovoraII airfaros. To maximizo lloir marIol slaro in
llo induslry, sovoraI air carriors conconlralod lloir roulo slrucluros on
ono or moro lub airporls. Tlo oarIy yoars of llis lub and spoIo
roulo syslom rosuIlod in llo groalosl grovll in commorciaI avialion in
ils lislory. Tlo boginning of llo lvonly-firsl conlury oxposod many of
llo voaInossos in llo airIino lub and spoIo modoI, incIuding llo
incroasod cosls of oporaling llrougl congoslod lub airporls, incroas-
ing fuoI and ollor oporaling oxponsos, combinod vill llo abiIily for
-

llo pubIic lo uso llo Inlornol lo avoid oxlraordinariIy ligl fuII faros
lloroby roducing llo ovoraII rovonuo slroam of llo airIinos. Tlo air
carriors dopondonl on lloir lradilionaI Iogacy businoss modoIs foII
inlo sorious financiaI dislross, and combinod vill llo slorl-lorm drop
in air lravoI domand foIIoving llo lorrorisl allacIs of Soplombor 11,
2001, many foII inlo banIruplcy lo omorgo undor moro officionl busi-
noss modoIs yoars Ialor.
Tloso moro officionl businoss modoIs voro basod on llo omor-
gonco of Iov-cosl carriors or ICCs, llal oporalo primariIy on a
marIol-basod origin lo doslinalion roulo nolvorI and prico faros roI-
alivo lo oporaling cosls, rallor llan soIoIy by passongor domand. Tlo
ICC airIino modoI las boon llo Iargosl grovll sogmonl of llo domos-
lic airIino induslry in llo Unilod Slalos.

In 1982, Congross onaclod llo Airporl and Airvay Improvomonl Acl
(TilIo V of llo Tax Iquily and IiscaI RosponsibiIily Acl of 1982, IubIic
Iav 97-248). Tlis acl conlinuod lo provido funding for airporl pIan-
ning and dovoIopmonl undor a singIo program caIIod llo Airporl
Improvomonl Irogram (AII). Tlo Acl aIso aullorizod funding for
noiso compalibiIily pIanning and impIomonling noiso compalibiIily
programs conlainod in llo Noiso Abalomonl Acl of 1979 (IubIic Iav
96-193). Il roquirod llal lo bo oIigibIo for a granl llo airporl musl bo
incIudod in llo NalionaI IIan of Inlogralod Airporl Sysloms (NIIAS).
Tlo NIIAS, llo succossor lo llo NalionaI Airporl Syslom IIan
(NASI), is proparod by llo IAA and pubIislod ovory 2 yoars and
idonlifios pubIic uso airporls considorod nocossary lo provido a safo,
officionl, and inlogralod syslom of airporls lo mool llo noods of civiI
avialion, nalionaI dofonso, and llo poslaI sorvico.
Tlo Airporl and Airvay Improvomonl Acl las boon amondod
sovoraI limos rosuIling in significanl clangos in llo provisions of llo
acl and in llo approprialions aullorizod undor llo Acl. Tloso
amondmonls aro incIudod in llo Conlinuing Approprialions Acl of
1982 (IubIic Iav 97-276), llo Surfaco Transporlalion Assislanco Acl
(IubIic Iav 97-424), llo Airporl and Airvay Safoly and Capacily
Ixpansion Acl of 1987 (IubIic Iav 100-223), llo Airvay Safoly and
Capacily Ixpansion Acl of 1990 (IubIic Iav 101-508), and llo Air-
porl and Airvay Safoly, Capacily, Noiso Improvomonl and Inlormo-
daI Transporlalion Acl of 1992 (102nd Congross H.R. 6168).
Tlis IogisIalion, as amondod, significanlIy incroasod llo IovoI of
fodoraI funding for airporls lo an aggrogalo lolaI of moro llan
$14 biIIion for llo poriod from 1982 llrougl 1992.

In rosponso lo issuos concorning llo provision of Iimilod AII funds lo
llo Iargosl airporls, lloroby Ioaving llo smaIIor airporls vill IillIo in

capilaI improvomonl funding supporl, in 1990, Congross passod llo
Avialion Safoly and Capacily Ixpansion Acl. Tlis acl oslabIislod llo
poIicy of aIIoving airporls lo imposo a passongor faciIily clargo (IIC)
lo suppIomonl lloir capilaI improvomonl programs, vliIo aIIoving
groalor amounls of AII funding lo bo aIIocalod lo smaIIor airporls
vill capilaI improvomonl noods. Undor llis Acl, an airporl appIiod lo
coIIocl a $1, $2, or $3 clargo, on any passongor onpIaning al llo air-
porl. Tlo foo vouId bo coIIoclod by llo air carriors, upon purclaso of
a licIol. Rovonuos gonoralod by IICs vouId llon bo sponl by llo
airporl llal gonoralod llo rovonuo on aIIovabIo cosls associalod vill
corlain capilaI improvomonl projocls approvod by llo IAA llal
onlanco safoly, socurily, or capacily, or incroaso air carrior compoli-
lion. In 2001, llo maximum aIIovabIo IIC vas raisod lo $4.50. As of
}uno 2007, approximaloIy $58.6 biIIion in IICs lavo boon coIIoclod al
367 airporls nalionvido. Moro llan 1500 projocls uliIizing IIC rovo-
nuos lavo boon approvod sinco llo 1990 Avialion Safoly and Capacily
Ixpansion Acl inlroducod llo IIC program.
-
-
In ApriI 2000, funding for airporl pIanning and dosign llrougl llo
AII and IIC programs vas incroasod vill llo WondoII H. Iord Avia-
lion Invoslmonl and Roform Acl for llo Tvonly-Iirsl Conlury, Inovn
as AIR-21 (IubIic Iav 106-181). Tlis funding incroaso vas dosignod
lo assisl Iargor airporls vlicl lavo bocomo liglIy congoslod, as voII
as smaIIor airporls slruggIing lo prosorvo commorciaI air sorvico.
Tlo AIR-21 Acl vas inlroducod al a limo vlon llo nalions air
carriors voro coming off rocord profils and grovll in air lransporla-
lion vas al ils liglosl in lislory. As parl of llo acl, AII funding vas
incroasod, on llo ordor of 300 porconl lo many airporls lo aIIov for
capilaI improvomonl projocls dosignod lo roIiovo llo incroasod con-
goslion and doIays oncounlorod al llo nalions Iargosl airporls al llo
ond of llo 1990s.
-
In rosponso lo llo lorrorisl allacIs invoIving llo lijacIing of four U.S.
airIinors usod in suicido allacI missions on Waslinglon, D.C. and
Nov YorI Cily, on Soplombor 11, 2001, Tlo Avialion and Transporla-
lion Socurily Acl (IubIic Iav 107-071) vas signod inlo Iav. Tlis Acl
croalod llo Transporlalion Socurily Adminislralion (TSA), vlicl
looI aullorily ovor avialion socurily and imposod a sorios of roquiro-
monls for scrooning air carrior passongors and Iuggago incIuding
mandalory oIoclronic inspoclion of aII clocIod Iuggago. Tlis las lad
profound offocls on airporl lorminaI pIanning and dosign. To fund
lloso poIicios, llo Acl aullorizod a passongor surclargo of $2.50 por
fIigll sogmonl and a foo imposod lo air carriors oquivaIonl lo oacl
-

airIinos cosls of providing passongor socurily scrooning in llo yoar

2000. Tloso funds aro coIIoclod by air carriors llrougl licIol pur-
clasos and aro usod lo fund llo oporalion of llo TSA and lo conlrib-
ulo lo airporl dovoIopmonl lo accommodalo onlancod socurily poIi-
cios and procoduros.
-
Tlo AIR-21 Acl aullorizod AII funding llrougl 2003 al vlicl limo
roaullorizalion IogisIalion vas lo occur. Tlis roaullorizalion of AII
funding vas accompIislod vill llo Vision 100 Conlury of Avialion
Acl (IubIic Iav 108-176) in Docombor 2003. Tlo purposo of llo Vision
100 Acl vas lo furllor incroaso, yol divorsify, fodoraI funding for air-
porl and airspaco improvomonls as llo commorciaI air carrior indus-
lry rocovors, and roslrucluros, from llo sovoro oconomic induslry
dovnlurns foIIoving llo Soplombor 11, 2001 allacIs, and ollor oco-
nomic and goopoIilicaI issuos. Tlo acl incroasod annuaI AII aullori-
zalions lo approximaloIy $3.4 biIIion in 2004, up lo $3.7 biIIion in
2007, llo Iasl yoar of llo acls lorm and broadonod llo uso of AII and
IIC funds lo incIudo airporl improvomonls llal lavo corlain onvi-
ronmonlaI bonofils, invoslmonls lo allracl air sorvico lo undoruliIizod
airporls, and lo fund dobl-sorvico for projocls proviousIy fundod
llrougl bond issuancos.


Tlo financiaI rocovory llo nalions airIinos combinod vill incroasos
in gonoraI avialion aclivily lavo bogun lo pul incroasod slrains on an
aging air lraffic conlroI syslom and dobalos in Congross onsuod
rogarding lov lo approprialoIy roaullorizo funding for civiI avialion
as llo lorms of Vision 100 voro duo lo oxpiro in 2007. Tlo Congross
dobalo focusod around a compIolo roslrucluring of llo curronl fund-
ing programs, incIuding major AII roform. Rallor llan a syslom of
funding airporl and air lraffic managomonl llrougl airIino passongor,
cargo, and fuoI laxos, an aircrafl-basod usor foo syslom vas inlro-
ducod lo Congross for dobalo. Tlis nov IogisIalion viII bo llo firsl lo
impIomonl foos diroclIy on commorciaI and gonoraI avialion opora-
lions using llo busiosl aroas of llo nalionaI airspaco syslom.
Tlo NoxlGon Iinancing Roform Acl focusod funding on croaling
llo Noxl Gonoralion Air Traffic Managomonl Syslom lo ropIaco noarIy
50-yoar-oId air lraffic conlroI loclnoIogy.
As of llo ond of 2007, llo NoxlGon Iinancing Roform Acl of 2007
lad yol lo bo signod inlo Iav. Tvo vorsions of llo acl aro boing
dobalod in Congross. Tlo vorsion supporlod by llo Houso of Ropro-
sonlalivos (H.R. 2881) supporls roaullorizing funding by incroasing
fuoI laxos on gonoraI avialion fuoI lo bolvoon 24.1 and 35.9 conls por
gaIIon, vliIo mainlaining llo romaining lax slrucluro impIomonlod

in Vision 100. Tlo vorsion of llo acl in llo Sonalo (S. 1300) proposos a
usor-basod approacl, incIuding a por-fIigll surclargo of $25 for air
lraffic conlroI cosls, for gonoraI avialion jol and lurbo-prop aircrafl
oporaling insido of conlroIIod airspaco.
Tlo NoxlGon Iinancing Roform Acl of 2007 vas uIlimaloIy dis-
cardod vill llo nov prosidonliaI adminislralion in 2009. In Marcl
2009, a nov roaullorizalion biII, llo IAA Roaullorizalion Acl of 2009,
vas inlroducod as H.R. 915. As of pubIicalion of llis loxl lloro is con-
linuod dobalo on lov llo fodoraI govornmonl of llo Unilod Slalos
viII fund llo modornizalion of llo nalionaI airspaco syslom, parlicu-
IarIy in llo faco of llo oconomic dovnlurn of boginning in Ialo 2007.
Tlo focus of dobalo las conlinuod lo bo around llo polonliaI impIo-
monlalion of usor-basod foos and ollor sucl laxos llal may prolibil
grovll. Tlo funding of llo nalions avialion syslom conlinuos lo bo a
crilicaI and liglIy dobalod lopic.
- -
Slalo inlorosl in avialion bogan as oarIy as 1921, vlon llo slalo of
Orogon oslabIislod an agoncy lo landIo mallors concorning avialion.
Sinco llal limo virluaIIy aII slalos lavo oslabIislod aoronaulicaI agon-
cios oillor as commissions, doparlmonls, buroaus, boards, or divi-
sions. Tloir rosponsibiIilios vary considorabIy and incIudo clannoIing
fodoraI aid funds, pIanning slalo airporl sysloms, providing slalo aid
lo IocaI airporl aullorilios, conslrucling and mainlaining naviga-
lionaI oquipmonl, invosligaling smaII aircrafl accidonls, onforcing
safoly roguIalions, and Iiconsing airporls.
Dospilo llo groving concorn of llo slalos in airporl dovoIopmonl
and avialion pIanning, lloir parlicipalion in llo pasl las lad IillIo
rosombIanco lo llo pallorn associalod vill liglvay dovoIopmonl.
Tlo slalos lavo aIvays pIayod a Ioading roIo in llo dovoIopmonl of
roads and slrools villin lloir boundarios, vloroas in airporl dovoI-
opmonl llis las nol boon lruo. Tlo roason for llis pallorn can bosl bo
oxpIainod by IooIing inlo llo bacIground of llo onlry of llo slalos
inlo avialion.
Tlo majorily of airporls for civiI avialion sorvod by air carriors
aro municipaIIy ovnod and oporalod. In a Iargo numbor of slalos
lloso airporls voro in oporalion prior lo llo formalion of a slalo aoro-
naulicaI agoncy. Irom ils incoplion air lransporlalion, bocauso il is
inloronlIy of an inlorslalo naluro, bocamo a mallor of fodoraI concorn.
Tlo fodoraI govornmonl providod mucl loclnicaI and financiaI
assislanco lo municipaIilios. During WorId War II a groal numbor of
municipaIilios voro llo rocipionls of fodoraI aid from llo CiviI Aoro-
naulics Adminislralion llrougl llo Dofonso Ianding Aroa Irogram.
Tlus, in llo oarIy slagos of airporl dovoIopmonl in llis counlry, a fairIy
cIoso roIalionslip vas oslabIislod bolvoon llo fodoraI govornmonl
-

and llo municipaIilios. Tlis roIalionslip vas furllorod vlon llo

IodoraI Airporl Acl of 1946 aullorizod llo CAA lo issuo granls
diroclIy lo municipaIilios, as Iong as sucl a procoduro vas nol
opposod lo slalo poIicy. In llo moanlimo, llo majorily of slalos voro
doing vory IillIo in llo vay of providing funds lo municipaIilios for
airporls. WliIo significanl incroasos in slalo aid for airporl dovoIop-
monl lavo occurrod in llo Iasl sovoraI yoars, llo amounl of fodoraI
aid las boon subslanliaIIy liglor.
Slalos sucl as AIasIa, Rlodo IsIand, and Havaii diroclIy ovn
and oporalo many of llo airporls villin lloir rospoclivo boundarios.
Ollor slalos supporl municipaIily-ovnod airporls llrougl slalo
bIocI granl funding programs. In lloso slalos vloro monolary aid is
mado avaiIabIo for airporl dovoIopmonl, llo pIans, spocificalions,
and dosign for airporl conslruclion aro gonoraIIy roviovod by llo
slalo aoronaulicaI agoncy.
Tloro is no doubl llal parlicipalion by llo slalos in airporl dovoI-
opmonl is assuming a moro significanl roIo vill llo omorgonco of
roconl IogisIalion in Congross lo clannoI funds diroclIy lo slalo aoro-
naulicaI agoncios llrougl bIocI granl programs. Tlo pubIic concorn
for onvironmonlaI conlroI las rosuIlod in IogisIalion boing passod al
llo slalo IovoI, in addilion lo fodoraI slalulos, aimod al llo conlroI of
aircrafl noiso and poIIulion. As gonoraI avialion and commulor acliv-
ilios conlinuo lo grov, llo slalos viII lavo lo slaro llo burdon vill
llo fodoraI govornmonl in providing faciIilios for lloso aclivilios,
onforcing safoly roguIalions, and ollor mallors.
- -
Tlo organizalions diroclIy invoIvod in Unilod Slalos and inlorna-
lionaI air carrior lransporlalion and gonoraI avialion aclivily lavo an
imporlanl infIuonco on airporl dovoIopmonl as voII as aircrafl opora-
lions. Tloso organizalions and lloir funclions can bo cIassifiod inlo
four groups, namoIy, fodoraI agoncios, slalo agoncios, inlornalionaI
govornmonl agoncios, and induslry or lrado organizalions.
- -
Tloro aro sovoraI agoncios al llo fodoraI IovoI vlicl diclalo poIicy of
dirocl and indirocl offocls on air lransporlalion. Tlo IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion (IAA), llo Transporlalion Socurily Adminislralion
(TSA), and llo InvironmonlaI Iroloclion Agoncy (IIA) aro lloso
agoncios vill llo mosl dirocl infIuonco on civiI avialion poIicy, and
airporl pIanning and dosign.
-
Tlo IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion is llo agoncy villin llo U.S.
Doparlmonl of Transporlalion rosponsibIo for llo safo and officionl

oporalion of llo nalions civiI avialion syslom. Tlo IAA is loadod by
llo cliof oxoculivo Inovn as llo adminislralor vlo is appoinlod by
llo Irosidonl. Tlo IAA porforms llo foIIoving funclions:
1. Incouragos llo oslabIislmonl of civiI airvays, Ianding aroas,
and ollor air faciIilios
2. Dosignalos fodoraI airvays and acquiros, oslabIislos, opor-
alos, and conducls rosoarcl and dovoIopmonl and mainlains
air navigalion faciIilios aIong sucl civiI airvays
3. MaIos provision for llo conlroI and proloclion of air lraffic
moving in air commorco
4. UndorlaIos or suporvisos loclnicaI dovoIopmonl vorI in llo
fioId of aoronaulics and llo dovoIopmonl of aoronaulicaI
faciIilios
5. Iroscribos and onforcos llo civiI air roguIalions for safoly
slandards, incIuding:
a. Iffoclualion of safoly slandards, ruIos, and roguIalions
b. Ixaminalion, inspoclion, or raling of airmon, aircrafl
onginos, air navigalion faciIilios, aircrafl, and air agoncios
c. Issuanco of various lypos of safoly corlificalos
6. Irovidos for aircrafl rogislralion
7. Roquiros nolico and issuos ordors vill rospocl lo lazards lo
air commorco
8. Issuos airporl oporaling corlificalos lo airporls sorving air
carriors
Tlo IAA dovoIops, dirocls, and foslors llo coordinalion of a
nalionaI syslom of airporls, llo NalionaI IIan of Inlogralod Airporl
Sysloms |22], an avialion syslom capacily onlancomonl pIan, llo
Avialion Syslom Capacily IIan |9], a pIan lo modornizo and signifi-
canlIy upgrado llo air lraffic conlroI syslom, llo NalionaI Airspaco
Syslom IIan |21], and ovorsoos funding for airporls llrougl llo Air-
porl Improvomonl Irogram and IIC Irogram. In llis connoclion il
porforms llo foIIoving funclions:
1. Irovidos consuIlalion and advisory assislanco on airporl
pIanning, dosign, conslruclion, managomonl, oporalion, and
mainlonanco lo govornmonlaI, profossionaI, induslriaI, and
ollor individuaIs and agoncios.
2. DovoIops and oslabIislos slandards, govornmonl pIanning
mollods and procoduros, airporl and soapIano baso dosign
and conslruclion, and airporl managomonl, oporalion, and
mainlonanco.
3. CoIIocls and mainlains an accuralo rocord of aII avaiIabIo air-
porl faciIilios in llo Unilod Slalos.
-

4. Dirocls, formuIalos, and Ioops curronl a nalionaI pIan (NIIAS)

for llo dovoIopmonl of an adoqualo syslom of airporls in
cooporalion vill fodoraI, slalo, and IocaI agoncios, and dolor-
minos and rocommonds llo oxlonl lo vlicl porlions or unils
of llal syslom slouId bo dovoIopod or improvod.
5. DovoIops and rocommonds principIos, for incorporalion in
slalo and IocaI IogisIalion, lo pormil or faciIilalo airporl dovoI-
opmonl, roguIalion, and proloclion of approaclos llrougl
zoning or proporly acquisilion.
6. Socuros compIianco vill slalulory and conlracluaI roquiro-
monls roIalivo lo airporl oporalion praclicos, condilions, and
arrangomonls.
7. DovoIops and rocommonds poIicios, roquiromonls, and proco-
duros govorning llo parlicipalion of slalos, municipaIilios, and
ollor pubIic agoncios in fodoraI-aid airporl projocls and socuros
adloronco lo sucl poIicios, roquiromonls, and procoduros.
As iIIuslralod in Iig. 1-6, llo IAA is organizod inlo a numbor of
officos villin ils loadquarlors in Waslinglon, D.C. Tlo officos mosl
diroclIy roIalod lo airporl pIanning and dovoIopmonl aro llo Offico of
Airporl IIanning and Irogramming, llo Offico of Airporl Safoly and
Slandards. In addilion lo Hoadquarlors Officos, llo IAA is dividod
inlo nino Airporls RogionaI Officos, as iIIuslralod in Iig. 1-7. Willin
lloso RogionaI Officos aro Airporls Dislricl Officos (ADOs). Ils villin
lloso ADOs vloro spocific consuIlalion bolvoon llo IAA and airporl
pIannors on airporl pIanning and dosign programs aro primariIy dis-
cussod, anaIyzod, and uIlimaloIy approvod.
Tlo IAA pubIislos mosl of llo roguIalions of concorn lo civiI
avialion and llosoaro found in TilIo 14Aoronaulics and Spaco
of llo Unilod Slalos Codo of IodoraI RoguIalions. Tlo IodoraI Avia-
lion RoguIalions (IARs) aro mado up of moro llan 100 claplors,
Inovn as parls, roguIaling various aspocls of llo civiI avialion sys-
lom, incIuding piIols, aircrafl, llo airspaco syslom, and airporls. Tlo
IARs of mosl concorn lo airporl pIanning and dosign llal viII bo fur-
llor discussod in llis loxl incIudo
IAR Iarl 1: Dofinilions and Abbrovialions
IAR Iarl 11: GonoraI RuIo MaIing Irocoduros
IAR Iarl 36: Noiso Slandards: Aircrafl Typo and Airvorllinoss
Corlicalion
IAR Iarl 71: Dosignalion of CIass A, CIass B, CIass C, CIass D, and
CIass I Airspaco Aroas, Airvays, Roulos, and Roporling Ioinls
IAR Iarl 73: SpociaI Uso Airspaco
IAR Iarl 77: Objocls Affocling NavigabIo Airspaco
IAR Iarl 91: GonoraI Oporaling and IIigll RuIos

IAR Iarl 121: Oporaling Roquiromonls: Domoslic, IIag, and
SuppIomonlaI Air Carrior Oporalions
IAR Iarl 139: Corlicalion of Airporls
IAR Iarl 150: Airporl Noiso CompalibiIily IIanning
IAR Iarl 151: IodoraI Aid lo Airporls
Federal Aviation Administration As of October 23, 2006
AAS
Office of Airport Safety
& Standards
AAM
Office of Aerospace
Medicine
ARM
Office of
Rulemaking
AJA
Acquisition
& Business
Services
AJF
Finance
Services
AJP
Operations
Planning
Services
AJC
Communications
Services
AJW
Technical
Operations
Services
AJR
System
Operations
Services
AJT
Terminal
Service
AJE
En Route &
Oceanic
Service
Office of
Quality, ntegration &
Executive Service AQS
AOV
Office of
Air Traffic Oversight
AR
Aircraft Certification
Service
AFS
Flight Standards
Service
AA
Office of Accident
nvestigation
APP
Office of Airport
Planning
& Programming
ARP
Associate Administrator
for Airports
AST
Associate Administrator
for Commercial Space
Transportation
AEP
Assistant
Adm. for
Aviation Policy,
Planning &
Environment
ARC
Assistant
Adm. for
Region and
Center
Operations
AOC
Office of
Communications
AG
Office of
Govt. &
ndustry
Affairs
ACR
Office of
the Civil
Rights
AVS
Associate Administrator
for Aviation Safety
ABA
Assistant
Adm. for
Financial
Services
AHA
AHD
AHL
ABU
AFC
AFM
AHP
AHR
Assistant
Adm. for
Human
Resource
Management
ADG
AEO
AHS
AN
ASH
Assistant Adm.
for Security &
Hazardous
Materials
AEU
APC
AWH
AP
Assistant
Adm. for
nternational
Aviation
AEE
APO
Alaskan
Region
Great Lakes
Region
Southern
Region
ASO
AG
AA
New England
Region
Southwest
Region
ASW
ANE
ACE
AMC
Mike Monroney
Aeronautical Center
Central
Region
Northwest
Mountain Region
Western-Pacific
Region
AWP
ANM
AFA
Eastern
Region
Safety Services
AJS
JPDO AJO
Chief Operating Officer,
Air Traffic Organization
(ATO)
AS
AOT
ARD
Chief of Staff
Center for Early
Dispute Resolution
Air Traffic Organization (ATO)
Vice Presidents
ADA
Deputy
Administrator
AOA
Administrator
AGC
Office of
Chief
Counsel
Assistant
Adm. for
nformation
Services
AO
-
-

IAR Iarl 152: Airporl Aid Irogram

IAR Iarl 156: Slalo BIocI Granl IiIol Irogram
IAR Iarl 157: Nolico of Conslruclion, AIloralion, Aclivalion, and
Doaclivalion of Airporls
IAR Iarl 158: Iassongor IaciIily Clargos
IAR Iarl 161: Nolico and ApprovaI of Airporl Noiso and Accoss
Roslriclions
A compIolo Iisl of IARs may bo found al llo IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion vobsilo lllp://vvv.faa.gov.
In addilion lo fodoraI roguIalions, llo IAA pubIislos a sorios of
Advisory CircuIars (ACs) lo provido guidanco inlo llo appIicalion of llo
roguIalions. Tlo 150 sorios of Advisory CircuIars aro focusod on guid-
ing airporl managors and pIannors. Tloro aro moro llan 100 curronl and
lisloricaI Advisory CircuIars villin llo 150 sorios. Tloso of mosl dirocl
appIicalion lo airporl pIanning and dosign incIudo
AC 150/5020-1: Noiso ConlroI and CompalibiIily IIanning for
Airporls
AC 150/5060-5: Airporl Capacily and DoIay
AC 150/5070-6B: Airporl Maslor IIans
AC 150/5070-7: Tlo Airporl Syslom IIanning Irocoss
AC 150/5300-13: Airporl Dosign
AC 150/5325-4B: Runvay Iongll Roquiromonls for Airporl Dosign
AC 150/5340-1}: Slandards for Airporl MarIings
-

AC 150/5360-12D: Airporl Signing and Graplics
AC 150/5360-13: IIanning and Dosign GuidoIinos for Airporl
TorminaI IaciIilios
AC 150/5360-14: Accoss lo Airporls by IndividuaIs vill
DisabiIilios
Advisory CircuIars aro in a conslanl slalo of updaling. Tlo Ialosl
avaiIabIo ACs may bo found al llo IAA vobsilo al lllp://vvv.faa.gov.
- -
Tlo Transporlalion Socurily Adminislralion (TSA) is llo agoncy
villin llo U.S. Doparlmonl of HomoIand Socurily rosponsibIo for llo
socurily nalions lransporlalion sysloms, incIuding civiI avialion. Tlo
TSA vas formod in 2001 in rosponso lo llo lorrorisl allacIs of Soplombor
11, 2001. In 2003, llo TSA movod from llo Doparlmonl of Transporlalion
lo bocomo parl of llo novIy formod Doparlmonl of HomoIand Socurily.
Tlo TSA is Iod by an adminislralor appoinlod by llo Irosidonl.
Will llo formalion of llo TSA, aII fodoraI roguIalions porlaining
lo llo socurily of llo civiI avialion syslom voro movod from TilIo 14
of llo Codo of IodoraI RoguIalions lo TilIo 49Transporlalion, and
lavo bocomo commonIy Inovn as Transporlalion Socurily RoguIa-
lions (TSRs). TSRs of spocific imporlanco lo airporl pIannors aro lloso
villin Subsoclion C of llo TSRs incIuding
49 CIR Iarl 1500: AppIicabiIily, Torms, and Abbrovialions
49 CIR Iarl 1510: Iassongor CiviI Avialion Socurily Sorvico Ioos
49 CIR Iarl 1540: CiviI Avialion Socurily: GonoraI RuIos
49 CIR Iarl 1542: Airporl Socurily
49 CIR Iarl 1544: Aircrafl Oporalor Socurily: Air Carriors and
CommorciaI Oporalors
49 CIR Iarl 1546: Ioroign Air Carrior Socurily
49 CIR Iarl 1550: Aircrafl Socurily undor GonoraI Oporaling and
IIigll RuIos
Sinco 2001, llo focus of llo TSA las boon on airporl and commor-
ciaI avialion socurily. In llo fuluro, il is oxpoclod llal llo TSA viII
furllor oxpand ils roguIalory roIo in air cargo and gonoraI avialion
socurily, as voII as inlo ollor modos of lransporlalion, sucl as lransil,
raiI, slipping, and llo nalions liglvays. Moro informalion on llo
TSA may bo found al ils vobsilo al lllp://vvv.lsa.gov.

IslabIislod in 1970 as parl of llo NalionaI InvironmonlaI IoIicy Acl
(NIIA), llo InvironmonlaI Iroloclion Agoncy (IIA) is rosponsibIo for
prosorving llo onvironmonl vill llo goaI of prolocling luman loaIll.
-

Tlo IIA las diroclod many of ils offorls lo minimizing onviron-

monlaI damago rosuIling from civiI avialion aclivilios, vill focus on
aircrafl noiso IovoIs, omissions, air quaIily, and valor runoff.
Mosl of llo IIA roquiromonls porlaining lo civiI avialion aro
incorporalod inlo llo IAAs IodoraI Avialion RoguIalions and poIi-
cios rogarding mandalory onvironmonlaI impacl ovaIualion of any
proposod airporl pIanning projocls. Moro informalion on llo IIA
may bo found al ils vobsilo al lllp://vvv.opa.gov.
-
Tlo NalionaI Transporlalion Safoly Board consisls of fivo mombors
appoinlod by llo Irosidonl. Tlo NTSB porforms llo foIIoving
funclions:
1. Invosligalos corlain avialion, liglvay, marino, pipoIino, and
raiIroad accidonls, and roporls pubIicIy on llo facls, condi-
lions and circumslancos, and llo causo or probabIo causo of
sucl accidonls.
2. Rocommonds lo Congross and fodoraI, slalo, and IocaI agoncios
moasuros lo roduco llo incidonco of lransporlalion accidonls.
3. Inilialos and conducls lransporlalion safoly sludios and
invosligalions.
4. IslabIislos procoduros for roporling accidonls lo llo board.
5. Assossos accidonl invosligalion loclniquos and issuos rocom-
mondalions for improving accidonl invosligalion proco-
duros.
6. IvaIualos llo adoquacy of llo procoduros and safoguards
usod for llo lransporlalion of lazardous maloriaIs.
7. Roviovs, on appoaI, llo susponsion, amondmonl, modifica-
lion, rovocalion, or doniaI of corlain oporaling corlificalos,
documonls, or Iiconsos issuod by llo IodoraI Avialion Admin-
islralion or llo U.S. Coasl Guard.
Informalion aboul llo aclivilios of llo NTSB, incIuding aII rocords
of civiI avialion accidonls and incidonls, many of vlicl impacl air-
porl pIanning and dosign, may bo found on llo NTSB vobsilo al
lllp://vvv.nlsb.org.
-
As monlionod oarIior, llo slalos aro invoIvod in varying dogroos in
llo many aspocls of avialion incIuding airporl financiaI assislanco,
fIigll safoly, onforcomonl, avialion oducalion, airporl Iiconsing, acci-
donl invosligalion, zoning, and onvironmonlaI conlroI. Bocauso of llo
inlorslalo naluro of air lransporlalion, llo fodoraI govornmonl las

proomplod llo IogisIalivo and adminislralivo conlroIs sinco llo oarIy
days of avialion. Hovovor, for lloso avialion aclivilios vlicl occur
vloIIy villin llo bordors of a slalo, lloro lavo boon formod roguIa-
lory agoncios al llo slalo IovoI lo ovorsoo llal lloso aclivilios aro opor-
alod in llo bosl inlorosls of llo slalo.
Many slalo avialion agoncios aro parlicipanl mombors in llo
NalionaI Associalion of Slalo Avialion OfficiaIs (NASAO). Tlo mis-
sion of NASAO is lo provido roprosonlalion in Waslinglon, D.C. on
bolaIf of slalo avialion doparlmonls. IinIs lo individuaI slalo avia-
lion doparlmonls as voII as a losl of informalionaI maloriaIs may bo
found on llo NASAO vobsilo al lllp://vvv.nasao.org.

Iorlaps llo mosl imporlanl inlornalionaI agoncy concornod vill air-
porl dovoIopmonl is llo InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion
(ICAO), vlicl is nov a spociaIizod agoncy of llo Unilod Nalions
vill loadquarlors in MonlroaI, Canada. Ono lundrod and oiglly-
oigll nalions voro mombors of ICAO in 2009.
Tlo ICAO concopl vas formod during a conforonco of 52 nalions
loId in Clicago in 1944. Tlis conforonco vas by llo invilalion of llo
Unilod Slalos lo considor mallors of muluaI inlorosl in llo fioId of air
lransporlalion. Tlo objoclivos of ICAO as slalod in ils clarlor aro lo
dovoIop llo principIos and loclniquos of inlornalionaI air lransporla-
lion so as lo
1. Insuro llo safo and ordorIy grovll of inlornalionaI civiI avia-
lion llrougloul llo vorId
2. Incourago llo arls of aircrafl dosign and oporalion for poaco-
fuI purposos
3. Incourago llo dovoIopmonl of airvays, airporls, and air nav-
igalion faciIilios for inlornalionaI avialion
4. Mool llo noods of llo poopIos of llo vorId for safo, roguIar,
officionl, and oconomicaI air lransporl
5. Irovonl oconomic vaslo by unroasonabIo compolilion
6. Insuro llal llo riglls of conlracling slalos aro fuIIy rospoclod
and llal ovory conlracling slalo las a fair opporlunily lo
oporalo inlornalionaI airIinos
7. Avoid discriminalion bolvoon conlracling slalos
8. Iromolo safoly of fIigll in inlornalionaI air navigalion
9. Iromolo gonoraIIy llo dovoIopmonl of aII aspocls of inlorna-
lionaI civiI aoronaulics
Tlo ICAO las lvo govorning bodios, llo AssombIy and llo
CounciI. Tlo CounciI is a pormanonl body rosponsibIo lo llo AssombIy
-

and is composod of roprosonlalivos from 30 counlrios. Tlo CounciI is

llo vorIing group for llo organizalion. Il carrios oul llo diroclivos
of llo AssombIy and disclargos llo dulios and obIigalions spocifiod
in llo ICAO clarlor.
To llo airporl pIannor and dosignor porlaps llo mosl imporlanl
documonl issuod by ICAO is Aorodromos, Annox 14 lo llo Convon-
lion on InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion |1]. Annox 14 conlains llo inlor-
nalionaI dosign slandards and rocommondod praclicos vlicl aro
appIicabIo lo noarIy aII airporls sorving inlornalionaI air commorco.
In addilion lo Annox 14, ICAO pubIislos a groal doaI of loclnicaI and
slalislicaI informalion roIalivo lo inlornalionaI air lransporl |19] and
is avaiIabIo on ils vobsilo al lllp://vvv.icao.org.
- -
Tloro aro many groups invoIvod in llo loclnicaI and promolionaI
aspocls of avialion. Tlo foIIoving is a parliaI Iisl of lloso groups
vlicl aro primariIy concornod vill llo airporl aspocls of avialion,
mosl of lloso profossionaI organizalions sorvo as Iobbying groups
promoling llo porspoclivos of llo induslry groups lloy roprosonl.
1. - -- -- . Tlo nalionaI
lrado associalion of companios in llo Unilod Slalos ongagod
in rosoarcl, dovoIopmonl, and manufacluro of aorospaco
sysloms.
2. - - -- . An associalion
of ovnors and piIols of gonoraI avialion aircrafl. Il is load-
quarlorod in IrodoricI, MD, a suburb of Waslinglon, D.C.
3. - -- . An associalion
of airIino piIols. Il is loadquarlorod in Horndon, VA, a suburb
of Waslinglon, D.C.
4. - . An associalion of ovor 400
Iargo airporls and airporl aullorilios llrougloul llo vorId. Il
is basod in Gonova, SvilzorIand. Tlo Norll Amorican rogion
of llis organizalion (ACI-NA) is loadquarlorod in Wasling-
lon, D.C. Ollor rogions incIudo Iuropo, Africa, Asia/Iacific,
and Ialin Amorica/Caribboan.
5. - -- . An associalion of
scloduIod domoslic and inlornalionaI airIinos in llo Unilod
Slalos. Tlo loadquarlors aro in Waslinglon, D.C.
6. -- - . An associ-
alion of llo managors of pubIic and privalo airporls. Il is
Iocalod in AIoxandria, VA, a suburb of Waslinglon, D.C.
7. - -- . An asso-
cialion promoling llo inlorosls of gonoraI avialion. Il is Iocalod
in Waslinglon, D.C.

8. -- . An associalion
vlicl roprosonls llo inlorosls of manufaclurors and usors of
loIicoplors and promolos llo uso of loIicoplors. Il is Iocalod
in AIoxandria, VA, a suburb of Waslinglon, D.C.
9. - -- . An associalion
of scloduIod carriors in inlornalionaI air lransporlalion. Tlis
organizalion is loadquarlorod in MonlroaI, Canada.
10. -- . An associalion of smaII
rogionaI and commulor aircrafl oporalors promoling llo
noods of llis sogmonl of llo air lransporlalion induslry. Il
vas formorIy caIIod llo Commulor AirIino Associalion of
Amorica (CAAA). Il is Iocalod in Waslinglon, D.C.
-
1. - , voI. 1,
- -, 5ll od., InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion
Organizalion, MonlroaI, Canada, Novombor 2009.
2. - - -, Aorospaco Induslrios Associalion of Amorica, Inc.,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1980.
3. - -, Iconomics and Iinanco Doparlmonl,
Air Transporlalion Associalion of Amorica, Waslinglon, D.C., Soplombor
1979.
4. , M. A. Bronnor, }. O. Iool, and I. Scloll, Ino Ioundalion
for Transporlalion, Inc, Woslporl, Conn., 1985.
5. - - -, Iarl 135,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1978.
6. - - -, Air Transporlalion Associalion of Amorica,
Waslinglon, D.C., annuaI.
7. -, 10ll od., Roborl M. Kano, KondaII/Hunl IubIisling
Company, Dubuquo, Iova, 1990.
8. --, RogionaI AirIino Associalion,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1991.
9. - , Roporl No. DOT/IAA/ASC-91-1, U.S.
Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon,
D.C., 1991.
10. - - -
- , Iarl 121, IodoraI Avialion RoguIalions,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1980.
11. , 1981 yoarbooI odilion, Commulor AirIino Associalion of
Amorica, Waslinglon, D.C., ApriI 1981.
12. --, 12 monlls ondod }uno 30, 1980, CiviI
Aoronaulics Board, Waslinglon, D.C.
13. , Booing CommorciaI AirpIano Group, SoallIo, Wasl.,
Marcl 1992.
14. - -, D. R. Gralam and D. I. KapIan,
Offico of Iconomic AnaIysis, CiviI Aoronaulics Board, Waslinglon, D.C., }uno,
1981.
15. -- - - , IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Waslinglon, D.C., Iobruary 1992.
16. - , IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1990.
17. -
-, U.S. Sonalo, Waslinglon, D.C., Augusl 1980.
-

18. , InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion, MonlroaI, Quoboc,

Canada, monllIy.
19. - - -, CalaIoguo, InlornalionaI CiviI
Avialion Organizalion, MonlroaI, Quoboc, Canada, 1992.
20. - , , IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, Waslinglon, D.C.
21. - - , IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon,
D.C., 1989.
22. -- , IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, U.S. Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1991
23. - --, annuaI roporl, Rosoarcl and SpociaI Irograms
Adminislralion, Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, Waslinglon, D.C., }uIy 1990.
24. - , U.S. Doparlmonl of
Transporlalion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1990.
25. - - , a slaff sludy,
fourloonll in a sorios, CiviI Aoronaulics Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1981.
26. - - - -, U.S.
Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, Waslinglon, D.C., Iobruary 1990.
27. --, fiscaI yoar 1980, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C.
28. --, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C.,
annuaI.
29. - - , ComplroIIor GonoraI
of llo Unilod Slalos, GonoraI Accounling Offico, Waslinglon, D.C., Soplombor
1980.
30. - , Tlo IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1973.
31. - , IranI A. Smill, Ino Ioundalion for Transporlalion,
Inc., WaIdorf, Md., annuaI.
32. - , NalionaI TravoI Survoy TabuIalions, US TravoI Dala
Conlor, Waslinglon, D.C., 1990.
33. - - - , SpociaI Roporl 230,
Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board, NalionaI Rosoarcl CounciI, Waslinglon, D.C.,
1991.
34. , Airporls Associalion CounciI InlornalionaI,
Inc., Waslinglon, D.C., annuaI.
35. -- 20092013, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon D.C., 2008.
36. , AIox T. WoIIs and Soll B. Young, McGrav HiII,
2003.
-
Buroau of Transporlalion Slalislics: lllp://vvv.bls.gov
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion: lllp://vvv.faa.gov
InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion: lllp://vvv.icao.org


--

-
O
no of llo groal claIIongos for airporl pIanning and dosign is
croaling faciIilios llal accommodalo a vory vido varioly of
aircrafl. Aircrafl vary vidoIy in lorms of lloir plysicaI dimon-
sions and porformanco claraclorislics, vlollor lloy bo oporalod for
commorciaI air sorvico, cargo, or gonoraI avialion aclivilios.
Tloro aro a Iargo numbor of spocificalions for vlicl aircrafl may
bo calogorizod. Doponding on llo porlion of llo aroa of llo airporl,
corlain aircrafl spocificalions bocomo moro crilicaI. Ior oxampIo, air-
crafl voigll is imporlanl for dolormining llo llicInoss and slronglls
of llo runvay, laxivay, and apron pavomonls, and affocls llo laIooff
and Ianding runvay Iongll roquiromonls al an airporl, vlicl in lurn
lo a Iargo oxlonl infIuoncos pIanning of llo onliro airporl proporly.
Tlo vingspan and llo fusoIago Iongll infIuonco llo sizo of parIing
aprons, vlicl in lurn infIuoncos llo configuralion of llo lorminaI
buiIdings. Wingspan and lurning radii diclalo vidll of runvays and
laxivays, llo dislancos bolvoon lloso lraffic vays, and affocls llo
roquirod lurning radius on pavomonl curvos. An aircrafls passongor
capacily las an imporlanl boaring on faciIilios villin and adjaconl lo
llo lorminaI buiIding.
Sinco llo iniliaI succoss of llo Wrigll IIyor in 1903, fixod-ving
aircrafl lavo gono llrougl moro llan 100 yoars of dosign onlanco-
monls, rosuIling in vaslIy improvod porformanco, incIuding llo abiI-
ily lo fIy al groalor spoods and liglor aIliludos ovor Iargor rangos
vill moro rovonuo gonoraling carrying capacily (Inovn as )
al groalor oporaling officioncios. Tloso improvomonls aro primariIy
llo rosuIls of llo impIomonlalion of nov loclnoIogios inlo aircrafl

spocificalions, ranging from maloriaIs from vlicl llo airframos aro
buiIl, lo llo onginos llal povor llo aircrafl. Of groal claIIongo lo air-
porl pIanning and dosign, lisloricaIIy las boon lo adapl llo airporl
onvironmonl lo accommodalo clangos in aircrafl plysicaI and por-
formanco spocificalions. Ior oxampIo:
Tlo inlroduclion of cabin-cIass aircrafl, sucl as llo Doug-
Ias DC-3, in llo mid-1930s rosuIlod in llo nood for airporls lo
conslrucl Iongor, pavod runvays from llo slorlor grass slrips
llal proviousIy oxislod.
Tlo inlroduclion of aircrafl oquippod vill lurbofan and lur-
bojol onginos in llo Ialo 1950s addod roquiromonls for Iongor
and slrongor runvays, faciIilios lo miligalo jol-bIasl, and poI-
icios lo roduco llo impacl of aircrafl noiso al and around llo
airporl.
Tlo inlroduclion of jumbo-jol or loavy aircrafl, sucl as
llo Booing-747, in llo Ialo 1960s addod nov roquiromonls for
runvay spocificalions, as voII as lorminaI aroa dosign roquiro-
monls for accommodaling Iargo voIumos of passongors and
cargo.
Tlo proIiforalion of rogionaI jol aircrafl, inlroducod bocauso
of moro officionl ongino loclnoIogios, rosuIlod in llo nood for
airporls lo modify many lorminaI aroas llal lad accommo-
dalod Iargor jols or smaIIor lurbo-prop aircrafl.
Mosl roconlIy, llo inlroduclion of llo vorIds Iargosl passongor
aircrafl, llo Airbus A-380, as voII as llo smaIIosl of corlifiod gonoraI
avialion jol aircrafl, conlinuos lo affocl dosign spocificalions of airporl
airfioId and lorminaI aroas.
TabIo 2-1 providos a summary of somo of llo imporlanl aircrafl
claraclorislics of somo of llo aircrafl llal maIo up llo vorIds com-
morciaI airIino fIool. Many rogionaI airIinos uso smaIIor aircrafl vill
Ioss llan 50 soals, vliIo llo vorIds major airIinos uso vory Iargo air-
crafl, vill polonliaI configuralions for moro llan 800 soals.
TabIo 2-2 providos a summary of imporlanl aircrafl claracloris-
lics for common gonoraI avialion aircrafl. WliIo il slouId bo nolod
llal aircrafl dosignod primariIy for air carrior purposos aro aIso oflon
usod for gonoraI avialion aclivily (o.g., llo Booing 737 is oflon config-
urod for porsonaI or businoss uso and marIolod as llo Booing Busi-
noss }ol), mosl gonoraI avialion aircrafl aro smaIIor llan lypicaI com-
morciaI airIino aircrafl. Somo of llo aircrafl Iislod in TabIo 2-2 aro parl
of llo fIool of vory Iigll jols llal lavo omorgod inlo llo marIol
sinco 2007.
Many of llo vaIuos providod in TabIos 2-1 and 2-2 aro onIy approx-
imalo and lond lo vary by spocific modoI, as voII as by oacl individ-
uaI oporalion. Ior moro prociso vaIuos approprialo roforoncos, sucl

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- - -

as an airpIanos claraclorislics and porformanco landbooI, slouId

bo consuIlod. In parlicuIar, llo runvay Iongll roquirod lo oporalo a
parlicuIar aircrafl, vlollor il bo a laIooff or a Ianding, can vary con-
sidorabIy basod on aircrafl ongino porformanco and lolaI oporaling
voigll, as voII as by llo IocaI onvironmonlaI and almosploric condi-
lions. CaIcuIalion of roquirod runvay Iongll is oflon porformod prior
lo oacl oporalion as parl of aircrafl fIigll pIanning, oflon using labIos,
clarls, or formuIas providod by llo aircrafl manufacluror.
WliIo lloro lavo corlainIy boon roconl broaIllrougls in llo inlro-
duclion of vory Iargo aircrafl sucl as llo Airbus A-380, llo ovoraII
lrond in aircrafl manufaclurod for civiI air lransporl las focusod
dosign on officioncy, rallor llan llo lisloricaI goaIs of incroasod sizo.
Moro officionl aircrafl may bo smaIIor llan oIdor gonoralion aircrafl,
bul lloir incroasod officioncios aIIov oporalors lo focus on incroasing
sorvico froquoncios. Tlis incroaso in oporaling officioncy las aIso
sliflod llo focus of incroasing aircrafl spoods, al Ioasl in llo roaIm of
producing suporsonic aircrafl (i.o., lloso llal lravoI al spoods groalor
llan llo spood of sound), lo moro officionl subsonic aircrafl. As sucl
produclion and oporalion of suporsonic aircrafl, sucl as llo Con-
cordo, vas rolirod in llo oarIy parl of llo lvonly-firsl conlury.
- -
Iiguro 2-1 iIIuslralos somo of llo lorms roIalod lo aircrafl dimonsions
llal aro imporlanl lo airporl pIanning and dosign.
Tlo of an aircrafl is dofinod as llo dislanco from llo fronl
lip of llo -, or main body of llo aircrafl, lo llo bacI ond of llo
laiI soclion, Inovn as llo . Tlo Iongll of an aircrafl is usod
lo dolormino llo Iongll of an aircrafls parIing aroa, langars. In addi-
lion for a commorciaI sorvico airporl, llo Iongll of llo Iargosl aircrafl
lo porform al Ioasl fivo doparluros por day dolorminos llo roquirod
amounl of aircrafl roscuo and firofiglling oquipmonl on llo airfioId.
Tlo - of an aircrafl is dofinod as llo dislanco from vinglip
lo vinglip of llo aircrafls main vings. Tlo vingspan of an aircrafl is
usod lo dolormino llo vidll of aircrafl parIing aroas and galo spac-
ing, as voII as dolormining llo vidll and soparalions of runvays
and laxivays on llo airfioId.
Tlo of an aircrafl is lypicaIIy dofinod as llo dis-
lanco from llo ground lo llo lop of llo aircrafls laiI soclion. OnIy in
raro casos is an aircrafls maximum loigll found oIsovloro on llo
aircrafl, for oxampIo, llo Airbus BoIugas maximum loigll is nolod
as llo dislanco from llo ground lo llo lop of llo forvard fusoIago
onlry door vlon il is fuIIy oxlondod upvard in llo opon posilion.
Tlo - of an aircrafl is dofinod as llo dislanco bolvoon llo
conlor of llo aircrafls and llo conlor of ils - ,
or , in llo caso of a laiI-vlooI aircrafl. An aircrafls
is dofinod as llo dislanco bolvoon llo oulor vlooIs of an aircrafls

main Ianding goar. Tlo vlooIbaso and vlooI lracI of an aircrafl
dolormino ils -, vlicl in lurn pIays a Iargo roIo
in llo dosign of laxivay lurnoffs, inlorsoclions, and ollor aroas on an
airfioId vlicl roquiro an aircrafl lo lurn.
Turning radii aro a funclion of llo noso goar slooring angIo. Tlo
Iargor llo angIo, llo smaIIor llo radii. Irom llo conlor of rolalion llo
dislancos lo llo various parls of llo aircrafl, sucl as llo vinglips,
llo noso, or llo laiI, rosuIl in a numbor of radii. Tlo Iargosl radius is
llo mosl crilicaI from llo slandpoinl of cIoaranco lo buiIdings or
adjaconl aircrafl. Tlo minimum lurning radius corrosponds lo llo
maximum noso goar slooring angIo spocifiod by llo aircrafl manufac-
luror. Tlo maximum angIos vary from 60p lo 80p, aIllougl for dosign
purposos a slooring angIo of approximaloIy 50p is oflon appIiod.
Tlo lurning radius of an aircrafl may bo oxprossod using llo foI-
Ioving formuIa:

180p lurn
lan (90 ) /2 (2-1)
vloro vlooIbaso of an aircrafl
vlooI lracI of llo aircrafl
maximum slooring angIo
--
Nose
gear
Main gear
Wheelbase
M
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Length
Wheel tread or track
Wingspan
Side View
Front View
- - -

Tlo conlor of rolalion can bo oasiIy dolorminod by draving a Iino

llrougl llo axis of llo noso goar al vlalovor slooring angIo is dosirod.
Tlo inlorsoclion of llis Iino vill a Iino dravn llrougl llo axos of llo
lvo main goars is llo conlor of rolalion. Somo of llo novor Iargo air-
crafl lavo llo capabiIily of svivoIing llo main goar vlon maIing
slarp lurns. Tlo offocl of llo svivoI is lo roduco llo lurning radius
(Iig. 2-2). Minimum lurning radii for somo lypicaI lransporl aircrafl
aro givon in TabIo 2-3.
-
Aircrafl curronlIy oporaling in llo vorIds civiI uso airporls lavo
boon dosignod vill various configuralions of lloir Ianding goar. Mosl
aircrafl aro dosignod vill ono of llroo basic Ianding goar configura-
lions, llo - configuralion, dofinod as a main goar of laving
a lolaI of lvo vlooIs, ono on oacl slrul, llo configuralion,
dofinod as a main goar of laving a lolaI of four vlooIs, lvo on oacl
slrul, and llo configuralion, dofinod as lvo sols of vlooIs
on oacl slrul. Tloso configuralions aro iIIuslralod in Iig. 2-3.
-
Path of
main gear
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--
- -
S Single wheel D Dual wheel 2D Dual tandem
Tlo Ianding configuralions of llo Iargosl of commorciaI sorvico
aircrafl lavo bocomo moro compIox llan llo simpIo configuralions
iIIuslralod in Iig. 2-3. Ior oxampIo, llo Booing 747, Booing 777, and
Airbus A-380 Ianding goar configuralions aro iIIuslralod in Iig. 2-4.
- - -

Tlo compIoxily of Ianding configuralions promplod llo IAA lo adopl

slandard naming convonlions for aircrafl Ianding goar configuralions
|60]. IxampIos of llis naming convonlion aro roprosonlod in quolos in
Iigs. 2-3 and 2-4.
Tlo Ianding goar configuralion pIays a crilicaI roIo in dislribuling
llo voigll of an aircrafl on llo ground il sils on, and llus in lurn las
a significanl impacl on llo dosign of airfioId pavomonls. SpocificaIIy,
llo moro vlooIs on a Ianding goar, llo loavior an aircrafl can bo and
sliII bo supporlod on a ramp, laxivay, or runvay of a givon pavomonl
slrongll.

WliIo llo concopl of aircrafl voigll may bo llougll lo bo a simpIo
ono, llo moasuromonl of llo voigll of a givon aircrafl is acluaIIy roI-
alivoIy compIox. An aircrafl viII in facl bo moasurod vill a corlain
numbor of voigll moasuromonls, doponding on ils IovoI of Ioading
vill fuoI, payIoad, and crov, and assignod maximum aIIovabIo
voigll vaIuos for laIooff, Ianding, and al rosl.
Tloso various moasuromonls of aircrafl voigll aro imporlanl lo
airporl pIanning and dosign, in parlicuIar llo faciIilios sucl as ramps,
laxivays, and runvays llal aro dosignod lo supporl llo aircrafl.
WliIo il is raro llal any lvo aircrafl, ovon lloso of llo samo modoI
and configuralion, lavo llo samo voigll moasuromonls (as lloro aro
aImosl aIvays varialions bolvoon aircrafl in oquipmonl, soaling con-
figuralions, gaIIoys, and ollor objocls), mosl manufacluros viII assign
lypicaI voiglls lo lloir aircrafl for pIanning and dosign purposos.
Tloso voiglls aro as foIIovs.
Tlo Iigllosl moasuro of an aircrafls voigll is Inovn as llo
(OIW), llo basic voigll of llo aircrafl incIuding
crov and aII llo nocossary goar roquirod for fIigll bul nol incIuding
- -
2D/2D2
Double dual tandem
Boeing 747
3D
Triple tandem
Boeing 777
2D/3D2
Dual tandem plus
triple tandem
Airbus A-380

payIoad and fuoI. Tlo OIW of an aircrafl is considorod for llo dosign
of aircrafl llal may occupy mainlonanco langars, aircrafl slorago faciI-
ilios, or any ollor aroas llal aro nol inlondod lo supporl llo voigll of
an aircrafl vlon Ioadod vill fuoI or payIoad.
Tlo (ZIW) is llo OIW of an aircrafl pIus llo
voigll of ils payIoad. Tlo ZIW is llo voigll of llo aircrafl al vlicl
aII addilionaI voigll musl bo fuoI, so llal vlon llo aircrafl is in fIigll,
llo bonding momonls al llo junclion of llo ving and fusoIago do
nol bocomo oxcossivo. Tlo is a lorm vlicl rofors lo llo lolaI
rovonuo-producing Ioad. Tlis incIudos llo voigll of passongors and
lloir baggago, maiI, oxpross, and cargo. Tlo -
is llo maximum Ioad vlicl llo aircrafl is corlifiod lo carry,
vlollor llis Ioad bo passongors, cargo, or a combinalion of boll.
TloorolicaIIy, llo maximum slrucluraI payIoad is a difforonco bolvoon
llo zoro fuoI voigll and llo oporaling omply voigll. Tlo maximum
payIoad acluaIIy carriod is usuaIIy Ioss llan llo maximum slrucluraI
payIoad bocauso of spaco Iimilalions. Tlis is ospociaIIy lruo for pas-
songor aircrafl, in vlicl soals and ollor iloms consumo a considora-
bIo amounl of spaco.
Tlo is llo maximum voigll aullorizod for
ground manouvor incIuding laxi and run-up fuoI. As llo aircrafl laxis
bolvoon llo apron and llo ond of llo runvay, il burns fuoI and con-
soquonlIy Iosos voigll.
-- is llo maximum voigll aullor-
izod al braIo roIoaso for laIooff. Il oxcIudos laxi and run-up fuoI and
incIudos llo oporaling omply voigll, lrip and rosorvo fuoI, and pay-
Ioad. Tlo difforonco bolvoon llo maximum slrucluraI laIooff voigll
and llo maximum ramp voigll is vory nominaI, onIy a fov llousand
pounds for llo loaviosl aircrafl. Tlo maximum gross Ianding voigll
acluaIIy varios vill corlain almosploric condilions (namoIy, air donsily,
vlicl is a funclion of fioId oIovalion and ambionl air lomporaluro).
Tlis is duo lo llo facl llal al limos of Iov air donsily (sucl as al ligl
oIovalions and/or ligl lomporaluros), an airpIano of a givon voigll
may simpIy nol lavo llo ongino povor lo gol laIooff, vliIo al llo
samo voigll il may bo abIo lo al a liglor air donsily, found al Iovor
oIovalions and/or Iovor air lomporaluros.
Tlo - (MSTOW), is lypicaIIy
dosignod as llo maximum gross laIooff voigll for an aircrafl oporal-
ing al soa IovoI oIovalion al a lomporaluro of 59pI (15pC). Il is aIso llo
maximum voigll llal llo aircrafls Ianding goar can supporl. Tlo
MSTOW is llo slandard dosign voigll moasuromonl usod in airporl
pIanning and dosign.
Tlo - (MIW) is llo slrucluraI
capabiIily of llo aircrafl in Ianding. Tlo main goar is slrucluraIIy
dosignod lo absorb llo forcos oncounlorod during Ianding, llo Iargor
llo forcos, llo loavior musl bo llo goar. NormaIIy llo main goars of
lransporl calogory aircrafl aro slrucluraIIy dosignod for a Ianding al a
- - -

voigll Ioss llan llo maximum slrucluraI laIooff voigll. Tlis is so

bocauso an aircrafl Iosos voigll on roulo by burning fuoI. Tlis Ioss in
voigll is considorabIo if llo journoy is Iong, boing in oxcoss of 80,000 Ib
for Iargo jol lransporls. Il is lloroforo nol oconomicaI lo dosign llo
main goar of an aircrafl lo supporl llo maximum slrucluraI laIooff
voigll during Ianding, sinco llis silualion viII raroIy occur. If il doos
occur, as in llo caso of aircrafl maIfunclion jusl aflor laIooff, llo piIol
musl jollison or burn off sufficionl fuoI prior lo rolurning lo llo air-
porl so as nol lo oxcood llo maximum Ianding voigll. Ior slorl rango
aircrafl, llo main goar is dosignod lo supporl, in a Ianding oporalion,
a voigll noarIy oquaI lo llo maximum slrucluraI laIooff voigll. Tlis
is so bocauso llo dislancos bolvoon slops aro slorl, and lloroforo a
Iargo amounl of fuoI is nol consumod bolvoon slops.
On Ianding, llo voigll of an aircrafl is llo sum of llo oporaling
voigll omply, llo payIoad, and llo fuoI rosorvo, assuming llal llo
aircrafl Iands al ils doslinalion and is nol divorlod lo an aIlornalo air-
porl. Tlis Ianding voigll cannol oxcood llo maximum slrucluraI
Ianding voigll of llo aircrafl. Tlo laIooff voigll is llo sum of llo
Ianding voigll and llo lrip fuoI. Tlis voigll cannol oxcood llo max-
imum slrucluraI laIooff voigll of llo aircrafl.
-
Iorlaps llo mosl significanl conlribulor lo incroasod aircrafl por-
formanco las lisloricaIIy como from improvomonls in aircrafl ongino
loclnoIogy, from oarIy lvonlioll-conlury pislon onginos lo lvonly-
firsl-conlury ligl-porformanco jol ongino loclnoIogy.
WliIo lloro aro many maIos and modoIs of aircrafl onginos pro-
ducod by a numbor of ongino manufaclurors, aircrafl ongino lypos
can gonoraIIy bo pIacod inlo llroo calogorios, pislon onginos, lurbo-
props, and lurbofan (or jol) onginos.
Tlo lorm - appIios lo aII propoIIor-drivon aircrafl pov-
orod by ligl-oclano gasoIino-fod rociprocaling onginos. Mosl smaII
gonoraI avialion aircrafl aro povorod by pislon onginos. Tlo lorm
rofors lo propoIIor-drivon aircrafl povorod by lurbino onginos.
Tlo lorm or las roforonco lo lloso aircrafl vlicl aro nol
dopondonl on propoIIors for llrusl, bul vlicl oblain llo llrusl
diroclIy from a lurbino ongino. }ol onginos aro lypicaIIy povorod
using a form of diosoI fuoI, Inovn as }ol-A. WliIo lisloricaIIy jol
onginos lavo boon usod lo povor Iargor gonoraI avialion and com-
morciaI sorvico aircrafl, jol onginos roconlIy lavo boon incroasingIy
producod for smaIIor rogionaI jol commorciaI sorvico aircrafl, and
ovon smaIIor vory Iigll jol gonoraI avialion aircrafl.
In llo oarIy parl of llo lvonly-firsl conlury, mosl of llo lransporl
calogory aircrafl in sorvico aro oquippod vill jol onginos, and as sucl,
mucl of llo pIanning and dosign of airporls sorving commorciaI sorv-
ico and businoss gonoraI avialion aro basod around jol ongino aircrafl.

}ol onginos can bo cIassifiod inlo lvo gonoraI calogorios, lurbojol
and lurbofan. A lurbojol ongino consisls of a comprossor, a combus-
lion clambor, and a lurbino al llo roar of llo ongino. Tlo oarIy jol
airIino aircrafl, parlicuIarIy llo Booing 707 and llo DC-8, voro pov-
orod by lurbojol onginos, bul lloso voro discardod in favor of lurbo-
fan onginos principaIIy bocauso llo Iallor aro far moro oconomicaI.
A lurbofan is ossonliaIIy a lurbojol ongino lo vlicl las boon
addod Iargo-diamolor bIados, usuaIIy Iocalod in fronl of llo compros-
sor. Tloso bIados aro normaIIy roforrod lo as llo fan. A singIo rov of
bIados is roforrod lo as singIo slago, lvo rovs of bIados as muIlislago.
In doaIing vill lurbofan onginos roforonco is mado lo llo bypass
ralio. Tlis is llo ralio of llo mass airfIov llrougl llo fan lo llo mass
airfIov llrougl llo coro of llo ongino or llo lurbojol porlion. In a
lurbofan onginos llo air fIov llrougl llo coro of llo ongino, llo innor
fIov, is lol and vory comprossod and is burnod in il. Tlo air fIov
llrougl llo fan, llo oulor fIov, is comprossod mucl Ioss and oxils
from llo ongino villoul burning inlo an annuIus around llo innor
coro. Ian onginos aro quiolor llan lurbojol onginos and llo dovoIop-
monl of quiol propuIsivo inlogralod povor pIanls in modorn lurbo-
fan las incIudod oxlonsivo acouslic Iining dovoIopmonl boll in llo
inIol and llo fan oxlausl |38].
Mosl fans aro inslaIIod in fronl of llo main ongino. A fan can bo
llougll of as a smaII diamolor propoIIor drivon by llo lurbino of llo
main ongino. NoarIy aII airIino lransporl aircrafl aro nov povorod by
lurbofan. Curronl loclnoIogicaI advancos in onginos aro conconlralod
lovard llo dovoIopmonl of onginos for slorl and modium
lauI aircrafl and uIlraligl bypass ralio lurbofan onginos for Iong
lauI aircrafl. Tloso ongino loclnoIogios roduco fuoI consumplion by
25 lo 35 porconl. Tloso onginos, vlicl aro variousIy lormod
(UDI) onginos and -- (UHB) lurbofan onginos,
lavo brougll on llo omorgonco of vory Iigll jol aircrafl.
}ol ongino porformanco is mado in moasurod boll in lorms of
povor and officioncy. Tlo povor of an aircrafl ongino is lypicaIIy
moasurod in pounds of forvard moving forco, or llrusl. TabIo 2-4
Iisls a sampIo of jol onginos, and lloir moasuromonls of llrusl inslaIIod
on lisloricaI and curronl lransporl calogory aircrafl.
Aircrafl ongino povor officioncy is moasurod in lorms of llo
llrusl-lo-voigll ralio, dofinod simpIy as llo pounds of llrusl pro-
vidod by llo ongino, dividod by llo voigll of llo ongino. IarIy jol
onginos voro producod vill llrusl-lo-voigll ralios of approximaloIy
3:1. In llo oarIy parl of llo lvonly-firsl conlury, nov Iigll bul povor-
fuI jol onginos vill llrusl lo voigll ralios noaring 5:1 lavo signifi-
canlIy improvod llo oporaling officioncy of air lransporl aircrafl and
lavo mado llo omorgonco of llo vory Iigll jol marIol foasibIo.
Ono imporlanl moasuro of ongino porformanco officioncy is llal
of spocific fuoI consumplion, oxprossod in lorms of pounds of fuoI por

-
-

- - -

lour por pound of llrusl. IuoI consumplion of jol aircrafl onginos

londs lo bo oxprossod in pounds rallor llan in gaIIons. Tlis is bocauso
llo voIumolric oxpansion and conlraclion of fuoI vill clangos in
lomporaluro can bo misIoading in llo amounl of fuoI vlicl is avaiI-
abIo. Iacl gaIIon of jol fuoI voigls aboul 6.7 Ib.
- for a parlicuIar lypo of aircrafl, dofinod as
llo amounl of fuoI roquirod (in pounds) lo croalo 1 Ib of llrusl, is a
funclion of ils voigll, aIliludo, and spood. Somo lypicaI vaIuos aro
givon in TabIo 2-5 moroIy lo iIIuslralo llo fuoI oconomy of a lurbofan
ongino parlicuIarIy al ligl bypass ralios (a jol onginos -- is
dofinod as llo ralio bolvoon llo mass fIov ralo of air dravn in by llo
fan bul bypassing llo ongino coro lo llo mass fIov ralo passing
llrougl llo ongino coro). Significanl gains in spocific fuoI consump-
lion lavo boon mado vill modorn aircrafl. TabIo 2-6 givos llo approx-
imalo avorago consumplion of fuoI for lypicaI aircrafl.
IuoI consumplion improvomonls in llo Iasl lvo docados lavo
boon significanl. Nov onginos, sucl as llo CIM56, CI6, RB211-524D,
and IW4000, as voII as dorivalivos of curronl onginos, lavo rosuIlod
in significanl fuoI oconomy gains.
An indicalion of llo difforoncos in fuoI consumplion allainod by
llo various lypos of passongor aircrafl in llo difforonl lrip modos is
givon in TabIo 2-5. Il slouId bo poinlod oul, lovovor, llal llo dala aro
onIy indicalors of fuoI consumplion and nol produclivily. Tloso air-
crafl vlicl burn llo liglor ralos of fuoI gonoraIIy aro capabIo of
groalor spoods and lavo groalor passongor capacily.
--

-

Spocific IuoI Consumplion is llo amounl of fuoI roquirod, in pounds, lo croalo
1 Ib of llrusl.
-- -

As obsorvod in Iig. 2-5, llo fuoI consumplion in gaIIons por
avaiIabIo soal miIo docroasos vill incroasing roulo sogmonl Iongll.
Tlis ralio las bocomo incroasingIy significanl lo aircrafl oporalions
as llo prico of fuoI las incroasod dramalicaIIy in llo oarIy parl of llo
lvonly-firsl conlury. Mosl significanlIy for airporl pIanning and

-

-










-
- - - -
-
0.01
500 1000 1500
Trip length, mi
2000 2500
0.02
F
u
e
l

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n
,

g
a
l
0.03
Maximum
Average
Minimum
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
- - -

dosign, aircrafl oporalors aro pIacing incroasing offorl inlo minimiz-

ing aircrafl oporaling limo al airporls, incIuding soarcling for
slorlor laxi limos bolvoon aircrafl parIing aroas and runvays, lurn-
around limos al galo aroas, and oporaling in aroas vloro lloro is
roducod congoslion in llo IocaI airspaco.
Roconl incroasos in fuoI cosls, combinod vill llo offorls of air car-
riors lo roduco ollor oporaling oxponsos, lavo rosuIlod in fuoI boing
llo groalosl oxponso lo mosl air carriors. Tlo lisloricaI lronds in and
llo projoclions for llo prico of oiI and llo prico of jol fuoI for U.S.
airIinos aro slovn in Iig. 2-6. Tlo cosl of jol fuoI por gaIIon lad
incroasod from Ioss llan $0.50 in 1987 lo noarIy $3.50 in 2008 boforo
docroasing lo approximaloIy $1.00 por gaIIon by llo ond of 2008
(sourco: BTS, ATA), furllor molivaling llo aircrafl induslry lo ongi-
noor moro officionl ongino propuIsion and aircrafl loclnoIogios and
for aircrafl oporalors and airporl pIannors lo croalo onvironmonls
llal aIIov for moro officionl oporalions.
- -
}usl as lloy vary in dimonsionaI claraclorislics, llo curronl fIool of
civiI uso aircrafl varios vidoIy in lloir rospoclivo abiIilios lo fIy al
corlain spoods and aIliludos ovor corlain dislancos, llo runvay
Ionglls roquirod lo safoIy porform Ianding and laIooff oporalions, as
voII as in llo amounl of noiso omissions and onorgy consumplion.
Many of lloso varialions aro nol onIy funclions of llo aircrafl llom-
soIvos bul in llo varying onvironmonls al vlicl lloy oporalo.
To fuIIy undorsland llo varying porformanco claraclorislics of
aircrafl, il is nocossary lo undorsland corlain oIomonls llo onviron-
monl in vlicl lloy oporalo.
-
0.00
1
9
8
6
1
9
8
7
1
9
8
8
1
9
8
9
1
9
9
0
1
9
9
1
1
9
9
2
1
9
9
3
1
9
9
4
1
9
9
5
1
9
9
6
1
9
9
7
1
9
9
8
1
9
9
9
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
2
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
4
2
0
0
5
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
7
0.50
Month
1.00
1.50
$

p
e
r

g
a
l
l
o
n
2.00
2.50
3.00

--
Sinco aircrafl aro dosignod lo oporalo in llo aIliludos of llo oarlls
almosploro from soa IovoI lo noarIy 50,000 fl abovo soa IovoI, il is
imporlanl lo undorsland llo claraclorislics of llo almosploro al
lloso aIliludos and lov aIliludos, as voII as ollor almosploric clar-
aclorislics, affocl aircrafl porformanco.
Tlo porformanco of aII aircrafl is affoclod significanlIy by llo almos-
ploric condilions in vlicl lloy oporalo. Tloso condilions aro conslanlIy
varying, basod simpIy on llo daiIy loaling and cooIing of llo oarll by
llo sun, and llo associalod vinds and procipilalion llal occur.
In gonoraI, llo porformanco of aircrafl doponds primariIy on llo
donsily of llo air llrougl vlicl il is oporaling. Tlo groalor llo don-
sily of llo air, llo moro air moIocuIos fIov ovor llo vings, croaling
moro Iifl, aIIoving llo aircrafl lo fIy. As air donsily docroasos, aircrafl
roquiro Iargor airspood lo mainlain Iifl. Ior airporl dosign, for oxam-
pIo, llis lransIalos lo Iongor runvay Iongll roquiromonls vlon air is
Ioss donso. Tlo donsily of llo air is primariIy a funclion of llo air
prossuro, moasurod in IngIisl unils as inclos of morcury (inHg) and
in molric unils as miIIibars (mb) or loclopascaIs.
Air donsily is affoclod by air prossuro and air lomporaluro. As air
prossuro docroasos, lloro aro Ioss air moIocuIos por unil voIumo and llus
air donsily docroasos. As air lomporaluro incroasos, llo voIocily and llus
spacing bolvoon air moIocuIos incroasos, llus roducing air donsily.
WliIo lloso claraclorislics of llo almosploro vary from day lo day
and from pIaco lo pIaco, for praclicaI convonionco for comparing llo
porformanco of aircrafl, as voII as for pIanning and dosign of airporls,
a - - las boon dofinod. A - - roprosonls
llo avorago condilions found in llo acluaI almosploro in a parlicuIar
goograplic rogion. SovoraI difforonl slandard almosploros aro in uso,
bul llo ono mosl commonIy usod is llo ono proposod by ICAO.
In llo slandard almosploro il is assumod llal from soa IovoI lo an
aIliludo of aboul 36,000 fl, Inovn as llo -, llo lomporaluro
docroasos IinoarIy. Abovo 36,000 lo aboul 65,000 fl, Inovn as llo -
-, llo lomporaluro romains conslanl, and abovo 65,000 fl, llo lom-
poraluro risos. Many convonlionaI jol aircrafl fIy as ligl as 41,000 fl. Tlo
suporsonic lransporls fIov al aIliludos on llo ordor of 60,000 fl or moro.
In llo lroposploro llo slandard almosploro is dofinod as foIIovs:
1. Tlo lomporaluro al soa IovoI is 59pI or 15pC. Tlis is Inovn as
llo - al soa IovoI.
2. Tlo prossuro al soa IovoI is 29.92126 inHg or 1015 mb. Tlis is
Inovn as llo - --o al soa IovoI.
3. Tlo lomporaluro gradionl from soa IovoI lo llo aIliludo al
vlicl llo lomporaluro bocomos 69.7pI is 3.566pI por llou-
sand fool. Tlal is, for ovory incroaso in aIliludo of 1000 fl, llo
lomporaluro docroasos by approximaloIy 3.5pI or 2pC.
- - -

Boll slandard prossuro and slandard lomporaluro docroaso vill

incroasing aIliludo abovo soa IovoI. Tlo foIIoving roIalion oslabIislos llo
slandard prossuro in llo lroposploro up lo a lomporaluro of 69.7pI.

0 0
5 2561

.
(2-2)
vloro
0
slandard prossuro al soa IovoI (29.92 inHg)
slandard prossuro al a spocifiod aIliludo

0
slandard lomporaluro al soa IovoI (59pI)
slandard lomporaluro al a spocifiod aIliludo
In llo abovo formuIa, llo lomporaluro is oxprossod in absoIulo
or RanIino unils. AbsoIulo zoro is oquaI lo 459.7pI, 0pI is oquaI lo
459.7pR, and 59pI is oquaI lo 518.7pR.
Using lloso criloria, llo slandard lomporaluro al an aIliludo of
5000 fl is 41.2pI, and llo slandard prossuro is 24.90 inHg. TabIo 2-7
conlains a parliaI Iisling of slandard lomporaluros and prossuros. Il
is common lo rofor lo - - or - . A slandard

9
--

--

condilion is ono in vlicl llo acluaI lomporaluro and prossuro cor-
rospond lo llo slandard lomporaluro and prossuro al a parlicuIar
aIliludo. Wlon roforonco is mado lo llo lomporaluro boing abovo
slandard il moans llal llo lomporaluro is liglor llan llo slandard
lomporaluro.
As aircrafl laIooff porformanco dala is lypicaIIy roIalod lo llo
IocaI baromolric prossuro and ambionl air lomporaluro, vlicl in lurn
affocls llo donsily of llo air, a dofinod vaIuo Inovn as -
is oflon usod lo oslimalo llo donsily of llo air al any givon limo. Don-
sily aIliludo is a funclion of llo offocl of baromolric prossuro on air
donsily, dofinod llrougl llo moasuromonl Inovn as prossuro aIli-
ludo, and llo ambionl lomporaluro.
Assuming llal al a slandard day al soa IovoI, vloro llo oIovalion
abovo soa IovoI is offoclivoIy 0, llo donsily aIliludo on a slandard day
vouId aIso bo 0. If llo baromolric prossuro vas Ioss llan llo slandard
prossuro of 29.92 inHg, llo prossuro aIliludo vouId bo groalor llan 0.
ConvorsoIy, if llo baromolric prossuro vas groalor llan slandard
prossuro, llo prossuro aIliludo vouId bo Ioss llan 0. Tlis roIalos lo llo
facl llal, vlon llo almosploric prossuro drops, llo air bocomos Ioss
donso, roquiring a Iongor run on llo ground lo oblain llo samo
amounl of Iifl as on a day vlon llo prossuro is ligl. Tlus a roduclion
in almosploric prossuro al an airporl las llo samo offocl on ils air
donsily as if llo airporl lad boon movod lo a liglor oIovalion. --
is dofinod as llo aIliludo corrosponding lo llo prossuro of llo
slandard almosploro. Tlus if llo almosploric prossuro is 29.92 inHg,
llo prossuro aIliludo is 0. If llo prossuro drops lo 28.86 inHg, llo pros-
suro aIliludo is 1000 fl. Tlis can bo oblainod from llo formuIa roIaling
prossuro and lomporaluro. If llis Iovor prossuro occurrod al a soa
IovoI airporl, llo goograplic aIliludo vouId bo 0, bul llo prossuro
aIliludo vouId bo 1000 fl. Ior airporl pIanning purposos, il is salisfac-
lory lo assumo llal llo goograplic and prossuro aIliludos aro oquaI
unIoss llo baromolric prossuros al a parlicuIar silo aro unusuaIIy Iov
a groal doaI of llo limo.
- is dofinod as prossuro aIliludo adjuslod for lom-
poraluro. SimiIar lo llo offocl of baromolric prossuro on aircrafl por-
formanco, if llo lomporaluro of llo air vas groalor llan slandard
lomporaluro, llo donsily of llo air vouId bo Iovor and llo donsily
aIliludo vouId incroaso, and if llo lomporaluro voro Iovor llan
slandard, llo donsily aIliludo vouId docroaso. Il is bocauso of llo
offocl of boll baromolric prossuro and ambionl air lomporaluro on
aircrafl porformanco llal airporls Iocalod al ligl oIovalions, vloro
air prossuro is gonoraIIy Iovor llan al soa IovoI, and in Iocalions
vloro llo ambionl air lomporaluro oflon risos voII abovo 59pI, aro
airporls conslruclod vill Iongor runvays, as Iongor runvays aro
roquirod for aircrafl lo roacl noodod airspoods lo gol sufficionl Iifl for
laIooff, llan al soa IovoI oIovalions, or vlon lomporaluros aro Iovor.
- - -

Sinco aircrafl dopond on llo voIocily of air fIoving ovor lloir vings
lo acliovo Iifl, and fIy llrougl slroams of moving air, simiIar lo slips
moving aIong valor vill curronls, llo diroclion and spood of vind,
boll noar llo surfaco of airporls and al aIliludos lavo groal offocl on
aircrafl porformanco.
As vinds primariIy affocl llo spood al vlicl aircrafl oporalo al
an airporl, il is imporlanl lo undorsland llo basic difforonco bolvoon
lvo vays of moasuring spood in an aircrafl, - and -.
Tlo groundspood is llo spood of llo aircrafl roIalivo lo llo ground.
Truo airspood is llo spood of an aircrafl roIalivo lo llo air fIoving
ovor llo airfoiI, or ving. Ior oxampIo, if an aircrafl is fIying al a
groundspood of 500 In in air vloro llo vind is bIoving in llo oppo-
silo diroclion, Inovn as a , al a spood of 100 In, llo lruo air-
spood is 600 In. IiIoviso, if llo vind is bIoving in llo samo diroc-
lion, a , and llo aircrafl mainlainod a groundspood of 500 In,
llo lruo airspood vouId bo 400 In.
On llo airporl surfaco, llo spood and diroclion of vinds diroclIy
affocl aircrafl runvay uliIizalion. Ior laIooff and Iandings, for oxam-
pIo, aircrafl porform bosl vlon oporaling vill llo vind bIoving
diroclIy lovard llom, llal is, vill a dirocl . Hoadvinds
aIIov an aircrafl lo acliovo Iifl al sIovor groundspoods, and llus
aIIov laIooffs and Iandings vill sIovor groundspoods and slorlor
runvay Ionglls. WliIo vind bIoving from bolind an aircrafl, llal is,
a is proforabIo for aircrafl fIying al aIliludo, as lloy acliovo
groalor groundspoods al a givon airspood, il is nol proforabIo for laIo-
off or Ianding, for procisoIy llo samo roason. As sucl, airporls lond lo
pIan and dosign runvays so llal aircrafl may oporalo mosl oflon vill
dirocl loadvinds, and orionl lloir primary runvays in llo diroclion
of llo provaiIing vinds.
Il is nol vory oflon llo caso llal aircrafl fIy inlo a dirocl
or . Moroovor, il is quilo common for an aircrafl lo laIooff or
Iand from an airporl al sucl a limo vlon llo runvays aro nol ori-
onlod diroclIy inlo llo oxisling vind. Wlon llis silualion occurs, air-
crafl porformanco laIos inlo considoralion any offocl of vlal aro
Inovn as ---.
WliIo oporaling in dirocl loadvind, laiIvind, or caIm condilions,
llo diroclion lovard vlicl an aircrafl is poinling, or , is llo
samo diroclion as llo aircrafl is acluaIIy lravoIing, or ovor llo
ground. Hovovor, vlon oporaling vill a crossvind, llo aircrafl
loading is difforonl llan ils lracI. A common anaIogy lo llis silualion
is llo svimmor svimming across a rivor vill a svifl curronl. Ivon
llougl sucl a svimmor may bo poinling diroclIy lo llo opposilo
sloro of llo rivor, lo or slo may ond up farllor dovnslroam llan
simpIy slraigll across llo rivor, and lo ond up diroclIy across llo rivor,
llo svimmor vouId lavo lo poinl, or load, al somo angIo upslroam.

Aircrafl navigaling a roulo al aIliludo oporalo in procisoIy llo
samo mannor. A loading is caIcuIalod, basod on llo spood and diroc-
lion of llo vind, and llo spood of llo aircrafl ilsoIf, llal viII givo llo
aircrafl llo dosirod lracI. Tlo angIo bolvoon llo dosirod lracI and llo
caIcuIalod loading is Inovn as llo . Tlo magniludo of llis
angIo can bo oblainod from llo foIIoving roIalion:
sin

(2-3)
vloro

is llo crossvind in miIos por lour or Inols and

is llo lruo
airspood in miIos por lour or Inols.
Tlo crossvind,

, is dofinod as llo compononl of llo vind,

,
llal is al a rigll angIo lo llo lracI. Tlo angIo is roforrod lo as llo
. Il viII bo nolod llal llo magniludo of llo angIo is diroclIy pro-
porlionaI lo llo spood of llo vind and invorsoIy proporlionaI lo llo
spood of llo aircrafl.
As an aircrafl approaclos a runvay, ils loading (diroclion in
vlicl llo noso is poinling) is of courso aIso dopondonl on llo slrongll
of llo vind lravoIing across llo pall of llo aircrafl (crossvind). Tlo
approacl fIigll pall lo llo runvay is an oxlonsion of llo conlorIino of
llo runvay. An aircrafl musl fIy aIong llis lracI lo safoIy roacl llo
runvay. Tlo roIalion bolvoon lracI, loading, and crossvind is iIIus-
lralod in Iig. 2-7. In ordor nol lo bo bIovn IaloraIIy off llo lracI by llo
vind, llo aircrafl musl fIy al an angIo from llo lracI. Tlis moans
llal vlon llo aircrafl is moving sIovIy, as il doos vlon il approaclos
a runvay, and lloro is a slrong crossvind, llo angIo viII bo Iargo.
Tlo lorm

is llo lruo airspood aIong llo lracI and is oquaI lo

cos .
To oblain llo groundspood aIong llo lracI, llo compononl of llo
vind aIong llo lracI musl bo sublraclod from

. In llo diagram llo

groundspood aIong llo lracI is oquaI lo

minus llo vind aIong

llo lracI,

sin . Ior oxampIo, assumo llal an aircrafl vas approacl-

ing a runvay al a spood of 135 In and llo crossvind vas 25 In. Tlo
--
Track
Runway
V
t
V
h
V
w
V
c
H
e
a
d
i
n
g
(
W
i
n
d
)
x
- - -

crab angIo vouId bo 10p10 . Tlis crab angIo is roducod lo 0 jusl prior
lo loucldovn, so llal llo aircrafl is approprialoIy poinlod slraigll
dovn llo conlor of llo runvay.
WliIo aircrafl oporalors aro lrainod lo safoIy oporalo aircrafl in
lloso crossvind condilions, il is cIoarIy dosirabIo lo minimizo llis
occurronco. Iurllormoro, llo plysicaI abiIily of an aircrafl lo prop-
orIy Iand in crossvind condilions is Iimilod by llo aircrafls voigll,
Ianding spood, and oxisling vinds. Oflon limos, smaII aircrafl cannol
safoIy Iand if crossvinds on a runvay aro loo groal. Ior llis roason,
airporls accommodaling smaIIor, sIovor aircrafl aro oflon dosignod
vill runvays in sovoraI diroclions, lo accommodalo varying vind
condilions. As opposod lo llo runvays llal aro orionlod inlo
llo provaiIing vinds, -- runvays aro orionlod inlo llo diroc-
lion of vinds occurring Ioss froquonlIy.
Tlo IAA calogorizos aircrafl by llo airspoods al vlicl lloy maIo
approaclos lo Iand al an airporl, Inovn as llo Aircrafl Approacl
Calogory, and providos roquiromonls lo airporls llal runvays bo pro-
vidod llal aIIov for safo oporalion of llo aircrafl llal uso llo airporl
for al Ioasl 95 porconl of llo annuaI vind condilions al llo airporl.
Tlo dosign procoss for oslimaling llo numbor and orionlalion of pri-
mary, as voII as crossvind runvays basod on llo approacl calogory
of soIoclod aircrafl is dolaiIod in Clap. 6 of llis booI.
--

Roforonco is mado lo aircrafl spood in sovoraI vays. Aircrafl porform-
anco dala is lypicaIIy mado roforonco lvo airspoods, namoIy,
- (TAS) and - (IAS). Tlo piIol oblains lis spood
from an airspood indicalor. Tlis indicalor vorIs by comparing llo
dynamic air prossuro duo lo llo forvard molion of llo aircrafl vill
llo slalic almosploric prossuro. As llo forvard spood is incroasod so
doos llo dynamic prossuro. Tlo airspood indicalor vorIs on llo prin-
cipIo of llo pilol lubo. Irom plysics il is Inovn llal llo dynamic pros-
suro is proporlionaI boll lo llo squaro of llo spood and lo llo donsily
of llo air. Tlo varialion vill llo squaro of llo spood is laIon caro of by
llo moclanism of llo airspood indicalor, bul nol llo varialion in don-
sily. Tlo indicalor is sonsilivo lo llo producl of llo donsily of llo air
and llo squaro of llo voIocily. Al ligl aIliludos llo donsily bocomos
smaIIor and llus llo indicalod airspood is Ioss llan llo lruo airspood.
If llo lruo airspood is roquirod, il can bo found vill llo aid of
labIos. As a vory rougl guido, ono can add 2 porconl lo llo indicalod
spood for oacl 1000 fl abovo soa IovoI lo oblain lruo airspood.
Tlo indicalod airspood is of moro imporlanco lo llo piIol llan is
llo lruo airspood. Tlo concorn is vill llo gonoralion of Iifl, spocificaIIy

llo slaII spood, llo spood al vlicl lloro is nol onougl airfIov ovor
llo vings lo suslain Iifl, vlicl is dopondonl on spood and air donsily.
Al ligl aIliludos an aircrafl viII slaII al a liglor spood llan il doos al
soa IovoI. Al liglor aIliludos, lovovor, llo airspood indicalor is indi-
caling spoods Iovor llan lruo spoods, consoquonlIy llis is on llo safo
sido and no corroclions aro nocossary. Tlus, an aircrafl vill a slaIIing
spood of 90 In viII slaII al llo samo indicalod airspood rogardIoss of
aIliludo. Tlis is vly aircrafl manufaclurors aIvays roporl slaIIing
spoods in lorms of indicalod airspood rallor llan lruo airspood. Will
llo inlroduclion of jol lransporls and ligl spood miIilary aircrafl, llo
roforonco dalum for spood is oflon llo spood of sound. Tlo spood of
sound is dofinod as (aflor Irnsl Macl, Auslrian scionlisl).
Tlus Macl 3 moans llroo limos llo spood of sound. Mosl of our cur-
ronl jol lransporls aro -- (sIovor llan llo spood of sound) and
cruiso al a spood in llo noiglborlood of 0.8 lo 0.9 Macl. Many miIi-
lary aircrafl aro -- (faslor llan llo spood of sound). Again llo
roador is romindod llal vlon llo maximum spood of an aircrafl is
quolod as 0.9 Macl, llis is in lorms of lruo airspood and nol ground-
spood. Sucl an aircrafl can concoivabIy bo lravoIing al a groundspood
liglor llan llo spood of sound, doponding on llo magniludo of llo
laiIvind.
Tlo spood of sound is nol a fixod spood, il doponds on lomporaluro
and nol on almosploric prossuro. As llo lomporaluro docroasos, so
doos llo spood of sound. Tlo spood of sound al 32pI (0pC) is 742 mi/l
(1090 fl/s), al 13pI (25pC) il is 707 mi/l, and al 86pI (30pC) il is
785 mi/l. In facl, llo spood of sound varios 2 fl/s for ovory clango in
lomporaluro of 1pC abovo or boIov llo spood al 0pC. Tlo spood of
sound al llo aIliludos al vlicl jols normaIIy fIy is Ioss llan 700 mi/l,
bul al aIliludos al vlicl smaII aircrafl normaIIy fIy (20,000 fl or Ioss) il
is groalor llan 700 mi/l.
Tlo spood of sound may bo compulod from llo formuIa

sm
33.4
0.5
(2-4)

sf
49.04
0.5
(2-5)
vloro
sm
spood of sound in miIos por lour al somo lomporaluro

sf
spood of sound in fool por socond al somo lomporaluro
lomporaluro in dogroos RanIino
Ior convonionco in navigalion, aircrafl dislancos and spoods aro
moasurod in naulicaI miIos and Inols, jusl IiIo moasuromonl on llo
ligl soas. Ono naulicaI miIo (6080 fl) is praclicaIIy oquaI lo 1 min of
arc of llo oarlls circumforonco. Ono Inol is dofinod as 1 nmi/l. Ono
naulicaI miIo is approximaloIy 1.15 Iand miIos.
Tlo porformancos of aircrafl aro, in parl, dofinod by llo various
spoods al vlicl lloy can safoIy Iifloff, cruiso, manouvor, and approacl
- - -

lo Iand. Tloso spoods aro dofinod in aircrafl porformanco manuaIs as

--. Sucl V-spoods incIudo:

no
: Do-Nol-Ixcood Spood, llo faslosl an aircrafl may cruiso in
smooll air lo mainlain safo slrucluraI inlogrily.

: Dosign Manouvoring Spood, llo rocommondod spood for an

aircrafl porforming manouvors (sucl as lurns) or oporaling in
lurbuIonl air.

Io
: Iifloff Spood, llo rocommondod spood al vlicl llo aircrafl
can safoIy Iifloff.

: Rolalo Spood, llo rocommondod spood al vlicl llo noso vlooI

may bo Iiflod off llo runvay during laIooff.

1
: Docision Spood, llo spood al vlicl, during a laIooff run, llo
piIol docidos lo conlinuo vill llo laIooff, ovon if lloro migll bo
an ongino faiIuro from llis poinl boforo laIooff. If an aircrafl dovoI-
ops an ongino issuo prior lo roacling
1
, llo piIol viII aborl llo
laIooff.

so
: SlaII Spood (Ianding conguralion), llo minimum possibIo
spood for an aircrafl in Ianding conguralion (Ianding goar dovn,
aps oxlondod) lo mainlain Iifl. If llo aircrafls airspood goos
boIov
so
, llo airpIano Iosos aII Iifl and is said lo -. Tlis spood
is aIso lypicaIIy llo spood al vlicl an aircrafl viII loucl dovn on
a runvay during Ianding.

rof
: Roforonco Ianding Approacl Spood, llo spood al vlicl an
aircrafl lravoIs vlon on approacl lo Ianding.
rof
is lypicaIIy caI-
cuIalod as 1.3 I
so
.
Ior airporl pIanning and dosign, many of lloso spoods conlrib-
ulo lo dolormining roquirod runvay Ionglls for laIooff and Ianding,
as voII as in dolormining llo maximum numbor of oporalions (i.o.,
llo capacily) llal can bo porformod on runvays ovor a givon poriod
of limo.

Tlo maximum dislanco llal an aircrafl can fIy, givon a corlain IovoI of
fuoI in llo lanIs is Inovn as llo aircrafls . Tloro aro a numbor
of faclors llal infIuonco llo rango of an aircrafl, among llo mosl
imporlanl is payIoad. NormaIIy as llo rango is incroasod llo payIoad
is docroasod, a voigll lrado-off occurring bolvoon fuoI lo fIy lo llo
doslinalion and llo payIoad vlicl can bo carriod.
Tlo roIalionslip bolvoon payIoad and rango is iIIuslralod in
Iig. 2-8. Tlo poinl A, llo rango al maximum payIoad, dosignalos llo
farllosl dislanco,

, llal an aircrafl can fIy vill a maximum slruc-

luraI payIoad. To fIy a dislanco of

and carry a payIoad of

llo air-
crafl las lo laIo off al ils maximum slrucluraI laIooff voigll, lovovor,
ils fuoI lanIs aro nol compIoloIy fiIIod. Ioinl B, llo rango al maximum

fuoI, roprosonls llo farllosl dislanco,

, an aircrafl can fIy if ils fuoI

lanIs aro compIoloIy fiIIod al llo slarl of llo journoy. Tlo corrospond-
ing payIoad llal can bo carriod is

. To lravoI llo dislanco

, llo
aircrafl musl laIo off al ils maximum slrucluraI laIooff voigll.
Tloroforo lo oxlond llo dislanco of lravoI from

lo

llo payIoad
las lo bo roducod in favor of adding moro fuoI. Ioinl C roprosonls
llo maximum dislanco an aircrafl can fIy villoul any payIoad.
Somolimos llis is roforrod lo as llo and is usod, if nocos-
sary, for doIivory of aircrafl. To lravoI llis dislanco

, llo maximum
amounl of fuoI is nocossary, bul sinco lloro is no payIoad, llo laIooff
voigll is Ioss llan maximum. In somo casos llo maximum slrucluraI
Ianding voigll may diclalo lov Iong an aircrafl can fIy vill a max-
imum slrucluraI payIoad. If llis is llo caso, llo Iino DI roprosonls
llo lrado-off bolvoon payIoad and rango vlicl musl occur sinco llo
payIoad is Iimilod by llo maximum slrucluraI Ianding voigll.
Tlo slapo of llo payIoad vorsus rango curvo vouId llon foIIov llo
Iino DIBC insload of ABC. IayIoad vorsus rango doponds on a
numbor of faclors sucl as molooroIogicaI condilions on roulo, fIigll
aIliludo, spood, fuoI, vind, and amounl of rosorvo fuoI. Ior porform-
anco comparison of difforonl aircrafl in an approximalo vay llo pay-
Ioad rango curvos aro usuaIIy slovn for slandard day, no vind, and
Iong rango cruiso.
Tlo acluaI payIoad, parlicuIarIy in passongor aircrafl, is normaIIy
Ioss llan llo maximum slrucluraI payIoad ovon vlon llo aircrafl is
compIoloIy fuII. Tlis is duo lo llo Iimilalion in llo uso of spaco vlon
passongors aro carriod. Ior compuling payIoad, passongors and lloir
baggago aro normaIIy considorod as 200 Ib unils.
Tlo aircrafl manufaclurors pubIisl payIoad vorsus rango dia-
grams in aircrafl claraclorislics manuaIs for oacl aircrafl vlicl may
bo usod for airporl pIanning purposos. Tloso diagrams aro mosl
-
R
d
Range
P
b
P
a
y
l
o
a
d
P
a
R
a
C
B
E
A D
R
e
R
b
R
c
- - -

usofuI in airporl pIanning for dolormining llo mosl probabIo voigll

claraclorislics of aircrafl fIying parlicuIar slago Ionglls bolvoon
airporls.
Tlo dislribulion of llo Ioad bolvoon llo main goars and llo noso
goar doponds on llo lypo of aircrafl and llo Iocalion of llo conlor of
gravily of llo aircrafl. Ior any gross voigll lloro is a maximum afl
and forvard conlor of gravily posilion lo vlicl llo aircrafl can bo
Ioadod for fIigll in ordor lo mainlain slabiIily. Tlus llo dislribulion
of voigll bolvoon llo noso and main goars is nol a conslanl. Ior llo
dosign of pavomonls il is normaIIy assumod llal 5 porconl of llo voigll
is supporlod on llo noso goar and llo romaindor on llo main goars.
Tlus if lloro aro lvo main goars, oacl goar supporls 47.5 porconl of
llo lolaI voigll. Ior oxampIo, if llo laIooff voigll of an aircrafl is
300,000 Ib, oacl main goar is assumod lo supporl 135,000 Ib. If llo
main goar las four liros, il is assumod llal oacl liro supporls an oquaI
fraclion of llo voigll on llo goar, in llis oxampIo, 33,750 Ib. As viII
bo discussod in Clap. 7, pavomonl slronglls aro dosignod basod on
llo maximum slrucluraI laIooff voiglls, as voII as llo Ianding goar
and Ioading configuralions, of llo aircrafl of inlondod uso.

Ono of llo mosl crilicaI oIomonls of aircrafl porformanco is lov sucl
claraclorislics, aIong vill IocaI almosploric condilions, affocl llo
runvay Iongll for an aircrafl lo safoIy laIooff and Iand.
Ior any givon oporalion, vlollor il bo a laIooff or Ianding, an
aircrafl viII roquiro a corlain amounl of runvay. Roquirod runvay
Iongll may vary vidoIy for a spocific aircrafl, as a rosuIl of llo air-
crafls voigll al llo limo of llo oporalion, as voII as llo IocaI almos-
ploric condilions. Ior llo airporl pIannor and dosignor, sucl varia-
lions lavo Ioss dirocl impacl on llo dosign Iongll of runvays, and
moro lo aircrafl oporalors vlo musl dolormino vlollor llo Iongll of
a runvay al a givon limo is safo for a parlicuIar oporalion. Novorllo-
Ioss, llo airporl pIannor and dosignor slouId bo avaro of lov an
aircrafls porformanco claraclorislics spocificaIIy affocl ils runvay
Iongll roquiromonls.
Tlo faclors vlicl lavo a boaring on and aircrafls runvay Iongll
roquiromonls for a givon oporalions may bo groupod inlo lvo gonoraI
calogorios:
1. Tlo plysicaI capabiIilios of llo aircrafl undor givon onviron-
monlaI condilions
2. Roquiromonls sol by llo govornmonl lo prolocl for safo
oporalions
An aircrafls porformanco capabiIilios and lonco runvay Iongll
roquiromonls aro oflon significanlIy affoclod by corlain naluraI onvi-
ronmonlaI condilions al llo airporl. Tlo moro imporlanl of lloso

condilions aro lomporaluro, surfaco vind, runvay gradionl, aIliludo
of llo airporl, and condilion of llo runvay surfaco.

AII ollor llings boing oquaI, llo liglor llo fioId oIovalion of llo air-
porl, llo Ioss donso llo almosploro, roquiring Iongor runvay Ionglls
for llo aircrafl lo gol lo llo approprialo groundspood lo acliovo suf-
ficionl Iifl for laIooff. Tlis incroaso is nol Iinoar bul varios vill llo
voigll of llo aircrafl and vill llo ambionl air lomporaluro.
Al liglor aIliludos llo ralo of incroaso is liglor llan al Iovor
aIliludos. Ior pIanning purposos, il can bo oslimalod llal bolvoon
soa IovoI and 5000 fl abovo soa IovoI, runvay Ionglls roquirod for a
givon aircrafl incroasos approximaloIy 7 porconl for ovory 1000 fl of
incroaso in oIovalion, and groalor undor vory lol lomporaluros
lloso llal oxporionco vory lol lomporaluros or aro Iocalod al liglor
aIliludos, llo ralo of incroaso can bo as mucl as 10 porconl. Tlus,
vliIo an aircrafl may roquiro 5000 fl of runvay lo laIooff al an air-
porl al soa IovoI, llo samo aircrafl may roquiro 7500 fl or moro al an
airporl 5000 fl abovo soa IovoI, ospociaIIy during poriods of ligl
lomporaluros.

Wind spood and diroclion al an airporl aIso lavo a significanco on
runvay Iongll roquiromonls. SimpIy, llo groalor llo loadvind llo
slorlor llo runvay Iongll roquirod, and llo groalor llo laiIvind llo
Iongor llo runvay roquirod. Iurllor, llo prosonco of crossvinds viII
aIso incroaso llo amounl of runvay roquirod for laIooff and Ianding.
Irom llo porspoclivo of llo pIannor, il is oflon oslimalod llal for
ovory 5 In of loadvind, roquirod runvay Iongll is roducod by
approximaloIy 3 porconl and for ovory 7 In of laiIvind, runvay
Iongll roquiromonls incroaso by approximaloIy 7 porconl. Ior airporl
pIanning purposos runvay Ionglls aro oflon dosignod assuming caIm
vind condilions.

To accommodalo naluraI lopograplic or ollor condilions, runvays
aro oflon dosignod vill somo IovoI of sIopo or . As sucl, air-
crafl oporaling for laIooff on a runvay vill an upliII gradionl
roquiros moro runvay Iongll llan a IovoI or dovnliII gradionl, llo
spocific amounl doponding on oIovalion of llo airporl and lompora-
luro. ConvorsoIy, Ianding aircrafl roquiro Ioss runvay Iongll vlon
Ianding on a runvay vill an upliII gradionl, and moro Iongll for a
dovnliII gradionl.
Sludios llal lavo boon mado indicalo llal llo roIalionslip
bolvoon uniform gradionl and incroaso or docroaso in runvay Iongll
is noarIy Iinoar |55]. Ior lurbino-povorod aircrafl llis amounls lo 7 lo
10 porconl for oacl 1 porconl of uniform gradionl. Airporl dosign
- - -

criloria Iimil llo gradionl lo a maximum of 1 porconl. Informalion

providod by aircrafl manufaclurors in fIigll manuaIs is basod on uni-
form gradionl, yol mosl runvay profiIos aro nol uniform. In llo
Unilod Slalos aircrafl oporalors aro aIIovod lo subslilulo an avorago
uniform gradionl, vlicl is a slraigll Iino joining llo onds of llo run-
vay, as Iong as no inlorvoning poinl aIong llo acluaI pall profiIo Iios
moro llan 5 fl abovo or boIov llo avorago Iino. IorlunaloIy mosl run-
vays mool llis roquiromonl. Ior airporl pIanning purposos onIy, llo
IAA usos an offoclivo gradionl. Tlo offoclivo gradionl is dofinod as
llo difforonco in oIovalion bolvoon llo liglosl and Iovosl poinls on
llo acluaI runvay profiIo dividod by llo Iongll of llo runvay. Slud-
ios indicalo llal villin llo dogroo of accuracy roquirod for airporl
pIanning lloro is nol vory mucl difforonco bolvoon llo uso of llo
avorago uniform gradionl and offoclivo gradionl.

SIusl or slanding valor on llo runvay las an undosirabIo offocl on
aircrafl porformanco. SIusl is oquivaIonl lo vol snov. Il las a sIip-
pory loxluro vlicl maIos braIing oxlromoIy poor. Boing a fIuid, il is
dispIacod by liros roIIing llrougl il, causing a significanl rolarding
forco, ospociaIIy on laIooff. Tlo rolarding forcos can gol so Iargo llal
aircrafl can no Iongor accoIoralo lo laIooff spood. In llo procoss sIusl
is sprayod on llo aircrafl, vlicl furllor incroasos llo rosisling forcos
on llo volicIo and can causo damago lo somo parls. ConsidorabIo
oxporimonlaI vorI las boon conduclod by NASA and llo IAA on llo
offocl of slanding valor and sIusl. As a rosuIl of lloso losls, jol opora-
lions aro Iimilod lo no moro llan in of sIusl or valor. Bolvoon
and in dopll, llo laIooff voigll of an aircrafl musl bo roducod
subslanliaIIy lo ovorcomo llo rolarding forco of valor or sIusl. Il is
lloroforo imporlanl lo provido adoqualo drainago on llo surfaco of
llo runvay for romovaI of valor and moans for rapidIy romoving
sIusl. Boll valor and sIusl rosuIl in a vory poor coofficionl of braI-
ing friclion. Wlon liros rido on llo surfaco of llo valor or sIusl llo
plonomonon is Inovn as lydropIaning. Wlon llo liros lydropIano,
llo coofficionl of friclion is on llo ordor of vol ico and slooring abiIily
is compIoloIy Iosl. HydropIaning is primariIy a funclion of liro infIa-
lion prossuro and lo somo oxlonl llo condilion and lypo of groovos in
llo liros. According lo losls mado by NASA, llo approximalo spood
al vlicl lydropIaning dovoIops may bo dolorminod by llo foIIoving
formuIa:

10
0.5
(2-6)
vloro

is llo spood in miIos por lour al vlicl lydropIaning dovoI-

ops and is llo liro infIalion prossuro in pounds por squaro incl.
Tlo rango of infIalion prossuros for commorciaI jol lransporls var-
ios from 120 lo ovor 200 Ib/in
2
. Tloroforo llo lydropIaning spoods

vouId rango from 110 lo 140 mi/l or moro. Tlo Ianding spoods aro in
llo samo rango. Tloroforo lydropIaning can bo a lazard lo jol opora-
lions. HydropIaning can dovoIop vlon llo dopll of valor or sIusl is
on llo ordor of 0.2 in or Ioss, llo oxacl dopll doponding on liro lroad
dosign, condilion of llo liros, and llo loxluro of llo pavomonl sur-
faco. Smooll lroad oporaling on a smooll pavomonl surfaco roquiros
llo Ioasl dopll of fIuid for lydropIaning.
To roduco llo lazard of lydropIaning and lo improvo llo cooffi-
cionl of braIing friclion, runvay pavomonls lavo boon groovod in a
lransvorso diroclion. Tlo groovos form rosorvoirs for llo valor on llo
surfaco. Tlo IAA is conducling oxlonsivo rosoarcl lo oslabIisl sland-
ards for groovo dimonsions and slapo |54]. In llo pasl llo groovos
voro normaIIy in vido and doop and spacod 1 in aparl |44].
--
Transporl calogory aircrafl aro Iiconsod and oporalod undor llo codo
of roguIalions Inovn as llo IodoraI Avialion RoguIalions (IAR). Tlis
codo is promuIgalod by llo fodoraI govornmonl in coordinalion vill
induslry. Tlo roguIalions govorn llo aircrafl gross voiglls al laIooff
and Ianding by spocifying porformanco roquiromonls, Inovn as
-- vlicl musl bo mol in lorms roIalod lo llo runvay
Ionglls avaiIabIo. Tlo roguIalions porlaining lo lurbino aircrafl con-
sidor llroo gonoraI casos in oslabIisling llo Iongll of a runvay nocos-
sary for safo oporalions. Tloso llroo casos aro
1. A normaI laIooff vloro aII onginos aro avaiIabIo and suffi-
cionl runvay is roquirod lo accommodalo varialions in Iifloff
loclniquos and llo dislinclivo porformanco claraclorislics of
lloso aircrafl
2. TaIooff invoIving an ongino faiIuro, vloro sufficionl runvay
is roquirod lo aIIov aircrafl lo conlinuo llo laIooff dospilo llo
Ioss of povor, or oIso braIo lo a slop
3. Ianding, vloro sufficionl runvay is roquirod lo aIIov for
normaI varialion in Ianding loclniquo, ovorslools, poor
approaclos, and llo IiIo
Tlo roguIalions porlaining lo pislon-ongino aircrafl rolain in prin-
cipaI llo abovo criloria, bul llo firsl crilorion is nol usod. Tlis parlicu-
Iar roguIalion is aimod lovard llo ovoryday, normaI laIooff manouvor,
sinco ongino faiIuro occurs rallor infroquonlIy vill lurbino-povorod
aircrafl. Tlo runvay Iongll noodod al an airporl by a parlicuIar lypo
and voigll of lurbino-povorod aircrafl is oslabIislod by ono of llo
forogoing llroo casos, vliclovor yioIds llo Iongosl Iongll.
In llo roguIalions for boll pislon-ongino aircrafl and lurbino-
povorod aircrafl, llo vord runvay rofors lo - (IS).
- - -

Tlus, in llo discussion vlicl foIIovs, llo lorms runvay and fuII-
slrongll pavomonl aro synonymous. In any discussion of llo offocl of
llo roguIalions on llo Iongll of llo runvay, lovovor, il is imporlanl
lo nolo llal llo curronl roguIalions for lurbino-povorod aircrafl do
nol roquiro a runvay for llo onliro laIooff dislanco, vliIo llo roguIa-
lions for pislon-ongino aircrafl normaIIy do.
To indicalo vly lloro is a difforonco in llo lvo roguIalions vill
rogard lo llo Iongll of fuII-slrongll pavomonl, il is nocossary lo oxam-
ino in moro dolaiI llo roguIalions porlaining lo lurbino-povorod
lransporls.
Tloso llroo criloria as dofinod by llo curronl lurbino-povorod
lransporl roguIalions, IAR Iarl 25 |12] and Iarl 121 |23], aro iIIuslralod
in Iig. 2-9.
Iiguro 2-9 iIIuslralos llo roquirod -. Tlo roguIa-
lions slalo llal llo - (ID) roquirod for an aircrafl Iand-
ing on a givon runvay musl bo sufficionl lo pormil llo aircrafl lo
como lo a fuII slop, - - (SD), villin 60 porconl of llis dis-
lanco, assuming llal llo piIol maIos an approacl al llo propor spood
and crossos llo llrosloId of llo runvay al a loigll of 50 fl. Tlo Iand-
ing dislanco musl bo of fuII-slrongll pavomonl. Tlo Ianding dislanco
for pislon-ongino aircrafl is dofinod in oxaclIy llo samo mannor.
Iiguro 2-9, iIIuslralos llo runvay Iongll roquiromonls for a
normaI laIooff vill aII onginos fuIIy oporaling, Iig. 2-9 dofinos a
- (TOD), vlicl, for a spocific voigll of aircrafl, musl
bo 115 porconl of llo acluaI dislanco llo aircrafl usos lo roacl a loigll
of 35 fl (D35). Nol aII of llis dislanco las lo bo of fuII-slrongll pavo-
monl. Wlal is nocossary is llal aII llis dislanco bo froo from obslruc-
lions lo prolocl againsl an ovorslooling laIooff. ConsoquonlIy llo
roguIalions pormil llo uso of a (CI) for parl of llis dislanco.
A cIoarvay is dofinod as a roclanguIar aroa boyond llo runvay nol
Ioss llan 500 fl vido and nol Iongor llan 1000 fl in Iongll, conlraIIy
Iocalod aboul llo oxlondod conlorIino of llo runvay, and undor llo
conlroI of llo airporl aullorilios. Tlo cIoarvay is oxprossod in lorms
of a cIoarvay pIano, oxlonding from llo ond of llo runvay vill an
upvard sIopo nol oxcooding 1.25 porconl abovo vlicl no objocl nor
any porlion of llo lorrain prolrudos, oxcopl llal llrosloId Iiglls may
prolrudo abovo llo pIano if lloir loigll abovo llo ond of llo runvay
is nol groalor llan 26 in and if lloy aro Iocalod lo oacl sido of llo
runvay. Up lo ono-laIf llo difforonco bolvoon 115 porconl of llo dis-
lanco lo roacl llo poinl of Iifloff, - (IOD), and llo laIooff
dislanco may bo cIoarvay. Tlo romaindor of llo laIooff dislanco musl
bo fuII-slrongll pavomonl and is idonlifiod as llo (TOR).
Iiguro 2-9 iIIuslralos llo ongino-faiIuro caso, doscribod as llo
caso vloro ono ongino faiIs al a crilicaI poinl during an aircrafl laIooff
roII, and llo piIol maIos an immodialo judgmonlaI docision vlollor
or nol lo conlinuo vill a laIooff, or porform an omorgoncy slop.

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- - -

IodoraI roguIalions spocify llal llo laIooff dislanco roquirod dur-

ing llo ongino-faiIuro caso is llo acluaI dislanco lo roacl a loigll of
35 fl (D35) vill no porconlago appIiod as in llo aII-ongino laIooff
caso. Tlis rocognizos llo infroquoncy of occurronco of ongino faiIuro.
Tlo roguIalions again pormil llo uso of a cIoarvay, in llis caso up lo
ono-laIf llo difforonco bolvoon llo Iifloff dislanco and llo laIooff
dislanco, llo romaindor boing fuII-slrongll pavomonl. Tlo roguIa-
lions for pislon-ongino aircrafl normaIIy roquiro fuII-slrongll pavo-
monl for llo onliro laIooff dislanco.
Tlo ongino-faiIuro caso aIso roquiros llal sufficionl dislanco musl
aIso bo avaiIabIo lo slop llo airpIano rallor llan conlinuo llo laIooff.
Tlo spood al vlicl ongino faiIuro is assumod lo occur is soIoclod by
llo aircrafl manufacluror and is roforrod lo as llo
- or - -
1
. If llo ongino faiIs al a spood groalor llan
llis spood, llo piIol las no cloico bul lo conlinuo llo laIooff. If an
ongino acluaIIy faiIs al or prior lo llis soIoclod spood, llo piIol braIos
lo a slop. Tlis dislanco roquirod, from boginning of llo laIooff roII lo
llo omorgoncy slop is roforrod lo as llo - - (DAS).
Ior pislon-ongino aircrafl onIy fuII-slrongll pavomonl is normaIIy
usod for llis purposo. Tlo roguIalions for lurbino-povorod aircrafl,
lovovor, rocognizo llal an aborlod laIooff is roIalivoIy raro and por-
mil uso of Iossor slrongll pavomonl, Inovn as - (SW), for llal
parl of llo accoIoralo-slop dislanco boyond llo laIooff run. Tlo slop-
vay is dofinod as an aroa boyond llo runvay, nol Ioss in vidll llan
llo vidll of llo runvay, conlraIIy Iocalod aboul llo oxlondod conlor-
Iino of llo runvay, and dosignalod by llo airporl aullorilios for uso
in docoIoraling llo aircrafl during an aborlod laIooff. To bo consid-
orod as sucl, llo slopvay musl bo capabIo of supporling llo airpIano
during an aborlod laIooff villoul inducing slrucluraI damago lo llo
aircrafl. Inginoorod maloriaI arrosling sysloms (IMAS) aro boing
usod as for llis purposo vill incroasing froquoncy.
Basod on llo abovo roquiromonls, aircrafl oporalors oslimalo a
roquirod (II) for oacl oporalion. Tlo fioId Iongll is gonor-
aIIy mado up of llroo compononls, namoIy, llo fuII-slrongll pavo-
monl (IS), llo parliaI slrongll pavomonl or slopvay (SW), and llo
cIoarvay (CI).
Tlo procoding roguIalions for lurbino-povorod aircrafl may bo
summarizod for oacl of llo casos in oqualion form lo find llo roquirod
fioId Iongll.
NormaI laIooff caso:
II
1
IS
1
CI
1max
(2-7)
vloro
TOD
1
1.15(D35
1
) (2-7)
CI
1max
0.50|TOD
1
1.15(IOD
1
)] (2-7)

TOR
1
TOD
1
CI
1max
(2-7)
IS
1
TOR
1
(2-7)
Ingino-faiIuro laIooff caso:
II
2
IS
2
CI
2max
(2-8)
vloro
TOD
2
D35
2
(2-8)
CI
2max
0.50(TOD
2
IOD
2
) (2-8)
TOR
2
TOD
2
CI
2max
(2-8)
IS
2
TOR
2
(2-8)
Ingino-faiIuro aborlod laIooff:
II
3
IS SW (2-9)
vloro
II
3
DAS (2-9)
Ianding caso:
II
4
ID (2-10)
vloro
ID
SD

0 60 .
(2-10)
IS
4
ID (2-10)
To dolormino llo roquirod fioId Iongll and llo various compo-
nonls of Iongll vlicl aro mado up of fuII-slrongll pavomonl, slop-
vay, and cIoarvay, llo abovo oqualions musl oacl bo soIvod for llo
crilicaI dosign aircrafl al llo airporl. Tlis viII rosuIl in finding oacl of
llo foIIoving vaIuos:
II max |(TOD
1
), (TOD
2
), (DAS), (ID)] (2-11)
IS max |(TOR
1
), (TOR
2
), (ID)] (2-12)
SW |(DAS) max (TOR
1
, TOR
2
, ID)] (2-13)
- - -

vloro SW
min
is zoro.
CI min |(II DAS), (CI
1max
), (CI
2max
)] (2-14)
vloro CI
min
is zoro and CI
max
is 1000 fl.
If oporalions aro lo laIo pIaco on llo runvay in boll diroclions, as
is llo usuaI caso, llo fioId Iongll compononls musl oxisl in oacl diroc-
lion. IxampIo IrobIom 2-1 iIIuslralos llo appIicalion of lloso roquiro-
monls for a lypollolicaI aircrafl.
Dolormino llo runvay Iongll roquiromonls according lo
llo spocificalions of IAR 25 and IAR 121 for a lurbino-povorod aircrafl vill llo
foIIoving porformanco claraclorislics:
NormaI laIooff:
Iifloff dislanco 7000 fl
Dislanco lo loigll of 35 fl 8000 fl
Ingino faiIuro:
Iifloff dislanco 8200 fl
Dislanco lo loigll of 35 fl 9100 fl
Ingino-faiIuro aborlod laIooff:
AccoIoralo-slop dislanco 9500 fl
NormaI Ianding:
Slop dislanco 5000 fl
Irom Iq. (2-4) for a normaI laIooff
TOD
1
1.15 D35
1
(1.15)(8000) 9200 fl
CI
1max
0.50|TOD
1
1.15(IOD
1
)] (0.50)|9200 1.15(7000)] 575 fl
TOR
1
TOD
1
CI
1max
9200 575 8625 fl
Irom Iq. (2-5) for an ongino-faiIuro laIooff
TOD
2
D35
2
9100 fl
CI
2max
0.50(TOD
2
IOD
2
) 0.50(9100 8200) 450 fl
TOR
2
TOD
2
CI
2max
9100 450 8650 fl
Irom Iq. (2-6) for an ongino-faiIuro aborlod laIooff DAS 9500 fl
Irom Iq. (2-7) for a normaI Ianding
ID
SD
fl
0 60
5000
0 60
8333
. .
Using llo abovo quanlilios in Iqs. (2-8) llrougl (2-11), llo acluaI runvay com-
pononl roquiromonls bocomo
II max |(TOD
1
), (TOD
2
), (DAS), (ID)]
max |(9200), (9100), (9500), (8333)] 9500 fl
IS max |(TOR
1
), (TOR
2
), (ID)]
max |(8625), (8650), (8333)] 8650 fl

SW |(DAS) max (TOR
1
, TOR
2
, ID)]
(9500) max |(8625), (8650), (8333)] (9500 8650) 850 fl
CI min |(II DAS), CI
1max
, CI
2max
]
min |(9500 9500), 575, 450] 0 fl
Tlo abovo roguIalions, as iIIuslralod in IxampIo IrobIom 2-1, aro
appIiod al aII airporls, in llo form of -- for oacl run-
vay |1, 9]. DocIarod dislancos aro llo dislancos llal aro docIarod
avaiIabIo and suilabIo for salisfying llo laIooff run, laIooff dislanco,
accoIoralo-slop dislanco and Ianding dislanco roquiromonls of air-
crafl. Iour docIarod dislancos aro commonIy roporlod for oacl run-
vay. Tloy aro llo laIooff run avaiIabIo (TORA), laIooff dislanco
avaiIabIo (TODA), accoIoralo-slop dislanco avaiIabIo (ASDA), and
Ianding dislanco avaiIabIo (IDA).
Tlo (TORA) is llo runvay Iongll docIarod
avaiIabIo and suilabIo for llo ground run of an aircrafl during laIo-
off. Ior IxampIo IrobIom 2-1, llo TORA vouId bo 8650 fl. Tlo
- (TODA) is llo laIooff run avaiIabIo pIus llo Iongll
of any romaining runvay and cIoarvay boyond llo far ond of llo
laIooff run avaiIabIo. Ior IxampIo IrobIom 2-1, llo TODA vouId bo
9500 fl. Tlo - - (ASDA) is llo amounl of
runvay pIus slopvay docIarod avaiIabIo and suilabIo for llo accoI-
oralion and docoIoralion of an aircrafl during an aborlod laIooff. Ior
IxampIo IrobIom 2-1, llo ASDA vouId aIso bo 9500 fl. Tlo
- (IDA) is llo runvay Iongll avaiIabIo and suilabIo
for Ianding an aircrafl. Ior IxampIo IrobIom 2-1, llo IDA vouId bo
8650 fl.
Il is apparonl llal boll llo laIooff dislanco and accoIoralo-slop
dislanco viII dopond on llo spood llo aircrafl las acliovod vlon an
ongino faiIs.
Sinco, for pislon-ongino aircrafl, fuII-slrongll pavomonl vas nor-
maIIy usod for llo onliro accoIoralo-slop dislanco and llo laIooff dis-
lanco, il vas llo gonoraI praclico lo soIocl
1
, so llal llo dislanco
roquirod lo slop from llo poinl vloro
1
vas roaclod vas oquaI lo
llo dislanco (from llo samo poinl) lo roacl a spocifiod loigll abovo
llo runvay. Tlo runvay Iongll oslabIislod on llis basis is roforrod lo
as llo baIancod fioId concopl or baIancod runvay and rosuIls in llo
slorlosl runvay. Ior lurbino-povorod aircrafl, llo soIoclion of
1
on
llis basis viII nol nocossariIy rosuIl in llo slorlosl runvay if a cIoar-
vay or a slopvay is providod.
Irom an airporl pIanning porspoclivo, il is nol lypicaI lo dosign a
runvays fuII-slrongll pavomonl, slopvay, and cIoarvay basod on a
givon aircrafl. Rallor, for oacl individuaI aircrafl oporalion, a
1
spood is soIoclod vlicl bosl accommodalos llo runvay on vlicl il
viII bo oporaling.
- - -

Ior oxampIo, for an aircrafl oporaling on a roIalivoIy slorl runvay,

a Iovor
1
may bo soIoclod, vlicl viII aIIov for a slorlor accoIoralo-
slop dislanco, bul vouId roquiro al Ioasl somo cIoarvay lo aIIov for
llo aircrafl lo safoIy cIimb oul lo 35 fl. ConvorsoIy, for roIalivoIy Iong
runvays llal may lavo obslacIos noar llo runvays ond, or for run-
vays vill Ioss fuII-slrongll pavomonl bul a slopvay al llo runvay
ond, a liglor
1
may bo soIoclod, lo aIIov for sloopor cIimb-oul undor
ongino-faiIuro condilions, and llo abiIily lo accommodalo a Iongor
accoIoralo-slop dislanco.
Tlus, ono can soo llal llo roguIalions porlaining lo lurbino-
povorod aircrafl offor a numbor of aIlornalivos lo llo aircrafl opora-
lor. Il slouId bo omplasizod llal llo laIooff dislanco and llo laIooff
run for llo ongino-faiIuro caso musl bo comparod vill llo corro-
sponding dislanco for llo normaI aII ongino laIooff caso. Tlo Iongor
dislanco aIvays govorns. A furllor discussion of lloso concopls is
prosonlod by ICAO |1].
Boll aircrafl oporalors and airporl pIannors aro inloroslod in
cIoarvays, bocauso cIoarvays viII, for a fixod avaiIabIo Iongll of run-
vay, aIIov llo oporalor addilionaI gross laIooff voigll vill Ioss
oxponso lo airporl managomonl llan buiIding fuII-slrongll pavomonl
vouId roquiro.
-
Wlonovor llo vings Iifl an aircrafl, vorlicos form noar llo onds of
llo vings. Tlo vorlicos aro mado up of lvo counlor-rolaling cyIin-
dricaI air massos aboul a vingspan aparl, oxlonding afl aIong llo
fIigll pall. Tlo voIocily of llo vind villin lloso cyIindors can bo
lazardous lo ollor aircrafl oncounloring llom in fIigll. Tlis is par-
licuIarIy lruo if a Iigllor aircrafl oncounlors a vorlox gonoralod by a
mucl loavior aircrafl. Tlo langonliaI voIocilios in a vorlox aro
diroclIy proporlionaI lo llo voigll of llo aircrafl and invorsoIy pro-
porlionaI lo llo spood. Tlo moro inlonso vorlicos aro lloroforo gon-
oralod vlon llo aircrafl is fIying sIovIy noar an airporl |52]. Tlo
vinds croalod by vorlicos aro oflon roforrod lo as vaIo lurbuIonco or
vaIo vorlox.
Onco vorlicos aro gonoralod lloy movo dovnvard and drifl Ial-
oraIIy in llo diroclion of llo vind. Tlo ralo al vlicl vorlicos sollIo
lovard llo ground is dopondonl lo somo oxlonl on llo voigll of an
aircrafl, llo loavior llo volicIo llo faslor llo vorlox viII sollIo.
Aboul ono vingspan loigll abovo llo ground llo vorlicos bogin lo
movo IaloraIIy avay from llo aircrafl, as slovn in Iig. 2-10. Tlo
duralion of a vorlox is dopondonl lo a groal oxlonl on llo voIocily of
llo vind. Wlon lloro is vory IillIo or no vind lloy can porsisl for
Iongor llan 2 min. As a rosuIl of lloso losls, llo IAA and ICAO
divido aircrafl inlo llroo cIassos for llo purposos vaIo-lurbuIonco
soparalion minima.

Ior airporl pIanning and dosign, as voII as air lraffic safoly pur-
posos, aircrafl lavo boon calogorizod inlo vaIo-lurbuIonco cIassifica-
lions, basod primariIy lloir maximum slrucluraI laIooff voiglls, as
iIIuslralod in TabIo 2-8. Oporaling aircrafl of varying vaIo-lurbuIonco
cIassificalions in llo samo vicinily las significanl offocls on llo safo
and officionl oporalion of an airfioId.
-
1. - -, 2d od., Documonl 9157-AN/901,
InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion, MonlroaI, Canada, 1984.
2. - - -- , A.AC I00A,
Airbus Induslrio, Biagnac, Iranco, Oclobor 1987.
3. - - -- , D.AC
I00A, Airbus Induslrio, Biagnac, Iranco, Oclobor 1990.
4. - - -- , B.AC I00A,
Airbus Induslrio, Biagnac, Iranco, Docombor 1991.
5. - - -- , Airbus
Induslrio, Biagnac, Iranco, Iobruary 1988.
6. - - -- , IroIiminary,
Airbus Induslrio, Biagnac, Iranco, }uIy 1991.
-

---


---





--
- - -

7. Aircrafl of llo Iuluro, W. I. Iarsons and }. A. Slorn,

- Iapor 800743, Socioly of Aulomolivo Inginoors,
WarrondaIo, Ia., May 1980.
8. Aircrafl WaIo TurbuIonco Avoidanco, W. A. McGovan,
, NalionaI Aoronaulics and Spaco Adminislralion, Iapor
72/6, Waslinglon, D.C., }uIy 1971.
9. -, Advisory CircuIar, AC150/5300-13 clango 13, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 2008.
10. - -
- Iarl 135, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C.,
1978.
11. -- - -
- Iarl 23, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon,
D.C., 1974.
12. -- - - - -
Iarl 25, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1974.
13. -- , Documonl D6-58322,
Booing CommorciaI AirpIano Company, SoallIo, Wasl., Docombor 1968.
14. -- , Documonl D6-58324-R2,
Booing CommorciaI AirpIano Company, SoallIo, Wasl., }uno 1978.
15. -- , Documonl D6-58325
Rovision D, Booing CommorciaI AirpIano Group, SoallIo, Wasl., Soplombor
1988.
16. -- , Documonl
D6-58325-2 Rovision A, Booing CommorciaI AirpIano Group, SoallIo, Wasl.,
}uIy 1990.
17. -- , Documonl D6-58326, Rov. I,
Booing CommorciaI AirpIano Group, SoallIo, Wasl., May 1984.
18. -- , Documonl D6-58326-1,
Rov. B, Booing CommorciaI AirpIano Group, SoallIo, Wasl., Marcl 1990.
19. -- , Documonl D6-58327 Rov D,
Booing CommorciaI AirpIano Group, SoallIo, Wasl., Soplombor 1989.
20. -- , Documonl D6-58328 Rov I,
Booing CommorciaI AirpIano Group, SoallIo, Wasl., Iobruary 1989.
21. -- , IroIiminary Informalion,
Documonl D6-58329, Booing CommorciaI AirpIano Group, SoallIo, Wasl.,
Iobruary 1992.
22. - - -- , AIM 146.1,
Brilisl Aorospaco Iimilod, HalfioId, Horlfordsliro, IngIand, }uno 1984.
23. -- -
- - Iarl 121,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C. 1974.
24. - - -
- Iarl 127, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon,
D.C., 1974.
25. - -, H. W. Willinglon,
Booing CommorciaI AirpIano Company, SoallIo, Wasl., 1980.
26. - - , H. W. Willinglon, Booing
CommorciaI AirpIano Company, SoallIo, Wasl., Novombor 1980.
27. CTOI Concopls and ToclnoIogy DovoIopmonl, D. WiIIiam Connor,
-- -, Amorican Inslilulo of Aoronaulics and Aslronaulics,
}uIy-Augusl 1978.
28. - -- - -, Aorospaco
Induslrios Associalion of Amorica, Inc., Waslinglon, D.C., 1979.
29. , Booing CommorciaI AirpIano Group, SoallIo, Wasl.,
Marcl 1992.
30. -- , Roporl DAC-67492, DougIas
Aircrafl Company, McDonnoII-DougIas Corporalion, Iong Boacl, CaIif., Marcl
1969.

31. -- , Roporl DAC-67264, DougIas
Aircrafl Company, McDonnoII-DougIas Corporalion, Iong Boacl, CaIif.,
Soplombor 1978.
32. -- , Roporl DAC-67803A, DougIas
Aircrafl Company, McDonnoII-DougIas Corporalion, Iong Boacl, CaIif.,
}anuary 1991.
33. -- , Booing CommorciaI AirpIano Company, SoallIo,
Wasl., Marcl 1980.
34. - --, IinaI Roporl, CaIifornia Doparlmonl of
Transporlalion, Sacramonlo, CaIif., Docombor 1981.
35.
, voI. 1: Aircrafl Noiso, 2d od., InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion,
MonlroaI, Canada, 1988.
36. -, Irogram Roviov, Booing CommorciaI AirpIano
Group, SoallIo, Wasl., 1990.
37. - - , IranIIin Walls, Inc., Nov YorI, annuaI.
38. - -, }oln I. Sloinor, Booing
CommorciaI AirpIano Group, SoallIo, Wasl, 1989.
39. }ol Transporl Claraclorislics RoIalod lo Airporls, R. Horonjoff and G. AlIborn,
- - -, voI. 91 AT1, Amorican Socioly of CiviI
Inginoors, Nov YorI, ApriI 1965.
40. --, Airporl IIanning Documonl CIR-12013, IocIlood
CaIifornia Company, BurbanI, CaIif., Docombor 1972.
41. -- , Roporl MDC-K0388,
McDonnoII-DougIas Corporalion, Iong Boacl, CaIif., Oclobor 1990.
42. - -- , Roporl MDC-}2904,
McDonnoII-DougIas Corporalion, Iong Boacl, CaIif., Iobruary 1992.
43. , Roporl MDC-91K0393,
McDonnoII-DougIas Corporalion, Iong Boacl, CaIif., Iobruary 1992.
44. - - --
-, Advisory CircuIar, AC 150/5320-12A, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Waslinglon, D.C., }uIy 1986.
45. - - --
- Iarl 36, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1974.
46. , DougIas Aircrafl Company,
McDonnoII-DougIas Corporalion, Iong Boacl, CaIif., }uno 1980.
47. Iavomonl Grooving and Traclion Sludios, NASA SI-5073, -
- , NalionaI Aoronaulics and Spaco
Adminislralion, IangIoy IioId, Va., Novombor 1968.
48. Inoumalic Tiro HydropIaning and Somo Iffocls on VolicIo Iorformanco,
W. B. Horno and U. T. }oynor, - -,
Iapor 97UC, Nov YorI, 1965.
49. Runvay Grooving for Incroasing Traclionllo Curronl Irogram and an
Assossmonl of AvaiIabIo RosuIls, W. B. Horno and G. W. BrooIs,
, WiIIiamsburg, Va., Docombor 1967.
50. - -, Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5325-4B,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., }anuary 2005.
51. - -, Aorospaco Induslrios Associalion of
Amorica, Inc., Waslinglon, D.C., }anuary 1978.
52. SimuIalod Vorlox Incounlors by a Tvin-Ingino CommorciaI Transporl Aircrafl
during IinaI Approacl, I. C. Haslings, }r. and G. I. Koysor, }r.,
- , Iapor 800775, Socioly of Aulomolivo Inginoors,
WarrondaIo, Ia., May 1980.
53. ToclnoIogy Roquiromonls and Roadinoss for Vory Iargo VolicIos, D. WiIIiam
Connor, , Amorican Inslilulo of Aoronaulics
and Aslronaulics, ArIinglon, Va., ApriI 1979.
54.
-, S. K. AgravaI and H. DiauloIo, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion
ToclnicaI Conlor, Roporl IAA-RD-80-78, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
AlIanlic Cily, N.}., }anuary 1981.
- - -

55. - -
- ICAO CircuIar 91-AN/75, InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion,
MonlroaI, Canada, 1970.
56. TraiIing Vorlox Hazard, W. A. McGovan, -
-, Iapor 680220, Nov YorI, ApriI 1968.
57. - , Advisory CircuIar, AC 91-6A, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., May 1978.
58. , IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon,
D.C., 2008.
59. , Advisory CircuIar AC 190-23I, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 2002.
60. -, US DOT
IAA Ordor 5300.7, Oclobor 6, 2005.

In ordor llal llo airporl pIannor and dosignor may bo avaro of llo
imporlanco of llo ruIos and loclnoIogios llal dofino llo avialion
oporalions villin llo airspaco, a vory briof summary of vlal consli-
lulos air lraffic conlroI, incroasingIy boing Inovn as air lraffic man-
agomonl, lov il is managod and oporalod, and llo principaI aids lo
air navigalion, is prosonlod in llis claplor.
An approcialion of air lraffic managomonl and ils curronl and fuluro
oporaling and loclnoIogicaI claraclorislics viII focus allonlion on llo facl
llal any oxlonsivo roorionlalion of runvays on oxisling airporls or llo con-
slruclion of onliroIy nov airporls roquiros consuIlalion vill llo organiza-
lions in clargo of oporaling surrounding airspaco and vory oflon an
airspaco sludy. Tlis is parlicuIarIy lruo in Iargo molropoIilan aroas vloro
sovoraI airporls aro prosonl and llo oxisling airspaco musl bo slarod by
sovoraI airporls. In addilion, llo dosign of IocaI airspaco procoduros
incIudo procoduros for llo doparluro and arrivaI of aircrafl lo airporl run-
vays roquiros a fundamonlaI InovIodgo in curronl and fuluro air lraffic
conlroI loclnoIogios and poIicios. ConfIicls in air lraffic procoduros can
soriousIy affocl llo officioncy of any singIo airporl or a syslom of airporls
in a rogion. Tlo pIanning of airporls musl incIudo provisions for faciIilios
Iocalod al airporls llal supporl llo air lraffic managomonl syslom.
As onlancod air lraffic managomonl loclnoIogios and slralogic
pIans conlinuo lo bo impIomonlod, considoralion of IocaI air lraffic
procoduros las bocomo incroasingIy roIovanl and imporlanl for ovon
llo smaIIosl of airporls.
As of 2008, llo air lraffic managomonl syslom vas jusl boginning a
compIolo syslom lransformalion. As sucl il is imporalivo of llo airporl
pIannor lo lavo an undorslanding of boll llo fundamonlaIs of air lraf-
fic managomonl and llo conslanl onlancomonls lo llo syslom. Tlis
claplor is inlondod lo onIy briofIy inlroduco llo syslom lo llo airporl
pIannor.

-
Tlo firsl allompl lo sol up ruIos for air lraffic conlroI vas mado by llo
InlornalionaI Commission for Air Navigalion (ICAN), vlicl vas
undor llo diroclion of llo Ioaguo of Nalions. Tlo procoduros vlicl
llo commission promuIgalod in }uIy of 1922 voro adoplod by 14
counlrios. AIllougl llo Unilod Slalos vas nol a mombor of llo
Ioaguo of Nalions, and lloroforo did nol officiaIIy adopl llo ruIos,
many of llo procoduros oslabIislod by ICAN voro usod in llo prom-
uIgalion of air lraffic procoduros in llo Unilod Slalos as voII as in
mosl rogions of llo vorId.
Conslruclion and oporalion of llo airvays syslom in llo Unilod
Slalos prior lo 1926 voro conlroIIod by llo miIilary and by llo Iosl
Offico Doparlmonl. Tlo formaI onlry of llo fodoraI govornmonl inlo
llo roguIalion of air lraffic camo vill llo passago of llo Air Commorco
Acl of 1926 (IubIic Iav 64-254). Tlis acl diroclod llo Buroau of Air
Commorco lo oslabIisl, mainlain, and oporalo Iigllod civiI airvays.
Al llo prosonl limo llo IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion mainlains
and oporalos llo airvays syslom of llo Unilod Slalos.
Tlo oslabIislmonl of llo InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organi-
zalion (ICAO) in 1944 loIpod lo slandardizo rocommondod air
lraffic conlroI procoduros inlornalionaIIy. Today, air lraffic con-
lroI in oacl counlry is oporalod oillor by ils fodoraI govornmonl
or by privalo corporalions undor govornmonlaI suporvision and
roguIalions. IxampIos of inlornalionaI air lraffic conlroI organi-
zalions incIudo llo IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion in llo Unilod
Slalos, NalionaI Air Traffic Sorvicos Ild. (NATS) sorving llo
Unilod Kingdom, NAV Canada in Canada, and Air Sorvicos Aus-
lraIia sorving llo AuslraIian conlinonl. In addilion, IuroconlroI,
an inlorgovornmonlaI organizalion comprising 38 mombor slalos
villin llo Iuropoan Union, coordinalos, slandardizos, and
assisls in managing air lraffic in llo airspaco ovor llo Iuropoan
conlinonl.
Tlo primary mission of llo IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, as
voII as ils inlornalionaI counlorparls, is lo provido for safo and offi-
cionl movomonl of aircrafl llrougloul llo airspaco syslom. Tlo pri-
mary funclion of llo air lraffic managomonl syslom is lo provonl coI-
Iisions bolvoon aircrafl. As sucl, llo IAA offico of air lraffic
managomonl is mado up of and rosponsibIo for a sorios of liorarcli-
caI conlroI faciIilios, ground and saloIIilo basod navigalionaI aidos
and aircrafl rouling procoduros, as voII as a dofinod syslom of air
roulos and airspaco cIassificalions. WliIo mucl of llo curronl air lraf-
fic syslom is in many vays basod on llo originaI dovoIopmonl of air
lraffic conlroI in llo oarIy lvonlioll conlury, il slouId bo nolod llal
air lraffic conlroI poIicios aro conslanlIy clanging as llo mosl mod-
orn loclnoIogios aro impIomonlod lo bollor manago incroasing air
lraffic voIumos.

-
In gonoraI, aircrafl oporalo in vlal is Inovn as llo NalionaI Airspaco
Syslom (NAS). Tlo NAS is dofinod by a sorios of air roulos, airspaco
cIassificalions, and navigalionaI aids. Aircrafl oporalo villin llo NAS
undor varying IovoIs of air lraffic conlroI, basod primariIy on llo
voallor condilions and llo lypo and amounl of fIigll aclivily villin
llo aroa. In aroas vill vory Iov voIumos of fIigll aclivily during
oxcoIIonl visibiIily condilions, aircrafl may oporalo in llo compIolo
absonco of air lraffic conlroI, vloroas in llo busiosl airspaco or vlon
visibiIily is Iimilod, aircrafl may bo undor fuII posilivo conlroI, onIy
boing abIo lo clango spood, courso, or aIliludo by dirocl ordors from
an air lraffic conlroIIor.
Tlo NAS is oporalod and managod by a liorarclicaI organizalion
of air lraffic conlroI faciIilios. Tlo spocific purposo of llo air lraffic
conlroI sorvico is lo provonl coIIisions bolvoon aircrafl and on llo
manouvoring aroa bolvoon aircrafl and obslruclions, lo oxpodilo and
mainlain an ordorIy fIov of air lraffic |3].
-
In llo Unilod Slalos, air lraffic conlroI is managod on a macro IovoI al
llo air lraffic conlroI syslom command conlor (ATCSCC) in Horndon,
Virginia. In 2007, ATCSCC monilorod an avorago of 25,000 fIiglls por
day, vill an avorago of 6000 fIiglls airborno during poaI poriods. In
addilion, ATCSCC managos fIiglls pIannod 6 lo 12 l in llo fuluro,
vill llo purposo of pIanning for Iimiling congoslion villin llo
nalions airspaco. In doing so, ATCSCC las llo aullorily lo impIo-
monl ground doIay programs by diclaling corlain aircrafl lo romain al
lloir airporls of doparluro lo provonl furllor congoslion in poinls of
llo airspaco or al airporls sufforing from doIays duo lo voallor or
loavy lraffic voIumos.
-
Air roulo lraffic conlroI conlors (ARTCCs) lavo llo rosponsibiIily of
conlroIIing llo movomonl of on roulo aircrafl aIong llo airvays and jol
roulos, and in ollor parls of llo airspaco. Iacl of llo 21 air lraffic
conlroI conlors villin llo Unilod Slalos las conlroI of a dofinod goo-
graplicaI aroa vlicl may bo groalor llan 100,000 mi
2
in sizo. Al llo
boundary poinl, vlicl marIs llo Iimils of llo conlroI aroa of llo
conlor, conlroI of aircrafl may bo lransforrod lo an adjaconl conlor or an
approacl conlroI faciIily, or radar sorvico may bo lorminalod and VIR
aircrafl aro froo lo conlacl llo noxl conlor. Air lraffic conlroI conlors aro
normaIIy nol Iocalod al airporls. Air lraffic conlroI conlors can aIso
provido approacl conlroI sorvico lo nonlovorod airporls and lo
nonlorminaI radar approacl conlroI airporls.

Iacl ARTCC goograplicaI aroa is dividod inlo soclors. Tlo con-
figuralion of oacl soclor is basod on oquaIizing llo vorIIoad of llo
conlroIIors. ConlroI of aircrafl is passod from ono soclor lo anollor.
Tlo goograplicaI aroa is soclorod nol onIy in llo lorizonlaI bul aIso
in llo vorlicaI pIano. Tlus lloro can bo a ligl-aIliludo soclor abovo
ono or moro Iov-aIliludo soclors. Iacl soclor is mannod by ono or
moro conlroIIors, doponding on llo voIumo and compIoxily of lraffic.
Tlo avorago numbor of aircrafl llal oacl soclor can landIo doponds
on llo numbor of poopIo assignod lo llo soclor, llo compIoxily of lraf-
fic, and llo dogroo of aulomalion providod.
Iacl soclor is normaIIy providod vill ono or moro air roulo sur-
voiIIanco radar (ARSR) unils vlicl covor llo onliro soclor and aIIov
for moniloring of soparalion bolvoon aircrafl in llo soclor. In addi-
lion, oacl soclor las informalion on llo idonlificalion of llo aircrafl,
doslinalion, fIigll pIan roulo, oslimalod spood, and fIigll aIliludo,
vlicl is poslod on piocos of papor caIIod fIigll progross slrips, and
aro suporimposod on llo radarscopo adjaconl lo llo bIips vlicl idon-
lify llo posilion and idonlily of aircrafl. Tlo slrips aro conlinuousIy
updalod as llo nood arisos.
Al prosonl, communicalion bolvoon llo piIol and conlroIIor is by
voico. Tloroforo oacl ARTCC is assignod a numbor of VHI and UHI
radio communicalion froquoncios. Tlo conlroIIor in lurn assigns a
spocific froquoncy lo llo piIol. Hovovor, modornizalion of air lraffic
conlroI is pIannod lo incIudo furllor proIiforalion of digilaI commu-
nicalions, Inovn as conlroIIor piIol dala IinI communicalions
(CIDIC) bolvoon conlroIIors and piIols.
-
Tlo lorminaI approacl conlroI faciIily (TRACON) monilors llo air lraf-
fic in llo airspaco surrounding airporls vill modoralo lo ligl donsily
lraffic. Il las jurisdiclion in llo conlroI and soparalion of air lraffic from
llo boundary aroa of llo air lraffic conlroI lovor al an airporl lo a dis-
lanco of up lo 50 mi from llo airporl and lo an aIliludo ranging up lo
17,000 fl. Tlis is commonIy roforrod lo as llo lorminaI aroa. Wloro lloro
aro sovoraI airporls in an urban aroa, ono faciIily may conlroI lraffic lo aII
of lloso airporls. In ossonco llo faciIily rocoivos aircrafl from llo ARTCC
and guidos llom lo ono of sovoraI airporls. In providing llis guidanco, il
porforms llo imporlanl funclion of moloring and soquoncing aircrafl lo
provido uniform and ordorIy fIov lo llo airporls.
Tlo organizalionaI slrucluro of an approacl conlroI faciIily is vory
simiIar lo llo ARTCC. IiIo llo ARTCC, llo goograplic aroa of llo faciI-
ily is dividod inlo soclors lo oquaIizo llo vorIIoad of llo conlroIIors. Tlo
approacl conlroI faciIily lransfors conlroI of an arriving aircrafl lo llo
airporl conlroI lovor vlon il is Iinod up vill llo runvay aboul 5 mi
from llo airporl. IiIoviso, conlroI of doparling aircrafl is lransforrod lo
llo approacl conlroI faciIily by llo airporl conlroI lovor.

Tlo airporl lraffic conlroI lovor (ATCT) is llo faciIily vlicl supor-
visos, dirocls, and monilors llo arrivaI and doparluro lraffic al llo
airporl and in llo immodialo airspaco villin 5 mi from llo airporl.
Tlo lovor is rosponsibIo for issuing cIoarancos lo aII doparling air-
crafl, providing piIols vill informalion on vind, lomporaluro, baro-
molric prossuro, and oporaling condilions al llo airporl, and for llo
conlroI of aII aircrafl on llo ground oxcopl in llo manouvoring aroa
immodialoIy adjaconl lo llo aircrafl parIing posilions caIIod llo ramp
aroa. In llo Unilod Slalos in 2007, lloro voro moro llan 550 air lraffic
conlroI lovors. WliIo mosl lovors aro oporalod by llo IAA, as of
}anuary 2007, 233 voro oporalod by llo privalo soclor undor llo
IAAs conlracl lovor program. Tlo numbor of oporaling conlracl
lovors, as lloy aro Inovn, las incroasod lromondousIy sinco llo
incoplion of llo program in 1982. Iiguro 3-1 providos an iIIuslralion
of llo nov ATCT, ovorsladoving llo proviousIy aclivo ATCT, al llo
HarlsfioId-}acIson AlIanla InlornalionaI Airporl, AlIanla, Goorgia.
--

-
WliIo nol providing spocific conlroI, fIigll sorvico slalions (ISS) aro llo
oIomonl of llo air lraffic managomonl syslom llal providos informalion
and ollor nonconlroI communicalions lo aircrafl oporaling in llo sys-
lom. Tloir principaI funclions aro lo accopl and cIoso fIigll pIans, briof
piIols aboul lloir roulos of fIigll, and lo provido imporlanl informalion,
in llo form of nolicos lo airmon (NOTAMs) boforo fIigll and in fIigll,
on sucl iloms as sovoro voallor, llo slalus of navigalionaI aids, airporl
runvay cIosuros, and clangos in pubIislod approacl and doparluro
procoduros. A socondary funclion is lo roIay lraffic conlroI mossagos
bolvoon aircrafl and llo approprialo conlroI faciIily on llo ground.
IIigll sorvico las gono llrougl a numbor of clangos sinco llo
oarIy 1990s. In llo 1990s llo IAA consoIidalod moro llan 180 fIigll
sorvico slalions inlo approximaloIy 60 aulomalod fIigll sorvico sla-
lions (AISS) vlicl aIIov many funclions, parlicuIarIy vill rospocl lo
dissominaling voallor and ollor NOTAMs and llo fiIing of fIigll
pIans lo bo porformod oIoclronicaIIy by voicomaiI or compulor.
In 2005, llo IAA avardod a conlracl lo oporalo llo AISS syslom
lo llo IocIlood Marlin Corporalion, roprosonling anollor slop in llo
privalizalion of major compononls of llo nalions air lraffic conlroI
syslom. WliIo llo privalizalion of llo AISS syslom las causod somo
conlrovorsy villin llo avialion induslry, lloro las boon roIalivoIy
IillIo impacl of llis or any ollor IAA privalizalion offorls on airporl
pIanning and dosign.
-
Air lraffic ruIos aro lradilionaIIy appIiod basod on provaiIing moloo-
roIogicaI condilions. VisuaI molooroIogicaI condilions (VMC) aro
appIiod vlon lloro is sufficionl visibiIily for piIols of aircrafl lo bo
abIo lo navigalo by roforoncing Iocalions on llo ground, as voII as lo
bo abIo lo soo and avoid ollor aircrafl in llo aroa. Around airporls,
VMC is dofinod as al Ioasl 3 slalulo miIos visibiIily and cIoud coiI-
ings (dofinod as al Ioasl
5
/
8
of llo sIy covorod by cIouds) of al Ioasl
1000 fl abovo llo ground (AGI). ConvorsoIy, inslrumonl molooro-
IogicaI condilions (IMC) oxisl vlon visibiIilios aro Ioss llan 3 slalulo
miIos and cIoud coiIings aro Ioss llan 1000 fl abovo llo ground.
Al ils mosl basic IovoI, aircrafl oporaling in VMC lond lo fIy undor
visuaI fIigll ruIos (VIR). VIR fIigll ruIos dopond on aircrafl opora-
lors lo visuaIIy mainlain adoqualo soparalion from lorrain, cIouds,
and ollor aircrafl. Undor VIR, aircrafl navigalion is basod on visuaI
roforonco lo Iocalions on llo ground, incIuding visuaI idonlificalion
and approaclos lo airporls.
WliIo fIying undor VIR condilions, piIols may roquosl from air
lraffic conlroI lo bo undor fIigll foIIoving. Undor fIigll foIIoving,
air lraffic conlroI oporalors provido assislanco lo piIols by suporvising

courso and aIliludo clangos, as voII as aclivoIy nolifying piIols of

noarby aircrafl. IiIols fIying undor VIR condilions aro roquirod lo fIy
undor fIigll foIIoving in llo busiosl of airspaco.
Aircrafl fIying in IMC or al aIliludos ovor 18,000 fl abovo soa IovoI
(AMSI) fIy undor inslrumonl fIigll ruIos (IIR). Aircrafl fIying undor
IIR navigalo using ground-basod and saloIIilo-basod navigalion aidos
and aro fuIIy conlroIIod aIong pIannod roulos by air lraffic conlroI por-
sonnoI. Oflon limos, fIiglls oporaling undor IIR viII fIy dofinod dopar-
luro and approacl procoduros lo and from airporls vlicl dopond on
fIying prociso coursos and aIliludos lo and from vaypoinls as dofinod
by ground- and saloIIilo-basod navigalion sysloms. Tloso pubIislod
inslrumonl procoduros provido for aircrafl lo safoIy and officionlIy
doparl from and arrivo lo airporl runvays vliIo avoiding coIIisions
vill lorrain and ollor aircrafl during poor visibiIily condilions. In many
vays, IIR ruIos, roulos, and doparluro and approacl procoduros lavo
significanl infIuonco on llo pIanning, dosign, and oporalion of airporls.
- --- -
In llo Unilod Slalos, domoslic airspaco is dofinod inlo six cIassos, pIus
aroas vill spociaI oporaling roslriclions, and a dosignalod sorios
roulos bolvoon airporls and vaypoinls. Aircrafl aro subjocl lo diffor-
onl IovoIs of air lraffic conlroI doponding on vlicl airspaco cIassifica-
lion lloy aro curronlIy oporaling in, llo lypo of dofinod roulo lloy aro
on, and vlollor lloy aro fIying undor VIR or IIR fIigll ruIos.
CIassos of airspaco in llo Unilod Slalos aro idonlifiod aIplaboli-
caIIy, as CIass A, B, C, D, I, or G airspaco, as iIIuslralod in Iig. 3-2.
CIass A airspaco, aIso Inovn as posilivo conlroI airspaco, is llo
airspaco bolvoon 18,000 fl abovo moan soa IovoI (AMSI) (Inovn as II
180) and 60,000 fl (II 600) AMSI ovor llo 48 conliguous Unilod Slalos
and AIasIa, oxlonding oul lo 12 nm off llo coasl of llo Unilod Slalos.
AGL-above ground level FL-flight level MSL-mean sea level
CLASS G
Nontowered
Airport
CLASS G
CLASS B
CLASS C
CLASS D
CLASS E
CLASS A
700 AGL
FL 600
18,000 MSL
14,500 MSL
1200 AGL
CLASS G
Effective September 16, 1993
- - ---

Sinco aircrafl fIying in CIass A airspaco aro gonoraIIy fasl moving com-
morciaI airIino or gonoraI avialion aircrafl, aII aircrafl oporaling in
CIass A airspaco oporalo undor IIR.
CIass B airspaco aro dofinod aroas villin a 30 nm radius around
llo busiosl airporls, incIuding aroas of muIlipIo Iargo airporls, in llo
Unilod Slalos. CIass B airspaco surrounds 36 of llo busiosl commor-
ciaI sorvico airporls in llo Unilod Slalos. CIass B airspaco is lypicaIIy
slapod in llo form of vlal is Inovn in llo induslry as an invorlod
vodding caIo. Noarosl llo busiosl airporls villin llo radius of CIass B
airspaco, CIass B airspaco oxlonds from llo surfaco of llo busiosl air-
porls in llo aroa lo gonoraIIy 10,000 fl MSI. Iarllor avay from llo
airporl, CIass B may bogin al somo aIliludo abovo llo surfaco and
oxlond lo 10,000 fl MSI. Tlo purposo of CIass B airspaco is lo provido
an aroa of posilivo air lraffic conlroI lo coordinalo llo many ligl-
spood aircrafl lransilioning from ligl aIliludos lo Ianding al llo bus-
iosl airporls, and vico vorsa, vill IocaI Iovor aIliludo lraffic villin
llo aroa, vliIo providing airspaco al Iovor aIliludos furllor avay
from llo airporl lo bo usod vill Iovor IovoIs of conlroI for smaIIor
and sIovor gonoraI avialion aircrafl in llo rogion. Aircrafl oporaling
villin CIass B airspaco aro undor posilivo air lraffic conlroI, and as
sucl musl oillor bo fIying undor IIR ruIos or, vill pormission from
air lraffic conlroI, undor VIR ruIos vill fIigll foIIoving. An oxampIo
dopiclion of CIass B airspaco is iIIuslralod in Iig. 3-3. Tlis iIIuslralion
is a porlion of an airspaco soclionaI clarl, providod by llo U.S.
Doparlmonl of Dofonso and llo IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion as
ono slandard for idonlifying cIassos of airspaco, airporls, navigalionaI
aids, and air roulos in llo NAS.
Unilod Slalos Airspaco CIass B Aroas, conlorod around llo foIIov-
ing civiI airporls:
IHX Iloonix SIy Harbor InlornalionaI
IAX Ios AngoIos InlornalionaI
SAN San Diogo InlornalionaI Iindborgl IioId
SIO San Irancisco InlornalionaI
DIN Donvor InlornalionaI
MIA Miami InlornalionaI
MCO OrIando InlornalionaI
TIA Tampa InlornalionaI
HNI HonoIuIu InlornalionaI
ORD Clicago OHaro InlornalionaI
CVG Cincinnali/Norllorn KonlucIy InlornalionaI
MSY Iouis Armslrong Nov OrIoans InlornalionaI
BWI BaIlimoro/Waslinglon InlornalionaI

BOS GonoraI I. I. Iogan InlornalionaI (Boslon)

DTW Dolroil MolropoIilan Wayno Counly
MSI MinnoapoIis-Sl. IauI InlornalionaI
MCI Kansas Cily InlornalionaI
STI Iamborl-Sl. Iouis InlornalionaI
IAS Ias Vogas McCarran InlornalionaI
IWR NovarI Iiborly InlornalionaI
}IK }oln I. Konnody InlornalionaI
IGA Nov YorI IaGuardia
CIT ClarIollo/DougIas InlornalionaI
CII CIovoIand-HopIins InlornalionaI
-- -

CVG Cincinnali/Norllorn KonlucIy InlornalionaI
Airporl
IHI IliIadoIplia InlornalionaI
- IIT Iillsburgl InlornalionaI
- MIM Momplis InlornalionaI
- DAI DaIIas Iovo IioId
- DIW DaIIas-Iorl Worll InlornalionaI
- HOU Houslon WiIIiam I. Hobby
- IAH Goorgo Busl InlorconlinonlaI (Houslon)
- SIC SaIl IaIo Cily InlornalionaI
- DCA RonaId Roagan Waslinglon NalionaI
- IAD Waslinglon DuIIos InlornalionaI
- SIA SoallIo-Tacoma InlornalionaI
CIass C airspaco is found around airporls villoul as mucl oporal-
ing voIumo as lloso around CIass B airspaco, bul is busy onougl lo
varranl somo aclivo IovoI of air lraffic conlroI villin 10 mi of llo air-
porl. VIR lraffic oporaling villin CIass C airspaco musl adloro lo slricl
cIoud soparalion roquiromonls and lavo al Ioasl 3 mi of visibiIily so
llal lloy may sufficionlIy bo abIo lo soo and avoid ollor lraffic. In addi-
lion, aII lraffic oporaling villin CIass C airspaco musl lavo oslabIislod
radio communicalion vill air lraffic conlroI. Tlo slapo of CIass C air-
spaco is aIso in llo form of an upsido dovn vodding caIo, oxlonding
from llo surfaco lo lypicaIIy 4000 fl AGI around llo innor 5-nm radius
around llo airporl, and from 10002000 fl lo 4000 fl AGI from 5 lo
10 nm from llo airporl. Iiguro 3-4 providos an iIIuslralion of CIass C
airspaco surrounding llo Daylona Boacl InlornalionaI Airporl, dopiclod
by a lvo conconlric rings of radii 5 and 10 mi around llo airporl.
CIass D airspaco is found villin a 5-mi radius of an airporl vill
an oporaling air lraffic conlroI lovor, oxlonding from llo surfaco lo
lypicaIIy 2500 fl AGI. Tlo purposo of CIass D airspaco is lo provido
an aroa of air lraffic conlroI aullorily lo conlroIIors in llo airporls
conlroI lovor, vlo aro rosponsibIo for llo safo soparalion of arriving
and doparling aircrafl lo and from llo airporl. Aircrafl oporaling
undor VIR fIigll ruIos aro aIIovod lo oporalo villin CIass D airspaco
as aIong as lloy oslabIisl communicalion vill llo air lraffic conlroI-
Iors in llo lovor. Wlon an airporls conlroI lovor is in oporalion, llo
airporl is said lo bo a conlroIIod airporl. Wlon llo airporls lovor is
nol oporalionaI, llo airporl is considorod unconlroIIod and CIass D
airspaco is no Iongor aclivo. Airporls villoul a conlroI lovor aro con-
sidorod unconlroIIod airporls, as voII. Iiguro 3-5 iIIuslralos CIass D
airspaco surrounding llo Soullvosl Goorgia RogionaI Airporl in
AIbany, Goorgia, dopiclod by a daslod 5-mi radius circIo around llo

-- -
-- - -

airporl. Tlo oulor sladod ring dopicls CIass I airspaco boginning al
700 fl abovo ground IovoI.
CIass I airspaco is found in sovoraI Iocalions vill llo purposo of
providing aroas of al Ioasl passivo conlroI for airpIanos fIying in
aroas of Iov aIliludo bul modoralo lraffic aclivily, on dofinod air roulos,

as voII as lloso fIying on inslrumonl-basod approacl and doparluro
procoduros lo or from an airporl. SpocificaIIy, CIass I airspaco oxisls in
mosl parls of llo Unilod Slalos, from llo surfaco, 700 fl AGI, or 1200 fl
AGI lo 14,500 fl AGI, and 3 nm surrounding llo nalions airvays.
Any airspaco llal doos nol faII villin CIass A, B, C, D, or I air-
spaco is considorod CIass G, or unconlroIIod airspaco. Tlis airspaco is
found onIy al vory Iov aIliludos (lypicaIIy Ioss llan 700 or 1200 fl
AGI) or in ruraI aroas of Iov voIumo air lraffic. Willin CIass G air-
spaco, aircrafl may movo frooIy as Iong as lloro is sufficionl visibiIily
(1 mi during day lours, 3 mi during nigll lours, 5 mi day or nigll
vlon abovo 10,000 fl AMSI) lo soo and avoid ollor air lraffic.
Willin llo NalionaI Airspaco Syslom aro a numbor of spociaI uso
airspaco cIassificalions. Somo of lloso dofino pormanonl Iocalion of
spociaI uso or roslriclod aclivily, ollors dofino Iocalions vloro fIigll
oporalions aro roslriclod for socurily or ollor roasons.
- aro dofinod villin llo NAS as aroas prolibilod
lo any civiI avialion aclivily. Tloso aroas aro lypicaIIy dofinod
around liglIy sonsilivo Iocalions, sucl as llo Wlilo Houso in
Waslinglon, D.C.
- - aro dofinod villin llo NAS as aroas vloro roguIar,
bul nol conslanl, sonsilivo oporalions occur, procIuding llo safo pas-
sago of civiI aircrafl. Tloso aroas, sucl as around llo Konnody Spaco
Conlor on llo oasl coasl of IIorida, viII poriodicaIIy roslricl civiIian
accoss vlon sonsilivo aclivilios aro occurring.
- - (MOAs) aro dofinod as aroas vill pori-
odic miIilary avialion or ollor aclivily. Tloso aroas may bo onlorod
onIy by pormission from air lraffic conlroI, vlicl coordinalos vill
llo miIilary for civiIian uso.
-- (TIRs) aro dofinod as aroas llal lompo-
rariIy roslricl or prolibil mosl civiI avialion oporalions for roasons of
nalionaI socurily. TIRs aro impIomonlod vill IillIo advanco nolico for
a varioly of roasons, ranging from prolocling nucIoar povor faciIilios,
lo nalionaI sporling ovonls, lo llo lravoIs of llo Irosidonl of llo
Unilod Slalos. Oflonlimos, llo aclivalion of a TIR viII lavo sorious
impacls on llo accossibiIily of an airporl lo llo avialion syslom.
Iiguro 3-6 providos an iIIuslralion of muIlipIo cIassos of airspaco
villin llo samo rogion, incIuding CIass I airspaco undor IaIalIa-
IarIin Airporl and roslriclod aroas villin a miIilary oporalions aroa
soull of llo airporl. Roslriclod uso airspaco prosonls claIIongos lo
airporl pIannors sooIing maximum officioncy of air lraffic lo and
from llo airfioId.
-
Aircrafl fIying from ono poinl lo anollor lavo lradilionaIIy foIIovod
dosignalod roulos. In llo Unilod Slalos lloso aro roforrod lo as viclor
airvays and jol roulos. Tloso roulos lavo ovoIvod ovor limo as dis-
cussod boIov.

- - - -

-
Tlo oarIiosl airvays, croalod in llo 1920s voro iniliaIIy givon a coIor
dosignalion on aoronaulicaI clarls and doscribod by lloir coIor. Tlo
lrunI Iinos oasl and vosl voro groon, lrunI Iinos norll and soull
voro ambor, socondary Iinos oasl and vosl voro rod, and socondarios
norll and soull voro bIuo. Iacl of lloso coIorod airvays vas llon
givon a numbor, sucl as groon 3, rod 4, olc. Tlo numboring for llo
airvays bogan al llo Canadian bordor and llo Iacific Coasl, llon
progrossod lo llo soull and oasl. Tloso airvays voro llon assignod
an aIliludo IovoI, vlicl for groon and rod vas al odd-llousand fool
oaslbound and al ovon-llousand fool voslbound. On llo ambor and
bIuo airvays norllbound, odd-llousand-fool IovoIs voro assignod,
and soullbound ovon-llousand-fool IovoIs voro assignod. Tloso air-
vays voro doIinoalod on llo ground by Iov-froquoncy modium-
froquoncy (II/MI) four courso radio rangos. Tlo coIorod airvays
voro plasod oul as aircrafl bocamo oquippod lo uso llo viclor airvays
in llo Ialo 1940s.

-
IoIIoving llo dovoIopmonl of llo II/MI four courso radio rangos
llo roulos nov Inovn as llo viclor airvays voro oslabIislod. Tlo
viclor airvays aro doIinoalod on llo ground by vory ligl froquoncy
omnirango radio oquipmonl (VORs). Iacl VOR slalion las a discrolo
radio froquoncy lo vlicl a piIol couId luno a navigalionaI radio and
llus bo abIo lo mainlain a courso from ono VOR lo llo noxl. Tlo num-
boring syslom for lloso airvays is ovon numbors oasl and vosl, odd
numbors norll and soull. Tlo advanlagos of llo viclor airvays voro
llal llo VORs voro roIalivoIy froo of slalic and il is mucl oasior for a
piIol lo dolormino air posilion roIalivo lo a VOR slalion llan vill llo
II/MI four courso radio rango. Viclor airvays aro dosignalod on
aoronaulicaI clarls as V-1, V-2, olc. Tlo airvay incIudos llo airspaco
villin paraIIoI Iinos 4 mi oacl sido of llo conlorIino of llo airvay. If
lvo VORs doIinoaling an airvay aro moro llan 120 mi aparl, llo air-
spaco incIudod in llo airvay is as indicalod for jol roulos.
-
Will llo inlroduclion of commorciaI jol aircrafl in 1958, llo aIliludos
al vlicl lloso aircrafl fIov incroasod significanlIy. Al liglor aIliludos
llo numbor of ground slalions (VORs) roquirod lo doIinoalo a spocific
roulo is smaIIor llan al Iovor aIliludos bocauso llo signaI is lransmil-
lod on a Iino of sigll. Tloroforo lloro vas no nood lo cIullor llo ligl
aIliludo roulos vill aII llo ground slalions roquirod for Iov aIliludo
fIying. AII llo roulos in llo conlinonlaI Unilod Slalos couId bo pIacod
on ono clarl. Tloso voro oslabIislod vlal aro Inovn as jol roulos.
AIllougl in ono sonso lloso roulos aro airvays, lloy aro nol roforrod
lo as sucl. Today boll viclor airvays and jol roulos oxisl. Tlus llo jol
roulos aro doIinoalod by llo samo aids lo navigalion on llo ground
(VORs) as aro viclor airvays bul fovor slalions aro usod. Viclor air-
vays oxlond from 1200 fl abovo llo lorrain lo, bul nol incIuding,
18,000 fl AMSI. }ol roulos oxlond from 18,000 fl lo 45,000 fl AMSI.
Abovo 45,000 fl lloro aro no dosignalod roulos and aircrafl aro lan-
dIod on an individuaI basis. Tlo numboring syslom for llo jol roulos
is llo samo as for llo viclor airvays. }ol roulos aro dosignalod on
aoronaulicaI clarls as }-1, }-2, olc.

Ior many yoars aII aircrafl voro roquirod lo fIy on dosignalod roulos,
airvays, or jol roulos. Tlal is, aII aircrafl lad lo fIy from ono VOR lo
llo noxl VOR sinco llo VORs doIinoalo llo airvays and jol roulos.
Tlis roquirod llo funnoIing of aII lraffic on llo dosignalod roulos llal
rosuIlod in congoslion on corlain roulos. AIso llo dosignalod roulos
voro oflon nol llo slorlosl dislanco bolvoon lvo poinls, rosuIling in
addilionaI fuoI consumplion, fIigll limo, and cosl. Iurllormoro, if llo

dosignalod roulo ponolralos inlo an aroa of llundorslorms, aircrafl

lavo lo bo voclorod around llo slorm by conlroIIors on llo ground.
Tlis imposod an oxlra vorIIoad on llo conlroIIors llal is compon-
salod for by llo uso of llo sovoro voallor avoidanco program (SWAI).
Dospilo lloso inofficioncios, llo vasl majorily of lransionl avialion
sliII fIy aIong llo viclor airvays and jol roulos. Tlis lrond, lovovor,
las bogun lo clango dramalicaIIy sinco llo boginning of llo lvonly-
firsl conlury, vill llo proIiforalion of GIS basod navigalion sysloms,
undor vlal is Inovn as RNAV.
Aroa navigalion, RNAV, is a mollod of aircrafl navigalion llal
pormils aircrafl oporalion on any dosirod courso villin llo covor-
ago of slalion-roforoncod navigalionaI signaIs or villin llo Iimils of
a soIf-conlainod syslom capabiIily. Aroa navigalion roulos aro dirocl
roulos, basod upon llo aroa navigalion capabiIily of aircrafl,
bolvoon vaypoinls dofinod in lorms of Ialiludo and Iongiludo coor-
dinalos, dogroo and dislanco fixos, or offsols from oslabIislod roulos
and airvays.
RNAV is possibIo duo lo llo proIiforalion of onboard aircrafl
loclnoIogios llal laIo advanlago of llo gIobaI posilioning syslom
(GIS). GIS is basod on 24 saloIIilos Iocalod approximaloIy 12,000 mi
aboul llo oarll in a gooslalic orbil. ToclnoIogy llal roforoncos an
aircrafls posilion in roIalion lo lloso saloIIilos aIIovs an aircrafl lo
navigalo by roforoncing ils posilion lo a dolaiIod dalabaso llal idonli-
fios airporls, vaypoinls, lorrain, and man-mado infraslrucluro.
Inlancomonls lo llo accuracy of llo GIS syslom, vill loclnoIogios
sucl as llo vido aroa augmonlalion syslom (WAAS) lavo mado il
possibIo for llo air lraffic conlroI syslom lo approvo dofinod approaclos
lo airporl runvays vill far groalor accuracy llan vill lradilionaI
radio-froquoncy-basod sysloms.
Aroa navigalion providos a moro fIoxibIo rouling capabiIily llal
aIIovs for bollor uliIizalion of llo airspaco. Tlo groalor uliIizalion
roducos doIays in llo airspaco and rosuIls in moro oconomicaI opora-
lion of llo aircrafl. Ior oxampIo, roulos paraIIoI lo llo dosignalod
roulos from ono VOR lo anollor can bo oslabIislod villoul roquiring
addilionaI aids lo navigalion on llo ground. Anollor oxampIo is llo
oslabIislmonl of a moro dirocl roulo from ono poinl lo anollor by
oslabIisling vaypoinls llal provido for a slorlor lrip. Rouling around
a llundorslorm villoul conlinuous radar guidanco from llo ground
is anollor oxampIo.
Aroa navigalion is nol Iimilod lo llo lorizonlaI pIano bul can aIso
bo uliIizod in llo vorlicaI pIano, lormod VNAV. Il can aIso incIudo a
limo roforonco capabiIily. A proporIy oquippod aircrafl couId arrivo al
a spocifiod poinl in spaco, caIIod a fix, vill no nood for ground voclor-
ing or diroclions and couId addilionaIIy bo al llal poinl al a spocifiod
aIliludo and limo. Tlis is a four-dimonsionaI capabiIily giving Iali-
ludo, Iongiludo, aIliludo, and limo (4D RNAV). Tlus aroa navigalion

las llo polonliaI of incroasing airspaco capacily, onlancing safoly,
and roducing llo vorIIoad of llo piIol and llo air lraffic conlroIIor.
As parl of RNAV onlancomonls, llo IAA bogan oslabIisling
T-roulos as aIlornalivo roulos lo llo viclor airvays for lloso aircrafl
oquippod vill GIS sysloms. Tloso T-roulos voro oslabIislod lo pro-
vido aircrafl vill moro dirocl rouling, oflon around congoslod lraffic
aroas sucl as CIass B airspaco and aroas vloro viclor airvays inlor-
socl, oflon in llo vicinily of a VOR slalion.
Iiguro 3-7 iIIuslralos a porlion of airspaco as dopiclod in an IIR on
roulo Iov aIliludo clarl, pubIislod by llo IAAs NalionaI Aoronauli-
caI Clarling Offico. Tlis figuro dopicls boll viclor airvays (idonlifiod
by V foIIovod by a roulo numbor) and T-roulos (idonlifiod by a T foI-
Iovod by a roulo numbor), as voII as llo Iocalions of airporls, cIassos
of airspaco (sucl as llo sladod aroa around }acIsonviIIo InlornalionaI
Airporl), VOR slalions (sucl as TayIor, CociI, and Craig), and ollor
navigalionaI faciIilios. Il is rocommondod llal airporl pIannors
bocomo famiIiar vill undorslanding llo informalion providod on
llis and ollor aoronaulicaI clarls.
-
Air lraffic ruIos govorning llo minimum soparalion of aircrafl in llo
vorlicaI, lorizonlaI or IongiludinaI, and IaloraI diroclions aro oslab-
Iislod in oacl counlry by llo approprialo govornmonl aullorily. Tlo
curronl ruIos doscribod in llis loxl aro lloso llal aro proscribod by llo
- - - -

IAA for uso in llo Unilod Slalos. Tlo soparalion ruIos aro proscribod
for IIR oporalions and lloso ruIos appIy vlollor or nol IMC condi-
lions provaiI. Minimum soparalions aro a funclion of aircrafl lypo,
aircrafl spood, avaiIabiIily of radar faciIilios, navigalionaI aids, and
ollor faclors sucl as llo sovorily of vaIo vorlicos |3].
-
Tlo minimum vorlicaI soparalion of aircrafl oulsido of llo lorminaI
aroa from llo ground up lo and incIuding 41,000 fl AMSI is 1000 fl.
In 2005, vorlicaI soparalion minimums abovo 29,000 fl AMSI voro
roducod from 2000 lo 1000 fl undor llo roducod vorlicaI soparalion
minima (RVSM) program. ImpIomonlalion of llis program aIIovod
for addilionaI jol roulos lloroby incroasing llo capacily villin llo
NAS. Willin a lorminaI aroa a vorlicaI soparalion of 500 fl is main-
lainod bolvoon aircrafl, oxcopl llal a 1000-fl vorlicaI soparalion is
mainlainod boIov a loavy aircrafl.
-- -
To formaIizo llo soparalion of air lraffic in llo airspaco, air lraffic
conlroI assigns fIigll aIliludos lo aircrafl basod on lloir diroclion, or
moro procisoIy magnolic loading, of fIigll, and vlollor or nol lloy
aro fIying undor VIR vorsus IIR ruIos.
Aircrafl fIying undor IIR aro lypicaIIy assignod aIliludos of odd-
llousand fool (i.o., 3000 fl, 5000 fl, olc.) AMSI vliIo on an oaslorIy
loading (magnolic compass loading of 0p lo 179p) and ovon-llousand
fool (i.o., 4000 fl, 6000 fl, olc.) vliIo on a voslorIy loading (magnolic
compass loading of 180p lo 359p). Bolvoon 29,000 fl AMSI (II 290)
and 41,000 fl AMSI (II 410), aircrafl aro assignod a fIigll IovoI of
oillor II 290, II 330, II 370, or II 410 vlon lravoIing on an oaslorIy
loading, and oillor II 310, II 350, II 390 vlon lravoIing on a vosl-
orIy loading. If an aircrafl is RVSM corlifiod, il may bo assignod an
RVSM aIliludo of II 300, 320, 340, olc. bolvoon II 290 and II 410.
Aircrafl fIying undor VIR abovo 3000 fl AMSI aro lypicaIIy
assignod aIliludos of odd-llousand fool pIus 500 fl (i.o., 3500 fl, 5500 fl,
olc.) vliIo on an oaslorIy loading, and ovon-llousand fool pIus 500 fool
(i.o., 4500 fl, 6500 fl, olc.) vliIo on a voslorIy loading (magnolic com-
pass loading of 180p lo 359p). Abovo 29,000 fl (II 290), VIR lraffic is
assignod ovory-ollor ovon or odd llousand (II 290, II 330, olc. if
lravoIing on an oaslorIy loading, and II 320, II 360, olc. if lravoIing
on a voslorIy loading). Il slouId bo nolod llal abovo II 180, aII lraf-
fic is roquirod lo bo on an IIR fIigll pIan.
-
Tlo minimum IongiludinaI soparalion doponds on a numbor of fac-
lors. Among llo mosl imporlanl aro aircrafl sizo, aircrafl spood, and
llo avaiIabiIily of radar for llo conlroI of air lraffic. Ior llo purposos

of mainlaining aircrafl soparalions aircrafl aro cIassifiod by llo IAA
as loavy, Iargo, or smaII basod upon lloir maximum gross laIooff
voigll (MGTOW). Hoavy aircrafl aro cIassifiod as lloso aircrafl
vlicl lavo a MGTOW of 300,000 Ib or moro. Iargo aircrafl aro as
lloso aircrafl vlicl lavo a MGTOW of in oxcoss of 12,500 Ib bul Ioss
llan 300,000 Ib. SmaII aircrafl aro as lloso aircrafl vlicl lavo a
MGTOW of 12,500 Ib or Ioss. Aircrafl sizo is roIalod lo vaIo lurbu-
Ionco. Hoavy aircrafl croalo lraiIing vaIo vorlicos vlicl aro a lazard
lo Iigllor aircrafl foIIoving llom.
Tlo minimum IongiludinaI soparalions on roulo aro oxprossod in
lorms of limo or dislanco as foIIovs:
1. Ior on roulo aircrafl foIIoving a procoding on roulo aircrafl, if
llo Ioad aircrafl mainlains a spood al Ioasl 44 In faslor llan
llo lraiI aircrafl, 5 mi bolvoon aircrafl using dislanco moasur-
ing oquipmonl (DMI) or aroa navigalion (RNAV) and 3 min-
ulos bolvoon aII ollor aircrafl
2. Ior on roulo aircrafl foIIoving a procoding on roulo aircrafl, if
llo Ioad aircrafl mainlains a spood al Ioasl 22 In faslor llan
llo lraiI aircrafl, 10 mi bolvoon aircrafl using DMI or RNAV
and 5 min for aII ollor aircrafl
3. Ior on roulo aircrafl foIIoving a procoding on roulo aircrafl, if
boll aircrafl aro al llo samo spood, 20 mi bolvoon aircrafl
using DMI or RNAV and 10 min for aII ollor aircrafl
4. Wlon an aircrafl is cIimbing or dosconding llrougl llo aIli-
ludo of anollor aircrafl, 10 mi for aircrafl using DMI or
RNAV if llo dosconding aircrafl is Ioading or llo cIimbing
aircrafl is foIIoving and 5 min for aII ollor aircrafl
5. Bolvoon aircrafl in vlicl ono aircrafl is using DMI or RNAV
and llo ollor is nol, 30 mi
Minimum IongiludinaI soparalions ovor llo ocoans is normaIIy
10 minulos for suporsonic fIiglls and 15 minulos for subsonic fIiglls
bul in somo Iocalions il can bo sIigllIy moro or Ioss llan llis vaIuo |3].
Wlon llo aircrafl mix is sucl llal vaIo lurbuIonco is nol a faclor
and radar covorago is avaiIabIo, llo minimum IongiludinaI sopara-
lion for lvo aircrafl lravoIing in llo samo diroclion and al llo samo
aIliludo is 5 nm, oxcopl llal vlon llo aircrafl aro in llo lorminaI onvi-
ronmonl villin 40 nm of llo radar anlonna llo soparalion can bo
roducod lo 3 nm. Ior llis roason llo minimum spacing in llo lormi-
naI aroa is 3 nm bocauso llo airporl is aImosl aIvays villin 40 nm of
a radar anlonna. Undor corlain spocifiod condilions a soparalion
bolvoon aircrafl on finaI approacl villin 10 nm of llo Ianding run-
vay may bo roducod lo 2.5 nm |3].
If vaIo lurbuIonco is a faclor, llo minimum soparalion in llo lor-
minaI aroa bolvoon a smaII or Iargo aircrafl and a procoding loavy

aircrafl is 5 nm. Tlo spacing bolvoon lvo loavy aircrafl foIIoving

oacl ollor is 4 nm. Tlo spacing bolvoon a loavy aircrafl and a pro-
coding Iargo aircrafl is 3 nm.
Ior Ianding aircrafl vlon vaIo lurbuIonco is a faclor, llo Iongilu-
dinaI soparalion is incroasod bolvoon a smaII aircrafl and a procoding
Iargo aircrafl lo 4 mi and bolvoon a smaII aircrafl and a procoding
loavy aircrafl lo 6 mi.
Tlo IIR soparalion ruIos for consoculivo arrivaIs on llo samo run-
vay vlicl aro usod vlon vaIo vorlicos aro a faclor aro slovn in
TabIo 3-1. Tlo VIR and IIR soparalion ruIos for consoculivo dopar-
luros from llo samo runvay aro oxprossod in lorms of limo and lloso
aro slovn in TabIo 3-2.
-
Tlo minimum on roulo IaloraI soparalion boIov 18,000 fl MSI is 8 nm,
and al and abovo 18,000 fl MSI llo minimum on roulo IaloraI soparalion

Tloso aro slovn lo approprialoIy roprosonl lloso oporalions and aro nol roguIalory in
naluro.
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |18].

- - -

Tloso aro slovn lo approprialoIy roprosonl lloso oporalions and aro nol roguIalory in
naluro.
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |18].
- -
- --

is 20 nm. Ovor llo ocoans llo soparalion varios from 60 lo 120 nm
doponding on Iocalion |3].
-
Aids lo navigalion, Inovn as NAVAIDS, can bo broadIy cIassifiod
inlo lvo groups, ground-basod sysloms and saloIIilo-basod sysloms.
Iacl syslom is compIimonlod by sysloms inslaIIod in llo cocIpil.
- --

Tlo oIdosl aclivo ground-basod navigalionaI aid is llo nondiroclionaI
boacon (NDB). Tlo NDB omils radio froquoncy signaIs on froquon-
cios bolvoon 400 and 1020 Hz moduIalion. NDBs aro lypicaIIy
mounlod on a poIo approximaloIy 35 fl laII. Tloy may bo Iocalod on
or off airporl proporly, al Ioasl 100 fl cIoar of molaI buiIdings, povor
Iinos, or molaI foncos. WliIo llo NDB is quicIIy boing plasod oul in
llo Unilod Slalos, il is sliII a vory common pioco of navigalionaI
oquipmonl in ollor parls of llo vorId, parlicuIarIy in dovoIoping
nalions. Iiguro 3-8 providos an iIIuslralion of an NDB.
Aircrafl navigalo using llo NDB by roforoncing an aulomalic
diroclion findor (ADI) Iocalod on llo aircrafls panoI. Tlo ADI sim-
pIy poinls lovard llo Iocalion of llo NDB. Iiguro 3-9 iIIuslralos an
ADI syslom.

Tlo advancos in radio and oIoclronics during and aflor WorId War II
Iod lo llo inslaIIalion of llo vory ligl froquoncy omnirango (VOR)
radio slalions. Tloso slalions aro Iocalod on llo ground and sond oul
radio signaIs in aII diroclions. Iacl signaI can bo considorod as a
courso or a roulo, roforrod lo as a radiaI llal can bo foIIovod by an
aircrafl. In lorms of 1 inlorvaIs, lloro aro 360 coursos or roulos llal
aro radialod from a VOR slalion, from 0 poinling lovard magnolic
norll incroasing lo 359 in a cIocIviso diroclion. Tlo VOR lransmil-
lor slalion is a smaII squaro buiIding loppod vill vlal appoars lo bo
a vlilo dorby lal. Il broadcasls on a froquoncy jusl abovo llal of IM
radio slalions. Tlo vory ligl froquoncios il usos aro virluaIIy froo of
slalic. Tlo syslom of VOR slalions oslabIisl llo nolvorI of airvays
and jol roulos and aro aIso ossonliaI lo aroa navigalion. Tlo rango of a
VOR slalion varios bul is usuaIIy Ioss llan 200 nm. A lypicaI VOR
boacon is iIIuslralod in Iig. 3-10.
Aircrafl oquippod vill a VOR rocoivor in llo cocIpil lavo a diaI
for luning in llo dosirod VOR froquoncy. A piIol can soIocl llo VOR
radiaI or roulo lo vislos lo foIIov lo llo VOR slalion. In llo cocIpil
lloro is aIso an omniboaring soIoclor (OBS) vlicl indicalos llo load-
ing of llo aircrafl roIalivo lo llo diroclion of llo dosirod radiaI and
vlollor llo aircrafl is lo llo rigll or Iofl of llo radiaI. An iIIuslralion
of an OBS is providod in Iig. 3-11.
- -
Dislanco moasuring oquipmonl (DMI) las lradilionaIIy boon inslaIIod
al VOR slalions in llo Unilod Slalos. Tlo DMI slovs llo piIol llo

sIanl dislanco bolvoon llo aircrafl and a parlicuIar VOR slalion. Sinco
il is llo air dislanco in naulicaI miIos llal is moasurod, llo rocoiving
oquipmonl in an aircrafl fIying al 35,000 fl diroclIy ovor llo DMI sla-
lion vouId road 5.8 nm.
An on roulo air navigalion aid vlicl bosl suilod llo laclicaI noods
of llo miIilary vas dovoIopod by llo Navy in llo oarIy 1950s. Tlis aid
is Inovn as TACAN, vlicl slands for laclicaI air navigalion. Tlis aid
combinos azimull and dislanco moasuring inlo ono unil insload of lvo
and is oporalod in llo uIlra-ligl-froquoncy band. As a compromiso
bolvoon civiIian and miIilary roquiromonls, llo IAA ropIacod llo DMI
-

OBS knob turns the
compass card, here
set to 100
CD needle swung
3 dots left, meaning
you are 6 right of
the 280 radial
TO/FROM indicator
showing TO
100
-

porlion of ils VOR faciIilios vill llo dislanco moasuring compononls

of TACAN. Tloso slalions aro Inovn as VORTAC slalions. If a slalion
las fuII TACAN oquipmonl, boll azimull and dislanco moasuring
oquipmonl, and aIso VOR, il is dosignalod as VORTAC.
NDB and VOR sysloms aro oflon Iocalod on airporl airfioIds. Tlo
Iocalion of lloso sysloms on airporl, Inovn as TVORs, aro significanl
lo airporl pIannors and dosignors, as llo Iocalion of ollor faciIilios,
sucl as Iargo buiIdings, parlicuIarIy conslruclod of molaI, may
advorsoIy affocl llo porformanco of llo navaid.
As iIIuslralod in Iig. 3-12, TVORs slouId bo Iocalod al Ioasl 500 fl
from any runvays and 250 fl from any laxivays. Any slrucluros or
lroos slouId bo Iocalod al Ioasl 1000 fl from llo TVOR anlonna. Tloro
slouId aIso bo a cIoaranco angIo of al Ioasl 2.5 for any slrucluros and
2.0 for any lroos boyond 1000 fl, as iIIuslralod in Iig. 3-13.
500'
TVOR
500'
T
a
x
iw
a
y
250'
R
u
n
w
a
y
--
Clearance Angles
2.5 for Wooden Structures
1.2 for Metal Structures
Antenna
Height
16"17"
(5 M)
Tree
Clearance
Angle
Antenna Shelter
200' Min Radius
(80 M)
1,000' Min
(300 M)
Max Allowable Slope 4%
2.5
1.2
2
Counterpoise
-

A Iong-rango radar for lracIing on roulo aircrafl las boon oslabIislod
llrougloul llo conlinonlaI Unilod Slalos and in ollor parls of llo
vorId. WliIo in llo Unilod Slalos lloro is compIolo radar covorago in
llo 48 conliguous slalos, llis is nol llo caso oIsovloro in llo vorId.
Tloso radars lavo a rango of aboul 250 nm. SlriclIy spoaIing radar is
nol an aid lo navigalion. Ils principaI funclion is lo provido air lraffic
conlroIIors vill a visuaI dispIay of llo posilion of oacl aircrafl so
lloy can monilor lloir spacings and inlorvono vlon nocossary. Hov-
ovor, il can bo and is usod by air lraffic conlroIIors lo guido aircrafl
vlonovor llis is nocossary. Ior llis roason il las boon incIudod as an
aid lo navigalion.
Tlo VOR and NDB, oflon combinod vill radar-basod survoiIIanco
from air lraffic conlroI, lavo lradilionaIIy boon usod in boll on roulo
navigalion and for navigalion on approacl lo Ianding al an airporl.
Navigalion on approacl lo an airporl using lloso ground-basod sys-
loms is porformod by foIIoving prodolorminod, pubIislod, approacl
procoduros. Tloso procoduros aro oflon updalod and pubIislod by llo
IAA in llo form of approacl clarls. Iiguro 3-14 providos an oxampIo
of an approacl clarl dopicling an approacl procoduro using an NDB
as an aid lo navigalion, vliIo Iig. 3-15 iIIuslralos a simiIar approacl
using a VOR as llo primary aid lo navigalion. Il is slrongIy rocom-
mondod llal llo airporl pIannor undorsland llo informalion providod
in lloso clarls. Approaclos basod on NDB and VOR navaids aro con-
sidorod nonprocision approaclos, as lloy provido IaloraI navigalion
assislanco bul nol vorlicaI navigalion. Tlal is, lloso inslrumonls may
bo roforoncod lo dolormino vlicl diroclion lo fIy vlon approacling an
airporl, bul do nol provido inslrumonl-basod guidanco in dolormining
llo approprialo aIliludo or dosconl ralo on approacl.
- -
UnliI llo roconl proIiforalion of pubIislod navigalion procoduros vlicl
roIy on llo saloIIilo basod GIS syslom, llo inslrumonl Ianding syslom
(IIS) vas llo onIy ground-basod syslom corlifiod lo provido boll Ial-
oraI and vorlicaI guidanco lo aircrafl on approacl lo an airporl, and as
of 2008 is llo onIy navigalionaI aid corlifiod by llo IAA lo provido
procision navigalion for aircrafl, and is sliII llo mosl vidoIy usod
mollod of approacl navigalion al llo vorIds Iargor airporls.
An IIS syslom consisls of lvo radio lransmillors Iocalod on llo
airporl. Ono radio boam is caIIod llo IocaIizor and llo ollor llo gIido
sIopo. Tlo IocaIizor indicalos lo piIols vlollor lloy aro Iofl or rigll of
llo corrocl aIignmonl for approacl lo llo runvay. Tlo gIido sIopo
indicalos llo corrocl angIo of dosconl lo llo runvay. GIido sIopos aro
in llo ordor of from 2p3p lo 7.5p.
In ordor lo furllor loIp piIols on lloir IIS approacl, up lo llroo
Iov-povor fan marIors caIIod IIS marIors aro usuaIIy inslaIIod so

llal lloy may Inov jusl lov far aIong llo approacl lo llo runvay
lloy lavo progrossod. Tlo firsl is caIIod llo oulor marIor (IOM) and
is Iocalod aboul 3.5 lo 5 mi from llo ond of llo runvay. Tlo middIo
marIor (MM) is Iocalod aboul 3000 fl from llo ond of llo runvay. On

somo IIS sysloms, an addilionaI marIor caIIod llo innor marIor (IM)
is Iocalod 1000 fl from llo ond of llo runvay. Wlon llo pIano passos
ovor a marIor, a Iigll goos on in llo cocIpil and a lono sounds. Tlo
configuralion of llo IIS syslom is slovn in Iig. 3-16.

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Tlo IocaIizor consisls of an anlonna, vlicl is Iocalod on llo oxlon-
sion of llo runvay conlorIino approximaloIy 1000 fl from llo far ond
of llo runvay, and a IocaIizor lransmillor buiIding Iocalod aboul 300 fl
lo ono sido of llo runvay al llo samo dislanco from llo ond of llo
runvay as llo anlonna. Tlo gIido sIopo faciIily is pIacod 750 lo 1250 fl
dovn llo runvay from llo llrosloId and is Iocalod lo ono sido of llo
runvay conlorIino al a dislanco vlicl can vary from 400 lo 650 fl. Tlo
funclioning of llo IocaIizor and llo gIido sIopo faciIily is affoclod by
llo cIoso proximily of moving objocls sucl as volicuIar and aircrafl
lraffic. During incIomonl voallor llo uso of llo IIS crilicaI aroas
inlibil aircrafl and volicIos from onloring inlo aroas llal vouId
impodo an aircrafl insido of llo oulor marIor from rocoiving a cIoar
signaI. Slalionary objocls noarby can aIso causo a dolorioralion of sig-
naIs. Abrupl clangos of sIopo in proximily of llo anlonnas aro nol
pormillod or llo signaI viII nol bo lransmillod proporIy. Anollor Iim-
ilalion of llo IIS is llal llo gIido sIopo boam is nol roIiabIo boIov a
loigll of aboul 200 fl abovo llo runvay.
As vill VOR and NDB sysloms, llo IocaIizor and gIido sIopo
compononls of llo IIS aro liglIy sonsilivo lo lloir proximily lo sur-
rounding objocls llal may inlorforo vill lloir radio signaIs. As sucl,
lloro aro spocific roslriclions lo conslruclion in llo immodialo vicin-
ily of lloso sysloms.
IIS sysloms may aIso bo accompaniod by runvay visuaI rango
(RVR) oquipmonl, vlicl provido a moasuromonl of IaloraI visibiIily
lo a piIol. RVR sysloms dolormino llo dislanco a piIol slouId bo abIo
lo soo dovn llo runvay, givon curronl almosploric condilions and
oxisling Iiglling sysloms. Doponding on llo lypo of RVR syslom
inslaIIod, piIols can safoIy approacl lo Iand on a runvay using IIS
navigalion in varying IovoIs of cIoud coiIing IovoIs and lorizonlaI vis-
ibiIily. TabIo 3-3 providos llo coiIing and visibiIily IovoIs for IIS sys-
loms oquippod vill RVR. Iiguro 3-17 iIIuslralos a pubIislod approacl
using an IIS.
Tlo mosl crilicaI poinl of approacl lo Ianding comos vlon llo
aircrafl broaIs llrougl llo ovorcasl and llo piIol musl clango from
inslrumonl lo visuaI condilions. Somolimos, onIy a fov soconds aro
-





-

avaiIabIo for llo piIol lo maIo llo lransilion and compIolo llo Iand-
ing. To aid in maIing llis lransilion, Iiglls aro inslaIIod on llo
approacl lo and on llo runvays. Tloso aro gonoraIIy lormod approacl
Iiglling sysloms (AIS). Moro dolaiIs concorning lloso sysloms aro
conlainod in llo claplor on signing, marIing, and Iiglling.
-

In uso in many of llo busior airporls villin llo Unilod Slalos and
oIsovloro, spociaIIy dosignod radar caIIod airporl surfaco doloclion
oquipmonl (ASDI), oflon roforrod lo as , las boon
dovoIopod lo aid llo conlroIIor in roguIaling lraffic on llo airporl.
Tlo syslom givos llo air lraffic conlroIIor in llo conlroI lovor a piclo-
riaI dispIay of llo runvays, laxivays, and lorminaI aroa vill radar
indicaling llo posilion of aircrafl and ollor volicIos moving on llo
surfaco of llo airporl.
ASDI loclnoIogios aro mosl commonIy avaiIabIo in lvo forms.
Tlo airporl movomonl aroa safoly syslom (AMASS) inlogralos llird
gonoralion (ASDI-3) ground-basod radar sysloms vill audio and
visuaI varning sysloms lo provonl runvay incursions on llo airfioId.
ASDI-X, a syslom llal inlogralos ASDI loclnoIogy vill lranspondor
sysloms lo idonlify llo aircrafl oporaling on llo aircrafl, las boon
ompIoyod al Ioss busy commorciaI sorvico airporls llrougloul llo
Unilod Slalos. Tloso sysloms aro monilorod by air lraffic manago-
monl porsonnoI in llo airporls ATCT.
- -- - -
Iorlaps llo groalosl impacl on air lraffic managomonl sinco llo
boginning of llo lvonly-firsl conlury las boon llo dovoIopmonl,
accoplanco, and proIiforalion of navigalionaI procoduros vlicl roIy
on llo gIobaI posilioning syslom.
Tlo gIobaI posilioning syslom (GIS) is a saloIIilo-basod radio
posilioning and navigalion syslom. Tlo syslom is dosignod lo pro-
vido liglIy accuralo posilion and voIocily informalion on a conlinu-
ous gIobaI basis lo an unIimilod numbor of proporIy oquippod usors.
Tlo syslom is unaffoclod by voallor and providos a common vorId-
vido grid roforonco syslom. Tlo GIS concopl is prodicalod upon
accuralo and conlinuous InovIodgo of llo spaliaI posilion of oacl
saloIIilo in llo syslom vill rospocl lo limo and dislanco from a lrans-
milling saloIIilo lo llo usor. Tlo GIS syslom consisls of 24 saloIIilos in
noar-circuIar orbil aboul llo oarll. GIS rocoivors onboard aircrafl
aulomalicaIIy soIocl llo approprialo signaIs from lypicaIIy four saloI-
Iilos vlicl aro in viov of llo rocoivor and lransIalo lloso signaIs inlo
a llroo-dimonsionaI posilion, and vlon llo rocoivor is in molion,
voIocily.
GIS vas dovoIopod by llo Unilod Slalos miIilary lo aid in rocon-
naissanco and slralogic oporalions. Undor miIilary oporalions, sig-
naIs lransmillod from llo orbiling GIS saloIIilos voro oncryplod lo
roduco llo accuracy of posilioning for nonaullorizod usors. Tlis poI-
icy bocamo Inovn as soIoclivo avaiIabiIily. Hovovor, on May 1,
2000, Irosidonl BiII CIinlon ordorod llo romovaI of soIoclivo avaiI-
abiIily, aIIoving llo civiIian vorId lo laIo advanlago of GIS posilion-
ing accuracy on llo ordor of 1 lo 3 m. Tlis IovoI of accuracy las boon

doomod sufficionl lo aIIov aircrafl lo navigalo using proporIy

oquippod GIS rocoivors for boll on roulo navigalion and approaclos
lo airporls, in boll VIR and IIR condilions.
In llo firsl docado of llo lvonly-firsl conlury, llo proIiforalion of
GIS-basod air navigalion sysloms las boon dramalic, lo llo poinl
vloro llo uso of lradilionaI ground-basod navigalion aids sucl as llo
NDB and VOR is bocoming obsoIolo. GIS navigalion sysloms lavo
bocomo avaiIabIo as boll in-panoI fixod navigalion sysloms, and por-
labIo unils, and lavo bocomo vidoIy usod in many aroas of socioly
oulsido of avialion.
As Iig. 3-18 iIIuslralos, GIS sysloms, parlicuIarIy onlancod vill
comprolonsivo dalabasos of aroa lorrain, IandmarIs, and airporl
infraslrucluro, provido piIols vill virluaIIy visuaI condilions and
llo abiIily lo navigalo from origin lo doslinalion villoul any roIianco
on lradilionaI ground-basod anaIog navigalionaI aids.
GIS-basod RNAV approaclos lavo boon rofinod vill improving
loclnoIogy, Inovn as llo vido aroa augmonlalion syslom (WAAS),
and lraining lo aIIov aircrafl lo approacl airporls using vory prociso
navigalion procoduros. Tloso approaclos, Inovn as RNI (roquirod
navigalion porformanco), lavo aIIovod aircrafl lo navigalo around
sucl obslacIos as mounlainous lorrain and socurily sonsilivo aroas,
rosuIling in a moro officionl uso of airporl runvays. }unoau, AIasIa
and Waslinglon, D.C. aro airporls llal lavo bonofilod from lloso
onlancomonls in air lraffic conlroI. An oxampIo RNI approacl is
iIIuslralod in Iig. 3-19.
- -

Iurllor onlancomonls lo llo air lraffic managomonl syslom incIudo

llo uso of advancod digilaI dala-IinI sysloms, Inovn as aulomalod
dopondonl survoiIIanco. ADS-addross (ADS-A) sysloms sond digilaIIy
lransmillod informalion bolvoon spocific aircrafl and ADS-broadcasl
-
-

(ADS-B) sysloms broadcasl informalion lo aII oquippod aircrafl and air

lraffic managomonl faciIilios, idonlifying lloir Iocalions lo ollor lraffic
in llo syslom, providing llo addod abiIily lo safoly avoid coIIisions
ovon in poor visibiIily condilions. OriginaIIy loslod in AIasIa bolvoon
2000 and 2003, ADS-B is quicIIy bocoming a slandard compononl of air
lraffic navigalion sysloms in llo Unilod Slalos. A rondoring of llo
ADS-B syslom is Iig. 3-20.

Dospilo llo proIiforalion of GIS-basod navigalion sinco llo boginning of
llo lvonly-firsl conlury, llo principaI aids for llo conlroI of air lraffic by
air lraffic managomonl porsonnoI aro sliII voico communicalion and
radar. Air lraffic conlroIIors monilor llo spacing bolvoon aircrafl on llo
radarscopo and inslrucl piIols by moans of voico communicalion.
Radar rolurns appoar on llo radarscopo as smaII bIips. Tloso aro
rofIoclions from llo aircrafl body. Irimary radar roquiros llo inslaIIalion
of rolaling anlonnas on llo ground and llo rango of llo primary radar is
a funclion of ils froquoncy. Socondary radar consisls of a radar rocoivor
and lransmillor on llo ground llal lransmils a codod signaI lo an aircrafl
if llal aircrafl las a lranspondor. A lranspondor is an airborno rocoivor
and lransmillor vlicl rocoivos llo signaI from llo ground and rosponds
by rolurning a codod ropIy lo llo inlorrogalor on llo ground. Tlo codod
ropIy normaIIy conlains informalion on aircrafl idonlily and aIliludo.
Informalion from primary and socondary radar rolurns aro pro-
vidod lo air lraffic conlroIIors via an aIplanumoric dispIay on lloir
radar scopos, as iIIuslralod in Iig. 3-21. Tlo firsl Iino slovs llo
Surveillance
Radar
Modes
ADS-B
ADS-B
ADS
Receiver
Air Traffic
Management
ADS-B
Collision
Avoidance
Global Navigation
Satellite
System
--

idonlily of llo aircrafl, llo socond Iino ils aIliludo and ground spood,
and llo llird Iino givos llo boacon codo lranspondor numbor and llo
aircrafl lracI numbor. To bo abIo lo lavo llis informalion prosonlod
on llo radarscopo, llo aircrafl musl carry a modo-C or modo-S lran-
spondor llal las llo capabiIily of aIliludo roporling aIong vill air-
crafl idonlily. AII commorciaI airIino aircrafl carry a lranspondor,
vlicl salisfios llo roquiromonl for roporling aIliludo. Iurllor, aII air-
crafl fIying in CIass A, B, or C airspaco aro roquirod lo lavo an oporal-
ing lranspondor onboard.

Ior moro llan 50 yoars air lraffic conlroI sysloms lavo gono llrougl
a numbor of incromonlaI loclnoIogicaI onlancomonls, sucl as
onlancod radar capabiIilios, aulomalod fIigll sorvico sysloms, and
ground-basod navigalion sysloms. Dospilo lloso upgrados, il las
boon vidoIy rocognizod llal llo lradilionaI radar and anaIog-basod
communicalion syslom viII nol bo sufficionl lo accommodalo llo
incroasing domands on llo syslom in llo lvonly-firsl conlury.
As parl of llo Vision 100 Conlury of Avialion Roaullorizalion Acl
of 2003, llo U.S. fodoraI govornmonl caIIod for a compIolo lransfor-
malion of llo nalionaI airspaco syslom and a modornizalion of ils air
lraffic conlroI faciIilios. Tlis modornizalion las como lo bo Inovn as
llo noxl gonoralion air lraffic syslom or . Tlrougl llo acl,
Congross diroclod llo formalion of a }oinl IIanning and DovoIop-
monl Offico (}IDO) lo faciIilalo llo mammoll lasI of convorling llo
curronl syslom lo a fuIIy aulomalod, digilaI, saloIIilo-basod air lraffic
managomonl syslom. Tlo }IDO comprisos of roprosonlalivos from
llo IAA, NASA, Tlo U.S. Doparlmonls of Transporlalion, Dofonso,
HomoIand Socurily, Commorco, and llo Wlilo Houso Offico of
Scionco and ToclnoIogy IoIicy, and diroclod lo dovoIop a noxl gon-
oralion air lraffic syslom llal is loclnoIogicaIIy advancod and fuIIy
inlogralos llo inlorosls of aII vlo uso llo nalions avialion syslom.
NoxlGon viII focus on maIing llo saloIIilo-basod GIS syslom
and digilaI dala communicalions llo bacIbono of air lraffic manago-
monl. Inlogralod inlo NoxlGon aro GIS, WAAS, and ADS-B loclnoI-
ogy lo aIIov for digilaI survoiIIanco of air lraffic bolvoon boll
ground-basod air lraffic managomonl faciIilios as voII as among
aircrafl llomsoIvos. In addilion lo ADS-B loclnoIogy, NoxlGon foaluros
llo foIIoving capabiIilios, as doscribod by llo IAA:

Syslom vido informalion managomonl (SWIM) providos llo infra-

slrucluro and sorvicos lo doIivor nolvorI-onabIod informalion accoss
across llo NoxlGon air lransporlalion oporalions. As an oarIy oppor-
lunily invoslmonl, SWIM viII provido ligl-quaIily, limoIy dala lo
many usors and appIicalionsoxlonding boyond llo provious focus

on uniquo, poinl-lo-poinl inlorfacos for appIicalion-lo-appIicalion
dala oxclango. By roducing llo numbor and lypos of inlorfacos and
sysloms, SWIM viII roduco rodundancy of informalion and bollor
faciIilalo muIliagoncy informalion-slaring. SWIM viII aIso onabIo
nov modos of docision maIing, as informalion is moro oasiIy accossod
by aII slaIoloIdors affoclod by oporalionaI docisions.
-
NoxlGon dala communicalions viII provido for lvo-vay digilaI com-
municalions bolvoon air lraffic conlroIIors and piIols for air lraffic
conlroI cIoarancos, inslruclions, and ollor advisorios. In addilion,
digilaI communicalions viII provido broadcasl loxl-basod and grapl-
icaI advisory informalion sucl as voallor roporls and nolicos lo air-
mon villoul roIying on voico communicalions.

Tlo NoxlGon nolvorI onabIod voallor (NNIW) viII sorvo as llo
coro of llo NoxlGon voallor supporl sorvicos and provido a common
voallor picluro across llo nalionaI airspaco syslom. Tloso sorvicos
viII, in lurn, bo inlogralod inlo ollor Ioy compononls of NoxlGon
roquirod lo onabIo bollor air lransporlalion docision maIing. Il is
anlicipalod llal lons of llousands of gIobaI voallor obsorvalions and
sonsor roporls from ground-, airborno-, and spaco-basod sourcos
vouId fuso inlo a singIo nalionaI voallor informalion syslom,
updalod as noodod in roaI limo.
NoxlGon is duo lo bo a plasod lransformalion of llo NAS llrougl
2025 al an oslimalod cosl of $20 lo $25 biIIion. Il slouId bo nolod llo
oarIy slagos of NoxlGon dovoIopmonl lavo boon vory voIaliIo vill
rogard lo llo soIoclion of loclnoIogy pIalforms on vlicl lo baso llo
fuluro air lraffic managomonl syslom, and il slouId bo oxpoclod llal
furllor dovoIopmonls in loclnoIogy viII rosuIl in varialions lo cur-
ronl syslom pIans. As sucl, il is imporalivo llal llo airporl pIannor
Ioop up vill curronl progross. Tlo }IDO and llo IAA froquonlIy
updalo lloir Inlornol silos vill NoxlGon syslom progross.
-
1. -, Advisory CircuIar AC150/5300-13, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 2008.
2. , Airvay IIanning Slandard Numbor Tvo, Ordor 7031.3,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Soplombor 1977.
3. , Ordor 7110.65G, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Waslinglon, D.C., Marcl 1992.
4. -,
Ordor No. 7000.3, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Iobruary
1988.
5. -- - - --
- , Offico of Sysloms Inginooring Managomonl, Roporl No.
IAA-IM-80-7, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., }uno 1980.

6. - , Roporl No. DOT/IAA/ASC-91-1, U.S.

Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon,
D.C., 1991.
7. - , voI. 1: Clicago Airporl/Airspaco
Oporaling Invironmonl, Iandrum and Brovn Avialion ConsuIlanls, Clicago,
III., ApriI 1991.
8. - Doparlmonl of Transporlalion
and NalionaI Aoronaulics and Spaco Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Marcl
1971.
9. - - - -
- - - Iarl 71, IodoraI Avialion RoguIalions,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Iobruary 1992.
10. , IIigll Informalion IubIicalion, NalionaI Ocoan
Survoy, NalionaI Ocoanic and Almosploric Adminislralion, Doparlmonl of
Commorco, Waslinglon, D.C., Docombor 1975.
11. -- - - Iarl 75, IodoraI Avialion
RoguIalions, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Docombor
1991.
12. - - - , Roporl No. IAA-
AIO-92-4, Offico of Avialion IoIicy, IIans, and Managomonl AnaIysis, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., May 1992.
13. , Tlo MITRI Corporalion, Roporl IAA-IM-74-5,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1974.
14. Iuluro ATC ToclnoIogy Improvomonls and llo Impacl on Airporl Capacily,
R. M. Harris, Tlo MITRI Corporalion, Air Transporlalion Sysloms Division,
McIoan, Va.
15. Iuluro Syslom Concopls for Air Traffic Managomonl, W. I. Simpson, Offico of
Sysloms Inginooring, Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, -
- --, Waslinglon, D.C.,
Oclobor 1972.
16. -, Iarl 91, IodoraI Avialion RoguIalions, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Iobruary 1992.
17. - - - -- ,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1989.
18. - -- , Roporl
No. IAA-IM-78-8A, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1978.
19. -, Advisory CircuIar, AC 150/5070-5,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., May 1970.
20. RoIalivo Navigalion Offors AIlornalivos lo DifforonliaI GIS,.
, voI. 137, No. 22, Nov YorI, Novombor 1992.
21. - - , U.S.
Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, Waslinglon, D.C., Docombor 1969.
22. , NalionaI Avialion Syslom IIanning Roviov Conforonco,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C.
23. Tlo Advancod Air Traffic Managomonl Syslom Sludy, R. I. MaxvoII, Offico
of Sysloms Inginooring, Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, -
- --, Waslinglon,
D.C., Oclobor 1972.
24. - -, Ordor No.
7032.9, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Soplombor 1992.
25. - 12ll od., IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Oclobor 1992.
26. - - - , Ordor 8260.3B,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., May 1992.



-

Tlo pIanning of an airporl is sucl a compIox procoss llal llo anaIysis

of ono aclivily villoul rogard lo llo offocl on ollor aclivilios viII nol
provido accoplabIo soIulions. An airporl oncompassos a vido rango
of aclivilios vlicl lavo difforonl and oflon confIicling roquiromonls.
Yol lloy aro inlordopondonl so llal a singIo aclivily may Iimil llo
capacily of llo onliro compIox. In llo pasl airporl maslor pIans voro
dovoIopod on llo basis of IocaI avialion noods. In moro roconl limos
lloso pIans lavo boon inlogralod inlo an airporl syslom pIan vlicl
assossod nol onIy llo noods al a spocific airporl silo bul aIso llo ovor-
aII noods of llo syslom of airporls vlicl sorvico an aroa, rogion, slalo,
or counlry. If fuluro airporl pIanning offorls aro lo bo succossfuI, lloy
musl bo foundod on guidoIinos oslabIislod on llo basis of compro-
lonsivo airporl syslom and maslor pIans.
Tlo oIomonls of a Iargo airporl aro slovn in Iig. 4-1. Il is dividod
inlo lvo major compononls, llo airsido and llo Iandsido. Tlo aircrafl
galos al llo lorminaI buiIdings form llo division bolvoon llo lvo
compononls. Willin llo syslom, llo claraclorislics of llo volicIos,
boll ground and air, lavo a Iargo infIuonco on pIanning. Tlo passon-
gor and slippor of goods aro inloroslod primariIy in llo ovoraII door-
lo-door lravoI limo and nol jusl llo duralion of llo air journoy. Ior llis
roason accoss lo airporls is an ossonliaI considoralion in pIanning.
Tlo probIoms rosuIling from llo incorporalion of airporl opora-
lions inlo llo vob of molropoIilan Iifo aro compIox. In llo oarIy days
of air lransporl, airporls voro Iocalod al a dislanco from llo cily,
vloro inoxponsivo Iand and a Iimilod numbor of obslruclions por-
millod fIoxibiIily in airporl oporalions. Bocauso of llo naluro of air-
crafl and llo infroquoncy of fIiglls, noiso vas nol a probIom lo llo

communily. In many casos llo arrivaI and doparluro of passongor
and cargo pIanos vas oflon a sourco of IocaI prido. In addilion, Iov
popuIalion donsily in llo vicinily of llo airporl and Iigll air lraffic
provonlod occasionaI accidonls from aIarming llo communily. In
spilo of oarIy Iavsuils, llo roIalionslip bolvoon airporl and commu-
nily vas roIalivoIy froo of slrifo rosuIling from probIoms of nuisanco
or lazard.
Airporl oporalions lavo boon incroasingIy lamporod by obslruc-
lions rosuIling from induslriaI dovoIopmonl roIalod lo llo airporl and
from induslry allraclod by adjaconl inoxponsivo Iand and accoss lo llo
lransporlalion affordod by llo airfioId and ils associalod liglvays.
Apron-gate
area
Taxiway
system
Runway
Terminal
airspace
En route
airspace
Exit
taxiway
Airport system
Airfield surface
system
Holding
pad
Terminal
buildings
Vehicular
circulation
parking
L
a
n
d

s
i
d
e
A
i
r

s
i
d
e
Airport ground
access system
Aircraft
flow
Passenger
flow
- --
-

WliIo incroasingIy donso rosidonliaI dovoIopmonl las rosuIlod from

llis oconomic slimuIalion, ono musl nol ovorIooI llo offocls of llo
unprocodonlod suburban sproad during llo posl-WorId War II ora,
rosuIling from llo bacIIog of lousing noods and a poriod of oconomic
prosporily.
RadicaI dovoIopmonls in llo naluro of air lransporl lavo pro-
ducod nov probIoms. Tlo plonomonaI grovll of air lraffic las
incroasod llo probabiIily of unfavorabIo communily roaclion, bul
dovoIopmonls in llo aircrafl llomsoIvos lavo lad llo mosl profound
offocl on airporl communily roIalions. Tlo groalor sizo and spood of
aircrafl lavo rosuIlod in incroasos in approacl and runvay roquiro-
monls, vliIo incroasos in llo oulpul of povor pIanls lavo brougll
incroasos in noiso. Iacod vill lloso probIoms llo airporl musl copo
vill llo probIoms of socuring sufficionl airspaco for accoss lo llo air-
porl, sufficionl Iand for ground oporalions, and, al llo samo limo,
adoqualo accoss lo llo molropoIilan aroa.
- -
Many difforonl lypos of sludios aro porformod in airporl pIanning.
Tloso incIudo sludios roIalod lo faciIily pIanning, financiaI pIanning,
lraffic and marIols, oconomics, and llo onvironmonl. Hovovor, oacl
of lloso sludios can usuaIIy bo cIassifiod as boing porformod al ono of
llroo IovoIs: llo syslom pIanning IovoI, llo maslor pIanning IovoI, or
llo projocl pIanning IovoI.
-
An airporl syslom pIan is a roprosonlalion of llo avialion faciIilios
roquirod lo mool llo immodialo and fuluro noods of a molropoIilan
aroa, rogion, slalo, or counlry. Tlo NalionaI IIan of Inlogralod Airporl
Sysloms (NIIAS) |11] is an oxampIo of a syslom pIan roprosonling llo
airporl dovoIopmonl noods of llo Unilod Slalos. Tlo Micligan Avia-
lion Syslom IIan |10] is an oxampIo of a syslom pIan roprosonling llo
airporl dovoIopmonl noods of llo slalo of Micligan, and llo Soull-
oasl Micligan RogionaI Avialion Syslom IIan |13] is a syslom pIan
roprosonling llo airporl dovoIopmonl noods of a sovon counly rogion
comprising llo Dolroil MolropoIilan aroa.
Tlo syslom pIan prosonls llo rocommondalions for llo gonoraI
Iocalion and claraclorislics of nov airporls and loIiporls and llo
naluro of oxpansion for oxisling onos lo mool forocasls of aggrogalo
domand. Il idonlifios llo avialion roIo of oxisling and rocommondod
nov airporls and faciIilios. Il incIudos llo liming and oslimalod cosls
of dovoIopmonl and roIalos airporl syslom pIanning lo llo poIicy and
objoclivos of llo roIovanl jurisdiclion. Ils ovoraII purposo is lo dolor-
mino llo oxlonl, lypo, naluro, Iocalion, and liming of airporl dovoIop-
monl noodod lo oslabIisl a viabIo, baIancod, and inlogralod syslom of

airporls |1, 8]. Il aIso providos llo basis for dolaiIod airporl pIanning
sucl as llal conlainod in llo airporl maslor pIan.
Tlo airporl syslom pIan providos boll broad and spocific poIi-
cios, pIans, and programs roquirod lo oslabIisl a viabIo and inlogralod
syslom of airporls lo mool llo noods of llo rogion. Tlo objoclivos of
llo syslom pIan incIudo
1. Tlo ordorIy and limoIy dovoIopmonl of a syslom of airporls
adoqualo lo mool prosonl and fuluro avialion noods and lo
promolo llo dosirod pallorn of rogionaI grovll roIalivo lo
induslriaI, ompIoymonl, sociaI, onvironmonlaI, and rocro-
alionaI goaIs.
2. Tlo dovoIopmonl of avialion lo mool ils roIo in a baIancod
and muIlimodaI lransporlalion syslom lo foslor llo ovoraII
goaIs of llo aroa as rofIoclod in llo lransporlalion syslom pIan
and comprolonsivo dovoIopmonl pIan.
3. Tlo proloclion and onlancomonl of llo onvironmonl llrougl
llo Iocalion and oxpansion of avialion faciIilios in a mannor
vlicl avoids ocoIogicaI and onvironmonlaI impairmonl.
4. Tlo provision of llo framovorI villin vlicl spocific airporl
programs may bo dovoIopod consislonl vill llo slorl- and
Iong-rango airporl syslom roquiromonls.
5. Tlo impIomonlalion of Iand-uso and airspaco pIans vlicl
oplimizo lloso rosourcos in an oflon conslrainod onvironmonl.
6. Tlo dovoIopmonl of Iong-rango fiscaI pIans and llo oslabIisl-
monl of priorilios for airporl financing villin llo govorn-
monlaI budgoling procoss.
7. Tlo oslabIislmonl of llo moclanism for llo impIomonlalion
of llo syslom pIan llrougl llo normaI poIilicaI framovorI,
incIuding llo nocossary coordinalion bolvoon govornmonlaI
agoncios, llo invoIvomonl of boll pubIic and privalo avialion
and nonavialion inlorosls, and compalibiIily vill llo con-
lonl, slandards, and criloria of oxisling IogisIalion.
Tlo airporl syslom pIanning procoss musl bo consislonl vill
slalo, rogionaI, or nalionaI goaIs for lransporlalion, Iand uso, and llo
onvironmonl. Tlo oIomonls in a lypicaI airporl syslom pIanning pro-
coss |8] incIudo llo foIIoving:
1. IxpIoralion of issuos llal impacl avialion in llo sludy aroa
2. Invonlory of llo curronl syslom
3. Idonlificalion of air lransporlalion noods
4. Iorocasl of syslom domand
5. Considoralion of aIlornalivo airporl sysloms
-

6. Dofinilion of airporl roIos and poIicy slralogios

7. Rocommondalion of syslom clangos, funding slralogios, and
airporl dovoIopmonl
8. Iroparalion of an impIomonlalion pIan
AIllougl llo procoss invoIvos many variod oIomonls, llo finaI
producl viII rosuIl in llo idonlificalion, prosorvalion, and onlanco-
monl of llo avialion syslom lo mool curronl and fuluro domand. Tlo
uIlimalo rosuIl of llo procoss viII bo llo oslabIislmonl of a viabIo,
baIancod, and inlogralod syslom of airporls.

Tlo omplasis in airporl pIanning is normaIIy on llo oxpansion and
improvomonl of oxisling airporls. Hovovor if an oxisling airporl
cannol bo oxpandod lo mool llo fuluro domand or llo nood for a
nov airporl is idonlifiod in an airporl syslom pIan, a procoss lo
soIocl a nov airporl silo may bo roquirod. Tlo scopo of llo silo soIoc-
lion procoss viII vary vill sizo, compIoxily, and roIo of llo nov
airporl, bul lloro aro basicaIIy llroo slopsidonlificalion, scroon-
ing, and soIoclion.
criloria is dovoIopod llal viII bo usod lo ovaIualo
difforonl silos and dolormino if a silo can funclion as an airporl and
mools llo noods of llo communily and usors. Ono crilorion viII bo
lo idonlify llo Iand aroa and basic faciIily roquiromonls for llo nov
airporl. Iarl of llis anaIysis viII bo a dofinilion of airporl roIos if
moro llan lvo airporls sorvo llo rogion. Ollor criloria migll bo
llal silos aro villin a corlain radius or dislanco from llo oxisling
airporl or communily, or llal silos slouId bo roIalivoIy fIal. SovoraI
polonliaI silos llal mool llo criloria aro idonlifiod.
onco silos aro idonliod, a scrooning procoss can bo
appIiod lo oacl silo. An ovaIualion of aII polonliaI silos llal mool
llo iniliaI criloria slouId bo conduclod, scrooning oul lloso vill
llo mosl obvious slorlcomings. Scrooning faclors migll incIudo
lopograply, naluraI and man-mado obslruclions, airspaco, accoss,
onvironmonlaI impacls, and dovoIopmonl cosls. If any silos aro
oIiminalod from furllor considoralion, llorougl documonlalion
of llo roasons for llal docision is rocommondod. Tlo romaining
polonliaI silos slouId llon undorgo a dolaiIod comparison using
comprolonsivo ovaIualion criloria. WliIo llo criloria viII vary, llo
foIIoving is lypicaIIy considorod:
O airspaco considoralions, obslruclions,
voallor
avaiIabIo Iand, suilabiIily for conslruclion,
voallor

--dislanco from llo domand for avialion sorvicos,
rogionaI liglvay infraslrucluro, avaiIabIo pubIic lransporla-
lion modos
--lorrain, Iand cosls, Iand vaIuos, soiI condi-
lions, avaiIabiIily of uliIilios
--aircrafl noiso, air quaIily, ground-
valor runoff, impacl on ora and fauna, oxislonco of ondan-
gorod spocios or cuIluraI arlifacls, lisloricaI foaluros, clangos
in IocaI Iand uso, roIocalion of famiIios and businossos, clangos
in sociooconomic claraclorislics
impacl on Iand uso, offocl
on comprolonsivo Iand-uso pIans and lransporlalion pIans al
llo IocaI and rogionaI IovoIs
llo naI slop is soIocling and rocommonding a proforrod
silo. WliIo a voiglling of llo ovaIualion criloria and voigllod
ralings or ranIing of llo aIlornalivo silos is oflon usod in soIocling
a silo, caulion musl bo usod in appIying llis loclniquo sinco il
inlroducos an oIomonl of sonsilivily inlo llo anaIysis. Tlo procoss
slouId focus on providing docision maIors vill informalion on llo
various silos in a mannor llal is undorslandabIo and unbiasod.
-
An airporl maslor pIan is a concopl of llo uIlimalo dovoIopmonl of a
spocific airporl. Tlo lorm dovoIopmonl incIudos llo onliro airporl
aroa, boll for avialion and nonavialion usos, and llo uso of Iand adja-
conl lo llo airporl |1, 4, 9]. Il prosonls llo dovoIopmonl concopl
graplicaIIy and conlains llo dala and ralionaIo upon vlicl llo pIan
is basod. Iiguro 4-2 slovs a simpIo fIovclarl of llo slops for propar-
ing an airporl maslor pIan. Maslor pIans aro proparod lo supporl
oxpansion and modornizalion of oxisling airporls and guido llo
dovoIopmonl of nov airporls.
Tlo ovoraII objoclivo of llo airporl maslor pIan is lo provido
guidoIinos for fuluro dovoIopmonl vlicl viII salisfy avialion domand
in a financiaIIy foasibIo mannor and bo compalibIo vill llo onviron-
monl, communily dovoIopmonl, and ollor modos of lransporlalion.
Moro spocificaIIy il is a guido for
1. DovoIoping llo plysicaI faciIilios of an airporl
2. DovoIoping Iand on and adjaconl lo llo airporl
3. Dolormining llo onvironmonlaI offocls of airporl conslruc-
lion and oporalions
4. IslabIisling accoss roquiromonls
5. IslabIisling llo loclnicaI, oconomic and financiaI foasibiIily
of proposod dovoIopmonls llrougl a llorougl invosligalion
of aIlornalivo concopls
-

6. IslabIisling a scloduIo of priorilios and plasing for llo

improvomonls proposod in llo pIan
7. IslabIisling an acliovabIo financiaI pIan lo supporl llo
impIomonlalion scloduIo
8. IslabIisling a conlinuing pIanning procoss vlicl viII moni-
lor condilions and adjusl pIan rocommondalions as circum-
slancos varranl
GuidoIinos for compIoling an airporl maslor pIan aro doscribod
by ICAO |4] and in llo Unilod Slalos by llo IAA |1]. A maslor pIan
roporl is lypicaIIy organizod as foIIovs:
- - - -oslabIislos llo vision and
ovorarcling goaIs for llo maslor pIan as voII as objoclivos llal
Collect and analyse data
Forecast traffic demand
Capacity analysis of
airport system
Space standards and
level of service
Select new airport sites
Evaluate new sites
Select best site Size airport facilities
Prepare alternative layouts
Evaluate layouts
Select best layout
ARPORT MASTER PLAN
Yes No
Operating
policies
New airport
-

viII guido llo pIanning procoss and loIp onsuro llal llo goaIs aro
acliovod and llo vision is roaIizod.
- -providos an ovorviov of llo air-
porls lislory, roIo in llo rogion and nalion, grovll and dovoI-
opmonl ovor limo, doscriplion of ils plysicaI assols (airoId and
airspaco, lorminaI, ground accoss, and supporl faciIilios), and Ioy
induslry lronds.
- fuluro IovoIs of aircrafl oporalions,
numbor of passongors, and voIumo of cargo aro forocaslod for
slorl, inlormodialo, and Iong-rango limo poriods. TypicaIIy foro-
casls aro mado for 5, 10, and 20 yoars on boll annuaI as voII daiIy
and busiosl lours of llo day.
-- -comparos llo
fuluro domand vill llo oxisling capacily of oacl airporl compo-
nonl and idonlios llo faciIily roquiromonls nocossary lo accom-
modalo llo domand.
- idonlios, ronos, and ovaIualos a rango
of aIlornalivos for accommodaling faciIily roquiromonls. If llo
oxisling silo cannol accommodalo llo anlicipalod grovll, a soIoc-
lion procoss lo nd a nov silo may bo nocossary.
idonlios, doscribos, and donos llo
aIlornalivo llal bosl acliovos llo maslor pIan goaIs and objoclivos.
Iiguro 4-3 iIIuslralos llo dovoIopmonl pIan for llo Clicago OHaro
InlornalionaI Airporl.
providos a comprolonsivo pIan for llo impIo-
monlalion of llo proforrod dovoIopmonl pIan, incIuding llo doni-
lion of projocls, conslruclion soquonco and limoIino, cosl oslimalos,
and nanciaI pIan.
providos an ovorviov of llo anlicipalod
onvironmonlaI impacls associalod vill llo proforrod dovoIop-
monl pIan in ordor lo undorsland llo sovorily and lo loIp oxpo-
dilo subsoquonl onvironmonlaI procossing al llo projocl spocic
slago.
- documonls llal slov llo oxisling as voII
as pIannod modicalions aro proparod and llo moro nolabIo
is llo airporl Iayoul pIan (AII). Il comprisos dravings llal
incIudo llo airoIds plysicaI faciIilios, obslruclion cIoaranco
and runvay approacl proIos, Iand-uso pIans, lorminaI aroa and
ground accoss pIans, and a proporly map. Spocic guidoIinos
for llo airporl Iayoul pIan in llo Unilod Slalos aro idonliod
by IAA |1].
documonls llo coordina-
lion offorls llal occur among llo slaIoloIdors llrougloul llo
sludy.
-

A projocl pIan focusos on a spocific oIomonl of llo airporl maslor pIan
vlicl is lo bo impIomonlod in llo slorl lorm and may incIudo sucl
iloms as llo addilion of a nov runvay, llo modificalion of oxisling of
runvays, llo provision of laxivays or laxivay oxils, llo addilion of
galos, llo addilion lo or llo ronovalion of lorminaI buiIding faciIilios,
or llo modificalion of ground accoss faciIilios.

Tlo ovoraII objoclivo of llo airporl projocl pIan is lo provido llo
spocific dolaiIs of llo dovoIopmonl vlicl viII salisfy immodialo avi-
alion noods and bo consislonl vill llo objoclivos and conslrainls
idonlifiod in llo airporl maslor pIan. Moro spocificaIIy il is a dolaiIod
pIan for
1. DovoIoping llo spocific plysicaI faciIilios al an airporl
incIuding llo arclilocluraI and onginooring dosign for lloso
faciIilios
2. Dolormining llo onvironmonlaI offocls of llis dovoIopmonl
llrougl llo conslruclion and oporalionaI plasos
3. Dolormining llo dolaiIod cosls and financiaI pIanning for llo
dovoIopmonl
4. IslabIisling a scloduIo for llo conslruclion and plasing of
llo spocific iloms of dovoIopmonl in llo pIan
-
A Iand-uso pIan for proporly villin llo airporl boundary and in
aroas adjaconl lo llo airporl is an ossonliaI parl of an airporl maslor
pIan. Tlo Iand-uso pIan on and off llo airporl is an inlograI parl of an
aroa vido comprolonsivo pIanning program, and lloroforo il musl bo
coordinalod vill llo objoclivos, poIicios, and programs for llo aroa
vlicl llo airporl is lo sorvo. IncompalibiIily of llo airporl vill ils
noiglbors sloms primariIy from llo objoclions of poopIo lo aircrafl
noiso. A Iand-uso pIan musl lloroforo projocl llo oxlonl of aircrafl noiso
llal viII bo gonoralod by airporl oporalions in llo fuluro. Conlours of
oquaI inlonsily of noiso can bo dravn and ovorIaid on a Iand-uso map
and from lloso conlours an oslimalo can bo mado of llo compalibiIily
of oxisling Iand uso vill airporl oporalions. If llo Iand oulsido llo
airporl is undordovoIopod, llo conlours aro llo basis for oslabIisling
comprolonsivo Iand-uso zoning roquiromonls.
AIllougl zoning is usod as a mollod for conlroIIing Iand uso
adjaconl lo an airporl, il is nol offoclivo in aroas vlicl aro aIroady
buiIl-up bocauso il is usuaIIy nol rolroaclivo. Iurllormoro jurisdic-
lions laving zoning povors may nol laIo offoclivo zoning aclion.
Aircrafl oporalions inlo and oul of llo airporl may bo mado unnoc-
ossariIy compIox lo minimizo noiso oncroaclmonl on incompalibIo
Iand usos. Dospilo lloso slorlcomings llo pIannor slouId uliIizo
zoning as a volicIo lo acliovo compalibiIily vlorovor llis approacl
is foasibIo.
Airporls bocomo invoIvod in lvo lypos of zoning. Ono lypo is
loigll and lazard zoning, vlicl is mainIy lo prolocl llo approaclos
lo llo airporl from obslruclions. Tlo ollor lypo is Iand-uso zoning.
Tlo oxlonl of Iand uso in llo airporl doponds a groal doaI on llo
amounl of acroago avaiIabIo. Iand usos can bo cIassifiod as oillor
-

cIosoIy roIalod lo avialion or romoloIy roIalod lo avialion. Tloso

cIosoIy roIalod lo avialion uso incIudo llo runvays, laxivays,
aprons, lorminaI buiIdings, parIing, and mainlonanco faciIilios.
Nonavialion usos incIudo spaco for rocroalionaI, induslriaI, and
commorciaI aclivilios. Wlon considoring commorciaI or induslriaI
aclivilios, caro slouId bo laIon lo onsuro llal lloy viII nol inlorforo
vill aircrafl oporalions, communicalions oquipmonl, and aids lo
navigalion on llo ground. RocroalionaI faciIilios sucl as goIf coursos
may bo suilabIo villin llo immodialo proximily of llo airporl
boundary or corlain agricuIluraI usos aro aIso approprialo as Iong as
lloy do nol allracl birds. Wlon lloro is acroago villin llo airporl
boundary in oxcoss of avialion noods, il is sound fiscaI pIanning lo
provido llo groalosl financiaI rolurn from Ioasos of llo oxcoss prop-
orly. Tlus llo Iand-uso pIan villin llo airporl is a vory offoclivo
looI in loIping airporl managomonl maIo docisions concorning
roquosls for Iand uso by various inlorosls and oflon airporls doIin-
oalo aroas on llo airporl proporly for llo dovoIopmonl of induslriaI
parIs.
Tlo principaI objoclivo of llo Iand-uso pIan for aroas oulsido llo
airporl boundary is lo minimizo llo dislurbing offocls of noiso. As
slalod oarIior llo doIinoalion of noiso conlours is llo mosl promising
approacl for oslabIisling noiso-sonsilivo aroas. Tlo conlours dofino
llo aroas vlicl aro or aro nol suilabIo for rosidonliaI uso or ollor uso
and, IiIoviso, lloso vlicl aro suilabIo for Iigll induslriaI, commor-
ciaI, or rocroalionaI aclivily. AIllougl llo rosponsibiIily for dovoIop-
ing Iand usos adjaconl lo llo airporl Iios vill llo govorning bodios of
adjaconl communilios, llo Iand-uso pIan providod by llo airporl
aullorily viII groalIy infIuonco and assisl llo govorning bodios in
lloir lasI of oslabIisling comprolonsivo Iand-uso zoning.
----
InvironmonlaI faclors musl bo considorod carofuIIy in llo dovoIop-
monl of a nov airporl or llo oxpansion of an oxisling ono. In llo
Unilod Slalos, llis is a roquiromonl of llo Airporl and Airvay
Improvomonl Acl of 1982 and llo InvironmonlaI IoIicy Acl of 1969.
Sludios of llo impacl of llo conslruclion and oporalion of a nov air-
porl or llo oxpansion of an oxisling ono upon accoplabIo IovoIs of air
and valor quaIily, noiso IovoIs, ocoIogicaI procossos, and domograplic
dovoIopmonl of llo rogion musl bo conduclod lo dolormino lov llo
airporl roquiromonls can bosl bo mol vill minimaI advorso onviron-
monlaI and sociaI consoquoncos.
Aircrafl noiso is llo sovorosl onvironmonlaI probIom lo bo consid-
orod in llo dovoIopmonl of airporl faciIilios. Mucl las boon dono lo
quiol onginos and modify fIigll procoduros, rosuIling in subslanliaI
roduclions in noiso. Anollor offoclivo moans for roducing noiso is
llrougl propor pIanning of Iand uso for aroas adjaconl lo llo airporl.
Ior an oxisling airporl llis may bo difficuIl as llo Iand may lavo

aIroady boon buiIl up. Ivory offorl slouId bo mado lo orionl air lraffic
avay from noiso-sonsilivo Iand dovoIopmonl.
Ollor imporlanl onvironmonlaI faclors incIudo air and valor
poIIulion, induslriaI vaslos and domoslic sovago originaling al llo
airporl, and llo dislurbanco of naluraI onvironmonlaI vaIuos. In
rogard lo air poIIulion, llo fodoraI govornmonl and induslry lavo
vorIod joinlIy lovard aIIovialing llo probIom, and lloro is a roason
lo boIiovo llal il viII probabIy bo oIiminalod in llo noar fuluro as an
onvironmonlaI faclor. An airporl can bo a major conlribulor lo valor
poIIulion if suilabIo lroalmonl faciIilios for airporl vaslos aro nol
providod. ClomicaIs usod lo doico aircrafl aro a major sourco of
polonliaI ground valor poIIulion and provisions nood lo bo mado lo
safoIy disposo of llis vaslo producl. Tlo onvironmonlaI sludy musl
incIudo a slalomonl dolaiIing llo mollods for landIing sourcos of
valor poIIulion.
Tlo conslruclion of a nov airporl or llo oxpansion of an oxisling
ono may lavo major impacls on llo naluraI onvironmonl. Tlis is
parlicuIarIy lruo for Iargo dovoIopmonls vloro slroams and major
drainago coursos may bo clangod, llo labilals of viIdIifo may bo
disruplod, and viIdornoss and rocroalionaI aroas may bo roslapod.
Tlo onvironmonlaI sludy slouId indicalo lov lloso disruplions
migll bo aIIovialod.
In llo proparalion of an onvironmonlaI sludy, or an onviron-
monlaI impacl slalomonl, llo findings musl incIudo llo foIIoving
iloms |12]:
1. Tlo onvironmonlaI impacl of llo proposod dovoIopmonl
2. Any advorso onvironmonlaI offocls vlicl cannol bo avoidod
slouId llo dovoIopmonl bo impIomonlod
3. AIlornalivos lo llo proposod dovoIopmonl
4. Tlo roIalionslip bolvoon IocaI slorl-lorm usos of llo onvi-
ronmonl and llo mainlonanco and onlancomonl of Iong-lorm
produclivily
5. Any irrovorsibIo onvironmonlaI and irrolriovabIo commil-
monls of rosourcos vlicl vouId bo invoIvod in llo proposod
dovoIopmonl slouId il bo impIomonlod
6. Grovll inducing impacl
7. Miligalion moasuros lo minimizo impacl
In llo appIicalion of lloso guidoIinos allonlion musl bo diroclod
lo llo foIIoving quoslions. WiII llo proposod dovoIopmonl
1. Causo conlrovorsy
2. NolicoabIy affocl llo ambionl noiso IovoI for a significanl
numbor of poopIo
-

3. DispIaco a significanl numbor of poopIo

4. Havo a significanl aosllolic or visuaI offocl
5. Divido or disrupl an oslabIislod communily or divido oxisl-
ing usos
6. Havo any offocl on aroas of uniquo inlorosl or sconic boauly
7. Doslroy or dorogalo imporlanl rocroalionaI aroas
8. SubslanliaIIy aIlor llo pallorn of bolavior for a spocios
9. Inlorforo vill imporlanl viIdIifo brooding, nosling, or food-
ing grounds
10. SignificanlIy incroaso air or valor poIIulion
11. AdvorsoIy affocl llo valor labIo of an aroa
12. Causo oxcossivo congoslion on oxisling ground lransporla-
lion faciIilios
13. AdvorsoIy affocl llo Iand-uso pIan for llo rogion
Tlo proparalion of an onvironmonlaI impacl slalomonl basod
upon an onvironmonlaI assossmonl sludy is an oxlromoIy imporlanl
parl of llo airporl pIanning procoss. Tlo slalomonl slouId cIoarIy
idonlify llo probIoms llal viII affocl onvironmonlaI quaIily and llo
proposod aclions lo aIIovialo llom. UnIoss llo slalomonl is sufficionlIy
comprolonsivo, llo onliro airporl dovoIopmonl may bo in joopardy.
-
Tlo oconomic and financiaI foasibiIily of aIlornalivo pIans for a nov
airporl or oxpansion of an oxisling silo musl bo cIoarIy domonslralod
by llo pIannor. Ivon if llo soIoclod aIlornalivo is slovn lo bo oco-
nomicaIIy foasibIo, llon aIso il is nocossary lo slov llal llo pIan viII
gonoralo sufficionl rovonuos lo covor annuaI cosls of capilaI invosl-
monl, adminislralion, oporalions, and mainlonanco. Tlis musl bo
dolorminod for oacl slago or plaso of dovoIopmonl dolaiIod in llo
airporl maslor pIan.
An ovaIualion of oconomic foasibiIily roquiros an anaIysis of bon-
ofils and cosls. A comparison of bonofils and cosls of polonliaI capilaI
invoslmonl programs indicalos llo dosirabiIily of a projocl from an
oconomic poinl of viov. Tlo oconomic crilorion usod in ovaIualing an
avialion invoslmonl is llo lolaI cosl of faciIilios, incIuding quanlifi-
abIo sociaI cosls, comparod vill llo vaIuo of llo incroasod offoclivo-
noss moasurod in lorms of lolaI bonofils. Tlo cosls incIudo capilaI
invoslmonl, adminislralion, oporalion, mainlonanco, and any ollor
cosls llal can bo quanlifiod. Tlo bonofils incIudo a roduclion in air-
crafl and passongor doIays, improvod oporaling officioncy, and ollor
bonofils. Tlo cosls and bonofils aro usuaIIy dolorminod on an annuaI
basis.

Tloro aro a numbor of loclniquos for comparing bonofils vill
cosls. Mosl of llom considor llo limo vaIuo of monoy basod on an
approprialo discounl ralo vlicl rofIocls llo opporlunily cosl of capilaI.
Tlo discounl ralo is a vaIuo by vlicl a unil of monoy rocoivod in llo
fuluro is muIlipIiod lo oblain ils prosonl vaIuo or prosonl vorll. In
ollor vords a cosl incurrod in 2010 las a difforonl oconomic vaIuo
from llal of llo samo ilom incurrod in 2015.
If llo limo vaIuo of monoy is nol considorod, llo ralio of bonofils
lo cosls is mado for oacl yoar by moroIy dividing llo bonofils in a
parlicuIar yoar by llo cosl of llo projocl in llal yoar. A projocl is con-
sidorod oconomicaIIy foasibIo vlon llo ralio of llo bonofils lo cosls is
groalor llan unily, llal is, llo bonofils oxcood llo cosls. Tlo Iargor llo
ralio, llo moro allraclivo is llo projocl from an oconomic slandpoinl.
A ralio can aIso bo oblainod by comparing llo prosonl vaIuo of bono-
fils vill llo prosonl vaIuo of cosls. Tlis approacl rocognizos llo limo
vaIuo of monoy. Anollor approacl is lo pIol llo -
(NIV) for oacl yoar againsl limo. Tlo nol prosonl vaIuo is dofinod as
llo prosonl vaIuo of bonofils minus llo prosonl vaIuo of cosls.
Tlo financing of capilaI improvomonls for airporls is discussod in
Clap. 13. In llo oarIy yoars of airporl dovoIopmonl, subslanliaI capi-
laI improvomonl programs voro financod al llo IocaI IovoI by saIo of
gonoraI obIigalion bonds bacIod by llo laxing povor of llo commu-
nily. As air lransporlalion bocamo maluro and llo roquiromonls of llo
communily for capilaI sponding programs incroasod, airporls bogan
lo uliIizo rovonuo bonds as a sourco of financing. A financiaI foasibiI-
ily sludy is lloroforo an anaIysis lo dolormino if bonds aro marIolabIo
al roasonabIo inlorosl ralos. Il aIso incIudos llo foasibiIily of ollor
forms of financing. Tlo anaIysis roquiros a llorougl ovaIualion of llo
rovonuos lo bo dovoIopod by a proposod improvomonl and llo cor-
rosponding cosls. UsuaIIy llis is dono in a lraffic and oarnings sludy
porformod ovor llo pIanning lorizon. In sucl a sludy, llo forocasl of
domand is uliIizod and ralos and clargos oslabIislod for llo various
rovonuo calogorios. Tlis rosuIls in annuaI rovonuo projoclions. To
maIo rovonuo bonds allraclivo lo buyors a lypicaI airporl rovonuo
bond slouId slov an oxpoclod covorago by nol rovonuos (gross rov-
onuos minus cosls) of al Ioasl 1.25 limos llo dobl sorvico roquiromonls.
If llo anaIysis indicalos llal llo rovonuos viII bo insufficionl, rovi-
sions in llo scloduIing or scopo of llo proposod dovoIopmonl may
lavo lo bo mado or llo ralos and clargos lo llo usors of llo airporl
may roquiro adjuslmonl.
--
A conlinuous airporl pIanning procoss is nocossary in ordor lo rospond
lo llo noods of air lransporlalion in a clanging onvironmonl |8].
Clangos in avialion domand, communily poIicios, nov loclnoIogy,
-

financiaI conslrainls, and ollor faclors can aIlor llo nood for and llo
liming of faciIily improvomonls. Curronl dala musl bo conlinuaIIy coI-
Ioclod and assossod roIalivo lo airporl noods, oporalions and uliIiza-
lion, onvironmonlaI impacl, and financiaI capabiIilios. Tlo slaging of
airporl improvomonls assisls in llo roovaIualion of conlinuing noods
al llo poinls in limo vlon impIomonlalion docisions aro roquirod.
In llo airporl pIanning procoss, llo ovoraII objoclivo of oslabIisl-
ing and mainlaining a conlinuous procoss is lo onsuro llal llo airporl
syslom pIan and airporl maslor pIan romain rosponsivo lo pubIic
noods. As a rosuIl, llo airporl syslom pIan and airporl maslor pIan
slouId bo formaIIy roviovod and updalod al Ioasl ovory 5 yoars. Spo-
cific objoclivos associalod vill llo conlinuous airporl pIanning pro-
coss incIudo |8]
1. SurvoiIIanco, mainlonanco, invonlory, and updalo of llo basic
dala sucl as avialion aclivily and sociooconomic and onvi-
ronmonlaI faclors roIaling lo llo oxisling airporl syslom and
maslor pIan
2. Roviov and vaIidalion of dala affocling llo airporl syslom
and maslor pIan
3. RoappraisaI of llo airporl syslom and maslor pIan in viov of
clanging condilions
4. Modificalion of llo airporl syslom and maslor pIan lo rolain
ils viabiIily
5. DovoIopmonl of a conlinuous moclanism for onsuring llo
inlorclango of informalion bolvoon llo syslom pIanning and
maslor pIanning procossos
6. Irovision of a moans for rocoiving and considoring pubIic
commonl in ordor lo mainlain and onsuro llo pubIic avaro-
noss of llo roIo airporls pIay in llo lransporlalion syslom of
an aroa
7. Rodofinilion of air lransporlalion goaIs and poIicios
8. Inlogralion of airporl syslom pIanning inlo a muIlimodaI
pIanning procoss
9. AnaIysis of spociaI issuos
10. IubIicalion of inlorim roporls and formaI pIan updalos
-
1. - -, Advisory CircuIar, AC 150/5070-6B, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., }uIy 2005.
2. IauI Sloplon
Dompsoy, McGrav-HiII, Nov YorI, N.Y., 2000.
3. , 5ll od., AIoxandor T. WoIIs and Soll B. Young,
McGrav-HiII, Nov YorI, N.Y., 2004.

4. - , 2d od., InlornalionaI CiviI
Avialion Organizalion, MonlroaI, Canada, 1987.
5. -- - Riclard do NoufviIIo and
Amodoo Odoni, McGrav-HiII, Nov YorI, N.Y., 2003.
6. Airporl Syslom Capacily, Slralogic Cloicos, SpociaI Roporl, No. 226,
Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1990.
7. -- , R. DoNoufviIIo, Tlo MIT Iross, Cambridgo, Mass.,
1976.
8. - --, Advisory CircuIar, AC 150/5070-7, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Novombor 2004.
9. -, Roads and Transporlalion Associalion
of Canada, Ollava, Canada, 1980.
10. - , MASI 2000, Micligan Doparlmonl of
Transporlalion, Iansing, Micl., }anuary 2000.
11. -- , IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, U.S. Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, Waslinglon, D.C.,
Soplombor 2006.
12. - - - - IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Docombor 1986.
13. - - ToclnicaI Roporl, Soulloasl
Micligan CounciI of Govornmonls, Dolroil, Micl., ApriI 1992.
14. Roborl I. Cavos and Gooffroy D. GosIing, IIsovior
Scionco Iimilod, Oxford, U.K., 1999.

-

IIans for llo dovoIopmonl of llo various compononls of llo airporl

syslom dopond lo a Iargo oxlonl on llo aclivily IovoIs vlicl aro foro-
casl for llo fuluro. Sinco llo purposo of an airporl is lo procoss air-
crafl, passongors, froigll, and ground lransporl volicIos in an officionl
and safo mannor, airporl porformanco is judgod on llo basis of lov
voII llo domand pIacod upon llo faciIilios villin llo syslom is lan-
dIod. To adoqualoIy assoss llo causos of porformanco broaIdovns in
oxisling airporl sysloms and lo pIan faciIilios lo mool fuluro noods, il
is ossonliaI lo prodicl llo IovoI and dislribulion of domand on llo
various compononls of llo airporl syslom. Willoul a roIiabIo InovI-
odgo of llo naluro and oxpoclod varialion in llo Ioads pIacod upon a
compononl, il is impossibIo lo roaIislicaIIy assoss llo plysicaI and
oporalionaI roquiromonls of sucl a compononl. Ior oxampIo, a foro-
casl lo projocl llo mix of aircrafl and llo lypos of avialion aclivily al
an airporl silo is nocossary lo idonlify llo crilicaI aircrafl vlicl dic-
lalos llo oIomonls of goomolric and slrucluraI dosign, llo lypo and
oxlonl of plysicaI faciIilios, llo navigalionaI aid roquiromonls, and
any spociaI or uniquo faciIily noods al llo airporl |15, 17].
An undorslanding of fuluro domand pallorns aIIovs llo pIannor
lo assoss fuluro airporl porformanco in Iigll of oxisling and improvod
faciIilios, lo ovaIualo llo impacl of various quaIily of sorvico oplions
on llo airIinos, lravoIors, slippors, and communily, lo rocommond
dovoIopmonl programs consislonl vill llo ovoraII objoclivos and
poIicios of llo airporl oporalor, lo oslimalo llo cosls associalod vill
lloso faciIily pIans, and lo projocl llo sourcos and IovoI of rovonuos lo
supporl llo capilaI improvomonl program.
Il is ossonliaI in llo pIanning and dosign of an airporl lo lavo
roaIislic oslimalos of llo fuluro domand lo vlicl airporls aro IiIoIy lo
bo subjoclod. Tlis is a basic roquiromonl in dovoIoping oillor an

airporl maslor pIan or an airporl syslom pIan. Tloso oslimalos dolor-
mino llo fuluro noods for vlicl llo plysicaI faciIilios aro dosignod. A
financiaI pIan lo acliovo llo rocommondod slagod dovoIopmonl
aIong vill roquirod Iand-uso zoning usuaIIy accompanios llo pIan. Il
slouId bo apparonl llal an airporl is dosignod for a projoclod IovoI
and pallorn of domand and clangos in llo magniludo or claracloris-
lics of llis domand may roquiro faciIily modificalions or oporalionaI
moasuros lo mool clanging noods. IaciIily pIanning is nocossary lo
provido adoqualo IovoIs of sorvico lo airporl usors.
Tlo dovoIopmonl of accuralo forocasls roquiros a considorabIo
oxponso of limo and ollor rosourcos bocauso of llo compIox mollodoIo-
gios vlicl musl bo usod and llo oxlonsivo dala acquisilion llal is oflon
roquirod. Tlo usuaI juslificalion for a domand forocasl in an avialion
pIan is llal llo oxpoclod IovoI of uncorlainly associalod vill llo oslima-
lion of ossonliaI variabIos viII bo roducod, lloroby roducing llo probabiI-
ily of orrors in llo pIanning procoss and onlancing llo docision-maIing
procoss. Tlo impIicalion, of courso, is llal llo bonofils gainod duo lo a
bollor InovIodgo of llo magniludo and fIuclualion in domand variabIos
viII oulvoigl llo cosls incurrod in porforming llo forocasl.
To assoss llo claraclorislics of fuluro domand, llo dovoIopmonl
of roIiabIo prodiclions of airporl aclivily is nocossary. Tloro aro numor-
ous faclors llal viII affocl llo domand and pIannors vlo aro propar-
ing forocasls of domand or updaling oxisling forocasls slouId considor
IocaI and rogionaI sociooconomic dala and claraclorislics, domo-
graplics, goograplic allribulos, and oxlornaI faclors sucl as fuoI cosls
and quaIily of sorvico paramolors. IoIilicaI dovoIopmonls, incIuding
rising inlornalionaI lonsions, clangos in socurily, airIino doIays and
congoslion, and lravoI alliludos, viII impacl domand. Aclions laIon
by IocaI airporl aullorilios, sucl as clangos in usor clargos, can aIso
slimuIalo or lindor llo domand and invoslmonl docisions mado as
llo rosuIl of llo pIanning procoss ilsoIf can aIso produco clango by
romoving plysicaI conslrainls lo grovll |2].
Ovor llo yoars, corlain loclniquos lavo ovoIvod vlicl onabIo air-
porl pIannors and dosignors lo forocasl fuluro domand. Tlo principaI
iloms for vlicl oslimalos aro usuaIIy noodod incIudo
Tlo voIumo and poaIing claraclorislics of passongors, air-
crafl, volicIos, and cargo
Tlo numbor and lypos of aircrafl noodod lo sorvo llo abovo
lraffic
Tlo numbor of basod gonoraI avialion aircrafl and llo num-
bor of movomonls gonoralod
Tlo porformanco and oporaling claraclorislics of ground
accoss sysloms
Using forocasling loclniquos, oslimalos of lloso paramolors and a
dolorminalion of llo poaI poriod voIumos of passongors and aircrafl
-

movomonls can bo mado. Irom lloso oslimalos concopls for llo Iay-
oul and sizing of lorminaI buiIdings, runvays, laxivays, apron aroas,
and ground accoss faciIilios may bo oxaminod.
Iorocasling domand in an induslry as dynamic as avialion is an
oxlromoIy difficuIl mallor, and if il couId bo avoidod il undoublodIy
vouId. NonolloIoss oslimalos of lraffic musl bo mado as a proIudo
lo llo pIanning and dosign of faciIilios. Il is vory imporlanl lo romom-
bor llal forocasling is nol a prociso scionco and llal considorabIo sub-
joclivo judgmonl musl bo appIiod lo any anaIysis no mallor lov
soplislicalod llo mallomalicaI loclniquos invoIvod. By anlicipaling
and pIanning for varialions in prodiclod domand, llo airporl dosignor
can corrocl projoclod sorvico doficioncios boforo sorious doficioncios
in llo syslom occur.
- -
Domand oslimalos aro proparod for a varioly of roasons. Broad
Iargo-scaIo aggrogalod forocasls aro mado by aircrafl and oquipmonl
manufaclurors, avialion lrado organizalions, govornmonlaI agoncios,
and ollors lo dolormino oslimalos of llo marIol roquiromonls for
avialion oquipmonl, lronds in lravoI, porsonnoI noods, air lraffic con-
lroI roquiromonls, and ollor faclors. SimiIarIy, forocasls aro mado on
a smaIIor scaIo lo oxamino lloso noods in parlicuIar rogions of an aroa
and al spocific airporls.
In oconomics, forocasling is dono on lvo IovoIs, aggrogalo forocasl-
ing and disaggrogalo forocasling, and llo samo loIds lruo in avialion.
Irom llo incoplion of llo pIanning procoss for an airporl considor-
alion is givon al boll IovoIs. In airporl pIanning, llo dosignor musl
viov llo onliro airporl syslom as voII as llo airporl undor immodialo
considoralion. Aggrogalo forocasls aro forocasls of llo lolaI avialion
aclivily in a Iargo rogion sucl as a counlry, slalo, or molropoIilan aroa.
TypicaI aggrogalo forocasls aro mado for sucl variabIos as llo lolaI
rovonuo passongor-miIos, lolaI onpIanod passongors, and llo numbor
of aircrafl oporalions, aircrafl in llo fIool, and Iiconsod piIols in llo
counlry. Disaggrogalo forocasls doaI vill llo aclivily al individuaI
airporls or on individuaI roulos. Disaggrogalo forocasls for airporl
pIanning dolormino sucl variabIos as llo numbor of originalions, pas-
songor origin-doslinalion lraffic, llo numbor of onpIanod passongors,
and llo numbor of aircrafl oporalions by air carrior and gonoraI avia-
lion aircrafl al an airporl. Soparalo forocasls aro usuaIIy mado, dopond-
ing on llo nood in a parlicuIar sludy, for cargo movomonls, commulor
sorvico, and ground accoss lraffic. Tloso forocasls aro normaIIy pro-
parod lo indicalo annuaI IovoIs of aclivily and aro llon disaggrogalod
for airporl pIanning purposos lo provido forocasls of llo poaIing
claraclorislics of lraffic during llo busy lours of llo day, days of llo
vooI, and monlls of llo yoar. As approprialo lo llo roquiromonls of
an airporl pIanning sludy, forocasls of sucl quanlilios as llo numbor

of gonoraI avialion aircrafl basod al an individuaI airporl and llo num-
bor of gonoraI avialion and miIilary oporalions aro aIso proparod.
In aggrogalo forocasling, llo onliro syslom of airporls is oxam-
inod roIalivo lo llo goograplic, oconomic, induslriaI, and grovll
claraclorislics of a rogion lo dolormino llo Iocalion and naluro of
airporl noods in a rogion. Tlo disaggrogalo forocasl llon oxaminos
llo oxpoclod domand al IocaI airporls and idonlifios llo nocossary
dovoIopmonl of llo airsido, Iandsido, and lorminaI faciIilios lo pro-
vido adoqualo IovoIs of sorvico. Willin llo lvo IovoIs of forocasling
lloro aro corlain loclniquos vlicl onabIo llo pIannor lo projocl sucl
paramolors as annuaI, daiIy, and lourIy aircrafl oporalions, passon-
gor onpIanomonls, cargo, and gonoraI avialion aclivily. In disaggro-
galo forocasling, lloro aro many significanl variabIos. Tlo forocasl
of oacl variabIo is quilo imporlanl bocauso il uIlimaloIy dolorminos
llo sizo roquiromonls of llo faciIilios vlicl viII bo nocossary lo
accommodalo domand. Oflon, llo forocasls of llo difforonl variabIos
aro IinIod by a sorios of slops, llal is, originaling passongors aro
forocasl firsl, llis llon bocomos a compononl in llo forocasl of
onpIanod passongors, vlicl Ioads lo a forocasl of annuaI oporalions,
and so on.
Tlo lypo of forocasl and llo IovoI of offorl dopond on llo purposo
for vlicl llo forocasl is boing usod. Iorocasls aro lypicaIIy proparod
for slorl-, modium-, and Iong-lorm poriods. Slorl-lorm forocasls, up
lo 5 yoars, aro usod lo juslify noar-lorm dovoIopmonl and supporl
oporalionaI pIanning and incromonlaI improvomonls or oxpansion of
faciIilios. Modium-lorm forocasls, a 6- lo 10-yoar limo framo, and
Iong-lorm forocasls of 10 lo 20 yoars aro usod lo pIan major capilaI
improvomonls, sucl as Iand acquisilion, nov runvays and laxivays,
oxlonsions of a runvay, a nov lorminaI, and ground accoss infraslruc-
luro. Iorocasls boyond 20 yoars aro usod lo assoss llo nood for addi-
lionaI airporls or ollor rogionaI avialion faciIilios |1].
- -
Tloro aro sovoraI forocasling mollods or loclniquos avaiIabIo lo air-
porl pIannors ranging from subjoclivo judgmonl lo soplislicalod
mallomalicaI modoIing. Tlo soIoclion of llo parlicuIar mollodoIogy
is a funclion of llo uso of llo forocasl, llo avaiIabiIily of a dalabaso, llo
compIoxily and soplislicalion of llo loclniquos, llo rosourcos avaiI-
abIo, llo limo framo in vlicl llo forocasl is roquirod and is lo bo usod,
and llo dogroo of procision dosirabIo. Tloro aro four major mollods:
Timo sorios mollod
MarIol slaro mollod
Iconomolric modoIing
SimuIalion modoIing
-

Timo sorios anaIysis ossonliaIIy invoIvos oxlrapoIaling or projocl-

ing oxisling lisloricaI aclivily dala inlo llo fuluro. MarIol slaro foro-
casling is a simpIo lop-dovn approacl, vloro curronl aclivily al an
airporl is caIcuIalod as a slaro of somo ollor moro aggrogalo moasuro
for vlicl a forocasl las boon mado (lypicaIIy a rogionaI, slalo, or
nalionaI forocasl of avialion aclivily). Iconomolric modoIing is a
muIlislop procoss in vlicl a casuaI roIalionslip is oslabIislod
bolvoon a dopondonl variabIo (llo ilom lo bo forocasl) and a sol of
indopondonl variabIos llal infIuonco llo domand for air lravoI. Onco
llo roIalionslip is oslabIislod, forocasls of indopondonl variabIos aro
inpul lo dolormino a forocasl of llo dopondonl variabIo. Tloso locl-
niquos can aIso bo roforrod lo as a bollom-up forocasl. SimuIalion
modoIs aro oflon usod vlon ono noods vory dolaiIod oslimalos of air-
crafl, passongors, or volicIos. Tloso modoIs imposo prociso ruIos llal
govorn lov passongors, aircrafl, or volicIos aro roulod, and llon
aggrogalos llo rosuIls so llal pIannors can assoss llo noods of llo
nolvorI or a compononl of llo airporl lo landIo llo oslimalod
domand. TypicaIIy llo oulpuls from llo ollor forocasling mollods
aro usod as inpuls lo simuIalion modoIs. Iorocasls from simuIalion
modoIs roprosonl snapslols of lov a givon amounl of lraffic fIovs
across a nolvorI or llrougl an airporl, rallor llan a monllIy or
annuaI oslimalo of lolaI lraffic.
An imporlanl oIomonl vlicl slouId bo uliIizod in any forocasl-
ing loclniquo is llo uso of profossionaI judgmonl. A forocasl proparod
llrougl llo uso of mallomalicaI roIalionslips musl uIlimaloIy vill-
sland llo losl of ralionaIily. IroquonlIy a group of profossionaIs
InovIodgoabIo aboul avialion and llo faclors infIuoncing avialion
lronds aro assombIod lo oxamino forocasls from sovoraI difforonl
sourcos, and composilo forocasls aro proparod in accordanco vill llo
informalion in lloso sourcos and llo coIIoclivo judgmonl of llo group.
In somo casos, judgmonl bocomos llo principaI approacl usod vill
or villoul an ovaIualion of oconomic and ollor faclors llal aro
boIiovod lo affocl avialion aclivily. A common approacl boing uli-
Iizod moro oflon loday for proparing forocasls by judgmonl is Inovn
as llo DoIpli mollod. In llis mollod a panoI of oxporls on a parlicu-
Iar subjocl mallor is asIod lo ralo or ollorviso priorilizo a sorios of
quoslions or projoclions llrougl a survoy loclniquo. Tlo rosuIls of
llo survoy aro llon dislribulod lo llo mombors of llo panoI and an
opporlunily is providod for oacl mombor lo roovaIualo llo originaI
raling basod upon llo coIIoclivo ralings of llo group. Tlo roovaIua-
lion procoss is oflon sonl llrougl sovoraI iloralions in ordor lo arrivo
al a bollor rosuIl. In llo DoIpli mollod, llo rosuIls of llo loclniquo do
nol lavo lo roprosonl a consonsus of llo panoI and, in facl, il is oflon
quilo usofuI lo lavo a forocasl vlicl indicalos llo sproad of llo panoI
in roacling concIusions on a parlicuIar issuo.
Tlo proparalion of judgmonlaI forocasls vlicl rofIocl llo coIIoc-
livo visdom of a broad rango of profossionaIs las provon lo bo vory

succossfuI in many inslancos principaIIy duo lo llo Iargo numbor of
faclors vlicl may bo considorod in sucl a procoss. Tlougl lloro is
oflon a IacI of mallomalicaI soplislicalion in llo procoss, llo InovI-
odgo and considoralion of llo many divorso faclors infIuoncing avia-
lion forocasls usuaIIy improvos llo rosuIls. Tlo disadvanlagos of llis
forocasling loclniquo incIudo llo absonco of slalislicaI moasuros on
vlicl lo baso llo rosuIls and llo inabiIily, oxcopl in llo mosl obvious
casos, lo gain a significanl consonsus roIalivo lo llo oxpoclod porfor-
manco of llo oxpIanalory faclors in llo fuluro.
-
Timo sorios anaIysis or oxlrapoIalion is basod upon an oxaminalion of
llo lisloricaI pallorn of aclivily and assumos llal lloso faclors vlicl
dolormino llo varialion of lraffic in llo pasl viII conlinuo lo oxlibil
simiIar roIalionslips in llo fuluro. Tlis loclniquo uliIizos limos sorios
lypo dala and sooIs lo anaIyzo llo grovll and grovll ralos associ-
alod vill a parlicuIar avialion aclivily. In praclico, lronds appoar lo
dovoIop in silualions in vlicl llo grovll ralo of a variabIo is slabIo
in oillor absoIulo or porconlago lorms, lloro is a graduaI incroaso or
docroaso in grovll ralo, or lloro is a cIoar indicalion of marIol salura-
lion lrond ovor limo |11]. SlalislicaI loclniquos aro usod lo assisl in
dofining llo roIiabiIily and llo oxpoclod rango in llo oxlrapoIalod
lrond. Tlo anaIysis of llo pallorn of domand gonoraIIy roquiros llal
uppor and Iovor bounds bo pIacod upon llo forocasl and slalislics
aro usod lo dofino llo confidonco IovoIs villin vlicl spocific projoc-
lions may bo oxpoclod lo bo vaIid. Irom llo varialion in llo lronds
and llo uppor and Iovor bounds pIacod on llo forocasl a proforrod
forocasl is usuaIIy dovoIopod. Quilo oflon smoolling loclniquos aro
incorporalod inlo llo forocasl lo oIiminalo slorl run, or soasonaI, fIuc-
lualions in a pallorn of aclivily vlicl ollorviso domonslralos a lrond
or cycIicaI pallorn in llo Iong run |16].
An iIIuslralion of llo appIicalion of a lrond Iino anaIysis lo forocasl
annuaI onpIanomonls al an airporl is slovn in IxampIo IrobIom 5-1.
Tlo lisloricaI dala slovn in TabIo 5-1 lavo boon coIIoclod
for llo annuaI passongor onpIanomonls in a rogion and ono of llo commorciaI
sorvico airporls in llis rogion. Il is nocossary lo proparo a forocasl of llo annuaI
passongor onpIanomonls al llo sludy airporl in llo dosign yoars 2010 and 2015
using a lrond Iino anaIysis.
In appIying llo lrond Iino anaIysis lo lloso dala, a forocasl loclniquo of llo
annuaI onpIanomonls al llo sludy airporl viII bo mado by forocasling llo lis-
loricaI lrond lo llo dosign yoars. A pIol of llo lrond in llo annuaI passongors
onpIanod al llo sludy airporl is givon in Iig. 5-1.
By oxlrapoIaling llo lrond inlo llo fuluro, an oslimalo of llo annuaI onpIanod
passongors al llo sludy airporl in 2010 is found lo bo 2,100,000 passongors and
in llo yoar 2015 is found lo bo 2,900,000 passongors.
-

Forecast
400
2000 2005 2010 2015
Year
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
2200 2100
2900
2400
2600
2800
3000
3200
3400
3600
Historical Data
- -

- -
-

Tlo inabiIily of limo sorios loclniquos lo slov a causaI roIalion-
slip bolvoon llo dopondonl and indopondonl variabIos is a sorious
disadvanlago. Tlis is parlicuIarIy lruo bocauso, in llo absonco of sucl
roIalionslips, llo dogroo of uncorlainly in sucl forocasls incroasos
vill limo. Hovovor, llo limo sorios mollod is usofuI for slorl-lorm
forocasls in vlicl llo rosponso lo clangos in lloso faclors vlicl
slimuIalo llo dopondonl variabIos is usuaIIy Ioss dynamic. In lloso
casos vloro cycIic varialions may bo oxpoclod lo occur, limo sorios
mollods may aIso bo quilo bonoficiaI.

Iorocasling loclniquos vlicl aro uliIizod lo proporlion a Iargo-scaIo
avialion aclivily dovn lo a IocaI IovoI aro caIIod marIol slaro, ralio,
or lop-dovn modoIs. Inloronl lo llo uso of sucl a mollod is llo dom-
onslralion llal llo proporlion of llo Iargo-scaIo aclivily vlicl can bo
assignod lo llo IocaI IovoI is a roguIar and prodiclabIo quanlily. Tlis
mollod las boon llo dominanl loclniquo for avialion domand foro-
casling al llo IocaI IovoI and ils mosl common uso is in llo dolormina-
lion of llo slaro of lolaI nalionaI lraffic aclivily vlicl viII bo caplurod
by a parlicuIar rogion, lraffic lub, or airporl. HisloricaI dala aro oxam-
inod lo dolormino llo ralio of IocaI airporl lraffic lo lolaI nalionaI
lraffic and llo lronds aro ascorlainod. Irom oxogonous sourcos llo
projoclod IovoIs of nalionaI aclivily aro dolorminod and lloso vaIuos
aro llon proporlionod lo llo IocaI airporl basod upon llo obsorvod
and projoclod lronds. Tlo ralio mollod is mosl commonIy usod in llo
dovoIopmonl of microforocasls for rogionaI airporl syslom pIans or
for airporl maslor pIans.
Tloso mollods aro parlicuIarIy usofuI in appIicalions in vlicl il
can bo domonslralod llal llo marIol slaro is a roguIar, slabIo, or pro-
diclabIo paramolor. Ior oxampIo, llo numbor of annuaI onpIanod
passongors al major air lraffic lubs las boon slovn lo bo a consislonl
and roIalivoIy slabIo faclor and, lloroforo, llis mollod is oflon usod
lo prodicl llis paramolor.
Quilo oflon llo appIicalion of llo marIol slaro loclniquo is a lvo-
slop procoss in vlicl a ralio is appIiod lo disaggrogalo aclivily foro-
casls from a nalionaI lo a rogionaI IovoI and llon anollor ralio is appIiod
lo apporlion llo rogionaI slaro among llo airporls in llo rogion.
Tlo mosl compoIIing advanlago of llo marIol slaro mollod is ils
dopondonco on oxisling dala sourcos vlicl minimizos forocasling
cosl. Hovovor, ils principaI disadvanlagos Iio in ils dopondonco on
llo slabiIily and prodiclabiIily of llo ralios from vlicl llo forocasls
aro mado and llo uncorlainly vlicl may surround marIol slaros in
spocific appIicalions. SovoraI forocasls may bo roquirod undor a diffor-
ing sol of assumplions vlicl aro doomod approprialo lo llo dolormi-
nalion of marIol slaros. An iIIuslralion of llo appIicalion of a marIol
slaro anaIysis is givon in IxampIo IrobIom 5-2.
-

Tlo lisloricaI dala slovn in TabIo 5-1 couId aIso bo usod

lo proparo a forocasl of llo annuaI passongor onpIanomonls al llo sludy airporl
in llo dosign yoars 2010 and 2015 using a marIol slaro mollod.
In appIying llo marIol slaro mollod lo lloso dala, a lop-dovn forocasl locl-
niquo viII bo usod. Tlo impIicil assumplion in sucl a loclniquo is llal llo samo
roIalionslip bolvoon rogionaI annuaI onpIanomonls and llo annuaI onpIano-
monls al llo sludy airporl viII bo mainlainod in llo fuluro. To proparo sucl a
forocasl, a projoclion of llo porconlago of llo rogionaI annuaI onpIanomonls cap-
lurod al llo sludy airporl is porformod and llon a forocasl is mado of llo rogionaI
annuaI onpIanomonls. Tlo sludy airporl forocasl porconlago is appIiod lo llo
rogionaI forocasl lo arrivo al llo forocasl of llo sludy airporl annuaI onpIano-
monls in llo dosign yoars. A pIol of llo lrond in llo porconlago of rogionaI annuaI
passongors onpIanod al llo sludy airporl is givon in Iig. 5-2.
Bocauso llo varialions slovn in Iig. 5-2 oflon maIo il difficuIl lo dolormino
if lronds may oxisl, a smoolling funclion is oflon appIiod lo llo dala lo assisl in
idonlifying lronds vlicl may nol bo obvious. In llis caso, a smoolling of llo
dala vas oblainod by compuling a running 3-yoar avorago of llo dala poinls. As
is slovn in Iig. 5-3, llis londs lo smooll oul llo varialions in llo originaI dala
and moro roadiIy idonlifios lronds in lloso dala.
Tlougl il may nol bo apparonl in llo originaI pIol, llo smoolling moclanism
doos indicalo a vory sIigll upvard lrond in llo porconlago of rogionaI annuaI pas-
songors caplurod by llo sludy airporl. Tlis lrond is slovn by llo daslod Iino in
Iig. 5-3. Tlis lrond Iino, vlon projoclod lo llo dosign yoars, indicalos a forocasl of
3.4
2000 1998 2002 2004 2006
Year
3.6
3.8
4.0
A
i
r
p
o
r
t

P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f
R
e
g
i
o
n
a
l

A
n
n
u
a
l
E
n
p
l
a
n
e
m
e
n
t
s
-

Forecast
3.4
2000
3.70
3.75
2005 2010 2015
Year
3.6
3.8
4.0
A
i
r
p
o
r
t

P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f
R
e
g
i
o
n
a
l

A
n
n
u
a
l
E
n
p
l
a
n
e
m
e
n
t
s
Historical Data
-
- -

3.70 porconl in llo yoar 2010 and 3.75 porconl in llo yoar 2015 as llo proporlion of
rogionaI annuaI onpIanomonls forocasl lo bo caplurod by llo sludy airporl.
To compIolo llo forocasl by llo marIol slaro mollod, a dolorminalion of llo
rogionaI annuaI onpIanomonls musl bo mado. Tlis is dono by oxlrapoIaling llo
lrond in rogionaI annuaI onpIanomonls as slovn in Iig. 5-4. Tlis oxlrapoIalion
indicalos rogionaI annuaI onpIanomonls in llo yoar 2010 of 52,500,000 and in llo
yoar 2015 of 63,500,000.
Tloroforo, llo forocasl for llo annuaI onpIanomonls al llo sludy airporl
bocomos 0.0370 52,500,000 = 1,942,500 passongors in llo yoar 2010 and 0.0375
63,500,000 = 2,381,250 passongors in llo yoar 2015.

Tlo mosl soplislicalod and compIox loclniquo in airporl domand
forocasling is llo uso of oconomolric modoIs. Trond oxlrapoIalion
mollods do nol oxpIicilIy oxamino llo undorIying roIalionslips
bolvoon llo projoclod aclivily doscriplor and llo many variabIos
vlicl affocl ils clango. Tloro aro a vido rango of oconomic, sociaI,
marIol, and oporalionaI faclors vlicl affocl avialion. Tloroforo, lo
proporIy assoss llo impacl of prodiclod clangos in llo ollor soclors
of socioly upon avialion domand and lo invosligalo llo offocl of aIlor-
nalivo assumplions on avialion, il is oflon dosirabIo lo uso mallomal-
icaI loclniquos lo sludy llo corroIalions bolvoon dopondonl and
indopondonl variabIos. Iconomolric modoIs vlicl roIalo moasuros of
avialion aclivily lo oconomic and sociaI faclors aro oxlromoIy vaIu-
abIo loclniquos in forocasling llo fuluro.
Forecast
10
2000 2005 2010 2015
Year
20
30
40
50
R
e
g
i
o
n
a
l

A
n
n
u
a
l

E
n
p
l
a
n
e
m
e
n
t
s

(
M
i
l
l
i
o
n
s
)
60
52.2
63.5
70
80
Historical Data
- -

-

Tloro aro a groal varioly of loclniquos vlicl aro usod in ocono-

molric modoIing for airporl pIanning. CIassicaI lrip gonoralion and
gravily modoIs aro quilo common in forocasling passongor and air-
crafl lraffic. SimpIo and muIlipIo rogrossion anaIysis loclniquos, boll
Iinoar and nonIinoar, aro oflon appIiod lo a groal varioly of forocasling
probIoms lo ascorlain llo roIalionslips bolvoon llo dopondonl vari-
abIos and sucl oxpIanalory variabIos as oconomic and popuIalion
grovll, marIol faclors, lravoI impodanco, and inlormodaI compoli-
lion. Tlo form of llo oqualions usod in muIlipIo Iinoar rogrossion
anaIysis is givon in Iq. (5-1).

osl
=
0
+
1

1
+
2

2
+
3

3
+ +

(5-1)
vloro
osl
= dopondonl variabIo or variabIo vlicl is boing
forocasl

1
,
2
,
3
,,

= dopondonl variabIos or variabIos boing usod lo

oxpIain llo varialion in llo dopondonl variabIo

0
,
1
,
2
,
3
,,

= rogrossion coofficionls or conslanls usod lo caIi-

bralo llo oqualion
Tloro aro many slalislicaI losls vlicl can bo porformod lo dolor-
mino llo vaIidily of oconomolric modoIs in accuraloIy porlraying
lisloricaI plonomona and lo roIiabIy projocl domand. Tlougl llo
conslanls may bo found lo dofino llo gonoraI oqualion of llo modoI,
il is possibIo llal llo rango of orror associalod vill llo oqualion may
bo Iargo or llal llo oxpIanalory variabIos closon do nol diroclIy
dolormino llo varialion in llo dopondonl variabIo.
Tloro may bo a londoncy vlon porforming soplislicalod mallo-
malicaI modoIing lo bocomo disassocialod from llo significanco of
llo rosuIls. Il is incumbonl upon llo anaIysl lo considor llo roason-
abIonoss as voII as llo slalislicaI significanco of llo modoI. Adoqualo
considoralion musl bo givon lo llo ralionaIily of llo funclionaI form
and variabIos closon for llo anaIysis, and lo llo Iogic associalod vill
caIibralod conslanls.
In many casos il is ossonliaI lo dolormino llo sonsilivily of foro-
casls lo clangos in llo oxpIanalory variabIos. If a parlicuIar dosign
paramolor boing forocasl varios considorabIy vill a clango in a
dopondonl variabIo, and lloro is a significanl dogroo of unroIiabiIily
in llis indopondonl variabIo, llon a groal doaI of confidonco cannol
bo pIacod upon llo forocasl and, moro imporlanlIy, llo dosign basod
upon llo forocasl. Tosls aro usuaIIy porformod lo dolormino llo
oxpIanalory povor of llo indopondonl variabIos and lloir inlorroIa-
lionslips. Tlo anaIysl slouId carofuIIy invosligalo llo sonsilivily of
projoclions villin llo oxpoclod varialion of oxpIanalory variabIos. Il
is aIso possibIo llal corlain oxpIanalory variabIos do nol significanlIy
affocl llo modoIing oqualion and llo nood for coIIocling llo dala
associalod vill lloso variabIos roquirod for projoclions couId bo

oIiminalod. An iIIuslralion of llo appIicalion of simpIo Iinoar rogros-
sion anaIysis is prosonlod in IxampIo IrobIom 5-3.
Tlo lisloricaI dala slovn in TabIo 5-1 couId aIso bo usod lo
proparo a forocasl of llo annuaI passongor onpIanomonls al llo sludy airporl in
llo dosign yoars 2010 and 2015 using a simpIo rogrossion anaIysis.
In appIying simpIo rogrossion anaIysis lo lloso dala, Iol us assumo llal a roIa-
lionslip bolvoon llo sludy airporl annuaI onpIanomonls (INI) and llo sludy
aroa popuIalion (IOI) is lo bo oxaminod. Tloroforo, il is assumod llal a Iinoar
roIalionslip of llo form slovn in Iq. (5-1) oxisls bolvoon llo variabIos.
INI =
0
+
1
(IOI)
Using a slandard rogrossion anaIysis compulor program llo roIalionslip is found
lo bo
INI = 3,047,032 + 13.8633(IOI)
vloro llo coofficionl of dolorminalion
2
is 0.983815, llo coofficionl of corroIalion
is 0.991874, and llo slandard orror of llo oslimalo,
osl
is 55,520.9.
Tlo rogrossion Iino and llo dala poinls upon vlicl llis rogrossion Iino is basod
aro slovn in Iig. 5-5.
Tlo coofficionl of dolorminalion indicalos llal lloro is an oxlromoIy good
roIalionslip bolvoon llo annuaI onpIanomonls al llo sludy airporl and llo sludy
aroa popuIalion, llal is, 98.4 porconl of llo varialion in llo sludy airporl annuaI
onpIanomonls is oxpIainod by llo varialion in llo sludy aroa popuIalion.
Tlo slandard orror of llo oslimalo, lovovor, indicalos llal lloro is a Iargo
rango of orror associalod vill forocasling vill llis oqualion, llal is, lloro is a
68 porconl probabiIily llal llo forocasl of annuaI onpIanomonls al llo sludy
airporl viII lavo an orror rango of 55,520.9 annuaI onpIanomonls. Tlis may
1200
1600
200
ENP = 3047032 + 13.8633 POP
300 400
Study Area Population (Thousands)
400
800
2000
A
n
n
u
a
l

A
i
r
p
o
r
t

E
n
p
l
a
n
e
m
e
n
t

(
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
)
- -

-

or may nol bo loo ligl doponding on llo IovoI of annuaI oporalions forocasl in
llo fuluro and llo sonsilivily of various compononls of llo airporl syslom lo
sucl varialions.
Using a lrond projoclion, il is forocasl llal llo aroa popuIalion in llo yoar
2010, as slovn on Iig. 5-6, is oxpoclod lo bo 363,000. Tlo forocasl of llo annuaI
onpIanomonls al llo airporl in llo yoar 2010 can bo found by subslilulion inlo
llo rogrossion oqualion yioIding 1,985,300 annuaI onpIanomonls. SimiIarIy,
if llo forocasl of llo aroa popuIalion in llo yoar 2015 is oxpoclod lo bo 410,000,
llon llo forocasl of llo annuaI onpIanomonls al llo airporl in llo yoar 2015 is
found lo bo 2,636,900.
Givon llo rango in llo slandard orror of llo oslimalo, il couId bo oxpoclod llal
in llo yoar 2010 lloro is a probabiIily of 68 porconl llal llo forocasl couId rango
bolvoon 1,985,300 55,500, or from 1,929,800 lo 2,040,800 annuaI onpIanomonls
aboul 68 porconl of llo limo. SimiIarIy, il couId bo oxpoclod llal in llo yoar
2015 llo forocasl couId rango bolvoon 2,636,900 55,500, or from 2,581,900 lo
2,692,400. Il is IiIoIy llal llis rango in llo forocasls is accoplabIo sinco il roprosonls
aboul a 2 lo 3 porconl orror.
Il is inlorosling lo comparo llo rosuIls found by llo llroo difforonl
loclniquos usod in IxampIo IrobIoms 5-1 llrougl 5-3. Tlo rosuIls
comparo vory voII and il givos ono somo dogroo of confidonco in llo
rosuIls vlon llo llroo forocasls comparo voII. Tlis is caIIod rodun-
dancy in forocasling.
Basod upon llo rosuIls found in lloso oxampIo probIoms, a pro-
forrod forocasl vouId bo dovoIopod. If lloro is no roason lo suspocl
Historical Data Forecast
200
2000 2005 2010 2015
Year
300
400
S
t
u
d
y

A
r
e
a

P
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

(
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
)
363
410
500
600
- -

llal ono loclniquo is bollor llan anollor, llon a simpIo avorago migll
bo usod lo dovoIop llo proforrod forocasl. If llis is dono in lloso
oxampIos, llon llo proforrod forocasl for llo yoar 2010 is aboul
2,000,000 annuaI onpIanod passongors and in llo yoar 2015 is 2,600,000
annuaI onpIanod passongors.
Tlo IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion uliIizos oconomolric modoIs
lo dolormino nalionaI forocasls of U.S. avialion domand. Tlo IAA
Aorospaco Iorocasl |8] providos a 12-yoar oulIooI and viov of llo
immodialo fuluro for avialion. Il is updalod in Marcl oacl yoar and
incIudos aggrogalo IovoI forocasls of llo foIIoving:
Iassongor onpIanomonls, rovonuo passongor miIos, fIool, and
lours fIovn for Iargo carriors and rogionaI commulors
Cargo rovonuo lon miIos and cargo fIool for Iargo air carriors
IIool, lours, and piIols for gonoraI avialion
Aclivily forocasls for IAA and conlracl lovors by major usor
calogory
Tlo IAA Iong Rango Aorospaco Iorocasls |9] is a Iong rango foro-
casl llal oxlonds llo 12-yoar forocasl lo a Iongor limo lorizon, lypi-
caIIy for a poriod of 25 yoars. Tlis forocasl conlains projoclions of
aircrafl, fIool and lours, air carrior and rogionaI/commulor passon-
gor onpIanomonls, air cargo froigll rovonuo lon-miIos, piIols, and
IAA vorIIoad moasuros.
Tlo succoss in appIying mallomalicaI modoIing loclniquos lo
ascorlain llo IovoI of fuluro aclivily doponds lo a Iargo oxlonl on llo
corlainly associalod vill llo indopondonl variabIos and llo roIalivo
infIuonco of lloso variabIos on llo dopondonl variabIo. SimpIo and
muIlipIo rogrossion anaIysis mollods aro oflon appIiod lo a groal
varioly of forocasling probIoms lo dolormino llo roIalionslips
bolvoon lransporl roIalod variabIos and sucl oxpIanalory faclors as
oconomic and popuIalion grovll, marIol faclors, lravoI impodanco,
and compolilivo forcos. TabIo 5-2 Iisls many of llo variabIos roquirod
for various purposos in avialion pIanning sludios.
- - -
Tlo spocific forocasling noods dopond on llo naluro and scopo of llo
sludy boing undorlaIon. Tlo roquiromonls for a slalo avialion syslom
pIan aro vory difforonl llan lloso roquirod for an airporl maslor pIan.
IaciIily pIanning roquiros projoclions of llo paramolors vlicl dolor-
mino plysicaI dosign vloroas financiaI pIanning roquiros projoclions
of llo cosl oIomonls and rovonuo sourcos associalod vill plysicaI
dovoIopmonl. Tlis soclion oulIinos llo gonoraI forocasling roquiro-
monls for various lypos of airporl sludios and discussos llo moro
common mollodoIogios usod lo arrivo al lloso roquiromonls.
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Tlo purposo of an airporl syslom pIan is lo idonlify llo avialion dovoI-
opmonl roquirod lo mool llo immodialo and fuluro avialion noods of
a rogion, slalo, or molropoIilan aroa |17]. Il rocommonds llo gonoraI
Iocalion and claraclorislics of nov and oxpandod airporls, slovs llo
liming, plasing, and oslimalod cosl of dovoIopmonl, and idonlifios
rovonuo sourcos and IogisIalion for llo impIomonlalion of llo pIan.
Tlo avialion syslom pIan aIso providos a basis for llo dofinilivo and
dolaiIod dovoIopmonl of llo individuaI airporls in llo syslom.
Tlo primary forocasling roquiromonl for llo airporl syslom pIan
is a projoclion of llo IovoI of avialion aclivily during llo pIanning
poriod. Tlo forocasls aro usuaIIy mado on an annuaI basis for llo
pIanning onlily as a vloIo and aro llon proporlionod among llo var-
ious individuaI airporls villin llis onlily. Spocific projoclions aro
gonoraIIy mado for lolaI aircrafl oporalions, air carrior and gonoraI
avialion oporalions, basod aircrafl, lolaI air cargo, and passongor
onpIanomonls for llo slorl-, modium-, and Iong-rango limo framos
villin llo pIanning poriod. Tloso domand projoclions aro comparod
lo llo invonlory of plysicaI faciIilios lo dolormino dovoIopmonl
noods. Il slouId bo omplasizod llal lloso projoclions aro normaIIy
mado in a vory aggrogalo faslion and lond lo oxamino ovoraII dolor-
minalos of rogionaI aclivily rallor llan llo spocific faclors affocling
IocaI aclivily.
Tlo proparalion of a forocasl for a syslom pIan is inilialod by llo
coIIoclion of lisloricaI dala indicalivo of llo various compononls of
avialion aclivily. Tloso dala normaIIy incIudo broad moasuros of
sociooconomic aclivily as voII as avialion aclivily slalislics. Duo lo
llo facl llal dala coIIoclion is vory oxponsivo, mosl of llo dala coIIoc-
lion in a syslom pIan doponds primariIy on socondary or oxisling
sourcos and vory IillIo survoy vorI is porformod. Many of llo ovoraII
rogionaI projoclions aro mado on llo basis of lrond projoclions or sim-
pIo oconomolric modoIs and lloso aro llon apporlionod lo llo indi-
viduaI airporls villin llo rogion on llo basis of ralio mollods. In llo
anaIysis of obsorvod lronds and llo proparalion of fuluro forocasls,
broad indicalors aro gonoraIIy usod incIuding an oxaminalion of llo
consisloncy and roaIizalion of pasl lronds and a comparison of grovll
ralos and oconomic indicalors.
-
Tlo purposo of llo airporl maslor pIan is lo provido llo spocific
dolaiIs for llo fuluro dovoIopmonl of an individuaI airporl lo salisfy
avialion noods consislonl vill communily objoclivos. Tlo airporl
maslor pIan roquiros dolaiIod projoclions of llo IovoI of domand on
llo various faciIilios associalod vill llo airporl. Various concopls
and aIlornalivos for dovoIopmonl aro oxaminod and ovaIualod, and
rocommondalions aro mado roIalivo lo llo priorilizing, scloduIing,
-

and financing of llo pIan |3]. Tlougl llo basis for projoclions in a
syslom pIan is llo aggrogalo IovoI of annuaI domand, llis is nol suf-
ficionl for llo maslor pIan. Irojoclions musl bo mado for magniludo,
naluro, and varialion of domand on a monllIy, daiIy, and lourIy basis
on llo many faciIilios Iocalod al llo airporl.
AnnuaI forocasls of airporl lraffic during llo pIanning poriod aro
llo basis for llo proparalion of llo dolaiIod forocasls in llo maslor
pIan. Tloso forocasls aro mado for oacl lypo of major airporl usor
incIuding air carrior, commulor, and gonoraI avialion aircrafl and aro
oflon oxprossod in lorms of uppor and Iovor bounds. Tlo maslor pIan
forocasls aro usuaIIy mado undor boll conslrainod and unconslrainod
condilions. An unconslrainod forocasl is ono vlicl is mado roIalivo
lo llo polonliaI avialion marIol in vlicl llo basic faclors vlicl lond
lo croalo avialion domand aro uliIizod villoul rogard lo any con-
slraining faclors llal couId affocl avialion grovll al llo Iocalion. A
conslrainod forocasl is ono vlicl is mado in llo conloxl of aIlornalivo
faclors vlicl couId Iimil grovll al llo spocific airporl. Conslraining
faclors addrossod in maslor pIans incIudo Iimilalions on airporl
capacily duo lo Iand avaiIabiIily and noiso roslriclions, llo dovoIop-
monl of aIlornalivo roIiovor airporls lo allracl gonoraI avialion
domand, poIicios vlicl aIlor accoss lo airporls by gonoraI avialion
and commulor aircrafl oporalions, and llo avaiIabiIily and cosl of
avialion fuoI. Tlo dolorminalion of llo IovoI of gonoraI avialion acliv-
ily al an airporl can bo significanlIy clangod vlon Iand avaiIabiIily is
roslriclod, lloroby pIacing Iimils on airsido capacily. Tlo avaiIabIo
capacily may bo uliIizod in llo conloxl of poIicios vlicl favor com-
morciaI ovor gonoraI avialion grovll.
Spocific forocasls mado for a maslor pIan incIudo llo annuaI,
daiIy, and poaI lour oporalions by air carrior, commulor, gonoraI
avialion, cargo, and miIilary aircrafl, passongor onpIanomonls, and
annuaI cargo lonnago, as voII as daiIy and lourIy ground accoss sys-
lom and parIing domand. Irojoclions aro aIso mado for llo mix or
lypos of aircrafl in oacl of llo calogorios vlicl viII uliIizo llo airporl
during llo pIanning poriod. In llo proparalion of lloso forocasls
somo variabIos aro projoclod diroclIy and ollors aro dorivod from
lloso projoclions. Ior oxampIo, annuaI passongor onpIanomonls
migll bo forocaslod from an oconomolric modoI and llon, basod
upon oxogonous oslimalos of avorago air carrior fIool passongor
capacily and boarding soal Ioad faclors, annuaI air carrior oporalions
couId bo dorivod from lloso dala. Guidanco is providod by IAA
|3, 10] for forocasling llo various oIomonls of llo maslor pIan and
IAA rocommonds a labuIar formal for prosonling forocasls for roviov.
An oxampIo is prosonlod in TabIo 5-3. AIllougl llo aclivily oIomonls
slovn in llo labIo rofor lo annuaI oslimalos, maslor pIan forocasls
viII aIso roquiro poaI poriod aclivily IovoIs for llo pIanning of many
airporl faciIilios, and doponding on llo silualion, soasonaI, monllIy,
daiIy, and/or limo-of-day domands musl bo forocasl.

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Ior llo mosl parl, llo mollods usod in llo sludy of nov airporls
aro simiIar lo lloso usod for oxisling airporls. Hovovor, llo principaI
difforonco is llo inabiIily of llo anaIysl lo oblain a IocaI lisloricaI
dalabaso lo gonoralo oxlrapoIalion lronds, marIol slaros, or ocono-
molric modoIs. To ovorcomo llis doficioncy, an allompl is usuaIIy
mado lo forocasl by draving an anaIogy bolvoon llo subjocl airporl
and ollor oxisling airporls vlicl domonslralo simiIar lraffic oxpori-
onco, and vlicl aro Iocalod in aroas possossing simiIar sociooco-
nomic, domograplic, and goograplic claraclorislics. Iorocasls aro
llon mado for llo airporl undor considoralion by using lloso airporls
as surrogalos and adjuslmonls aro porformod lo accommodalo
oxpoclod difforoncos bolvoon llo airporls. In llo pasl, llo Air Trans-
porl Associalion and llo IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion lavo coI-
Ioclod and labuIalod a significanl amounl of dala for many airporls.
Tloso dala lavo incIudod llo numbor and dislribulion of commorciaI
air carrior oporalions, fIool mix, and passongors on a poaI and avor-
ago monllIy, daiIy, and lourIy basis. Il is apparonl llal ono may
oxpocl a rallor ligl dogroo of uncorlainly associalod vill forocasling
llrougl sucl an anaIogy.
-
Many of llo forocasls mado by llo various avialion-roIalod organiza-
lions bocomo biasod by llo impacl of roconl ovonls. Iorocasls mado in
llo oarIy 1960s slovod rallor modoralo grovll, vloroas lloso mado
in llo Ialo 1960s slovod fairIy ambilious grovll. Tloso forocasls
voro mado in llo conloxl of oxpoclalions vlicl rofIoclod llo bolav-
ior of avialion al llo limo vlon lloy voro mado. In llo 1970s and
1980s, llo ovoraII oconomic condilions, llo avaiIabiIily and cosl of
polroIoum-basod fuoIs, and airIino doroguIalion considorabIy affoclod
avialion. Iorocasls mado in llis ora allomplod lo anaIyzo llo impacl
of lloso faclors in projocling llo domand for avialion in llo fuluro.
Tlo IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion and numorous ollor lrans-
porlalion organizalions aro aIvays IooIing inlo llo fuluro of avialion
|2, 12]. As far as fuluro lronds in air lravoI aro concornod, il is oxpoclod
llal lloro viII bo a groalor grovll of inlornalionaI air lraffic vlicl las
boon allribulod lo llo gIobaIizalion of llo airIino induslry and lo
clanging marIol forcos in llo Unilod Slalos. Tlo faclors vlicl lavo
conlribulod lo llo riso of llo U.S. air lransporlalion induslry aro
clanging. Tlo sloady docIino in llo roaI cosl of air lravoI las roaclod
a poinl in vlicl llo unil cosls in llo 1990s viII romain sloady or sIovIy
riso. Tlo incroasod quaIily of sorvico from improvomonls in llo spood,
comforl, convonionco, and safoly of air lravoI las boon IargoIy roaI-
izod. Iasl domograplic and cuIluraI faclors, sucl as llo baby boom,
aro docIining in imporlanco. Tlo riso in famiIy discrolionary incomo
las poaIod and llo uso of discrolionary incomo for air lravoI is mooling
-

compolilion from morlgagos, savings, and Iuxury goods. Ioroign

lravoI by U.S. cilizons viII bo advorsoIy affoclod by llo docIino in llo
oxclango vaIuo of llo doIIar. Iurllormoro, llis faclor viII oncourago
foroign nalionaIs lo lravoI lo llo Unilod Slalos |12, 13, 14].
Conforoncos roIalod lo avialion forocasling mollodoIogios |10]
concIudod llal financiaI concorns and forcos concorns aro forcing llo
avialion induslry lo pIaco moro omplasis on slorl-lorm forocasling
mollods. Tlis is nol onIy llo caso vill llo airIinos bul airporls aro
aIso slorloning lloir pIanning lorizons. Tlrougloul llo avialion
induslry lloro is a slifl lo simpIor forocasling loclniquos roquiring
fovor variabIos and Ioss dolaiIod dala. A vidor uso is boing mado of
forocasling loclniquos vlicl dopond Ioss on mallomalicaI modoIing
and moro on an anaIysis of difforonl sconarios, judgmonl, and marIol
sogmonlalion. Sconarios aro usod lo losl basic assumplions and lo
oxpIoro aIlornalivos. AIllougl judgmonl las aIvays pIayod a signifi-
canl roIo in domand forocasling il is bocoming moro imporlanl as a
subjoclivo losl of llo roaIily associalod vill forocasling oulcomos.
Tloro is a groving rocognilion llal airIino managomonl slralogios aro
imporlanl forcos slaping llo fuluro of avialion dovoIopmonl.
To adoqualoIy copo vill llo uncorlainlios associalod vill llo lra-
dilionaI air lransporlalion forocasling procoss and lo roacl in a limoIy
mannor lo inaccuracios found in oslimalos, llo pIanning procoss is
omorging inlo a plaso-orionlod, conlinuing procoss. Ior oxampIo, llo
IAA proparos annuaI forocasls of avialion aclivily on a nalionaI and
lorminaI aroa basis vlicl oxlond sovoraI yoars inlo llo fuluro |8, 9,
18]. Duo lo llo ligl cosls associalod vill llo lradilionaI pIanning
procoss and llo impIomonlalion of plysicaI dosign clangos, and llo
apparonl inabiIily lo forocasl vill any dogroo of corlainly, il is osson-
liaI llal pIanning loclniquos bo dovoIopod vlicl can rospond lo
clangos in llo domand paramolors prior lo llo invoslmonl docision.
Iorlaps llo Ioy lo sucl a procoss is llo rocognilion of llo inloraclion
of domand lo suppIy paramolors. Tlo InovIodgo of llo sonsilivily of
a plysicaI faciIily compononl lo a varialion in domand can Ioad lo
moro informod docisions and an undorslanding of llo fIoxibiIily in
faciIily dosign. A conlinuod moniloring of llo nood for plysicaI faciI-
ilios in Iigll of clanging domand roquiromonls providos a sound
basis for llo invoslmonl docision. Rocognilion of llo uncorlainlios in
llo domand forocasling procoss can provonl a vaslofuI commilmonl
of vaIuabIo rosourcos. IxpIicil lroalmonl of llo variabiIily of domand
projoclions and faciIily modificalion rocommondalions llougl llo
uso of sonsilivily and lradooff anaIysos is varranlod.
-
1. - -- , ACRI
Synllosis 2, Airporl Cooporalivo Rosoarcl Irogram, Transporlalion Rosoarcl
Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 2007.

2. - - , Conforonco Irocoodings (Waslinglon, ApriI 2000),
Transporlalion Rosoarcl CircuIar Numbor I-C027, Transporlalion Rosoarcl
Board, Waslinglon, D.C., Marcl 2001.
3. - -, Advisory CircuIar, AC 150/5070-6B, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 2007.
4. - -, SpociaI Roporl No. 226, Transporlalion
Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1990.
5. --- --- -,
CircuIar No. 230, Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C., Augusl
1981.
6. Avialion Domand Iorocaslinga Survoy of MollodoIogios, Transporlalion
Rosoarcl I-CircuIar No. I-C040, Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon,
D.C., Augusl 2002.
7. - -, CircuIar No. 348,
Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C., Augusl 1989.
8. - - - - , IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Waslinglon, D.C., Marcl 2008.
9. - -- - - , IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Soplombor 2007.
10. - -, CircuIar No. 372, Transporlalion Rosoarcl
Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1991.
11. - - , 5ll od., S. G. MaIridaIis, }oln WiIoy &
Sons, Inc., Nov YorI, N.Y., 1989.
12. -, 12ll InlornalionaI WorIslop, (Waslinglon, Soplombor
2002), CircuIar No. I-C051, Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C.,
}anuary 2003.
13. IroIiminary Roporl and
Rocommondod Sludy IIan, Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C.,
1988.
14. , CircuIar No. 329, Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon,
D.C., 1988.
15. -, Roads and Transporlalion Associalion
of Canada, Ollava, Canada, 1980.
16. -, 3d od., InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion
Organizalion, MonlroaI, Canada, 2006.
17. - --, Advisory CircuIar, AC 150/5070-7, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 2004.
18. - - - , IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 2007.
19. - --- , CircuIar No. 393, Transporlalion
Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1992.

-

Goomolric Dosign
of llo AiroId

SlrucluraI Dosign of
Airporl Iavomonls

Airporl Iiglling,
MarIing, and Signago

Airporl Drainago

IIanning and Dosign
of llo TorminaI Aroa

-

- -
In ordor lo provido assislanco lo airporl dosignors and a roasonabIo
amounl of uniformily in llo dosign of airporl faciIilios for aircrafl
oporalions, dosign guidoIinos lavo boon proparod by llo IAA |6] and
llo ICAO |2, 3, 4]. Any dosign criloria invoIving llo vidlls, gradi-
onls, soparalions of runvays, laxivays, and ollor foaluros of llo air-
crafl oporalions aroa musl nocossariIy incorporalo vido varialions in
aircrafl porformanco, piIol loclniquo, and voallor condilions.
Tlo IAA dosign criloria provido uniformily al airporl faciIilios in
llo Unilod Slalos and sorvo as a guido lo aircrafl manufaclurors and
oporalors vill rogard lo llo faciIilios vlicl may bo oxpoclod lo bo
avaiIabIo in llo fuluro. Tlo IAA dosign slandards aro pubIislod in
Advisory CircuIars vlicl aro rovisod poriodicaIIy as llo nood arisos |1].
Tlo ICAO slrivos lovard uniformily and safoly on an inlornalionaI
IovoI. Ils slandards, vlicl aro vory simiIar lo llo IAA slandards, appIy
lo aII mombor nalions of llo Convonlion on InlornalionaI CiviI Avia-
lion and aro pubIislod as Annox 14 lo llal convonlion |2]. Roquiro-
monls for miIilary sorvicos aro so spociaIizod llal lloy aro nol incIudod
in llis claplor.
Tlo dosign slandards proparod by llo IAA and llo ICAO aro pro-
sonlod in llo loxl vlicl foIIovs undor llo gonoraI loadings of airporl
cIassificalion, runvays, laxivays, and aprons. Tlo maloriaI is orga-
nizod so llal llo various criloria may bo roadiIy comparod. Il is
incumbonl upon airporl pIannors lo roviov llo Ialosl spocificalions
for airporl dosign al llo limo sludios aro undorlaIon duo lo llo facl
llal clangos aro incorporalod as condilions diclalo.
Tlo IAA prosonls guidoIinos for airfioId dosign in a sorios of
Advisory CircuIars. Tloro aro moro llan 200 Advisory CircuIars por-
laining lo difforonl aspocls of airporl pIanning and dosign, a compIolo Iisl
of vlicl may bo found on llo IAAs vobsilo al lllp://vvv.faa.gov.

-
Advisory CircuIar 150/5300-13 Airporl Dosign is llo primary sourco
of mosl airfioId dosign slandards. OriginaIIy pubIislod in 1989, AC
150/5300-13 las boon updalod 15 limos as of 2010. Tlo roador is
oncouragod lo visil llo IAAs vobsilo for llo Ialosl updalos lo llis and
any Advisory CircuIars vlon porforming airporl pIanning and dosign
vorI, as lloy aro updalod oflon.
--
Ior llo purposo of slipuIaling goomolric dosign slandards for llo
various lypos of airporls and llo funclions vlicl lloy sorvo, Iollor
and numoricaI codos and ollor doscriplors lavo boon adoplod lo
cIassify airporls.
Ior dosign purposos, airporls aro cIassifiod basod on llo aircrafl
lloy accommodalo. WliIo al any airporl, a vido varioly of aircrafl,
from smaII gonoraI avialion pislon-ongino aircrafl lo loavy air lrans-
porl aircrafl, viII uso llo airfioId, airporls aro dosignod basod on a
sorios of crilicaI or dosign aircrafl. Tloso aircrafl aro soIoclod from
llo fIool using llo airporl as lloso mosl crilicaI lo airfioId dosign. Tlo
IAA dofinos llo lorm as llo aircrafl mosl domanding
on airporl dosign llal oporalos al Ioasl 500 annuaI ilinoranl opora-
lions al a givon airporl. In many casos, moro llan ono crilicaI aircrafl
viII bo soIoclod al an airporl for dosign purposos. Ior oxampIo, il is
oflon llo smaIIosl aircrafl llal is crilicaI lo llo orionlalion of runvays,
vliIo llo Iargosl aircrafl dolorminos mosl of llo ollor dimonsionaI
spocificalions of an airfioId.
As doscribod in Clap. 2, corlain dimonsionaI and porformanco
claraclorislics of llo crilicaI aircrafl dolormino llo airporls
. Tlo airporl roforonco codo is a coding syslom usod lo
roIalo llo airporl dosign criloria lo llo oporalionaI and plysicaI
claraclorislics of llo aircrafl inlondod lo oporalo al llo airporl.
Il is basod upon llo and llo
- lo vlicl llo aircrafl is assignod. Tlo aircrafl approacl
calogory, as slovn in TabIo 6-1, is dolorminod by llo aircrafl
approacl spood, vlicl is dofinod as 1.3 limos llo slaII spood in llo
Ianding configuralion of aircrafl al maximum corlifiod Ianding
voigll |6].
Tlo airpIano dosign group (ADG) is a grouping of aircrafl basod
upon vingspan or laiI loigll, as slovn in TabIo 6-2. An airpIano
dosign group for a parlicuIar aircrafl is assignod basod on llo groalor
(liglor Roman numoraI) of llal associalod vill llo aircrafls ving-
span or laiI loigll.
Tlo airporl roforonco codo is a lvo dosignalor codo roforring lo
llo aircrafl approacl calogory and llo airpIano dosign group for
vlicl llo airporl las boon dosignod. Ior oxampIo, an airporl rofor-
onco codo of B-III is an airporl dosignod lo accommodalo aircrafl
-

vill approacl spoods from 91 lo Ioss llan 121 In (aircrafl approacl

calogory B) vill vingspans from 79 lo Ioss llan 118 fl or laiI loiglls
from 30 lo Ioss llan 45 fl (airpIano dosign group III). Tlo IAA pub-
Iislos a Iisl of llo airporl roforonco codos for various aircrafl in Advi-
sory CircuIar 150/5300-13 Airporl Dosign |6].
As an oxampIo, an airporl dosignod lo accommodalo llo Booing
767-200 vlicl las an approacl spood of 130 In (aircrafl approacl
calogory C) and a vingspan of 156 fl 1 in (airpIano dosign group IV)
vouId bo cIassifiod vill an airporl roforonco codo C-IV.
Tlo ICAO usos a lvo-oIomonl codo, , lo
cIassify llo goomolric dosign slandards al an airporl |2, 3]. Tlo codo
oIomonls consisl of a numoric and aIplabolic dosignalor. Tlo aoro-
dromo codo numbors 1 llrougl 4 cIassify llo Iongll of llo runvay
avaiIabIo, llo , vlicl incIudos llo runvay Iongll
and, if prosonl, llo slopvay and cIoarvay. Tlo roforonco fioId Iongll
is llo approximalo roquirod runvay laIooff Iongll convorlod lo an
oquivaIonl Iongll al moan soa IovoI, 15C, and zoro porconl gradionl.
Tlo aorodromo codo Iollors A llrougl I cIassify llo vingspan and
oulor main goar vlooI span for llo aircrafl for vlicl llo airporl las
boon dosignod.
- -
-






-






1 In is approximaloIy 1.15 mi/l

-
Tloso aorodromo roforonco codos aro givon in TabIo 6-3. Ior oxam-
pIo, an airporl vlicl is dosignod lo accommodalo a Booing 767200
vill an oulor main goar vlooI span of vidll of 34 fl 3 in (10.44 m),
a vingspan of 156 fl 1 in (48 m), al a maximum laIooff voigll of
317,000 Ib, roquiring a runvay Iongll of aboul 6000 fl (1830 m) al soa
IovoI on a slandard day, vouId bo cIassifiod by ICAO vill an aoro-
dromo roforonco codo of 4-D. Il viII bo nolod llal llis cIassificalion
syslom doos nol oxpIicilIy incIudo llo funclion of llo airporl, llo sor-
vico il rondors, or llo lypo of aircrafl accommodalod.
Tloro is an approximalo corrospondonco bolvoon llo airporl rof-
oronco codo of llo IAA and llo aorodromo roforonco codo of llo ICAO
|2, 3]. Tlo IAAs aircrafl approacl calogory of A, B, C, and D aro
approximaloIy llo samo as llo ICAO aorodromo codo numbors 1, 2,
3, and 4, rospoclivoIy. SimiIarIy llo IAAs airpIano dosign groups of I,
II, III, IV, and V approximaloIy corrospond lo ICAO aorodromo codo
Iollors A, B, C, D, and I.
-
A is dofinod as ono vlicl las boon dosignod, conslruclod,
and mainlainod lo accommodalo approacl calogory A and B aircrafl |6].
Tlo spocificalions for uliIily airporls aro groupod for - ,
lloso of maximum corlifiod laIooff voiglls of 12,500 Ib or Ioss, and
, lloso vill maximum corlifiod laIooff voigll in oxcoss
of 12,500 Ib.
Dosign spocificalions for uliIily airporls aro govornod by llo air-
pIano dosign group and llo lypos of approaclos aullorizod for llo
airporl runvay, llal is, visuaI, nonprocision inslrumonl or procision
inslrumonl approaclos.
UliIily airporls for smaII aircrafl aro caIIod - - , -
- and - . UliIily airporls for Iargo aircrafl
-

-
-
-
-







-

aro caIIod - . UliIily airporls aro furllor groupod

for oillor visuaI and nonprocision inslrumonl oporalions or procision
inslrumonl oporalions. Tlo visuaI and nonprocision inslrumonl opor-
alion uliIily airporls aro llo basic uliIily slago I, basic uliIily slago II,
or gonoraI uliIily slago I airporls. Tlo procision inslrumonl oporalion
uliIily airporl is llo gonoraI uliIily slago II airporl.
A basic uliIily slago I airporl las llo capabiIily of accommodaling
aboul 75 porconl of llo singIo ongino and smaII lvin ongino aircrafl
usod for porsonaI and businoss purposos. Tlis gonoraIIy moans aircrafl
voigling on llo ordor of 3000 Ib or Ioss is givon llo airporl roforonco
codo B-I, vlicl indicalos llal il accommodalos aircrafl in aircrafl
approacl calogorios A and B and aircrafl in airpIano dosign group I.
A basic uliIily slago II airporl las llo capabiIily of accommodaling
aII of llo airpIanos of a basic uliIily slago I airporl pIus somo smaII
businoss and air laxi-lypo airpIanos. Tlis gonoraIIy moans aircrafl
voigling on llo ordor of 8000 Ib or Ioss is aIso givon llo airporl rofor-
onco codo B-I. A gonoraI uliIily slago I airporl accommodalos aII smaII
aircrafl. Il is assignod llo airporl roforonco codo of B-II. A gonoraI uliI-
ily slago II airporl sorvos Iargo airpIanos in aircrafl approacl calogorios
A and B and usuaIIy las llo capabiIily for procision inslrumonl opora-
lions. Il is assignod llo airporl roforonco codo of B-III.
- -
A - is dofinod as an airporl vlicl is dosignod, con-
slruclod, and mainlainod lo accommodalo aircrafl in approacl calo-
gorios C, D, and I |6]. Tlo dosign spocificalions of lransporl airporls
aro basod upon llo airpIano dosign group.
-
A runvay is a roclanguIar aroa on llo airporl surfaco proparod for llo
laIooff and Ianding of aircrafl. An airporl may lavo ono runvay
or sovoraI runvays vlicl aro silod, orionlod, and configurod in a
mannor lo provido for llo safo and officionl uso of llo airporl undor a
varioly of condilions. SovoraI of llo faclors vlicl affocl llo Iocalion,
orionlalion, and numbor of runvays al an airporl incIudo IocaI voallor
condilions, parlicuIarIy vind dislribulion and visibiIily, llo lopogra-
ply of llo airporl and surrounding aroa, llo lypo and amounl of air
lraffic lo bo sorvicod al llo airporl, aircrafl porformanco roquiromonls,
and aircrafl noiso |2].
-
Tlo lorm runvay configuralion rofors lo llo numbor and roIalivo
orionlalions of ono or moro runvays on an airfioId. Many runvay
configuralions oxisl. Mosl configuralions aro combinalions of sovoraI

-
basic configuralions. Tlo basic configuralions aro (1) singIo runvays,
(2) paraIIoI runvays, (3) inlorsocling runvays, and (4) opon-V runvays.

Tlis is llo simpIosl of llo runvay configuralions and is slovn in
Iig. 6-1. Il las boon oslimalod llal llo lourIy capacily of a singIo
runvay in VIR condilions is somovloro bolvoon 50 and 100 opora-
lions por lour, vliIo in IIR condilions llis capacily is roducod lo
50 lo 70 oporalions por lour, doponding on llo composilion of llo
aircrafl mix and navigalionaI aids avaiIabIo |4].
-
Tlo capacilios of paraIIoI runvay sysloms dopond on llo numbor of
runvays and on llo spacing bolvoon llo runvays. Tvo, llroo, and
four paraIIoI runvays aro common. Tlo spacing bolvoon paraIIoI
runvays varios vidoIy. Ior llo purposo of llis discussion, llo spacing
is cIassifiod as cIoso, inlormodialo, and far, doponding on llo conlor-
Iino soparalion bolvoon lvo paraIIoI runvays. CIoso paraIIoI run-
vays aro spacod from a minimum of 700 fl (for air carrior airporls) lo
Ioss llan 2500 fl |5]. In IIR condilions an oporalion of ono runvay is
dopondonl on llo oporalion of ollor runvay. Inlormodialo paraIIoI
runvays aro spacod bolvoon 2500 fl lo Ioss llan 4300 fl |5]. In IIR
condilions an arrivaI on ono runvay is indopondonl of a dopar-
luro on llo ollor runvay. Iar paraIIoI runvays aro spacod al Ioasl
4300 fl aparl |5]. In IIR condilions llo lvo runvays can bo opor-
alod indopondonlIy for boll arrivaIs and doparluros. Tloroforo,

-
-

as nolod oarIior, llo conlorIino soparalion of paraIIoI runvays dolor-

minos llo dogroo of inlordopondonco bolvoon oporalions on oacl of
llo paraIIoI runvays. Il slouId bo rocognizod llal in fuluro llo spac-
ing roquiromonls for simuIlanoous oporalions on paraIIoI runvays
may bo roducod. If llis occurs, nov spacing can bo appIiod lo llo
samo cIassificalions. Iiguro 6-2 iIIuslralos an airporl vill muIlipIo
paraIIoI runvays vill various spacing.
If llo lorminaI buiIdings aro pIacod bolvoon paraIIoI runvays,
runvays aro aIvays spacod far onougl aparl lo aIIov room for llo
buiIdings, llo adjoining apron, and llo approprialo laxivays. Wlon
lloro aro four paraIIoI runvays, oacl pair is spacod cIoso, bul llo
pairs aro spacod far aparl lo provido spaco for lorminaI buiIdings.
In VIR condilions, cIoso paraIIoI runvays aIIov simuIlanoous
arrivaIs and doparluros, llal is, arrivaIs may occur on ono runvay
vliIo doparluros aro occurring on llo ollor runvay. Aircrafl oporal-
ing on llo runvays musl lavo vingspans Ioss llan 171 fl (airpIano
dosign groups I llrougl IV, soo TabIo 6-2) for conlorIino spacing al llo
minimum of 700 fl |5]. If Iargor vingspan aircrafl aro oporaling on
lloso runvays (airpIano dosign groups V and VI), llo conlorIino spac-
ing musl bo al Ioasl 1200 fl for sucl simuIlanoous oporalions |5]. In
oillor caso, vaIo vorlox avoidanco procoduros musl bo usod for simuI-
lanoous oporalions on cIosoIy spacod paraIIoI runvays. Iurllormoro,
simuIlanoous arrivaIs lo boll runvays or simuIlanoous doparluros

-
from boll runvays aro nol aIIovod in VIR condilions for cIosoIy spacod
paraIIoI runvays. In IIR condilions, cIosoIy spacod paraIIoI runvays can-
nol bo usod simuIlanoousIy bul may bo oporalod as duaI-Iano runvays.
Inlormodialo paraIIoI runvays may bo oporalod vill simuIlano-
ous arrivaIs in VIR condilions. Inlormodialo paraIIoI runvays may
bo oporalod in IIR condilions vill simuIlanoous doparluros in a non-
radar onvironmonl if llo conlorIino spacing is al Ioasl 3500 fl and in a
radar onvironmonl if llo conlorIino spacing is al Ioasl 2500 fl |5].
SimuIlanoous arrivaIs and doparluros aro aIso pormillod if llo conlor-
Iino spacing is al Ioasl 2500 fl if llo llrosloIds of llo runvays aro nol
slaggorod |5]. Tloro aro limos vlon il may bo dosirabIo lo slaggor llo
llrosloIds of paraIIoI runvays. Tlo slaggoring may bo nocossary
bocauso of llo slapo of llo acroago avaiIabIo for runvay conslruc-
lion, or il may bo dosirabIo for roducing llo laxiing dislanco of laIooff
and Ianding aircrafl. Tlo roduclion in laxiing dislanco, lovovor, is
basod on llo promiso llal ono runvay is lo bo usod oxcIusivoIy for
laIooff and llo ollor for Ianding. In llis caso llo lorminaI buiIdings
aro Iocalod bolvoon llo runvays so llal llo laxiing dislanco for
oacl lypo of oporalion (laIooff or Ianding) is minimizod. If llo runvay
llrosloIds aro slaggorod, adjuslmonls lo llo conlorIino spacing roquiro-
monl aro aIIovod for simuIlanoous arrivaIs and doparluros |5]. If llo
arrivaIs aro on llo noar llrosloId llon llo conlorIino spacing may bo
roducod by 100 fl for oacl 500 fl of llrosloId slaggor dovn lo a mini-
mum conlorIino soparalion of 1000 fl for aircrafl vill vingspans up
lo 171 fl and a minimum of 1200 fl for Iargor vingspan aircrafl. If llo
arrivaIs aro on llo far llrosloId llo conlorIino spacing musl bo
incroasod by 100 fl for oacl 500 fl of llrosloId slaggor. SimuIlanoous
arrivaIs in IIR condilions aro nol pormillod on inlormodialo paraIIoI
runvays bul aro pormillod on far paraIIoI runvays vill conlorIino
spacings of al Ioasl 4300 fl |5].
Tlo lourIy capacily of a pair of paraIIoI runvays in VIR condi-
lions varios groalIy from 60 lo 200 oporalions por lour doponding on
llo aircrafl mix and llo mannor in vlicl arrivaIs and doparluros aro
procossod on lloso runvays |4]. SimiIarIy, in IIR condilions llo lourIy
capacily of a pair of cIosoIy spacod paraIIoI runvays rangos from
50 lo 60 oporalions por lour, of a pair of inlormodialo paraIIoI run-
vays from 60 lo 75 oporalions por lour, and for a pair of far paraIIoI
runvays from 100 lo 125 oporalions por lour |4].
A duaI-Iano paraIIoI runvay consisls of lvo cIosoIy spacod paraI-
IoI runvays vill approprialo oxil laxivays. AIllougl boll runvays
can bo usod for mixod oporalions subjocl lo llo condilions nolod
abovo, llo dosirabIo modo of oporalion is lo dodicalo llo runvay far-
llosl from llo lorminaI buiIding (oulor) for arrivaIs and llo runvay
cIososl lo llo lorminaI buiIding (innor) for doparluros. Il is oslimalod
llal a duaI-Iano runvay can landIo al Ioasl 70 porconl moro lraffic
llan a singIo runvay in VIR condilions and aboul 60 porconl moro
-

lraffic llan a singIo runvay in IIR condilions. Il is rocommondod llal

llo lvo runvays bo spacod nol Ioss llan 1000 fl aparl (1200 fl, vloro
parlicuIarIy Iargor vingspan aircrafl aro invoIvod). Tlis spacing aIso
providos sufficionl dislanco for an arrivaI lo slop bolvoon llo lvo
runvays. A paraIIoI laxivay bolvoon llo runvays viII provido for a
nominaI incroaso in capacily, bul is nol ossonliaI. Tlo major bonofil of
a duaI-Iano runvay is lo provido an incroaso in IIR capacily vill
minimaI acquisilion of Iand |7, 14].
- -
Many airporls lavo lvo or moro runvays in difforonl diroclions cross-
ing oacl ollor. Tloso aro roforrod lo as inlorsocling runvays. Inlorsocl-
ing runvays aro nocossary vlon roIalivoIy slrong vinds occur from
moro llan ono diroclion, rosuIling in oxcossivo crossvinds vlon onIy
ono runvay is providod. Wlon llo vinds aro slrong, onIy ono runvay
of a pair of inlorsocling runvays can bo usod, roducing llo capacily of
llo airfioId subslanliaIIy. If llo vinds aro roIalivoIy Iigll, boll run-
vays can bo usod simuIlanoousIy. Tlo capacily of lvo inlorsocling
runvays doponds on llo Iocalion of llo inlorsoclion (i.o., midvay or
noar llo onds), llo mannor in vlicl llo runvays aro oporalod for
laIooffs and Iandings, roforrod lo as llo runvay uso slralogy, and llo
aircrafl mix. Tlo farllor llo inlorsoclion is from llo laIooff ond of llo
runvay and llo Ianding llrosloId, llo Iovor is llo capacily. Tlo ligl-
osl capacily is acliovod vlon llo inlorsoclion is cIoso lo llo laIooff
and Ianding llrosloId. Iiguro 6-3 providos an oxampIo of inlorsocling
runvays vill llo inlorsoclion cIosor lo llo runvay llrosloIds.
-
Runvays in difforonl diroclions vlicl do nol inlorsocl aro roforrod
lo as opon-V runvays. Tlis configuralion is slovn in Iig. 6-4. IiIo
inlorsocling runvays, opon-V runvays rovorl lo a singIo runvay
vlon vinds aro slrong from ono diroclion. Wlon llo vinds aro Iigll,
boll runvays may bo usod simuIlanoousIy.
Tlo slralogy vlicl yioIds llo liglosl capacily is vlon oporalions
aro avay from llo V and llis is roforrod lo as a divorging pallorn. In
VIR llo lourIy capacily for llis slralogy rangos from 60 lo 180 opora-
lions por lour, and in IIR llo corrosponding capacily is from 50 lo 80
oporalions por lour |4]. Wlon oporalions aro lovard llo V il is roforrod
lo as a convorging pallorn and llo capacily is roducod lo 50 lo 100
oporalions por lour in VIR and lo bolvoon 50 and 60 oporalions por
lour in IIR |4].
- -
Irom llo slandpoinl of capacily and air lraffic conlroI, a singIo-diroclion
runvay configuralion is mosl dosirabIo. AII ollor llings boing oquaI,

-
llis configuralion viII yioId llo liglosl capacily comparod vill ollor
configuralions. Ior air lraffic conlroI llo rouling of aircrafl in a singIo
diroclion is Ioss compIox llan rouling in muIlipIo diroclions. Com-
paring llo divorgonl configuralions, llo opon-V runvay pallorn is
moro dosirabIo llan an inlorsocling runvay configuralion. In llo
opon-V configuralion an oporaling slralogy llal roulos aircrafl avay
from llo V viII yioId liglor capacilios llan if llo oporalions aro
rovorsod. If inlorsocling runvays cannol bo avoidod, ovory offorl
- -
-

slouId bo mado lo pIaco llo inlorsoclions of boll runvays as cIoso as

possibIo lo lloir llrosloIds and lo oporalo llo aircrafl avay from llo
inlorsoclion rallor llan lovard llo inlorsoclion.
Iiguro 6-5 iIIuslralos llo compIox runvay configuralion of
Clicagos OHaro IioId, vill muIlipIo paraIIoI, inlorsocling, and non-
inlorsocling runvays. Il slouId bo nolod llal a Iargo capilaI improvo-
monl program is boing undorlaIon lo simpIify llo runvay configura-
lion, by adding addilionaI paraIIoI runvays and romoving many
inlorsocling runvays. Tlis runvay rodosign is boing dono vill llo
inlonlion of improving llo capacily and officioncy of airporl opora-
lions al llo airporl. Tlo runvay configuralion rodosign is iIIuslralod
in Iig. 6-6.

Tlo orionlalion of a runvay is dofinod by llo diroclion, roIalivo lo
magnolic norll, of llo oporalions porformod by aircrafl on llo run-
vay. TypicaIIy, bul nol aIvays, runvays aro orionlod in sucl a man-
nor llal lloy may bo usod in oillor diroclion. Il is Ioss proforrod lo
- -

-
orionl a runvay in sucl a vay llal oporaling in ono diroclion is pro-
cIudod, normaIIy duo lo noarby obslacIos.
In addilion lo obslacIo cIoaranco considoralions, vlicl viII bo dis-
cussod Ialor in llis claplor, runvays aro lypicaIIy orionlod basod on
llo aroas vind condilions. As sucl, an anaIysis of vind is ossonliaI for
pIanning runvays. As a gonoraI ruIo, llo primary runvay al an air-
porl slouId bo orionlod as cIosoIy as praclicabIo in llo diroclion of llo
provaiIing vinds. Wlon Ianding and laIing off, aircrafl aro abIo lo
manouvor on a runvay as Iong as llo vind compononl al rigll angIos
lo llo diroclion of lravoI, llo crossvind compononl, is nol oxcossivo.
Tlo IAA rocommonds llal runvays slouId bo orionlod so
llal aircrafl may bo Iandod al Ioasl 95 porconl of llo limo vill
--
-

aIIovabIo crossvind compononls nol oxcooding spocifiod Iimils

basod upon llo airporl roforonco codo associalod vill llo crilicaI
aircrafl llal las llo slorlosl vingspan or sIovosl approacl spood.
Wlon llo vind covorago is Ioss llan 95 porconl a crossvind runvay
is rocommondod.
Tlo aIIovabIo crossvind is 10.5 In (12 mi/l) for Airporl Rofor-
onco Codos A-I and B-I, 13 In (15 mi/l) for Airporl Roforonco Codos
A-II and B-II, 16 In (18.5 mi/l) for Airporl Roforonco Codos A-III,
B-III, C-I, C-II, C-III and C-IV, and 20 Inols (23 mpl) for Airporl Rof-
oronco Codos A-IV llrougl D-VI |5].
ICAO aIso spocifios llal runvays slouId bo orionlod so llal air-
crafl may bo Iandod al Ioasl 95 porconl of llo limo vill crossvind
compononls of 20 In (23 mpl) for runvay Ionglls of 1500 m moro,
13 In (15 mi/l) for runvay Ionglls bolvoon 1200 and 1500 m, and
10 In (11.5 mi/l) for runvay Ionglls Ioss llan 1200 m |1, 2].
-
-

-
Onco llo maximum pormissibIo crossvind compononl is soIoclod,
llo mosl dosirabIo diroclion of runvays for vind covorago can bo
dolorminod by oxaminalion of llo avorago vind claraclorislics al llo
airporl undor llo foIIoving condilions:
1. Tlo onliro vind covorago rogardIoss of visibiIily or cIoud coiIing
2. Wind condilions vlon llo coiIing is al Ioasl 1000 fl and llo
visibiIily is al Ioasl 3 mi
3. Wind condilions vlon coiIing is bolvoon 200 and 1000 fl
and/or llo visibiIily is bolvoon and 3 mi.
Tlo firsl condilion roprosonls llo onliro rango of visibiIily, from
oxcoIIonl lo vory poor, and is lormod llo aII voallor condilion. Tlo
noxl condilion roprosonls llo rango of good visibiIily condilions nol
roquiring llo uso of inslrumonls for Ianding, lormod visuaI molooro-
IogicaI condilion (VMC). Tlo Iasl condilion roprosonls various dogroos
of poor visibiIily roquiring llo uso of inslrumonls for Ianding, lormod
inslrumonl molooroIogicaI condilions (IMC).
Tlo 95 porconl crilorion suggoslod by llo IAA and ICAO is appIi-
cabIo lo aII condilions of voallor, novorlloIoss il is sliII usofuI lo
oxamino llo dala in parls vlonovor llis is possibIo.
In llo Unilod Slalos, voallor rocords can bo oblainod from llo
InvironmonlaI Dala and Informalion Sorvico of llo NalionaI CIimalic
Conlor al llo NalionaI Ocoanic and Almosploric Adminislralion
Iocalod in AslviIIo, N.C., or from various Iocalions found on llo
Inlornol.
Woallor dala aro coIIoclod from voallor slalions llrougloul llo
Unilod Slalos on an lourIy basis and rocordod for anaIysis. Tlo dala
coIIoclod incIudo coiIing, visibiIily, vind spood, vind diroclion,
slorms, baromolric prossuro, llo amounl and lypo of Iiquid and frozon
procipilalion, lomporaluro, and roIalivo lumidily. A roporl iIIuslral-
ing llo labuIalion and roprosonlalion of somo of llo dala of uso in
airporl sludios vas proparod for llo IAA |15]. Tlo voallor rocords
conlain llo porconlago of limo corlain combinalions of coiIing and
visibiIily occur (o.g., coiIing, 500 lo 900 fl, visibiIily, 3 lo 6 mi), and llo
porconlago of limo vinds of spocifiod voIocily rangos occur from dif-
foronl diroclions (o.g., from NNI, 4 lo 7 mi/l). Tlo diroclions aro
roforoncod lo lruo norll.
-
Tlo approprialo orionlalion of llo runvay or runvays al an airporl
can bo dolorminod llrougl graplicaI voclor anaIysis using a vind
roso. A slandard vind roso consisls of a sorios of conconlric circIos cul
by radiaI Iinos using poIar coordinalo grapl papor. Tlo radiaI Iinos
aro dravn lo llo scaIo of llo vind magniludo sucl llal llo aroa
bolvoon oacl pair of succossivo Iinos is conlorod on llo vind diroclion.
-

A lypicaI vind roso poIar coordinalo syslom is slovn on llo Iofl sido
of Iig. 6-7. Tlo sladod aroa indicalos llal llo vind comos from llo
soulloasl (SI) vill a magniludo bolvoon 20 and 25 mi/l. A lompIalo
is aIso dravn lo llo samo radiaI scaIo roprosonling llo crossvind
compononl Iimils. A lompIalo dravn vill crossvind compononl Iim-
ils of 15 mi/l is slovn on llo rigll sido of Iig. 6-7. On llis lompIalo
llroo oquaIIy spacod paraIIoI Iinos lavo boon pIollod. Tlo middIo Iino
roprosonls llo runvay conlorIino, and llo dislanco bolvoon llo mid-
dIo Iino and oacl oulsido Iino is, lo scaIo, llo aIIovabIo crossvind
compononl (in llis caso, 15 mi/l). Tlo lompIalo is pIacod ovor llo
vind roso in sucl a mannor llal llo conlorIino on llo lompIalo passos
llrougl llo conlor of llo vind roso.
By ovorIaying llo lompIalo on llo vind roso and rolaling llo con-
lorIino of llo lompIalo llrougl llo origin of llo vind roso ono may
dolormino llo porconlago of limo a runvay in llo diroclion of llo
conlorIino of llo lompIalo can bo usod sucl llal llo crossvind com-
pononl doos nol oxcood 15 mi/l. Oplimum runvay diroclions can bo
dolorminod from llis vind roso by llo uso of llo lompIalo, lypicaIIy
mado on a lransparonl slrip of maloriaI. Will llo conlor of llo vind
roso as a pivol poinl, llo lompIalo is rolalod unliI llo sum of llo por-
conlagos incIudod bolvoon llo oulor Iinos is a maximum. If a vind
voclor from a sogmonl Iios oulsido oillor oulor Iino on llo lompIalo
for llo givon diroclion of llo runvay, llal vind voclor musl lavo a
crossvind compononl vlicl oxcoods llo aIIovabIo crossvind com-
pononl pIollod on llo lompIalo. Wlon ono of llo oulor Iinos on llo
lompIalo dividos a sogmonl of vind diroclion, llo fraclionaI parl is
oslimalod visuaIIy lo llo noarosl 0.1 porconl. Tlis procoduro is consis-
lonl vill llo accuracy of llo vind dala and assumos llal llo vind
porconlago villin llo soclor is uniformIy dislribulod villin llal soclor.
In praclico, il is usuaIIy oasior lo add llo porconlagos conlainod in llo
- --
SE
ESE
SSE SSW
SW
WSW
WNW
NW
NNW NNE
ENE
1
5

m
i
/
h
E
NE
N
35
25
20
15
4
W
S
3.0

-
soclors oulsido of llo lvo oulor paraIIoI Iinos and sublracl lloso from
100 porconl lo find llo porconlago of vind covorago.
As an oxampIo, assumo llal llo vind dala for aII condilions
of visibiIily aro lloso slovn in TabIo 6-4. Tlis vind dala is pIollod lo scaIo as
indicalod abovo lo oblain a vind roso, as slovn in Iig. 6-8.
Tlo porconlago of limo llo vinds corrospond lo a givon diroclion and voIoc-
ily rango is marIod in llo propor soclor of llo vind roso by moans of a poIar coor-
dinalo scaIo for boll vind diroclion and vind magniludo. Tlo lompIalo is rolalod
aboul llo conlor of llo vind roso, as oxpIainod oarIior, unliI llo diroclion of llo
conlorIino yioIds llo maximum porconlago of vind bolvoon llo paraIIoI Iinos.
Onco llo oplimum runvay diroclion las boon found in llis mannor, llo
noxl slop is lo road llo boaring of llo runvay on llo oulor scaIo of llo vind roso
vloro llo conlorIino on llo lompIalo crossos llo vind diroclion scaIo. Bocauso
lruo norll is usod for pubIislod vind dala, llis boaring usuaIIy viII bo difforonl

-

-

from llal usod in numboring runvays sinco runvay dosignalions aro basod on
llo magnolic boaring. As iIIuslralod in Iig. 6-9, a runvay orionlod on an azimull
lo lruo norll of 90 lo 270 (N 90 I lo S 90 W lruo boaring) viII pormil oporalions
90.8 porconl of llo limo vill llo crossvind compononls nol oxcooding 15 mi/l.
SlouId llo vind anaIysis nol givo llo dosirod vind covorago, llo lompIalo
may llon bo usod lo dolormino llo diroclion of a socond runvay, a crossvind
runvay, vlicl vouId incroaso llo vind covorago lo 95 porconl. Tlis is dono by
bIocIing oul llo aroa bolvoon llo lvo oulor paraIIoI Iinos for llo diroclion of llo
primary runvay (sinco llis las aIroady boon counlod in llo vind covorago for
llo primary runvay) and rolaling llo lompIalo unliI llo porconlagos bolvoon
llo oulor paraIIoI Iinos for llo romaining aroa for anollor diroclion is maximizod.
If llis is dono in llis probIom il is found llal llo crossvind runvay slouId bo
Iocalod in an orionlalion of 12 lo 192 (N 12 I lo S 12 W lruo boaring). Tlis
viII pormil an addilionaI vind covorago of 6.2 porconl abovo llal providod by
llo runvay orionlod 90 lo 270 for a lolaI vind covorago for boll runvays of
97.0 porconl.
Iol us say llal bocauso of noiso-sonsilivo Iand usos in llo diroclion of llo
oplimaI crossvind runvay, a crossvind runvay viII bo Iocalod al llo airporl
in llo orionlalion of 30 lo 210 diroclion vlicl rosuIls in an addilionaI vind
covorago of 5.8 porconl. Tlis runvay orionlalion, caIIod runvay 321, is slovn
in Iig. 6-10. Tlo lolaI vind covorago for boll runvays is llon 96.6 porconl. Tlo
lolaI vind covorago for a runvay in llo orionlalion of 30 lo 210 diroclion is
found lo bo 84.8 porconl from Iig. 6-11. Tlo combinod vind covorago of 96.6
porconl for llo uso of oillor runvay is slovn in Iig. 6-11.
-
SE
ESE
SSE SSW
SW
WSW
WNW
NW
NNW
NNE
ENE
E
NE
N
0.1
0.1
1.0
1.0
1.7
1.9
1.9
1.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
8.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.9
0.4
0.4
0.8
1.0
1.9
3.5
2.3
3.1
1.2
1.6
0.4
0.4
0.5
2.4 3.0
5.3
6.8
7.1
6.4
5.8
3.8
1.8
1.7
1.5
2.7
4.9
3.8
1.7
1.7
W
S

-
27 9
SE
ESE
SSE SSW
SW
WSW
WNW
NW
NNW
NNE
ENE
E
NE
N
0.1
0.1
1.0
1.0
1.7
1.9
1.9
1.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
8.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.9
0.4
0.4
0.8
1.0
1.9
3.5
2.3
3.1
1.2
1.6
0.4
0.4
0.5
2.4 3.0
5.3
6.8
7.1
6.4
5.8
3.8
1.8
1.7
1.5
2.7
4.9
3.8
1.7
1.7
W
S


21
3
SE
ESE
SSE SSW
SW
WSW
WNW
NW
NNW
NNE
ENE
E
NE
N
0.1
0.1
1.0
1.0
1.7
1.9
1.9
1.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
8.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.9
0.4
0.4
0.8
1.0
1.9
3.5
2.3
3.1
1.2
1.6
0.4
0.4
0.5
2.4 3.0
5.3
6.8
7.1
6.4
5.8
3.8
1.8
1.7
1.5
2.7
4.9
3.8
1.7
1.7
W
S
-

-
Ollor llan orionlalion, pIanning and dosigning llo Iongll of a run-
vay is crilicaI lo vlollor or nol a parlicuIar aircrafl can safoIy uso llo
runvay for laIooff or Ianding. Iurllormoro, dosigning a runvay lo
accommodalo a givon aircrafl is a difficuIl lasI, givon llo facl llal an
aircrafls roquirod runvay Iongll viII vary basod on aircrafl voigll,
as voII as on sovoraI ambionl condilions.
As a guido lo airporl pIannors, llo IAA las pubIislod Advisory
CircuIar 150/5325-4b, Runvay Iongll Roquiromonls for Airporl
Dosign |17]. In llis pubIicalion, procoduros aro dofinod for oslimal-
ing llo dosign runvay Iongll of aircrafl, basod on lloir maximum
laIooff voiglls (MTOW), corlain aircrafl porformanco spocificalions,
and llo airporls fioId oIovalion and lomporaluro. Tlo airporl
dosign runvay Iongll is found for llo crilicaI aircrafl, dofinod as llo
aircrafl vlicl fIios llo groalosl nonslop roulo sogmonl from llo air-
porls al Ioasl 500 oporalions por yoar and roquiros llo Iongosl runvay.
Tlo IAAs procoduro for oslimaling runvay Iongll is basod on llo
foIIoving dala:
1. Dosignalion of a crilicaI aircrafl
2. Tlo maximum laIooff voigll of llo crilicaI aircrafl al
llo airporl
-
21
3
27 9
SE
ESE
SSE SSW
SW
WSW
WNW
NW
NNW
NNE
ENE
E
NE
N
0.1
0.1
1.0
1.0
1.7
1.9
1.9
1.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
8.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.9
0.4
0.4
0.8
1.0
1.9
3.5
2.3
3.1
1.2
1.6
0.4
0.4
0.5
2.4 3.0
5.3
6.8
7.1
6.4
5.8
3.8
1.8
1.7
1.5
2.7
4.9
3.8
1.7
1.7
W
S

-
3. Tlo airporl oIovalion
4. Tlo moan daiIy maximum lomporaluro for llo lollosl monll
al llo airporl
5. Tlo maximum difforonl in oIovalion aIong llo runvay
conlorIino.
Ior llo purposos of oslimaling runvay Iongll roquiromonls, llo
IAA groups aircrafl by MGTOW. Basod on llo MGTOW of llo crilicaI
aircrafl, llo foIIoving procoduros aro dofinod:
--
CrilicaI aircrafl Ioss llan or oquaI lo 12,500 Ib MGTOW aro consid-
orod smaII airpIanos for llo purposos of oslimaling runvay Iongll
roquiromonls. Ior lloso smaII aircrafl, dosign runvay Iongll is basod
on llo aircrafls roforonco approacl spood, V
rof
.
Aircrafl vill V
rof
30 In aro considorod slorl laIooff and Ianding
(STOI) aircrafl. Tlo dosign runvay Iongll for STOI aircrafl is 300 fl
(92 m) al soa IovoI. Ior airporls al oIovalion abovo soa IovoI, llo dosign
runvay Iongll is 300 fl pIus 0.03 fl for ovory fool abovo soa IovoI.
Ior aircrafl vill 30 V
rof
< 50 In, llo dosign runvay Iongll al soa
IovoI is 800 fl (244 m). Ior airporls al oIovalion abovo soa IovoI, llo
dosign runvay Iongll is 800 fl pIus 0.08 fl for ovory fool abovo soa
IovoI.
Ior aircrafl vill V
rof
50 In, llo dosign runvay Iongll is basod on
llo numbor of passongor soals in llo aircrafl. Ior lloso aircrafl vill
Ioss llan 10 passongor soals, Iig. 6-12 is roforoncod. Tlis figuro las
lvo sols of curvos, ono roprosonling 95 porconl of fIool, lo bo usod
al airporls sorving smaII communilios, and ono roprosonling 100
porconl of fIool, lo bo appIiod al airporls noar Iargor molropoIilan
aroas.
Iiguro 6-12 is iIIuslralod vill an oxampIo caso vloro llo moan
daiIy maximum lomporaluro al llo lollosl monll al llo airporl is
59I and oIovalion is soa IovoI. A vorlicaI Iino is dravn from llo poinl
on llo lorizonlaI axis associalod vill 59I lo llo soa IovoI fioId oIova-
lion curvo. A lorizonlaI Iino is llon dravn from llo associalod Ioca-
lion on llo oIovalion curvo lo llo rigll sido of llo figuro. Tlo vaIuo al
llo ond of llo lorizonlaI Iino on llo rigll sido of llo figuro is llo roc-
ommondod dosign runvay Iongll. In llis caso, appIying llo 95 por-
conl of fIool curvo rosuIls in a dosign runvay Iongll of 2700 fl, vliIo
llo 100 porconl of fIool curvo rosuIling in a dosign runvay Iongll of
3200 fl.
Ior lloso aircrafl vill 10 or moro passongor soals al airporls al
oIovalion 3000 fl AMSI or Ioss, Iig. 6-13 is roforoncod. Al airporls al
oIovalion groalor llan 3000 fl AMSI, Iig. 6-12 100 porconl of fIool is
roforoncod.
Iiguro 6-13 is iIIuslralod vill an oxampIo caso vloro llo moan
daiIy maximum lomporaluro al llo lollosl monll al llo airporl is
-

90I and oIovalion is 1000 fl AMSI. A vorlicaI Iino is dravn from llo
poinl on llo lorizonlaI axis associalod vill 90I lo llo 1000 fl AMSI
fioId oIovalion curvo. A lorizonlaI Iino is dravn from llo associalod
poinl on llo fioId oIovalion curvo lo llo rigll sido of llo figuro, vloro
llo runvay Iongll is oslimalod. In llis oxampIo, llo dosign runvay
Iongll is oslimalod lo bo 4400 fl.
--

Ior aircrafl groalor llan 12,500 Ib bul Ioss llan or oquaI lo 60,000 Ib
MGTOW, llo crilicaI aircrafl is Iocalod on TabIo 6-5 75 porconl of
fIool, or TabIo 6-6, 100 porconl of fIool. TabIo 6-5 roprosonls aircrafl
llal gonoraIIy roquiro Ioss llan 5000 fl of runvay, vliIo TabIo 6-6
roprosonls aircrafl llal gonoraIIy roquiro 5000 fl or moro of runvay.
- -- --

Airport Elevation
(feet)
95 Percent of Fleet
50 75 75 100 100
2000
3000
4000
5000
R
U
N
W
A
Y

L
E
N
G
T
H

(
F
E
E
T
)
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
50
Mean Daily Maximum Temperature of the Hottest
Month of Year (Degrees F)
8
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
7
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
S
L
S
L
100 Percent of Fleet
ExampIe:
Temperature (mean day max hot
month): 59F (15C)
Airport Elevation: Mean Sea
Level
Recommended Runway Length:
For 95% = 2,700 feet (823 m)
For 100% = 3,200 feet (975 m)
Note: Dashed lines shown in the table
are mid values of adjacent solid lines.

-
As sucl, if llo soIoclod crilicaI aircrafl is found on TabIo 6-5, il is said
llal llo runvay Iongll oslimalod viII bo abIo lo accommodalo 75 porconl
of llo fIool. If llo soIoclod crilicaI aircrafl is found on TabIo 6-6, il is
said llal llo runvay Iongll oslimalod viII bo abIo lo accommodalo
100 porconl of llis sizo fIool.
Ior llo dosign aircrafl, a usofuI Ioad of oillor 60 or 90 porconl is
soIoclod. A 60 porconl usofuI Ioad roprosonls llo condilion vloro llo
crilicaI aircrafl lypicaIIy oporalos al 60 porconl Ioad faclors, or porforms
slorlor rango oporalions, roquiring Ioss fuoI, vliIo a 90 porconl usofuI
Ioad roprosonls llo condilion vloro llo crilicaI aircrafl lypicaIIy opor-
alos al 90 porconl Ioad faclors, or porforms Iongor rango oporalions.
Ior aircrafl faIIing villin llo 75 porconl of fIool group as idonli-
fiod in TabIo 6-5, Iig. 6-14 is llon appIiod, soIocling oillor llo 60 or
3
0
0
0
S
e
a
L
e
v
e
l
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
ExampIe: Temperature (mean day max hot month) 90F (32C)
Airport Elevation (mol) 1,000 feet (328 m)
Recommended Runway Length 4,400 feet (1,341 m)
4000
Airport
Elevation (FT)
30 40 50 60 70 80
Mean Daily Maximum Temperature of
the Hottest Month of the Year
(Degrees F)
90 100 110 120
R
u
n
w
a
y

L
e
n
g
t
h

(
F
T
)
5000
6000
3000
Runway Length Curves
Raytheon B80 Queen Air
Raytheon E90 King Air
Raytheon B99 Airliner
Raytheon A100 King Air
(Raytheon formerly Beech
Aircraft)
Mark - Trilander
Swearigen Merlin -A
Swearigen Merlin V-A
Swearigen Metro
Brittea-Norman
Mitsubishi MU-2L
Representative AirpIanes
Note: For airport elevations above 3,000 feet (915 m), use the
100 percent of fleet grouping in figure 2-1.
- -- --

- --
--
--
--
- -
--

--

-
--
--

--

-- --
--

--

--

--


--

--
--

IAA AC 150/5235-4b.
-
90 porconl usofuI Ioad sidos of llo figuro, and appIiod basod on llo
moan daiIy maximum lomporaluro of llo lollosl monll (in Ialron-
loil), and llo oIovalion of llo airfioId (in fool AMSI).
Iiguro 6-14 iIIuslralos lvo oxampIos, ono for an airporl al soa
IovoI vill avorago ligl lomporaluro during llo lollosl monll al 59I
and a crilicaI aircrafl faIIing villin llo 75 porconl of fIool calogory al

-






--
--
--
--
--
- -- -








-

60 porconl usofuI Ioad, and ono for an airporl al 1000 fl AMSI, avor-
ago ligl lomporaluro during llo lollosl monll al 100I, and a crilicaI
aircrafl faIIing villin llo 75 porconl of fIool calogory al 90 porconl
usofuI Ioad. Ior aircrafl faIIing villin llo 100 porconl of fIool group
as idonlifiod in TabIo 6-6, Iig. 6-15 is simiIarIy appIiod.
Iiguro 6-15 is iIIuslralod vill lvo oxampIos, ono iIIuslraling an
airporl al 2000 fl AMSI vill avorago ligl lomporaluro during llo
lollosl monll al 59I and a crilicaI aircrafl faIIing villin llo 100 por-
conl of fIool calogory al 60 porconl usofuI Ioad, and ono iIIuslraling an
airporl al 3000 fl AMSI, avorago ligl lomporaluro during llo lollosl
monll al 100I, and a crilicaI aircrafl faIIing villin llo 100 porconl of
fIool calogory al 90 porconl usofuI Ioad.
Basod on llo runvay Ionglls found in oillor Iig. 6-14 or Iig. 6-15,
an adjuslmonl is mado for any nonIovoI runvay gradionl. Spocifi-
caIIy, llo runvay Iongll found in Iig. 6-14 or Iig. 6-15 is incroasod by
-

-
40 50 60
Mean Daily Maximum Temperature of Hottest Month of the Year in Degrees Fahrenheit
75 percent of feet at 60 percent
useful load
75 percent of feet at 90 percent
useful load
70 80 90 100 110 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
4,500
5,000
5,500
6,000
6,500
7,000
7,500
8,000
8,500
9,000
4,000
4,500
5,000
5,500
6,000
R
U
N
W
A
Y

L
E
N
G
T
H
S

(
F
E
E
T
)
6,500
7,000
7,500
8,000
8,500
9,000
4,000
EXAMPLE:
TEMP. = 100F
ARPORT ELEV. = 1,000'
RUNWAY LENGTH = 7,550'
ARPORT ELEVATON (FEET)
A
R
P
O
R
T
E
L
E
V
A
T
O
N
(
F
E
E
T
)
CLMB LMTATON 8,600'
2,000
6,000'
8,000
4,000
SL
EXAMPLE:
TEMP. = 59F
ARPORT ELEV. = SL
RUNWAY LENGTH = 4,550'
CLMB LMTATON 7,700'
8
,0
0
0
6
,0
0
0
4
,0
0
0
2,000
SL
-
40 50 60
Mean Daily Maximum Temperature of Hottest Month of the Year in Degrees Fahrenheit
100 percent of feet at 60 percent
useful load
100 percent of feet at 90 percent
useful load
70 80 90 100 110 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
4,500
5,000
5,500
6,000
6,500
7,000
7,500
8,000
8,500
9,000
9,500
10,500
10,000
11,000
4,000
R
U
N
W
A
Y

L
E
N
G
T
H

(
F
E
E
T
)
R
U
N
W
A
Y

L
E
N
G
T
H

(
F
E
E
T
)
4,500
5,000
5,500
6,000
6,500
7,000
7,500
8,000
8,500
9,000
9,500
10,500
10,000
11,000
4,000
2
,0
0
0
6
,0
0
0
4
,0
0
0
S
L
CLMB LMTATON 11,000' CLMB LMTATON 11,000'
8
,0
0
0
6
,
0
0
0
4
,0
0
0
2
,0
0
0
S
L
EXAMPLE:
TEMP. = 100F
ELEVATON = 3,000'
RUNWAY LENGTH = 10,500'
EXAMPLE:
TEMP. = 59F
ELEV. = 2,000'
RUNWAY LENGTH = 5,000'
A
R
P
O
R
T
E
L
E
V
A
T

O
N
(
F
E
E
T
)
A
R
P
O
R
T
E
L
E
V
A
T
O
N
(
F
E
E
T
)

-
10 fl for ovory fool in oIovalion difforonco bolvoon llo Iovosl poinl
and liglosl poinl on llo runvay.
Al liglor oIovalions, il is oflon llo caso llal llo roquirod runvay
Iongll is groalor for aircrafl Ioss llan 12,500 Ib MGTOW llan for air-
crafl groalor llan 12,500 Ib. If llis is llo caso, llo dosign runvay
Iongll vouId bo llal for llo Iigllor aircrafl. As sucl, airporl pIannors
oslimaling runvay Ionglls al ligl oIovalion airporls slouId porform
runvay Iongll oslimalions for llo smaIIosl aircrafl, in addilion lo llal
for llo soIoclod crilicaI aircrafl.

Ior aircrafl groalor llan 60,000 Ib MGTOW, runvay Ionglls aro osli-
malod basod on llo spocific porformanco spocificalions of llo crilicaI
aircrafl. Tloso porformanco spocificalions may bo found in llo pub-
Iislod aircrafl airporl pIanning manuaIs. Tloso manuaIs may bo
found on llo Inlornol silos of llo major aircrafl manufaclurors.
Willin llo aircrafl airporl pIanning manuaIs aro porformanco
clarls llal aro usod lo dolormino llo aircrafls roquirod runvay Ionglls
for boll laIooff and Ianding, basod on llo aircrafls oporaling con-
figuralion, ils oslimalod voiglls during laIooff and Ianding, as voII
as llo airporl oIovalion and avorago ligl lomporaluro during llo lollosl
monll.
IxampIo IrobIom 6-2 iIIuslralos llo procoduro for oslimaling runvay
Iongll using lloso clarls.
Considor llo silualion vloro an airporl vill oIovalion
1000 fl AMSI and moan daiIy maximum lomporaluro of llo lollosl monll
of 84I, is pIanning for a nov runvay lo bo dosignod for llo Booing 737-900
aircrafl, oquippod vill Irall & Wlilnoy CIM56-7B27 onginos. Al llo airporl
a runvay gradionl of 20 fl is projoclod.
According lo llo porformanco spocificalion clarl, iIIuslralod in Iig. 6-16,
found in llo Booing 737-900 airporl pIanning manuaI, llo maximum dosign
Ianding voigll for llo aircrafl is 146,300 Ib and llo maximum dosign laIooff
voigll is 174,200 Ib.
Iirsl, oslimalion of roquirod runvay Iongll for Ianding is porformod using
llo Ianding runvay Iongll porformanco clarl for llo aircrafl. As vill mosl
Ianding porformanco clarls, runvay Iongll roquiromonls found Ianding may
bo found undor boll dry and vol runvay condilions. Ior airporl pIanning pur-
posos, dosign runvay Iongll for Ianding is oslimalod by considoring vol runvay
condilions. If a Ianding runvay Iongll porformanco clarl doos nol incIudo vol
runvay condilions, llo dosign runvay Iongll is oslimalod as llo runvay Iongll
found undor dry runvay condilions, pIus 15 porconl.
Iiguro 6-17 iIIuslralos llis oxampIo. AppIying llo caso oxampIo, a vorlicaI
Iino is dravn from llo baso of llo lorizonlaI axis al llo Iocalion of llo maximum
dosign Ianding voigll (146,300 Ib), up lo an inlorpoIalod poinl bolvoon llo soa
IovoI and 2000 fl (lo roprosonl llo oxampIo airporls 1000 fl oIovalion) vol-
runvay curvos, and llon a lorizonlaI Iino is dravn lo llo vorlicaI axis, vloro llo
oslimalod roquirod runvay Iongll may bo found. In llis oxampIo, llo oslimalod
runvay Iongll for Ianding is approximaloIy 6600 fl.
-

Tloso clarls aro dosignod for IovoI runvays. An adjuslmonl for runvay gra-
dionl musl bo mado by adding 10 fl of runvay Iongll for ovory fool of runvay
gradionl. In llis oxampIo, an addilionaI 200 fl of runvay Iongll is addod, rosuIl-
ing in an adjuslod runvay Iongll for Ianding of 6800 fl.
Socond, oslimalion of roquirod runvay Iongll for laIooff is porformod using
llo laIooff runvay Iongll porformanco clarl for llo aircrafl. Oflonlimos, an
aircrafl viII lavo muIlipIo laIooff porformanco clarls, lypicaIIy for difforonl
avorago ligl lomporaluros. Tlo clarl associalod vill llo lomporaluro noarosl
llo airporls avorago ligl during llo lollosl monll is usod.
--

164,500 174,700
74,616 79,243
138,300 140,300
63,639
94,580
42,901
43,720 45,720
19,831 20,738
177 177
189 189
1,835 1,835
52.0 52.0
6875 6875
26,022 26,022
46,063 46,063
20,894 20,894
164,000 174,200
79,016
146,300
UNTS
POUNDS
KLOGRAMS
POUNDS
KLOGRAMS
POUNDS
KLOGRAMS
POUNDS
KLOGRAMS
TWO-CLASS
ALL-ECONOMY
CUBC FEET
CUBC METERS
US GALLONS
LTERS
POUNDS
KLOGRAMS
POUNDS
KLOGRAMS
POUNDS
KLOGRAMS 66,361
737900
USABLE FUEL
SEATNG CAPACTY (1)
MAX CARGO
- LOWER DECK
MAX STRUCTURAL
PAYLOAD
OPERATNG
EMPTY WEGHT (1)
MAX DESGN
ZERO FUEL WEGHT
MAX DESGN
LANDNG WEGHT
MAX DESGN
TAKEOFF WEGHT
CHARACTERSTCS
MAX DESGN
TAX WEGHT
Takeoff
Weight
Landing
Weight
NOTE: (1) OPERATNG EMPTY WEGHT FOR BASELNE MXED CLASS CONFGURATON.
CONSULT WTH ARLNE FOR SPECFC WEGHTS AND CONFGURATONS.

-
Iiguro 6-18 iIIuslralos llis oxampIo. AppIying llo caso oxampIo, a vorlicaI
Iino is dravn from llo baso of llo lorizonlaI axis al llo Iocalion of llo maximum
dosign laIooff voigll (174,200 Ib), up lo an inlorpoIalod poinl bolvoon llo soa
IovoI and 2000 fl curvos, and llon a lorizonlaI Iino is dravn lo llo vorlicaI
axis, vloro llo oslimalod roquirod runvay Iongll for laIooff may bo found. In
llis oxampIo, llo oslimalod runvay Iongll for laIooff is approximaloIy 8800 fl.
Considoring llo oxampIos runvay gradionl, an addilionaI 200 fl of runvay
Iongll is addod, rosuIling in an adjuslod runvay Iongll for laIooff of 9000 fl.
- p
-
1.0
3
4
5
6
7
FLAPS 40 DRY RUNWAY
WET RUNWAY
8
NOTES:
STANDARD DAY
AUTO SPOLERS OPERATVE
ANT-SKD OPERATVE
ZERO WND
CONSULT USNG ARLNE FOR SPECFC
OPERATNG PROCEDURE PROR TO FACLTY DESGN
9
100 110
50 55 60
(1,000 KLOGRAMS)
OPERATONAL LANDNG WEGHT
65
120 130
1,000 POUNDS
140 150
1.5
2.0
F
.
A
.
R
.

L
A
N
D

N
G

R
U
N
W
A
Y

L
E
N
G
T
H
(
1
,
0
0
0

M
E
T
E
R
S
)
1
,
0
0
0

F
E
E
T
2.5
SEA LEVEL
2,000 (610)
4,000 (1,219)
6,000 (1,829)
8,000 (2,438)
FEET (METERS)
ARPORT ELEVATON
MAX DESGN LANDNG WT
146,300 (66,360 KG)
-

Ior dosign purposos, llo dosign runvay Iongll is llo Iongor of llo roquirod
runvay Ionglls for Ianding and for laIooff. In llis caso, llo dosign runvay
Iongll for llis oxampIo is 9000 fl.
- -
Tlo runvay syslom al an airporl consisls of llo slrucluraI pavo-
monl, llo slouIdors, llo bIasl pad, llo runvay safoly aroa, various
obslruclion-froo surfacos, and llo runvay proloclion zono, as slovn
in Iigs. 6-19 and 6-20.
-

1.0
1.5
3
4
5
6
7
STANDARD DAY + 27F
(STD + 15C)
8
NOTES:
CFM567827 ENGNES RATED AT 27,300 LB SLST
NO ENGNE AR BLEED FOR AR CONDTONNG
ZERO WND, ZERO RUNWAY GRADENT
DRY RUNWAY SURFACE
CONSULT WTH USNG ARLNE FOR SPECFC
OPERATNG PROCEDURE PROR TO FACLTY DESGN
LNEAR NTERPOLATON BETWEEN ALTTUDES NVALD
LNEAR NTERPOLATON BETWEEN TEMPERATURES NVALD
15
10
11
12
13
14
9
120 125 130
55 60
(1,000 KLOGRAMS)
OPERATONAL TAKEOFF WEGHT
65 70 75 80
140 145 150 155 135
1,000 POUNDS
165 160 170 175
2.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
4.0
F
.
A
.
R
.

T
A
K
E
O
F
F

R
U
N
W
A
Y

L
E
N
G
T
H
(
1
,
0
0
0

M
E
T
E
R
S
)
1
,
0
0
0

F
E
E
T
4.5
MAX DESGN TAKEOFF WT
174,200 LB (79,016 KG)
6
,0
0
0
(1
,8
2
9
)
4
,0
0
0
(1
,2
1
9
)
2
,0
0
0
(6
1
0
)
S
E
A
L
E
V
E
L
F
L
A
P
S
2
5
F
L
A
P
S

1
5
F
L
A
P
S
5
T
R
E
S
P
E
E
D
L
M
T
A
R
P
O
R
T
E
L
E
V
A
T
O
N
F
E
E
T
(
M
E
T
E
R
S
)
8
,0
0
0
(
2
,4
3
8
)

-
1. Tlo runvay - supporls llo aircrafl vill
rospocl lo slrucluraI Ioad, manouvorabiIily, conlroI, slabiIily,
and ollor oporalionaI and dimonsionaI criloria.
2. Tlo - adjaconl lo llo odgos of llo slrucluraI pavomonl
rosisls jol bIasl orosion and accommodalos mainlonanco and
omorgoncy oquipmonl.
3. Tlo - is an aroa dosignod lo provonl orosion of llo
surfacos adjaconl lo llo onds of runvays duo lo jol bIasl or
propoIIor vasl.
4. Tlo - (RSA) is an aroa surrounding llo run-
vay proparod or suilabIo for roducing llo risI of damago lo
aircrafl in llo ovonl of an undorslool, ovorslool, or oxcursion
from llo runvay. ICAO rofors lo an aroa simiIar lo llo run-
vay safoly aroa as llo - and llo -
-- --
Runway Object Free Area
Runway Protection Zone
Runway Safety Area
Structural
Pavement
Shoulder
Blast Pad
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
--
nner Approach OFZ
1
3
50
1
Runway OFZ
nner Transitional OFZ
-

. Tlo runvay safoly aroa incIudos llo slrucluraI pavo-

monl, slouIdors, bIasl pad, and slopvay, if providod. Tlis
aroa slouId bo capabIo of supporling omorgoncy and mainlo-
nanco oquipmonl as voII as providing supporl for aircrafl.
Tlo runvay safoly aroa is cIoarod, drainod, and gradod and
slouId lavo no polonliaIIy lazardous ruls, lumps, dopros-
sions, or ollor surfaco varialions. Il slouId bo froo of objocls
oxcopl for objocls llal aro roquirod lo bo Iocalod in llo run-
vay safoly aroa bocauso of lloir funclion. Tloso objocls aro
roquirod lo bo conslruclod on frangibIo mounlod slrucluros al
llo Iovosl possibIo loigll vill llo frangibIo poinl no liglor
llan 3 in abovo grado.
5. Tlo runvay (OIA) is dofinod by llo IAA as a
lvo-dimonsionaI ground aroa surrounding llo runvay vlicl
musl bo cIoar of parIod aircrafl and objocls ollor llan lloso
vloso Iocalion is fixod by funclion.
6. Tlo runvay - (OIZ) is a dofinod voIumo of
airspaco conlorod abovo llo runvay vlicl supporls llo lran-
silion bolvoon ground and airborno oporalions. Tlo IAA spoc-
ifios llis as llo airspaco abovo a surfaco vloso oIovalion is
llo samo as llal of llo noarosl poinl on llo runvay conlorIino
and oxlonding 200 fl boyond oacl ond of llo runvay.
7. Tlo - , vlicl appIios onIy lo
runvays vill approacl Iiglling sysloms, is llo airspaco
abovo a surfaco conlorod on llo oxlondod runvay conlorIino
boginning 200 fl boyond llo runvay llrosloId al llo samo
oIovalion as llo runvay llrosloId and oxlonding 200 fl boyond
llo Iasl Iigll unil on llo approacl Iiglling syslom. Ils vidll
is llo samo as llo runvay obslacIo-froo zono and il sIopos
upvard al llo ralo of 50 lorizonlaI lo 1 vorlicaI.
8. Tlo - - , vlicl appIios onIy lo pro-
cision inslrumonl runvays, is dofinod by llo IAA as llo voIumo
of airspaco aIong llo sidos of llo runvay and llo innor approacl
obslacIo-froo zono. Tlo surfaco sIopos al llo ralo of 3 lorizonlaI
lo 1 vorlicaI oul from llo odgo of llo runvay obslacIo-froo zono
and llo innor approacl obslacIo-froo zono unliI il roaclos a loigll
of 150 fl abovo llo oslabIislod airporl oIovalion.
9. Tlo (RIZ) is an aroa on llo ground
usod lo onlanco llo proloclion of poopIo and objocls noar llo
runvay approacl.
Tlo IAA runvay slandards roIalod lo llo pavomonl and slouIdor
vidll, llo safoly aroa, llo bIasl pad, and llo obslacIo-froo surfacos aro
givon in TabIos 6-7 and 6-8. SimiIar dala for llo ICAO aro givon in
TabIo 6-9.

I
a
c
i
I
i
l
i
o
s

f
o
r

s
m
a
I
I

a
i
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p
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a
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s

o
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.

I
r
o
m

o
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d

o
f

r
u
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v
a
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,

v
i
l
l

l
l
o

d
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I
a
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d

d
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a
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o

c
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c
o
p
l
,

l
l
o
s
o

I
o
n
g
l
l
s

b
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a
l

l
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o

s
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p

o
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d

o
f

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A
S
D
A

a
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d

b
o
l
l

o
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d
s

o
f

l
l
o

I
D
A
,

v
l
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l
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v
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r

i
s

g
r
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a
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r
.

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r
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v
a
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s

s
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g

s
m
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a
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a
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,

f
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o

a
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a
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l
l
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g
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a
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o
f

4
0
0

f
l

o
r

1
8
0

f
l

p
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u
s

l
l
o

v
i
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p
a
n

o
f

l
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m
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d
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a
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a
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a
f
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p
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2
0

f
l

f
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1
0
0
0

f
l

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a
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.

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5
0

I
n
,

i
n
c
r
o
a
s
o

l
o

2
5
0

f
l

f
o
r

r
u
n
v
a
y
s

s
o
r
v
i
n
g

a
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r
c
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a
f
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v
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a
p
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s
p
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s

g
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5
0

I
n
.

B
o
y
o
n
d

l
l
o

o
n
d

o
f

o
a
c
l

r
u
n
v
a
y
.

-
Tlo spacing of paraIIoI runvays doponds on a numbor of faclors sucl
as vlollor llo oporalions aro in VMC or IMC and, if in IMC, vlollor
il is dosirod lo lavo llo capabiIily of accommodaling simuIlanoous
arrivaIs or simuIlanoous arrivaIs and doparluros. Al lloso airporls
sorving boll loavy and Iigll aircrafl simuIlanoous uso of runvays
ovon in VMC condilions may bo diclalod by soparalion roquiromonls
lo safoguard againsl vaIo vorlicos.
-

Ior airpIano dosign group III sorving aircrafl vill maximum corlifiod laIooff voigll
groalor llan 150,000 Ib, llo slandard runvay vidll is 150 fl, llo slouIdor vidll is 25 fl,
and llo bIasl pad vidll is 200 fl.

AirpIano dosign groups V and VI normaIIy roquiro slabiIizod or pavod slouIdor sur-
facos.

Ior Airporl Roforonco Codo C-I and C-II, a runvay safoly aroa vidll of 400 fl is pormis-
sibIo. Ior runvays dosignod aflor 2/28/83 lo sorvo aircrafl approacl calogory D air-
crafl, llo runvay safoly aroa vidll incroasos 20 fl for oacl 1000 fl of airporl oIovalion
abovo moan soa IovoI.

Irom ond of runvay, vill llo docIarod dislanco concopl, lloso Ionglls bogin al llo slop
ond of oacl ASDA and boll onds of llo IDA, vliclovor is groalor.

Ior Iargo aircrafl llo groalor of 400 fl or 180 fl pIus llo vingspan of llo mosl domanding
aircrafl pIus 20 fl for oacl 1000 fl of airporl oIovalion, for smaII aircrafl 300 fl for proci-
sion inslrumonl runvays, 250 fl for aII ollor runvays sorving smaII aircrafl vill
approacl spoods of 50 In or moro, and 120 fl for aII ollor runvays sorving smaII aircrafl
vill approacl spoods Ioss llan 50 In.

Boyond llo ond of oacl runvay.

- -

-
Undor VMC, llo IAA roquiros paraIIoI runvay conlorIino sopara-
lions of 700 fl for aII aircrafl vlon llo oporalions aro in llo samo diroc-
lion and vaIo vorlicos aro nol provaIonl. Il aIso rocommonds incroasing
llo soparalion lo 1200 fl for airpIano dosign group V and VI runvays. If
vaIo vorlicos aro gonoralod by loavy jols and il is dosirod lo oporalo on
lvo runvays simuIlanoousIy in VMC vlon IillIo or no crossvind is
prosonl, llo minimum dislanco spocifiod by llo IAA is 2500 fl.
Ior oporalions undor VMC, llo ICAO rocommonds llal llo min-
imum soparalions bolvoon llo conlorIinos of paraIIoI runvays for
simuIlanoous uso disrogarding vaIo vorlicos bo 120 m (400 fl) for
aorodromo codo numbor 1, 150 m (500 fl) for aorodromo codo numbor
2, and 210 m (700 fl) for aorodromo codo numbor 3 or 4 runvays.
In IMC condilions, llo IAA spocifios 4300 fl and ICAO spocifios
1525 m (5000 fl) as llo minimum soparalion bolvoon conlorIinos of

-
-
-

-
-

Tlo vidll of a procision approacl runvay slouId nol bo Ioss llan 30 m vloro llo aoro-
dromo codo numbor is 1 or 2.

Minimum vidll of pavomonl and slouIdors vlon pavomonl vidll is Ioss llan 60 m.

SymmolricaI aboul llo runvay conlorIino.

Il is rocommondod llal llis bo providod for llo firsl 150 m from oacl ond of llo runvay and
llal il slouId bo incroasod IinoarIy from llis poinl lo a vidll of 210 m al a poinl 300 m from
oacl ond of llo runvay and romain al llis vidll for llo romaindor of llo runvay.
- -
-

paraIIoI runvays for simuIlanoous inslrumonl approaclos. Hovovor,

lloro is ovidonco llal lloso dislancos aro consorvalivo and slops aro
boing laIon lo roduco il. Tlo uIlimalo goaI is lo roduco llis dislanco
by aboul ono-laIf. Ior dopondonl inslrumonl approaclos boll llo
IAA and ICAO rocommond conlorIino soparalions of 3000 fl (915 m).
Ior lripIo and quadrupIo simuIlanoous inslrumonl approaclos, llo
IAA roquiros 5000-fl soparalion bolvoon runvay conlorIinos,
aIllougl viII aIIov 4300 fl soparalions on a caso-by-caso basis.
Boll llo IAA and ICAO spocify llal lvo paraIIoI runvays may
bo usod simuIlanoousIy for radar doparluros in IMC if llo conlorIinos
aro soparalod by al Ioasl 2500 fl (760 m). Tlo IAA roquiros a 3500-fl
conlorIino soparalion for simuIlanoous nonradar doparluros. If lvo
paraIIoI runvays aro lo bo oporalod indopondonlIy of oacl ollor in
IMC undor radar conlroI, ono for arrivaIs and llo ollor for dopar-
luros, boll llo IAA and ICAO spocify llal llo minimum soparalion
bolvoon llo conlorIinos is 2500 fl (760 m) vlon llo llrosloIds aro
ovon. If llo llrosloIds aro slaggorod, llo runvays can bo brougll
cIosor logollor or musl bo soparalod farllor doponding on llo amounl
of llo slaggor and vlicl runvays aro usod for arrivaIs and dopar-
luros. If approaclos aro lo llo noarosl runvay, llon llo spacing may
bo roducod by 100 fl (30 m) for oacl 500 fl (150 m) of slaggor dovn lo
a minimum of 1200 fl (360 m) for airpIano dosign groups V and VI
and 1000 fl (300 m) for aII ollor aircrafl. Hovovor, if llo approaclos
aro lo llo farllosl runvay, llon llo runvay spacing musl bo incroasod
by 100 fl (30 m) for oacl 500 fl (150 m) of slaggor.
-
Tlo IAA roquiromonl for sigll dislanco on individuaI runvays
roquiros llal llo runvay profiIo pormil any lvo poinls 5 fl abovo llo
runvay conlorIino lo bo muluaIIy visibIo for llo onliro runvay Iongll.
If, lovovor, llo runvay las a fuII Iongll paraIIoI laxivay, llo runvay
profiIo may bo sucl llal an unobslruclod Iino of sigll viII oxisl from
any poinl 5 fl abovo llo runvay conlorIino lo any ollor poinl 5 fl
abovo llo runvay conlorIino for ono-laIf llo runvay Iongll.
Tlo IAA rocommonds a cIoar Iino of sigll bolvoon llo onds of
inlorsocling runvays. Tlo lorrain musl bo gradod and pormanonl
objocls dosignod and silod so llal lloro viII bo an unobslruclod
Iino of sigll from any poinl 5 fl abovo ono runvay conlorIino lo
any poinl 5 fl abovo an inlorsocling runvay conlorIino villin llo
runvay visibiIily zono. Tlo runvay visibiIily zono is llo aroa
formod by imaginary Iinos connocling llo visibiIily poinls of llo
lvo inlorsocling runvays. Tlo runvay visibiIily zono for inlor-
socling runvays is slovn in Iig. 6-21. Tlo visibiIily poinls aro
dofinod as foIIovs:
1. If llo dislanco from llo inlorsoclion of llo lvo runvay con-
lorIinos is 750 fl or Ioss, llo visibiIily poinl is on llo conlorIino
al llo runvay ond dosignalod by poinl a in Iig. 6-21.

-
2. If llo dislanco from llo inlorsoclion of llo lvo runvay con-
lorIinos is groalor llan 750 fl bul Ioss llan 1500 fl, llo visibiI-
ily poinl is on llo conlorIino 750 fl from llo inlorsoclion of llo
conlorIinos dosignalod by poinl b in Iig. 6-21.
3. If llo dislanco from llo inlorsoclion of llo lvo runvay con-
lorIinos is oquaI lo or groalor llan 1500 fl, llo visibiIily poinl
is on llo conlorIino oquidislanl from llo runvay ond and llo
inlorsoclion of llo conlorIinos dosignalod by poinls c and d in
Iig. 6-21.
Tlo ICAO roquiromonl for sigll dislanco on individuaI runvays
roquiros llal llo runvay profiIo pormil an unobslruclod viov
bolvoon any lvo poinls al a spocifiod loigll abovo llo runvay con-
lorIino lo bo muluaIIy visibIo for a dislanco oquaI lo al Ioasl ono-laIf
llo runvay Iongll. ICAO spocifios llal llo loigll of lloso lvo poinls
bo 1.5 m (5 fl) abovo llo runvay for aorodromo codo Iollor A run-
vays, 2 m (7 fl) abovo llo runvay for aorodromo codo Iollor B run-
vays, and 3 m (10 fl) abovo llo runvay for aorodromo codo Iollor C,
D, or I runvays.
Il is dosirabIo lo minimizo IongiludinaI grado clangos as mucl as
possibIo. Hovovor, il is rocognizod llal llis may nol bo possibIo for
roasons of oconomy. Tloroforo boll llo ICAO and IAA aIIov clangos
- - -
-
RUNWAY VSBLTY
ZONE
WHEN
A 750' (225 m)
B < 1500' (450 m)
BUT > 750' (225 m)
C 1500' (450 m)
D 1500' (450 m)
THEN
xa = DSTANCE TO
END OF RUNWAY
xc = C
xd = D
xb = 750' (225 m)
b
x d
a
c
A
C
B
750'
225 m
D
12
C
1
2
D
-

--

--

--
--

-
- -

AppIios aIso lo runvay safoly aroa adjaconl lo sidos of llo runvay.

May nol oxcood 0.8 porconl in llo firsl and Iasl quarlor of runvay.

A minimum of 3 porconl for lurf.

A sIopo of 5 porconl is rocommondod for a 10 fl vidll adjaconl lo llo pavomonl aroas lo

promolo drainago.

Ior llo firsl 200 fl from llo ond of llo runvay and if il sIopos il musl bo dovnvard. Ior
llo romaindor of llo runvay safoly aroa llo sIopo musl bo sucl llal any upvard sIopo
doos nol ponolralo llo approacl surfaco or cIoarvay pIano and any dovnvard sIopo
doos nol oxcood 5 porconl.

Ior oacl 1 porconl clango in grado.

No vorlicaI curvo is roquirod if llo grado clango is Ioss llan 0.4 porconl.

Dislanco is muIlipIiod by llo sum of llo absoIulo grado grado clangos in porconl.
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |6].
-
in grado bul Iimil lloir numbor and sizo. Tlo maximum IongiludinaI
grado clangos llal aro pormillod by llo IAA aro Iislod in TabIo 6-10
and iIIuslralod in Iig. 6-22. Tlo maximum IongiludinaI grado clangos
llal aro pormillod by llo ICAO aro Iislod in TabIo 6-11. TabIos 6-10 and
6-11 aIso Iisl llo maximum IongiludinaI grado. Tlo IAA Iimils boll

-
IongiludinaI gradionl and IongiludinaI grado clangos lo 2 porconl for
runvays sorving approacl calogory A and B aircrafl and 1.5 porconl
for runvays sorving approacl calogory C, D, and I aircrafl. ICAO
Iimils boll IongiludinaI gradionl and IongiludinaI grado clangos lo
2 porconl for aorodromo codo numbor 1 and 2 runvays and 1.5 porconl
for aorodromo codo numbor 3 runvays. Ior aorodromo codo numbor
4 runvays llo maximum IongiludinaI gradionl is 1.25 porconl and llo
- - -
(a)
(b)
Profile of runway centerline
Distance between
change in grade
Grade
change
Grade
change
Vertical
curve
length
Vertical
curve length
0
to
2
%
0
to
2
%
0 to 2%
0
to
2
%
Profile of runway centerline
Grade
change
Grade
change
Grade
change
Distance
between
change
in grade
Distance
between
change in
grade
E
n
d

o
f

r
u
n
w
a
y
E
n
d

o
f

r
u
n
w
a
y
Vertical
curve
length
Vertical
curve
length
0 to 0.8%
1.5% max
0 to 0.8% 0
to

3
%
0
to

3
%
0 to 1.5%
0 to 1.5%
Vertical
curve
length
200' 200'
End runway
1
4
End runway
1
4
-

maximum clango in IongiludinaI gradionl is 1.5 porconl. In addilion,

for runvays llal aro oquippod lo bo usod in bad voallor, llo gradionl
of llo firsl and Iasl quarlor of llo Iongll of llo runvay musl bo vory
fIal for roasons of safoly. Boll llo ICAO and llo IAA roquiro llal llis
gradionl nol oxcood 0.8 porconl. In aII casos il is dosirabIo lo Ioop boll
IongiludinaI grados and grado clangos lo a minimum.
IongiludinaI sIopo clangos aro accompIislod by moans of vorlicaI
curvos. Tlo Iongll of a vorlicaI curvo is dolorminod by llo magniludo of
llo clangos in sIopo and llo maximum aIIovabIo clango in llo sIopo of
llo runvay. Boll lloso vaIuos aro aIso Iislod in TabIos 6-11 and 6-12.

-
- -
y

--


--

--

--

May nol oxcood 0.8 porconl in llo firsl and Iasl quarlor of runvay for aorodromo codo
numbor 4 or for a calogory II or III procision inslrumonl runvay for aorodromo codo
numbor 3.

Difforonco in oIovalion bolvoon ligl and Iov poinl dividod by runvay Iongll

Ior oacl 1 porconl clango in grado.

Dislanco is muIlipIiod by sum of absoIulo grado clangos in porconl minimum Iongll is 45 m.

InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion |3].
-

-
Tlo numbor of sIopo clangos aIong llo runvay is aIso Iimilod.
Tlo IAA roquiros llal llo dislanco bolvoon llo poinls of inlorsoclion
of lvo succossivo curvos slouId nol bo Ioss llan llo sum of llo abso-
Iulo porconlago vaIuos of clango in sIopo muIlipIiod by llo 250 fl for
airporls sorving aircrafl approacl calogory A and B aircrafl and 1000 fl
for airporls sorving aircrafl approacl calogory C, D, and I aircrafl.
Tlo ICAO roquiros llal llo dislanco bolvoon llo poinls of inlorsoc-
lion of lvo succossivo curvos slouId nol bo Ioss llan llo sum of llo
absoIulo porconlago vaIuos of clango in sIopo muIlipIiod by 50 m
(165 fl) for aorodromo codo numbor 1 and 2 runvays, 150 m (500 fl)
for aorodromo codo numbor 3 runvays, and 300 m (1000 fl) for aoro-
dromo codo numbor 4 runvays. ICAO aIso spocifios llal llo mini-
mum dislanco in aII casos is 45 m (150 fl).
Ior oxampIo, for an IAA runvay sorving lransporl aircrafl, llal is,
approacl calogory C, D, or I aircrafl, if llo clango in sIopo vas 1.5
porconl, llo roquirod Iongll of vorlicaI curvo vouId bo 1500 fl. VorlicaI
curvos aro normaIIy nol nocossary if llo clango in sIopo is nol moro
llan 0.4 porconl. Tlo IAA spocifios a minimum Iongll of vorlicaI lran-
silion curvo of 300 for oacl 1 porconl clango in grado for runvays
-

- -

- -

Ior faciIilios for smaII aircrafl onIy.

Salisfios llo roquiromonl llal no parl of an aircrafl al a loIding an incroaso lo lloso

soparalions may bo noodod lo acliovo llis rosuIl.

Ior soa IovoI up lo oIovalion 6000 fl. Incroaso by 1 fl for oacl 100 fl of airporl oIovalion
abovo 6000 fl.
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |6].
-

-

sorving approacl calogory A and B aircrafl and 1000 fl for oacl 1 porconl
clango in grado for airporl sorving approacl calogory C, D, and I
aircrafl. ICAO spocifios a minimum Iongll of vorlicaI lransilion curvo
of 75 m for oacl 1 porconl clango in grado for aorodromo codo numbor
1 runvays, 150 m for oacl 1 porconl clango in grado aorodromo codo
numbor 2 runvays, and 300 m for oacl 1 porconl clango in grado for
aorodromo codo numbor 4 runvays.
--
A lypicaI cross soclion of a runvay is slovn in Iig. 6-23. Tlo IAA
and ICAO spocificalions for lransvorso sIopo on llo runvays aro
givon in TabIos 6-10 and 6-11, rospoclivoIy. Il is rocommondod llal a
5 porconl lransvorso sIopo bo providod for llo firsl 10 fl of slouIdor
adjaconl lo a pavomonl odgo lo onsuro propor drainago.
- -
Tlo minimum dislanco from llo runvay conlorIino lo paraIIoI laxi-
vays, laxiIanos, aircrafl loIding Iinos, loIicoplor loucldovn pads,
and aircrafl parIing aroas aro aIso spocifiod. Tloso dislancos aro givon
in TabIos 6-12 and 6-13 for llo IAA and TabIos 6-14 and 6-15 for
ICAO.
- -
In addilion lo llo goomolric slandards associalod vill llo dosign of
runvays, lloro aro spocific roquiromonls concorning llo proloclion of
airspaco around airfioIds lo provido for llo safo navigalion of aircrafl
lo and from llo airporl.
In llo Unilod Slalos, llo IAA roquiros llal proloclion zonos bo
providod al llo onds of runvays. Tlo runvay proloclion zono is llo
aroa on llo ground bonoall llo approacl surfaco lo a runvay from llo
ond of llo primary surfaco lo llo poinl vloro llo approacl surfaco is
50 fl abovo llo primary surfaco, as slovn in Iig. 6-24. Tlo dimonsions
of llo runvay proloclion zono aro providod in TabIo 6-16.
-- -
Runway safety area
Detail A
R
unw
ay pavem
ent
3
1
C
L
Obstacle-free
area width
Obstacle-free
area slope
Detail A
1''
2
1
5%
10'
Structural
pavement
Shoulder

-
Wlon llo runvay proloclion zono bogins al a Iocalion ollor llan
200 fl boyond llo ond of llo runvay duo lo llo appIicalion of llo
docIarod dislanco concopl discussod in Clap. 2, lvo runvay proloc-
lion zonos aro usuaIIy roquirod, an approacl runvay proloclion zono
and a doparluro runvay proloclion zono. Tlo dimonsions of llo
approacl runvay proloclion zono aro givon in TabIo 6-16 bul llo
doparluro runvay proloclion zono bogins 200 fl boyond llo far ond of
-

- -

- -

Salisfios llo roquiromonl llal no parl of an aircrafl al a loIding Iocalion or on a laxivay

conlorIino is villin llo runvay safoly aroa or ponolralos llo obslacIo froo zono. Accord-
ingIy, al liglor oIovalions an incroaso lo lloso soparalions may bo noodod lo acliovo
llis rosuIl.

Ior aircrafl in aircrafl approacl calogory C and airpIano dosign groups III and IV incroaso
by 1 fl for oacl 100 fl of airporl oIovalion groalor llan 3200 fl.

Ior aircrafl in aircrafl approacl calogory C and airpIano dosign group V incroaso by 1 fl
for oacl 100 fl of airporl oIovalion abovo moan soa IovoI.

Ior aircrafl in aircrafl approacl calogory D incroaso by 1 fl for oacl 100 fl of airporl oIo-
valion abovo moan soa IovoI.

Ior airporls al or boIov an oIovalion of 1345 fl, incroaso lo 450 fl for airporls al oIovalions
bolvoon 1345 and 6560 fl and lo 500 fl for airporls al an oIovalion abovo 6560 fl.
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |6].
-

-

- -

- -

InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion |2, 3, 4].

Tlis dislanco may lavo lo bo incroasod lo avoid inlorforonco vill radio aids, for a proci-
sion inslrumonl calogory III runvay llis incroaso may bo in llo ordor of 50 m.

If a loIding bay or a laxivay loIding posilion is al a Iovor oIovalion comparod lo llo

runvay llrosloId llo dislanco may bo docroasod by 5 m for ovory molor llo loIding
bay or loIding posilion is Iovor llan llo llrosloId, conlingonl upon nol inlorforing
vill llo innor lransilionaI surfaco, if a loIding bay or a laxivay loIding posilion is
al a liglor oIovalion comparod lo llo runvay llrosloId llo dislanco slouId bo
incroasod by 5 m for ovory molor llo loIding bay or loIding posilion is liglor llan
llo llrosloId.
InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion |2, 3, 4].

-
llo laIooff run avaiIabIo and llo porlion of llo runvay bolvoon llo
laIooff run avaiIabIo and llo ond of llo runvay is docIarod unavaiI-
abIo and unsuilabIo for llo laIooff run. Tlo dimonsions of llo dopar-
luro runvay proloclion zono aro
1. Ior runvays sorving onIy smaII aircrafl in aircrafl approacl
calogorios A and B, llo Iongll is 1000 fl, llo innor vidll is 250 fl
and llo oulor vidll is 450 fl.
2. Ior runvays sorving Iargo aircrafl in aircrafl approacl calo-
gorios A and B, llo Iongll is 1000 fl, llo innor vidll is 500 fl
and llo oulor vidll is 700 fl.
3. Ior runvays sorving aircrafl in aircrafl approacl calogorios
C, D, or I, llo Iongll is 1700 fl, llo innor vidll is 500 fl and
llo oulor vidll is 1010 fl.

Iarl 77 of llo IodoraI Avialion RoguIalions oslabIislos slandards for
dolormining vlal vouId bo considorod obslruclions lo navigabIo air-
spaco, sols forll llo roquiromonls for nolico lo llo IAA duo lo corlain
proposod conslruclion or aIloralion aclivilios, and providos for aoro-
naulicaI sludios of obslruclions lo air navigalion lo dolormino llo offocl
of lloso obslruclions on llo safo and officionl uso of airspaco |8, 9]. Tlo
airporl oporalor las llo rosponsibiIily lo onsuro llal llo aoriaI
approaclos lo llo airporl viII bo adoqualoIy cIoarod and proloclod
and llal llo Iand adjaconl lo or in llo immodialo vicinily of llo airporl

200'
50'
L
L
C
H
V
W
1
W
2
-

-
































V visuaI approacl, NI nonprocision inslrumonl approacl vill visibiIily minimums
moro llan slalulo miIo, NI nonprocision inslrumonl approacl vill visibiIily min-
imums as Iov as slalulo miIo, I procision inslrumonl approacl.
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |5].
--

-
is roasonabIy roslriclod lo llo oxlonl possibIo llrougl llo uso of sucl
moasuros as llo adoplion of zoning ordinancos. A modoI zoning ordi-
nanco lo Iimil llo loigll of objocls around airporls is pubIislod by
llo IAA |6].
Subparl C of IAR Iarl 77 oslabIislos slandards for dolormining
obslruclions lo air navigalion. Tlo slandards appIy lo oxisling and
man-mado objocls, objocls of naluraI grovll, and lorrain.
In ordor lo dolormino vlollor an objocl is an obslruclion lo air
navigalion, sovoraI imaginary surfacos aro oslabIislod vill roIa-
lion lo llo airporl and lo oacl ond of a runvay. Tlo sizo of llo
imaginary surfacos doponds on llo calogory of oacl runvay (o.g.,
uliIily or lransporl) and on llo lypo of approacl pIannod for llal
ond of llo runvay (o.g., visuaI, nonprocision inslrumonl, or proci-
sion inslrumonl).
Tlo principaI imaginary surfacos aro slovn in Iig. 6-25. Tloy aro
doscribod as foIIovs:
1. -. Tlo primary surfaco is a surfaco Iongiludi-
naIIy conlorod on a runvay. Wlon llo runvay is pavod, llo
primary surfaco oxlonds 200 fl boyond oacl ond of llo run-
vay. Wlon llo runvay is unpavod, llo primary surfaco coin-
cidos vill oacl ond of llo runvay. Tlo oIovalion of llo pri-
mary surfaco is llo samo as llo oIovalion of llo noarosl poinl
on llo runvay conlorIino.
2. -. Tlo lorizonlaI surfaco is a lorizonlaI
pIano 150 fl abovo llo oslabIislod airporl oIovalion, llo
porimolor of vlicl is conslruclod by svinging arcs of spoci-
fiod radii from llo conlor of oacl ond of llo primary surfaco
of oacl runvay and connocling oacl arcs by Iinos langonl lo
lloso arcs.
3. -. Tlo conicaI surfaco is a surfaco oxlonding oul-
vard and upvard from llo poriplory of llo lorizonlaI sur-
faco al a sIopo of 20 lorizonlaI lo 1 vorlicaI for a lorizonlaI
dislanco of 4000 fl.
4. -. Tlo approacl surfaco is a surfaco Iongiludi-
naIIy conlorod on llo oxlondod runvay conlorIino and oxlonding
oulvard and upvard from oacl ond of a runvay al a dosig-
nalod sIopo basod upon llo lypo of avaiIabIo or pIannod
approacl lo llo runvay.
5. - -. TransilionaI surfacos oxlond oulvard and
upvard al rigll angIos lo llo runvay conlorIino pIus llo run-
vay conlorIino oxlondod al a sIopo of 7 lo 1 from llo sidos of
llo primary surfaco up lo llo lorizonlaI surfaco and from llo
sidos of llo approacl surfacos. Tlo vidll of llo lransilionaI
surfaco providod from oacl odgo of llo approacl surfaco is
5000 fl.

5 , 0 0 05 , 0 0 0 1 6 , 0 0 0
4
0
:
1
7 : 17 : 1
7 : 17 : 1
5
0
:
1
7
:
1
7
:
1
7
:
1
7
:
1
7
:
1
7
:
1
7
:
1
7
:
1
7
:
1
7
:
1
4
0
:
1
4 , 0 0 0
H
O
R

Z
O
N
T
A
L

S
U
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-
Dimonsions of llo sovoraI imaginary surfacos aro slovn in
Iig. 6-26.
In addilion lo llo surfacos dofinod oarIior, ollor slandards for
dolormining obslruclions lo air navigalion aro conlainod in IAR
Iarl 77. Ixisling and fuluro objocls, vlollor slalionary or mobiIo, aro
considorod lo bo obslruclions lo air navigalion if lloy aro of groalor
loigll llan any of llo foIIoving loiglls or surfacos:
1. A loigll of 500 fl abovo ground IovoI al llo silo of llo objocl.
2. A loigll llal is 200 fl abovo ground IovoI or 200 fl abovo
llo oslabIislod airporl oIovalion, vliclovor is groalor, villin
3 naulicaI miIos of llo oslabIislod roforonco poinl al an air-
porl vill ils Iongosl runvay moro llan 3200 fl in acluaI
Iongll. Tlis loigll incroasos in llo ralio of 100 fl for oacl
addilionaI naulicaI miIo of dislanco from llo roforonco poinl
up lo a maximum of 500 fl.
3. A loigll villin a lorminaI obslacIo cIoaranco aroa, incIuding
an iniliaI approacl sogmonl, a doparluro aroa, and a circIing
approacl aroa, vlicl vouId rosuIl in llo vorlicaI dislanco
bolvoon any poinl on llo objocl and an oslabIislod minimum
inslrumonl fIigll aIliludo villin llal aroa or sogmonl lo bo
Ioss llan llo roquirod obslacIo cIoaranco.
4. A loigll villin an on roulo obslacIo cIoaranco aroa, incIuding
lurn and lorminalion aroas, of a fodoraI airvay or approvod
off-airvay roulo, llal vouId incroaso llo minimum obslacIo
cIoaranco aIliludo.
5. Tlo surfaco of a laIooff and Ianding aroa of an airporl or any
of llo imaginary surfacos dofinod oarIior.
DM TEM
A - UTLTY RUNWAYS
B - RUNWAYS LARGER THAN UTLTY
C - VSBLTY MNMUMS GREATER THAN 3/4 MLE
D - VSBLTY MNMUMS AS LOW AS 3/4 MLE
* - PRECSON NSTRUMENT APPROACH SLOPE S 50:1 FOR NNER 10,000 FEET AND 40:1 FOR AN ADDTONAL 40,000 FEET
WDTH OF PRMARY SURFACE AND APPROACH SURFACE WDTH
AT NNER END
RADUS OF HORZONTAL SURFACE 5,000 5,000 5,000 10,000 10,000 10,000
5,000 5,000 5,000 10,000 10,000
*
20:1 20:1 20:1 34:1 34:1
*
1,250 1,500 2,000 3,500 4,000 16,000
250 500 500 500 1,000 1,000
B
C APPROACH SURFACE WDTH AT END
D APPROACH SURFACE LENGTH
E APPROACH SLOPE
A
VSUAL
RUNWAY
VSUAL
APPROACH
A A
C D
B
B
A
A
C D B
B
NON - PRECSON
NSTRUMENT
RUNWAY
NON - PRECSON
NSTRUMENT
APPROACH
DMENSONAL STANDARDS (FEET)
OBSTRUCTON DENTFCATON SURFACES
FEDERAL AVATON REGULATONS PART 77
PRECSON
NSTRUMENT
RUNWAY
PRECSON
NSTRUMENT
APPROACH
--
-

6. Ixcopl for lravorso vays on or noar an airporl vill an opora-

livo ground lraffic conlroI sorvico furnislod by llo air lraffic
conlroI lovor or by airporl managomonl and coordinalod
vill llo air lraffic conlroI sorvico, llo loiglls of lravorso
vays musl bo incroasod by 17 fl for inlorslalo liglvays, 15 fl
for any ollor pubIic roadvay, 10 fl or llo loigll of llo liglosl
mobiIo objocl llal vouId normaIIy lravorso llo road, vlicl-
ovor is groalor, for a privalo road, 23 fl or an amounl oquaI lo
llo loigll of llo liglosl mobiIo objocl llal vouId normaIIy
lravorso il for raiIroads, valorvays, or any ollor llorougl-
faro nol proviousIy monlionod.
Subparl B of IAR Iarl 77 idonlifios circumslancos vloro nolico is
roquirod lo bo givon lo llo IAA vlon corlain conslruclion or aIlora-
lion aclivilios aro proposod. Tloso incIudo llo circumslancos associ-
alod vill llo slandards givon abovo and aIso any conslruclion or
aIloralion of groalor loigll llan an imaginary surfaco oxlonding oul-
vard and upvard al ono of llo foIIoving sIopos |9]:
1. A sIopo of 100 lorizonlaI lo 1 vorlicaI for a lorizonlaI dis-
lanco of 20,000 fl from llo noarosl poinl of llo noarosl runvay
al an airporl or soapIano baso vill al Ioasl ono runvay moro
llan 3200 fl in acluaI Iongll.
2. A sIopo of 50 lorizonlaI lo 1 vorlicaI for a lorizonlaI dislanco
of 10,000 fl from llo noarosl poinl of llo noarosl runvay al an
airporl or soapIano baso vill ils Iongosl runvay no moro
llan 3200 fl in acluaI Iongll.
3. A sIopo of 25 lorizonlaI lo 1 vorlicaI for a lorizonlaI dislanco
of 5000 fl from llo noarosl poinl of llo noarosl laIooff and
Ianding aroa for a loIiporl.
IAR Iarl 77 imposos slricl roquiromonls on boll airporl sponsors
and ollors associalod vill conslruclion aclivilios in llo vicinily of
airporls vlicl slouId bo roforoncod prior lo inilialing conslruclion
aclivilios.

Tlo ICAO roquiromonls aro simiIar lo IAR Iarl 77 vill llo foIIoving
oxcoplions. ICAO soparalos arrivaIs and doparluros and spocifios
dimonsions for approacl surfacos and laIooff cIimb surfacos for
doparluros. Tlo lorizonlaI surfaco spocifiod by ICAO is a circIo vloso
conlor is al llo , vloroas in IAR Iarl 77 il is nol a
circIo nor is llo airporl roforonco poinl usod lo dolormino llo lorizon-
laI surfaco. Tlo airporl roforonco poinl is llo goomolric conlroid of llo
runvay syslom al llo airporl basod upon llo Ionglls of llo runvays.
Tlo loigll of llis surfaco is 150 fl abovo llo airporl oIovalion, llo
samo as in Iarl 77. In IAR Iarl 77 llo conicaI surfaco oxlonds lorizon-
laIIy 4000 fl al a sIopo of 20 lo 1 irrospoclivo of llo lypo of runvay and

-
visibiIily. In ICAO Annox 14 |1, 2, 3] llo sIopo of llo conicaI surfaco is
llo samo, bul llo lorizonlaI dislanco varios doponding upon llo
aorodromo roforonco codo.
In IAR Iarl 77 llo sIopo of llo lransilionaI surfaco is a conslanl 7
lo 1, vloroas in ICAO Annox 14 llis sIopo is spocifiod for runvay
roforonco codos 3 and 4. Ior ollor runvays llo sIopo is 5 lo 1.

As dofinod in IAA Ordor 8260.3b, TIRIS (vlicl slands for lorminaI

inslrumonl approacl procoduros) is a compiIalion of criloria usod lo
dosign pubIislod slandard procoduros for aircrafl using inslrumonl-
basod navigalion lo doparl and approacl lo airporl faciIilios. Tloso
procoduros aro dosignod basod primariIy on llo porformanco clarac-
lorislics of aircrafl, llo various lypos of inslrumonl navigalionaI aids
llal may bo prosonl al or around an airporl, and curronlIy oxisling
naluraI and man-mado objocls surrounding llo airporl. As parl of
lloso procoduros, minimum cIimb-oul gradionls for aircrafl dopar-
luros, and minimum dosconl gradionls and safo oporaling aIliludos
for aircrafl approaclos aro dofinod. WliIo TIRIS conlain slandards
for croaling sucl procoduros, for any givon runvay al any givon air-
porl, ono or moro approacl and doparluro procoduros may bo dofinod,
oacl of vlicl may bo onliroIy uniquo, basod on llo airporl onviron-
monl.
Will rospocl lo airporl dosign, TIRIS dofinos a roquirod obsla-
cIo cIoaranco (ROC) vaIuo. Ior aircrafl oporaling villin llo airporl
onvironmonl, llis vaIuo is lypicaIIy as Iov as 250 fl abovo llo liglosl
objocl noar llo runvay. Tlo roquirod obslacIo cIoaranco vaIuos for a
pubIislod procoduro in lurn dofino llo TIRIS obslacIo cIoaranco sur-
faco (OCS), as iIIuslralod in Iig. 6-27. Tlo lypicaI sIopos for obslacIo
cIoaranco surfacos for aircrafl on approacl is on llo ordor of 318 fl/nmi
and for doparluros approximaloIy 200 fl/nmi.
A lypicaI TIRIS procoduro consisls of a sorios of sogmonls,
incIuding cIimb, on roulo, iniliaI approacl, inlormodialo approacl,
finaI approacl, and missod approacl sogmonls, llal aro croalod basod
- -
G
lid
e
p
a
th
ASBL
OCS
ROC
-

on llo abovo slandards and llo oxisling lorrain and obslacIo onviron-
monl for any givon runvay, as iIIuslralod in Iig. 6-28.
Il is vidoIy undorslood llal prolocling airspaco for TIRIS is a
compIox procoss, oflon uniquo lo oacl airporl. Ior pIanning purposos,
lovovor, a sIopo vill 40:1 gradionl and 15 from llo runvay ond
slouId bo considorod as TIRIS obslacIo cIoaranco surfaco criloria.
Runvays vill llo inlonlion of boing supporlod by pubIislod inslru-
monl procoduros slouId bo dosignod in sucl a mannor lo avoid any
naluraI or man-mado obslacIos llal ponolralo llis surfaco. Onco a
runvay oxisls, airporl pIannors slouId vorI lo onsuro llal fuluro
dovoIopmonl doos nol confIicl vill TIRIS or IAR Iarl 77 obslacIo
cIoaranco roquiromonls.
-
Tlo spocificalions for dolormining obslacIos lo safo air navigalion
lo oxisling runvays aro doscribod in IAR Iarl 77 and TIRIS pro-
coduros. Hovovor, vlon Iocaling, or siling a runvay, llo IAA pro-
scribos a difforonl, yol compIimonlary sol of spocificalions. Tloso
spocificalions aro pubIislod in Appondix 2 of Advisory CircuIar AC
150/5300-13, idonlifiod in TabIo 6-17, and iIIuslralod in Iigs. 6-29
llrougl 6-31.
--
MAP
PROFLE
PROJECTED VEW
FLGHT PATH
PLAN
NTAL
NTERMEDATE FNAL
OBSTACLE RUNWAY
MSSED APPROACH
RE-ENTER ENROUTE
PHASE
1000' 1000'
500'

-
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-
- -
A
A
2B
THRESHOLD
OBJECT
THRESHOLD
D E
2C
OBJECT
SLOPE
- - -
10,200 FEET
10,200 FEET
3,233 FEET
3,233 FEET
SEE
NOTE 1
Clearway
Slope
80:1 or 1.25%
STARTS AT
DEPARTURE END
OF RUNWAY (DER)
OR END OF THE
CLEARWAY
(F ONE EXSTS)
NOTES:
1. THS S AN NTERPRETATON OF THE APPLCATON OF THE TERPS SURFACE
ASSOCATED WTH A CLEARWAY.
SURFACE STARTS
AT END OF CLEAR
WAY F ONE S N
PLACE
SURFACE STARTS AT THE ELEVATON OF THE CLEARWAY
SURFACE (F ONE EXSTS)
15
15
500 FEET
1,000 FEET
TERPS (40:1)
TE
R
P
S
(40:1)
TER
P
S
(40:1)
Tloso spocificalions aro usod lo silo llo Iocalion of a runvays
llrosloId so llal approacl and doparluro procoduros associalod vill
llal runvay aro nol advorsoIy affoclod by oxisling obslacIos or lor-
rain. Tlo siling spocificalions vary doponding on a numbor of run-
vay uso condilions, incIuding
-

- Tlo approacl spood of arriving aircrafl

- Tlo approacl calogory of arriving aircrafl
- Day vorsus nigll oporalions
- Typos of inslrumonl approaclos
- Tlo prosonco of pubIislod inslrumonl doparluro procoduros
- Tlo uso of llo runvay by air carriors
Runvay ond siling roquiromonls aro oflon llo mosl confusing as
voII as ovorIooIod oIomonl of runvay pIanning. Caro slouId bo
givon lo fuIIy undorsland llo purposo of llo pIannod runvay, llo
lypo of aircrafl llal viII bo using llo runvay, llo curronl and fuluro
inslrumonl approacl procoduros associalod vill llo runvay, and of
courso any lorrain or obslacIos in llo vicinily.
SlouId an objocl ponolralo any of llo surfacos al llo silo of a
runvay, llo airporl pIannor las llo oplion of dispIacing llo run-
vay llrosloId, as iIIuslralod in Iig. 6-32. DispIacing llo llrosloId
aIIovs llo airporl pIannor lo dosign runvays vill sufficionl
Ionglls lo accommodalo aircrafl doparluros, vliIo aIso aIIoving
arrivaIs lo safoIy approacl llo runvay by mainlaining sufficionl
cIoaranco from upslroam obslacIos. DispIacing llo llrosloId doos
carry llo ponaIly of roducing avaiIabIo runvay Ionglls for Iand-
ing. Tlo IAA rocommonds avoiding llo nood for dispIacod llrosl-
oIds vlon possibIo, bul rocognizos lloir bonofils in llo vaIo of no
ollor aIlornalivos.
- -
300 FEET
300 FEET
600 FEET
50,000 FEET
Clearway
Slope
80:1 or 1.25%
STARTS AT
DEPARTURE END
OF RUNWAY (DER)
OR END OF
CLEARWAY
(F ONE EXSTS)
OS SURFACE
STARTS AT END
OF CLEARWAY
F ONE S N PLACE
SURFACE STARTS AT THE ELEVATON OF
THE CLEARWAY SURFACE (F ONE EXSTS)
OBSTACLE DENTFCATON
SURFACE (OS)
62.5:1
2
0
L
O
S
(62.5:1)
O
S (62.5:1)
15
15
50,000 FEET
6,000 FEET
6,000 FEET
C
L

-
- -
Taxivays aro dofinod palls on llo airfioId surfaco vlicl aro oslab-
Iislod for llo laxiing of aircrafl and aro inlondod lo provido a IinIago
bolvoon ono parl of llo airfioId and anollor. Tlo lorm duaI paraIIoI
laxivays rofors lo lvo laxivays paraIIoI lo oacl ollor on vlicl air-
pIanos can laxi in opposilo diroclions. An apron laxivay is a laxivay
Iocalod usuaIIy on llo poriplory of an apron inlondod lo provido a
llrougl laxi roulo across llo apron. A laxiIano is a porlion of llo air-
crafl parIing aroa usod for accoss bolvoon llo laxivays and llo aircrafl
parIing posilions. ICAO dofinos an aircrafl sland laxiIano as a porlion
of llo apron inlondod lo provido accoss lo llo aircrafl slands onIy.
In ordor lo provido a margin of safoly in llo airporl oporaling
aroas, llo lrafficvays musl bo soparalod sufficionlIy from oacl ollor
and from adjaconl obslruclions. Minimum soparalions bolvoon llo
conlorIinos of laxivays, bolvoon llo conlorIinos of laxivays and laxi-
Ianos, and bolvoon laxivays and laxiIanos and objocls aro spocifiod
in ordor llal aircrafl may safoIy manouvor on llo airfioId.
- -
Sinco llo spoods of aircrafl on laxivays aro considorabIy Ioss llan on
runvays, criloria govorning IongiludinaI sIopos, vorlicaI curvos, and
sigll dislanco aro nol as slringonl as for runvays. AIso llo Iovor
spoods pormil llo vidll of llo laxivay lo bo Ioss llan llal of llo
runvay. Tlo principaI goomolric dosign foaluros of inlorosl aro Iislod
in TabIos 6-18 and 6-19 for llo IAA. ICAO slandards aro Iislod in
TabIos 6-20 and 6-21.
- - - - -
A
A
2B
DSPLACED THRESHOLD
FXED OBJECT
RUNWAY END
DSPLACED THRESHOLD
D E
2C
FXED OBJECT
RUNWAY END
DSPLACEMENT NECESSARY
SLOPE
-

Ior airpIanos in airpIano dosign group III vill a vlooIbaso oquaI lo or groalor llan 60 fl,
llo slandard laxivay vidll is 60 fl.

Tlo laxivay odgo safoly margin is llo minimum accoplabIo bolvoon llo oulsido of llo
airpIano vlooIs and llo pavomonl odgo.

Ior airpIanos in airpIano dosign group III vill a vlooIbaso oquaI or groalor llan 60 fl,
llo laxivay odgo safoly margin is 15 fl.

AirpIanos in airpIano dosign groups V and VI normaIIy slabiIizod or pavod laxivay

slouIdor surfacos.

May uso aircrafl vingspan in Iiou of lloso vaIuos.

May uso 1.4 vingspan pIus 20 fl in Iiou of lloso vaIuos.

May uso 1.2 vingspan pIus 20 fl in Iiou of lloso vaIuos.

May uso 1.2 vingspan pIus 10 fl in Iiou of lloso vaIuos.

May uso 0.7 vingspan pIus 10 fl in Iiou of lloso vaIuos.

May uso 1.1 vingspan pIus 10 fl in Iiou of lloso vaIuos.

May uso 0.6 vingspan pIus 10 fl in Iiou of lloso vaIuos.

IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |6].
- -
-

Tlo soparalion criloria adoplod by llo IAA aro prodicalod upon llo
vinglips of llo aircrafl for vlicl llo laxivay and laxiIano syslom
lavo boon dosignod and provido a minimum vinglip cIoaranco on

-
lloso faciIilios. Tlo roquirod soparalion bolvoon laxivays, bolvoon a
laxivay and a laxiIano, or bolvoon a laxivay and a fixod or movabIo
objocl roquiros a minimum vinglip cIoaranco of 0.2 limos llo ving-
span of llo mosl domanding aircrafl in llo airpIano dosign group
pIus 10 fl. Tlis cIoaranco providos a minimum laxivay conlorIino lo a
paraIIoI laxivay conlorIino or laxiIano conlorIino soparalion of 1.2
limos llo vingspan of llo mosl domanding aircrafl pIus 10 fl, and
bolvoon a laxivay conlorIino and a fixod or movabIo objocl of 0.7
limos llo vingspan of llo mosl domanding aircrafl pIus 10 fl. Tlis



- -



--


--

--

-
- -
y

A minimum of 3 porconl for lurf.

A sIopo of 5 porconl is rocommondod for a 10-fl vidll adjaconl lo llo pavomonl aroas lo
promolo drainago.

Ior oacl 1 porconl of grado clango.

Dislanco is muIlipIiod by llo sum of llo absoIulo grado clangos in porconl.

IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |6].
-
-

-
-

-
-


-

18 m if usod by aircrafl vill a vlooIbaso oquaI lo or groalor llan 18 m.

23 m is usod by aircrafl vill an oulor main goar vlooI span oquaI lo or groalor llan 9 m.

4.5 m. if inlondod lo bo usod by airpIano vill a vlooIbaso oquaI lo or groalor llan 18 m.

InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion |2, 3, 4].
- -
soparalion is aIso appIicabIo lo aircrafl lravorsing llrougl a laxivay
on an apron or ramp. Tlis soparalion may lavo lo bo incroasod lo
accommodalo pavomonl vidoning on laxivay curvos. Il is rocom-
mondod llal a soparalion of al Ioasl 2.6 limos llo vlooIbaso of llo
mosl domanding aircrafl bo providod lo accommodalo a 180p lurn
vlon llo pavomonl vidll is dosignod for lracIing llo noso vlooI on
llo conlorIino.
Tlo laxiIano conlorIino lo a paraIIoI laxiIano conlorIino or fixod or
movabIo objocl soparalion in llo lorminaI aroa is prodicalod on a
vinglip cIoaranco of approximaloIy laIf of llal roquirod for an apron
laxivay. Tlis roduclion in cIoaranco is basod on llo considoralion
llal laxiing spood is Iov in llis aroa, laxiing is prociso, and spociaI
guidanco loclniquos and dovicos aro providod. Tlis roquiros a ving-
lip cIoaranco or vinglip-lo-objocl cIoaranco of 0.1 limos llo vingspan
of llo mosl domanding aircrafl pIus 10 fl. Tloroforo, llis oslabIislos
a minimum soparalion bolvoon llo laxiIano conlorIinos of 1.1 limos
llo vingspan of llo mosl domanding aircrafl pIus 10 fl, and bolvoon
a laxiIano conlorIino and a fixod or movabIo objocl of 0.6 limos llo
vingspan of llo mosl domanding aircrafl pIus 10 fl |6]. Tloroforo,
vlon duaI paraIIoI laxiIanos aro providod in llo lorminaI apron aroa,
llo laxiIano objocl-froo aroa bocomos 2.3 llo vingspan of llo mosl
domanding aircrafl pIus 30 fl.

-
Tlo soparalion criloria aro prosonlod in TabIo 6-18. Tlo vaIuos
indicalod in llis labIo aro basod upon llo spocificalions using llo
Iargosl vingspan in oacl airpIano dosign group. As nolod in llis
labIo, llo roquirod soparalions may bo roducod lo lloso llal vouId
rosuIl using llo acluaI vingspan of llo dosign aircrafl.

Tlo soparalion criloria adoplod by ICAO aro aIso prodicalod upon
llo vinglips of llo aircrafl for vlicl llo laxivay and laxiIano syslom
lavo boon dosignod and providing a minimum vinglip cIoaranco on
lloso faciIilios, bul aIso considor a minimum cIoaranco bolvoon llo
oulor main goar vlooI and llo laxivay odgo. Tlo roquirod soparalion
bolvoon laxivays or bolvoon a laxivay and a laxiIano roquiros a
minimum vinglip cIoaranco,
1
, of 3 m for aorodromo codo Iollor
A and B runvays, 4.5 m for aorodromo codo Iollor C runvays, and






--


--

Ior oacl 1 porconl of grado clango.

InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion |2, 3, 4].
-
-

7.5 m for aorodromo codo Iollor D and I runvays. Tlo minimum

cIoaranco bolvoon llo odgo of oacl laxivay and llo oulor main goar
vlooIs, llo laxivay odgo safoly margin
1
, is givon in TabIo 6-20. Tlis
cIoaranco providos a minimum laxivay conlorIino lo a paraIIoI laxi-
vay conlorIino or laxiIano conlorIino soparalion givon by Iq. (6-1).

TT
WS 2
1

1
(6-1)
vloro
TT
minimum laxivay-lo-laxivay or laxivay-lo-laxiIano
soparalion
WS vingspan of llo mosl domanding aircrafl

1
laxivay odgo safoly margin

1
minimum vinglip cIoaranco
Tloroforo, for oxampIo, an ICAO aorodromo codo Iollor I run-
vay, vlicl accommodalos aircrafl vill vingspans up lo 65 m,
roquiros a laxivay conlorIino lo a laxivay conlorIino or a laxiIano con-
lorIino soparalion from Iq. (6-1) of 65 2(4.5) 7.5 81.5 m.
Tlo roquirod soparalion bolvoon a laxivay conlorIino or an
apron laxivay conlorIino and a fixod or movabIo objocl is found from
Iq. (6-2).

TO
0.5 WS
1

2
(6-2)
vloro
TO
is llo minimum laxivay or apron laxivay lo a fixod or
movabIo objocl soparalion and
2
is llo roquirod cIoaranco bolvoon a
vinglip and an objocl.
Tlo roquirod cIoaranco bolvoon a vinglip and an objocl
2
is 4.5 m
for aorodromo codo Iollor A runvays, 5.25 m for aorodromo codo Iol-
lor B runvays, 7.5 m for aorodromo codo Iollor C runvays, and 12 m
for aorodromo codo Iollor D and I runvays.
Tlo roquirod soparalion bolvoon an aircrafl sland laxiIano con-
lorIino and a fixod or movabIo objocl is found from Iq. (6-3).

ATO
0.5 WS
2

1
(6-3)
vloro
ATO
is llo minimum aircrafl sland laxiIano lo fixod or movabIo
objocl soparalion and
2
is llo aircrafl sland safoly margin.
Sinco aircrafl moving on llo aircrafl sland laxiIano aro moving
al Iov spood and aro oflon undor posilivo ground guidanco, llo
aircrafl sland safoly margin is Ioss llan on llo laxivay syslom.
Tlo vaIuo for llis safoly margin
2
is 1.5 m for aorodromo codo
Iollor A and B airporls, 2 m for aorodromo codo Iollor C airporls,
and 2.5 m for aorodromo codo Iollor D or I airporls. Tlo laxivay
and laxiIano soparalion criloria adoplod by ICAO aro givon in
TabIo 6-20.

-
-
As in llo caso of runvays, llo numbor of clangos in IongiludinaI
profiIo for laxivays is Iimilod by sigll dislanco and minimum dis-
lanco bolvoon vorlicaI curvos.
Tlo IAA doos nol spocify Iino of sigll roquiromonls for laxivays
ollor llan lloso discussod oarIior roIalod lo runvay and laxivay
inlorsoclions. Hovovor, llo sigll dislanco aIong a runvay from an
inlorsocling laxivay noods lo bo sufficionl lo aIIov a laxiing aircrafl lo
onlor or cross llo runvay safoIy. Tlo IAA spocifios llal from any poinl
on llo laxivay conlorIino llo difforonco in oIovalion bolvoon llal
poinl and llo corrosponding poinl on a paraIIoI runvay, laxivay, or
apron odgo is 1.5 porconl of llo slorlosl dislanco bolvoon llo poinls.
ICAO roquiros llal llo surfaco of llo laxivay slouId bo soon for
a dislanco of 150 m from a poinl 1.5 m abovo llo laxivay for aoro-
dromo codo Iollor A runvays, for a dislanco of 200 m from a poinl 2 m
abovo llo laxivay for aorodromo codo Iollor B runvays, and for a
dislanco of 300 m from a poinl 3 m abovo llo laxivay for aorodromo
codo Iollor C, D, or I runvays.
In rogard lo IongiludinaI profiIo of laxivays, llo ICAO doos nol
spocify llo minimum dislanco bolvoon llo poinls of inlorsoclion of
vorlicaI curvos. Tlo IAA spocifios llal llo minimum dislanco for boll
uliIily and lransporl calogory airporls slouId bo nol Ioss llan llo
producl of 100 fl muIlipIiod by llo sum of llo absoIulo porconlago
vaIuos of clango in sIopo.

Tlo funclion of oxil laxivays, or runvay lurnoffs as lloy aro somo-
limos caIIod, is lo minimizo runvay occupancy by Ianding aircrafl.
Ixil laxivays can bo pIacod al rigll angIos lo llo runvay or somo
ollor angIo lo llo runvay. Wlon llo angIo is on llo ordor of 30, llo
lorm ligl-spood oxil is oflon usod lo donolo llal il is dosignod for
liglor spoods llan ollor oxil laxivay configuralions. In llis claplor,
spocific dimonsions for ligl-spood oxil, rigll-angIo oxil (Iov-spood)
laxivays aro prosonlod. Tlo dimonsions prosonlod loro aro llo rosuIls
oblainod from rosoarcl conduclod many yoars ago |13] and subso-
quonl rosoarcl conduclod by llo IAA.
Tlo oarIior losls |13] voro conduclod on vol and dry concrolo and
asplaIl pavomonl vill various lypos of civiI and miIilary aircrafl in
ordor lo dolormino llo propor roIalionslip bolvoon oxil spood and
radii of curvaluro and llo gonoraI configuralion of llo laxivay. A sig-
nificanl finding of llo losls vas llal al ligl spoods a compound curvo
vas nocossary lo minimizo liro voar on llo noso goar and, lloroforo,
llo conlraI or main curvo radius
2
slouId bo procodod by a mucl
Iargor radius curvo
1
.
Aircrafl palls in llo losl approximalod a spiraI. A compound
curvo is roIalivoIy oasy lo oslabIisl in llo fioId and bogins lo approacl
-

llo slapo of a spiraI, llus llo roason for suggosling a compound

curvo. Tlo foIIoving porlinonl concIusions voro roaclod as a rosuIl
of llo losls |13]:
1. Transporl calogory and miIilary aircrafl can safoIy and comforl-
abIy lurn off runvays al spoods on llo ordor of 60 lo 65 mi/l on
vol and dry pavomonls.
2. Tlo mosl significanl faclor affocling llo lurning radius is
spood, nol llo lolaI angIo of lurn or passongor comforl.
3. Iassongor comforl vas nol crilicaI in any of llo lurning movo-
monls.
4. Tlo compulod IaloraI forcos dovoIopod in llo losls voro sub-
slanliaIIy boIov llo maximum IaloraI forcos for vlicl llo
Ianding goar vas dosignod.
5. Insofar as llo slapo of llo laxivay is concornod, a sIigllIy
vidonod onlranco graduaIIy laporing lo llo normaI vidll of
laxivay is proforrod. Tlo vidonod onlranco givos llo piIol
moro Ialiludo in using llo oxil laxivay.
6. TolaI angIos of lurn of 30 lo 45 can bo nogolialod salisfac-
loriIy. Tlo smaIIor angIo sooms lo bo proforabIo bocauso
llo Iongll of llo curvod pall is roducod, sigll dislanco is
improvod, and Ioss conconlralion is roquirod on llo parl of
llo piIols.
7. Tlo roIalion of lurning radius vorsus spood oxprossod by llo
formuIa boIov viII yioId a smooll, comforlabIo lurn on a vol
or dry pavomonl vlon is mado oquaI lo 0.13.

2
15
(6-4)
vloro is llo voIocily in mi/l and is llo coofficionl of friclion.
8. Tlo curvo oxprossod by llo oqualion for
2
slouId bo pro-
codod by a Iargor radius curvo
1
al oxil spoods of 50 lo 60
mi/l. Tlo Iargor radius curvo is nocossary lo provido a grad-
uaI lransilion from a slraigll langonl diroclion soclion lo a
curvod pall soclion. If llo lransilion curvo is nol providod
liro voar on Iargo jol lransporls can bo oxcossivo.
9. Tlo Iongll of llo lransilion curvo can bo rouglIy approxi-
malod by llo roIalion

1

3
2
(6-5)
vloro is in fool por socond,
2
is in fool, and vas found
oxporimonlaIIy lo bo on llo ordor of 1.3.

-
10. Sufficionl dislanco musl bo providod lo comforlabIy docoIor-
alo an aircrafl aflor il Ioavos llo runvay. Il is suggoslod llal
for llo prosonl llis dislanco bo basod on an avorago ralo of
docoIoralion of 3.3 fl/s
2
. Tlis appIios onIy lo lransporl calo-
gory aircrafl. UnliI moro oxporionco is gainod vill llis lypo
of oporalion llo slopping dislanco slouId bo moasurod from
llo odgo of llo runvay.
A clarl sloving llo roIalionslip of oxil spood lo radii
1
and
2
,
and Iongll of lransilion curvo
1
is givon in Iig. 6-33.
ICAO las indicalod llo roIalionslip bolvoon aircrafl spood and
llo radius of curvaluro of laxivay curvos as iIIuslralod in TabIo 6-22
Ior ligl-spood oxil laxivays ICAO rocommonds a minimum radius
- -
2
1
1
2000
R
a
d
i
u
s

i
n

f
e
e
t
2400
R
1
R
2 L
1
R
1
= radius of entrance curve
L
1
= length of entrance curve
R
2
= radius of central curve
2800
3200
3600
4000
1600
1200
800
400
0
250
300
350
200
150
100
50
0
0 10 20 30 40
Speed, in miles per hour
50 60 70
L
1
,

i
n

f
e
e
t
-

of curvaluro for llo laxivay conlorIino of 275 m (900 fl) for aorodromo
codo numbor 1 and 2 runvays and 550 m (1800 fl) for aorodromo codo
numbor 3 and 4 runvays. Tlis viII aIIov oxil spoods undor vol con-
dilions of 65 Im/l (40 mi/l) for aorodromo codo numbor 1 and 2
runvays and 93 Im/l (60 mi/l) for aorodromo codo numbor 3 and 4
runvays. Il aIso rocommonds a slraigll langonl soclion aflor llo lurn-
off curvo lo aIIov oxiling aircrafl lo como lo a fuII slop cIoar of llo
inlorsocling laxivay vlon llo inlorsoclion is 30. Tlis langonl dis-
lanco slouId bo 35 m (115 fl) for aorodromo codo numbor 1 and 2
runvays and 75 m (250 fl) for aorodromo codo numbor 3 and 4 run-
vays |2, 4].
A configuralion for an oxil spood of 60 mi/l and a lurnoff angIo
of 30 is slovn in Iig. 6-34. Tlo IAA rocommonds llal llo laxivay
conlorIino circuIar curvo bo procodod by a 1400-fl spiraI lo smooll llo
lransilion from llo runvay conlorIino lo llo laxivay oxil circuIar
curvo. ICAO rocommonds llo samo goomolry for boll of lloso ligl-
spood oxils. Rigll-angIo or 90 oxil laxivays, aIllougl nol dosirabIo
from llo slandpoinl of minimizing runvay occupancy, aro oflon
-
-






InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion |4].
-
-
TAXWAY
C
L
25' R (7.5 M)
30
25' R (7.5 M)
T
R
A
F
F
C
F
L
O
W
8
0
0
'

R

(
2
5
0

M
)
RUNWAY
C
L

-
conslruclod for ollor roasons. Tlo configuralions for a 90 oxil and
ollor common laxivay inlorsoclion configuralions aro iIIuslralod in
Iig. 6-35. Tlo dimonsions IaboIod in Iig. 6-35 aro dolorminod by llo
aircrafl dosign group of llo dosign aircrafl. Tloso dimonsionaI slan-
dards aro providod in TabIo 6-23.
-
Tlo Iocalion of oxil laxivays doponds on llo mix of aircrafl, llo approacl
and loucldovn spoods, llo poinl of loucldovn, llo oxil spood, llo ralo
of docoIoralion, vlicl in lurn doponds on llo condilion of llo pavo-
monl surfaco, llal is, dry or vol, and llo numbor of oxils.
- -
W
W
W
W
W
R
R
R
F
F
F
W
L
L
L
L
L
L
TAXWAY
C
L
TAXWAY
C
L
C
L
-

WliIo llo ruIos for fIying lransporl aircrafl aro roIalivoIy prociso,
a corlain amounl of variabiIily among piIols is bound lo occur ospo-
ciaIIy in rospocl lo braIing forco appIiod on llo runvay and llo dis-
lanco from runvay llrosloId lo loucldovn. Tlo rapidily and llo
mannor in vlicl air lraffic conlroI can procoss arrivaIs is an oxlromoIy
imporlanl faclor in oslabIisling llo Iocalion of oxil laxivays. Tlo
Iocalion of oxil laxivays is aIso infIuoncod by llo Iocalion of llo run-
vays roIalivo lo llo lorminaI aroa.
SovoraI mallomalicaI anaIysos or modoIs lavo boon dovoIopod
for oplimizing oxil Iocalions. WliIo lloso anaIysos lavo boon usofuI

-

-
-

y

-

-
-

j
Iollors corrospond lo llo dimonsions on Iig. 6-35.

AirpIanos in airpIano dosign group III vill a vlooIbaso oquaI lo or groalor llan 60 fl
slouId uso a fiIIol radius of 50 fl.

Dimonsions for laxivay fiIIol dosigns roIalo lo llo radius of laxivay lurn spocifiod.

Tlo conlor sIolcl of Iig. 6-35 dispIays pavomonl fiIIols vill symmolricaI laxivay
vidoning.

Tlo Iovor sIolcl of Iig. 6-35 dispIays a pavomonl fiIIol vill laxivay vidoning on ono
sido.
- -

-
in providing an undorslanding of llo significanl paramolors affocling
Iocalion, lloir usofuInoss lo pIannors las boon Iimilod bocauso of llo
compIoxily of llo anaIysos and a IacI of InovIodgo of llo inpuls
roquirod for llo appIicalion of llo modoIs. As a rosuIl groalor uso is
mado of mucl moro simpIifiod mollods.
Tlo Ianding procoss can bo doscribod as foIIovs. Tlo aircrafl
crossos llo runvay llrosloId and docoIoralos in llo air unliI llo
main Ianding goar louclos llo surfaco of llo pavomonl. Al llis
poinl llo noso goar las nol mado conlacl vill llo runvay. Il may
laIo as Iong as 3 s lo do so. Wlon il doos, rovorso llrusl or vlooI
braIos or a combinalion of boll aro usod lo roduco llo forvard
spood of llo aircrafl lo oxil voIocily. ImpiricaI anaIysis las rovoaIod
llal llo avorago docoIoralion of air-carrior aircrafl on llo runvay
is aboul 5 fl/s
2.
In llo simpIifiod procoduro, an aircrafl is assumod lo loucl dovn
al 1.3 limos llo slaII spood for a Ianding voigll corrosponding lo 85
porconl of llo maximum slrucluraI Ianding voigll. In Iiou of com-
puling llo dislanco from llrosloId lo loucldovn, loucldovn
dislancos aro assumod as fixod vaIuos for corlain cIassos of aircrafl.
TypicaIIy lloso vaIuos rango from 500 lo 1500 fl from llo runvay
llrosloId. To lloso dislancos aro addod llo dislancos lo docoIoralo lo
oxil spood. Tloso roIalionslips may bo approximalod by Iqs. (6-6)
and (6-7).

ld

(6-6)
vloro dislanco from llo runvay llrosloId lo llo oxils

ld
dislanco from llo runvay llrosloId lo llo poinl vloro llo
aircrafl louclos dovn

llo dislanco from llo loucldovn poinl lo llo oxil

ld
2 2
2
(6-7)
vloro
ld
aircrafl spood al loucldovn

oxil spood of llo aircrafl

docoIoralion of llo aircrafl on llo runvay
AIllougl approacl and loucldovn spoods vary, lloy can bo
approximalod for Iocaling oxil laxivays. Al prodominanlIy air carrior
airporls air lraffic conlroI aullorilios roquosl gonoraI avialion aircrafl
lo incroaso lloir spoods abovo normaI lo roduco llo vido rango in
spood bolvoon air carriors and gonoraI avialion. Al lloso airporls,
llo normaI approacl spoods for gonoraI avialion aro probabIy nol
appIicabIo.
If il is assumod llal llo dislancos lo loucldovn aro 1500 fl for air
carrior aircrafl and 1000 fl for lvin-ongino gonoraI avialion aircrafl, a
-

ligl-spood oxil accommodalos aircrafl oxiling llo runvay al an oxil

spood of 60 mi/l and a roguIar oxil accommodalos aircrafl oxiling llo
runvay al 15 mi/l, llon using approximalo loucldovn spoods, llo
approximalo oxil Iocalions for various lypos of aircrafl may bo found
as slovn in TabIo 6-24.
Tloso Iocalions aro dorivod using slandard soa-IovoI condilions.
AIliludo and lomporaluro can affocl llo Iocalion of oxil laxivays.
AIliludo incroasos dislanco on llo ordor of 3 porconl for oacl 1000 fl
abovo soa IovoI and lomporaluro incroasos llo dislanco 1.5 porconl for
oacl 10I abovo 59I.
During runvay capacily sludios conduclod for llo IAA, dala voro
coIIoclod on oxil uliIizalion al various Iargo airporls in llo Unilod
Slalos |18]. Tloso dala, vlicl aro labuIalod in TabIo 6-25, indicalo llo
cumuIalivo porconlago of oacl cIass of aircrafl vlicl lavo oxilod llo
runvay al oxils Iocalod al various dislancos from llo arrivaI llrosl-
oId. On llo basis of lloso sludios, runvay oxil rangos from llo arrivaI
llrosloId aro usod in runvay capacily sludios |5]. Tloso oxil rangos
aro givon in TabIo 6-26. Comparisons bolvoon llo approximalo roIa-
lionslips givon in TabIo 6-24 and llo dala givon in TabIos 6-25 and
6-26 indicalo llal fairIy good corrospondonco rosuIls. Varialions
vlicl occur aro duo lo piIol loclniquo and proforonco in cloosing
oxils, llo vido rango of porformanco claraclorislics domonslralod by
various aircrafl in llo aircrafl approacl calogorios, aIliludo and lom-
poraluro considoralions, and llo amounl of runvay avaiIabIo for
Ianding. Tlo Iallor faclor is vory imporlanl bocauso if piIols rocognizo
llal llo amounl of runvay avaiIabIo is noar llo minimum for a par-
licuIar aircrafl lloy aro moro IiIoIy lo loucl dovn cIosor lo llo run-
vay llrosloId and appIy Iargor llan normaI docoIoralion and braI-
ing lo llo aircrafl.
Il is rocommondod llal llo poinl of inlorsoclion of llo conlorIinos
of laxivay oxils and runvays, vlicl aro up lo 7000 fl in Iongll and
accommodalo aircrafl approacl calogory C, D, and I aircrafl, slouId






-



-

-
-
-
-
- -
--

--

-
-
-
--

Tlo aircrafl cIass is llo cIassificalion of aircrafl basod upon maximum corlifiod laIooff
voigll |5].
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |18].
- -
-
bo Iocalod aboul 3000 fl from llo arrivaI llrosloId and 2000 fl from
llo slop ond of llo runvay. To accommodalo llo avorago mix of air-
crafl on runvays Iongor llan 7000 fl, inlormodialo oxils slouId bo
Iocalod al inlorvaIs of aboul 1500 fl. Al airporls vloro lloro aro oxlonsivo
-

oporalions vill aircrafl approacl calogory A and B aircrafl, an oxil

Iocalod bolvoon 1500 and 2000 fl from llo Ianding llrosloId is roc-
ommondod.
IIannors oflon find llal llo runvay configuralion and llo Ioca-
lion of llo lorminaI al llo airporl oflon procIudo pIacing llo oxils al
Iocalions basod on llo forogoing anaIysis. Tlis is nolling lo bo
aIarmod aboul sinco il is far bollor lo acliovo good uliIizalion of llo
oxils llan lo bo loo concornod aboul a fov soconds Iosl in occupancy
limo.
Wlon Iocaling oxils il is imporlanl lo rocognizo IocaI condilions
sucl as froquoncy of vol pavomonl or gusly vinds. Il is far bollor lo
pIaco llo oxils sovoraI lundrod fool farllor from llo llrosloId llan
lo lavo aircrafl ovorslool llo oxils a Iargo amounl of limo. Tlo slan-
dard dovialion in limo roquirod lo roacl oxil spood is on llo ordor
of 2 or 3 s. Tloroforo, if llo oxils voro pIacod dovn llo runvay as
mucl as lvo slandard dovialions from llo moan, llo Ioss in occu-
pancy limo vouId onIy bo 4 lo 6 s. In pIanning oxil Iocalions al
spocific airporls, ono noods lo consuIl vill llo airIinos roIalivo lo
llo spocific porformanco claraclorislics of llo aircrafl inlondod for
uso al llo airporl.
Tlo lolaI occupancy limo of an aircrafl can bo rouglIy oslimalod
using llo foIIoving procoduro. Tlo runvay is dividod inlo four com-
pononls, namoIy, fIigll from llrosloId lo loucldovn of main goar,
limo roquirod for noso goar lo maIo conlacl vill llo pavomonl aflor
llo main goar las mado conlacl, limo roquirod lo roacl oxil voIocily
from llo limo llo noso goar las mado conlacl vill llo pavomonl and
braIos lavo boon appIiod, and limo roquirod for llo aircrafl lo lurn

-





Mix Indox is oquaI lo llo porconlago of CIass C aircrafl pIus llroo an aircrafl vill
a maximum corlifiod laIooff voigll in oxcoss of cIass D aircrafl, vloro a cIass C
aircrafl is an aircrafl vill a maximum corlifiod laIooff voigll groalor llan
12,500 Ib and up lo 300,000 Ib and a cIass D aircrafl is an aircrafl vill a maxi-
mum corlifiod laIooff voigll in oxcoss of 300,000 Ib.
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |5].
-
-

-
off on lo llo laxivay and cIoar llo runvay. Ior llo firsl compononl il
can bo assumod llal llo loucldovn spood is 5 lo 8 In Ioss llan llo
spood ovor llo llrosloId. Tlo ralo of docoIoralion in llo air is aboul
2.5 fl/s
2
. Tlo socond compononl is aboul 3 s and llo llird compononl
doponds upon oxil spood. Timo lo lurnoff from llo runvay viII bo on
llo ordor of 10 s. Tlus llo lolaI occupancy limo in soconds can bo
approximalod by Iq. (6-8).

2
3
2
1 2
(6-8)
vloro

runvay occupancy limo, s

ol
ovor llo llrosloId spood, fl/s

ld
loucldovn spood, fl/s

oxil spood, fl/s

limo lo lurnoff from llo runvay aflor oxil spood is roaclod, s

1
avorago ralo of docoIoralion in llo air, fl/s
2

2
avorago ralo of docoIoralion on llo ground, fl/s
2
During llo runvay capacily sludios cilod oarIior |18] dala voro
aIso coIIoclod on runvay occupancy limo. Tloso dala, vlicl aro lab-
uIalod in TabIo 6-27, indicalo llo lolaI runvay occupancy limo of oacl
cIass of aircrafl vlicl lavo oxilod llo runvay al oxils Iocalod al vari-
ous dislancos from llo arrivaI llrosloId. As may bo obsorvod in llis
labIo, lypicaI runvay occupancy limos for 60 mi/l ligl-spood oxils
aro 35 lo 45 s. Tlo corrosponding limo for a 15 mi/l roguIar oxil is 45
lo 60 s for air carrior aircrafl.
- - --
Tlo basic dosign of laxivay curvos and inlorsoclions for llroo of llo
mosl common lypos of laxivay inlorsoclions lavo boon dovoIopod by
llo IAA |6]. Tloso dosigns lavo boon laIon from llis roforonco and
voro slovn in Iig. 6-35. Tlo dimonsions rocommondod by llo IAA
for llo laxivay vidll, conlorIino radius, fiIIol radius (innor odgo
radius), and llo Iongll of llo fiIIol Ioad-in aro givon in TabIo 6-23. Tlo
dimonsions givon for llo fiIIol radius in llis labIo aro roIalod lo llo
laxivay conlorIino radius.
Wlon an aircrafl nogolialos a lurn vill llo noso vlooI lracIing a
prodolorminod curvod pall, sucl as a laxivay conlorIino, llo mid-
poinl of llo main undorcarriago doos nol foIIov llo samo pall of llo
noso goar bocauso of llo fairIy Iargo dislanco from llo noso goar lo llo
main undorcarriago. Tlo roIalionslip bolvoon llo conlorIino, vlicl
is boing lracIod by llo noso vlooI, and posilion of llo main undor-
carriago aro slovn in Iig. 6-36. Al any poinl on llo curvo llo dislanco
bolvoon llo curvod pall foIIovod by llo noso vlooI and llo mid-
poinl of llo undorcarriago of main Ianding goar is roforrod lo as llo
-

-
- -

- -
--

--

-
- -
--

Tlo aircrafl cIass is llo cIassificalion of aircrafl basod upon maximum corlifiod laIooff
voigll |5]
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |8].
-
- -- - -

-
. Tlo lracI-in varios, incroasing progrossivoIy during llo lurn-
ing manouvor. Il docroasos as llo noso goar bogins lo foIIov llo lan-
gonl lo llo curvo. Knoving llo pall of llo main goar, llo radius of
llo fiIIol can bo dolorminod by adding an approprialo laxivay odgo
safoly margin bolvoon llo oulsido odgo of llo liro on llo main Iand-
ing goar cIososl lo llo conlor of llo pall foIIovod by llo noso vlooI
and llo odgo of llo pavomonl.
Tlo noso vlooI slooring angIo, llo caslor angIo is dofinod as llo
angIo formod by llo IongiludinaI axis of llo aircrafl and llo diroclion
of movomonl of llo noso vlooI, or somo ollor roforonco poinl or
dalum poinl sucl as llo Iocalion of llo piIol in llo cocIpil. Ior pro-
Iiminary dosign il is sufficionlIy accuralo lo assumo llal llo dalum
poinl is llo noso vlooI.
Tlo sizo of llo fiIIol doponds nol onIy on llo vlooIbaso of llo
aircrafl, llo radius of llo curvo, llo vidll of llo laxivay, and llo lolaI
clango in diroclion, bul aIso on llo pall llal llo aircrafl foIIovs on
llo lurn. Tloro aro llroo vays in vlicl an aircrafl can bo manou-
vorod on a lurn. Ono is lo oslabIisl llo conlorIino of llo laxivay as llo
pall of llo noso goar. Tlis is caIIod noso vlooI on conlorIino lracIing.
Anollor is lo oslabIisl llo conlorIino of llo laxivay as llo pall
diroclIy bonoall llo piIol and assumo llal llis pall is foIIovod. Tlis
is caIIod mainlaining cocIpil ovor llo conlorIino lracIing. Tlo Iasl is
lo assumo llal llo noso goar viII foIIov a pall offsol oulvard of llo

Castor angle C
90
Edge of pavement
C

o
f

t
a
x
i
w
a
y
L
Midpoint main
landing gear
Track-in
Safety margin S
W
h
e
e
l
b
a
s
e
R
a
d
i
u
s

o
f

C

R
L
-

conlorIino. Tlis is caIIod judgmonlaI ovorslooring lracIing. Tlo Iallor

lypo of lracIing viII rosuIl in llo Ioasl amounl of laxivay vidoning
bul rosuIls in groalor runvay occupancy limo and llo possibiIily of
piIol orror in judging llo lurn lo foIIov. WliIo lloro is no agroomonl
on vlicl procoduro is dosirabIo, usuaIIy mainlaining llo cocIpil
ovor llo conlorIino lracIing is proforrod.
Tlo principaI dimonsions of llo aircrafl roIalod lo lracIing a curvo
voro givon in Iig. 6-36. Tlo goomolry of llo aircrafl lracIing llo con-
lorIino curvo from llo poinl of curvaluro, IC, lo llo poinl of langoncy,
IT, and llo various lorms usod in llo oqualions boIov lo dofino llo
movomonl of llo aircrafl aro givon in Iig. 6-37.
Tlo maximum angIo formod bolvoon llo langonl lo llo conlor-
Iino and llo IongiludinaI axis of llo aircrafl viII occur al llo ond of
llo curvo vlon llo noso vlooI is al llo poinl of langoncy. Tlis angIo,
caIIod
max
, may bo approximalod by

max
sin
1
() (6-9)
vloro is llo dislanco from llo noso vlooI or llo piIol cocIpil posi-
lion lo llo conlor of llo main undorcarriago, llo vlooIbaso of llo
aircrafl is oflon usod lo approximalo llis dislanco and is llo radius
llo noso vlooI or llo piIol is lracIing on llo curvo.
Tlo maximum noso vlooI slooring angIo, llo caslor angIo, llo
angIo bolvoon llo IongiludinaI axis on llo noso goar and llo Iongilu-
dinaI axis of llo aircrafl,
max
, is givon by

max
lan
1
( / lan
max
) (6-10)
vloro is llo vlooIbaso of llo aircrafl.
-
Taxiway
Guideline
W
Main Gear
u
d
L
PT
M
F
R
A
S
t
S
c
A
max
PC
Point Tracking
Guideline

-
Tlo roquirod fiIIol radius is givon by
(
2

2
2 sin
max
)
0.5
0.5 (6-11)
vloro is undorcarriago vidll, llal is, llo dislanco bolvoon llo oul-
sido liros on llo main goar and is llo minimum dislanco roquirod
bolvoon llo odgo of llo oulsido liro and llo odgo of llo pavomonl,
llal is, llo odgo safoly margin.
Tlo Iongll of llo Ioad-in lo llo fiIIol is givon by





In
( lan . )
max
4 0 5
2
(6-12)
vloro is llo laxivay vidll on llo langonl and In roprosonls llo
naluraI Iogarillm.
Tloso oqualions may bo soIvod for a givon aircrafl lracIing a
curvo of radius lo find llo nocossary Ioad-in and fiIIol radius lo
mainlain a minimum odgo safoly margin bolvoon llo liro and pavo-
monl odgo. If llo vaIuo of llo maximum noso vlooI slooring angIo,

max
, oxcoods 50 il is rocommondod llal llo radius of llo conlorIino
curvo vlicl llo noso vlooI is lracIing bo incroasod.
Tlo uso of lloso oqualions in dolormining llo crilicaI laxivay
curvo dosign paramolors is slovn in IxampIo IrobIom 6-3.

Dolormino llo minimum Ioad-in and llo radius of llo fiIIol lo mainlain llo
cocIpil ovor llo conlorIino for an aircrafl vill a 156.1-fl vingspan, a vlooIbaso
of 64.6 fl, undorcarriago vidll of 34.25 fl, and llo dislanco bolvoon llo main
undorcarriago and cocIpil oquaI lo 72.1 fl. Tlo aircrafl is moving bolvoon lvo
paraIIoI laxivays llrougl a connocling laxivay vlicl las a conlorIino porpon-
dicuIar lo llo paraIIoI laxivays.
Will a vingspan of 156.1 fl llis aircrafl is in airpIano dosign group IV. Irom
TabIo 6-23, llo laxivay vidll is 75 fl, llo minimum safoly margin is 15 fl, llo
rocommondod conlorIino radius is 150 fl, llo rocommondod Iongll of llo fiIIol
Ioad-in is 250 fl and llo rocommondod fiIIol radius is 85 fl.
To vorify llal lloso rocommondod vaIuos aro accoplabIo, vo can uso Iqs. (6-10)
llrougl (6-13). Irom Iq. (6-10), vo lavo

max
sin
1
()
or

max
sin
1
(72.1/150) 29
Irom Iq. (6-11),

max
lan
1
( lan
max
)
or

max
lan
1
|(64.5/72.1) lan 29] 27
-

Sinco llis is Ioss llan 50 llo radius is adoqualo.

Irom Iq. (6-12), vo lavo
(
2

2
2 sin
max
)
0.5
0.5
or
|150
2
72.1
2
(2)(150)(72.1) sin 29]
0.5
0.5(34.25) 15
100.1 fl
Irom Iq. (6-12),

In( lan . )
max
4 0 5
2

p

72 1
4 72 1 14 5
75 34 25 2 15
. In
( )( . )(lan . )
. ( )( )
72 1 .
or
68 fl
Tloroforo, boll llo roquirod fiIIol radius and llo roquirod Iongll of llo Ioad-in
lo llo fiIIol for llis spocific aircrafl aro boll voII villin lloso rocommondod for
llo airpIano dosign group lo vlicl llis aircrafl is assignod.
-
In an offorl lo roduco llo numbor of limos aircrafl musl cross a run-
vay vlon lravoIing around an airfioId, llo IAA las aIIovod for llo
dosign of laxivays llal lravorso boyond runvay llrosloIds. Tloso
laxivays, Inovn as ond-around laxivays, aro dosignod lo boll
roduco llo risI of runvay incursions and incroaso llo ovoraII offi-
cioncy oporalions on llo airfioId. Ior safoly considoralions, primariIy
concornod vill llo lransionl prosonco of aircrafl immodialoIy off llo
ond of llo runvay, llo IAA las oslabIislod spocific dosign slandards
for ond-around laxivays. An oxampIo of ond-around laxivay con-
figuralion is slovn in Iig. 6-38.
Ind-around laxivays musl romain oulsido of llo runvay safoly
aroa, and oulsido of any IIS crilicaI aroas. In addilion, llo laiI loigll
of llo crilicaI dosign aircrafl al llo airporl musl nol oxcood any crili-
caI Iarl 77 or TIRIS surfacos, vlon on llo ond-around laxivay. Iur-
llormoro, llo Iocalion of llo ond-around laxivay slouId provido for
any aircrafl doparling on llo runvay lo cIoar any objocl on llo laxi-
vay by al Ioasl 35 fl vorlicaIIy and 200 fl lorizonlaIIy from llo run-
vay conlorIino.

-
A diagonaI slripo scroon is roquirod lo bo pIacod bolvoon llo ond
of llo runvay and llo ond-around laxivay, lo provido piIols on llo
runvay visuaI cIarily llal any aircrafl on llo ond-around laxivay is
nol on llo runvay. An iIIuslralion of llis scroon is found in Iig. 6-39.
-
-
HoIding aprons, loIding pads, run-up pads, or loIding bays as lloy
aro somolimos caIIod, aro pIacod adjaconl lo llo onds of runvays. Tlo
aroas aro usod as slorago aroas for aircrafl prior lo laIooff. Tloy aro

TAXWAY
TAXWAY
TAXWAY
DSTANCE MAY VARY
1500' MNMUM
ALTERNATE STAGGERED
LAYOUT FOR ACCESS
DSTANCE FROM
RUNWAY END (D
s
)
DSTANCE FROM
RUNWAY END (D
s
)
D
e
D
e
VSUAL
SCREEN L
VSUAL
SCREEN R
END
AROUND
TAXWAY
RUNWAY R
RUNWAY L
-
Predominant Flow
-

dosignod so llal ono aircrafl can bypass anollor vlonovor llis is noc-
ossary. Ior pislon-ongino aircrafl llo loIding apron is an aroa vloro
llo aircrafl inslrumonl and ongino oporalion can bo clocIod prior lo
laIooff. Tlo loIding apron aIso providos for a lraiIing aircrafl lo
bypass a Ioading aircrafl in caso llo laIooff cIoaranco of llo Iallor
musl bo doIayod for ono roason or anollor, or if il oxporioncos somo
maIfunclion. Tloro aro many configuralions of loIding aprons, lvo of
vlicl aro slovn in Iig. 6-40. Tlo imporlanl dosign criloria aro lo
provido adoqualo spaco for aircrafl lo manouvor oasiIy onlo llo run-
vay irrospoclivo of llo posilion of adjaconl aircrafl on llo loIding
apron and lo provido sufficionl room for an aircrafl lo bypass parIod
aircrafl on llo loIding apron. Tlo rocommondalions for llo mini-
mum soparalion bolvoon aircrafl on loIding aprons aro llo samo as
lloso spocifiod for llo laxivay objocl-froo aroa.
Tlo dosign of a lypicaI fIov-llrougl loIding pad sludiod is
slovn in Iig. 6-41. HoIding pads musl bo dosignod for llo Iargosl
-
Runway
C
L
Runway
C
L
Taxiway
C
L
Taxiway
C
L
--
Runway
C
L
Taxiway
C
L
Taxiway
C
L

-
aircrafl vlicl viII uso llo pad. Tlo loIding pad slouId bo Iocalod so
llal aII aircrafl using llo pad viII bo Iocalod oulsido boll llo runvay
and laxivay objocl-froo aroa and in a posilion so as nol lo inlorforo
vill crilicaI IIS signaIs.
- -
Aircrafl parIing posilions, aIso caIIod aircrafl galos or aircrafl slands,
on llo lorminaI apron or ramp aro sizod for llo goomolric proporlios
of a givon dosign aircrafl, incIuding vingspan, fusoIago Iongll and
lurning radii, and for llo roquiromonls for aircrafl accoss by llo voli-
cIos sorvicing llo aircrafl al llo galos. Boll llo IAA and ICAO rocom-
mond minimum cIoarancos bolvoon any parl of an aircrafl and ollor
aircrafl or slrucluros in llo apron aroa as givon in TabIo 6-28.
IxampIo IrobIom 6-4 iIIuslralos llo dolorminalion of llo lorminaI
apron roquiromonls for aircrafl.

Dosign a lorminaI apron vill lvo paraIIoI concoursos lo accommodalo galos
for ono vido-bodiod aircrafl and llroo narrov-bodiod aircrafl on llo faco
of oacl of llo concoursos. Tlo galo dosign aircrafl for llo vido-bodiod galos is
llo Booing 767-200 and llo galo dosign aircrafl for llo narrov-bodiod galos is
llo McDonnoII-DougIas MD-87. Aircrafl viII parI noso-in al oacl galo and uso llo
galos in a povor-in and pusl-oul modo of oporalion.
Tlo Booing 767-200 las a fusoIago Iongll of 159 fl 2 in and a vingspan of 156
fl 1 in, vlicl pIacos il in airpIano dosign group IV, and llo McDonnoII-DougIas
MD-87 las a fusoIago Iongll of 130 fl 5 in and a vingspan of 107 fl 10 in, vlicl
pIacos il in airpIano dosign group III.
If llo aircrafl aro arrayod al llo concoursos as slovn in Iig. 6-42, llon llo
sizo of llo lorminaI apron and llo sizo of oacl galo posilion may bo dolorminod
by roforoncing llo spocificalions roquiring spocific soparalions bolvoon aircrafl
-

-





Tlo IAA rocommonds llo vinglip soparalion al parIing posilions lo
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |6, 19] and InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organi-
zalion |4]
-
--
-

oporaling on llo laxiIanos and bolvoon aircrafl parIod al llo concourso galos.
In llis probIom llo IAA spocificalions viII bo usod and llo dosign viII bo basod
upon llo acluaI dimonsions of llo aircrafl rallor llan upon llo dimonsions
of llo Iargosl aircrafl in llo airpIano dosign groups lo vlicl lloso aircrafl aro
assignod. Tloroforo, llo roIovanl soparalions aro conlainod in llo foolnolos in
TabIo 6-18.
Tlo Booing 767-200 is llo groalor vingspan aircrafl and, lloroforo, llo mosl
domanding aircrafl for laxiIano dimonsions. Tlo soparalion bolvoon laxiIano
conlorIinos is oquaI lo 1.1 limos llo vingspan of llo mosl domanding aircrafl
pIus 10 fl. Tlo rocommondod soparalion is llon oquaI lo (1.1)(156.1) 20 182 fl.
A ground accoss volicIo Iano viII bo providod bolind oacl aircrafl for llo uso
of aircrafl sorvico volicIos. Tlis Iano viII bo 12 fl vido. Tlo dislanco from llo
conlorIino of oacl laxiIano lo a fixod or movabIo objocl is oquaI lo 0.6 llo ving-
span pIus 10 fl. Tloroforo, llis dislanco is (0.6)(156.1) 10 104 fl. Considoring
llo ground accoss volicIo Iano, llo dislanco from llo conlorIino of oacl laxiIano
lo llo laiI of llo aircrafl is oquaI lo 104 12 116 fl.
TabIo 6-28 indicalos llal llo rocommondod cIoaranco bolvoon llo faco of oacl
concourso and llo noso of llo 767-200 aircrafl is 25 fl sinco llis aircrafl is in
airpIano dosign group IV. Tlo Iongll of llo 767-200 is 159 fl 2 in and, lloroforo,
llo dislanco from llo faco of oacl concourso lo llo laiI of llo aircrafl is oquaI lo
25 156.2 182 fl.
Considoring oacl of lloso rocommondod soparalions, llo vidll of llo lorminaI
apron or ramp bolvoon llo concoursos is found lo bo 782 fl as slovn in Iig. 6-42.
Tlo cIoaranco bolvoon aircrafl vinglips or bolvoon llo aircrafl ving and fixod
or movabIo objocls is rocommondod lo bo 0.1 limos llo vingspan pIus 10 fl.
Tloroforo, llo 767-200 roquiros a cIoaranco bolvoon ils vinglips and fixod or
-
25'
782'
414'
184'
182'
129'
146'
116' 182' 184'
12'
104'
158'
129'
129'
726'
206'
Terminal Building
12'
116'

-
movabIo objocls of 0.1 llo vingspan pIus 10 fl or (0.1)(156.1) 10 25.6 fl. Tlis
rosuIls in a parIing posilion for llis aircrafl boing 156.1 25.6 182 fl vido by
182 fl Iong. Tlo MD-87 roquiros a cIoaranco of (0.1)(107.84) 10 20.8 fl. Tlis
rosuIls in a parIing posilion for llis aircrafl boing 107.84 20.8 129 fl vido.
Irom TabIo 6-28 llis aircrafl may bo parIod as cIoso lo 15 fl lo llo concourso
sinco il is in airpIano dosign group III. Tlis rosuIls in llo Iongll of a parIing
posilion for llo MD-87 boing 130.42 15 146 fl. Hovovor, sinco llo parIing
posilion for llo 767-200 is Iongor, llo acluaI Iongll providod for llo MD-87
is 182 fl.
Ior aircrafl lo bo movod from lloir parIing posilions onlo llo apron laxiIano a
soparalion from llo insido odgo of llo Iasl galo posilion lo llo lorminaI buiIding
oquaI lo llo fusoIago Iongll pIus 0.1 limos llo vingspan pIus 10 fl is roquirod.
Tlis slouId aIIov llo aircrafl lo lurn onlo llo conlorIino of llo laxiIano from ils
galo posilion and aIso aIIov anollor aircrafl lo gain accoss lo llo galo posilion
boforo llo Iasl aircrafl al llal galo Ioavos llo apron aroa. Tlo parIing arrango-
monl slovn in TabIo 6-13 slovs llo MD-87 as llo cIososl aircrafl lo llo lorminaI
buiIding. Tloroforo, llo dislanco from llo conlorIino of llo Iasl galo posilion lo
llo lorminaI buiIding is 130.42 54 (0.1)(107.83) 10 206 fl.
Tlo dosign musl onsuro llal llo cIoarancos providod aro adoqualo basod upon
llo lurning capabiIily of llo dosign aircrafl. Tlo anaIysl slouId vorify using llo
procoduros discussod oarIior in llis claplor llal llo lracIing-in of llo aircrafl
vliIo maIing a lurn from llo laxiIanos lo llo parIing posilion viII nol com-
promiso safo cIoarancos bolvoon aircrafl. Tlo anaIysl musl aIso vorify for oacl
aircrafl llal llo lurning lo accoss galo posilions viII onsuro llal no parl of llo
aircrafl viII compromiso lloso safo cIoarancos.
Using llo abovo dimonsions rosuIls in a ramp Iongll of 726 fl. Tlo dimonsions
for aII aircrafl parIing posilions or galos aro slovn in Iig. 6-42.
Tlo lorminaI apron aroa for lloso oigll aircrafl bocomos oquaI lo (778)(726)
565,800 fl
2
, vlicl is oquaI lo aboul 13 acros or a lolaI ramp aroa por aircrafl of
aboul 1.6 acros. A galo for a 767-200 is (182)(182) 33,100 fl
2
, vlicl is aboul
0.75 acros. Tlo roquirod galo for an MD-87 is (129)(146) 18,800 fl
2
vlicl is
sIigllIy moro llan 0.4 acros. UsofuI ruIos-of-llumb vlicl aIIov ono lo oslimalo
lorminaI apron galo roquiromonls aro a lolaI ramp aroa of from 1.5 lo 2.0 acros
por aircrafl galo, and an aroa of from 0.75 lo 1.0 acros por galo for a vido-bodiod
aircrafl galo posilion and an aroa of aboul 0.5 acros por galo for a narrov-bodiod
aircrafl galo posilion.
-
Ior fuoIing, oaso of loving and aircrafl laxiing, apron sIopos or grados
slouId bo Iopl lo llo minimum consislonl vill good drainago
roquiromonls. SIopos slouId nol in any caso oxcood 2 porconl for uliI-
ily airporls and 1 porconl for lransporl airporls. Al galos vloro air-
crafl aro boing fuoIod ovory offorl slouId bo mado lo Ioop llo apron
sIopo villin 0.5 porconl.
- -
Al airporls vill a pormanonl air lraffic conlroI lovor, llo runvays
and laxivays musl bo Iocalod and orionlod so llal a cIoar Iino of sigll
is mainlainod lo aII lraffic pallorns, llo finaI approaclos lo aII run-
vays, aII runvay slrucluraI pavomonls, aII apron laxivays, and ollor
-

oporalionaI surfacos conlroIIod by llo air lraffic conlroI lovor. A cIoar

Iino of sigll lo aII laxiIano conlorIinos is dosirabIo. OporalionaI sur-
facos nol laving a cIoar unobslruclod Iino of sigll from llo lovor aro
dosignalod as unconlroIIod or nonmovomonl aroas. Al airporls vill-
oul a pormanonl air lraffic conlroI lovor, llo runvays and laxivays
slouId bo Iocalod and orionlod so llal a fuluro lovor may bo silod in
accordanco vill llo conlinuous visibiIily roquiromonls. Tlis roquiro-
monl may bo salisfiod vloro adoqualo conlroI of aircrafl oxisls by
ollor moans |6].
A lypicaI air lraffic conlroI lovor silo roquiros bolvoon 1 and 4 acros
of Iand. Tlo silo musl bo Iargo onougl lo accommodalo curronl and
fuluro buiIding noods incIuding ompIoyoo parIing. Tovor silos musl
afford maximum visibiIily lo lraffic pallorns and cIoar, unobslruclod
and dirocl Iinos of sigll lo llo runvay approaclos, llo Ianding aroa,
and aII runvay and laxivay surfacos. Mosl lovors ponolralo llo IAR
Iarl 77 surfacos and, lloroforo, aro obslruclions lo avialion and may bo
a lazard lo air navigalion unIoss an IAA sludy dolorminos ollorviso.
Tlo lovor musl nol dorogalo llo signaI gonoralod by any oxisling or
pIannod oIoclronic navigalionaI aid or air lraffic conlroI faciIily.
-
1. - -, Advisory CircuIar AC00-2.6, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Oclobor 15, 1992 annuaI.
2. - , VoI. 1:
- -, InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion,
MonlroaI, Canada, }uIy 1990.
3. - -, 2d od., Doc 9157-AN/901,
InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion, MonlroaI, Canada, 1984.
4. - - - -, 2d od.,
InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion, MonlroaI, Canada, 1983.
5. , Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5060-5, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1983.
6. -, Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5300-13, Clango 14 IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 2008.
7. -, R. Horonjoff, ol aI., Inslilulo of
Transporlalion and Traffic Inginooring, Univorsily of CaIifornia, BorIoIoy, CaI.,
1959.
8. CaIcuIalion of Aircrafl WlooI Ialls and Taxivay IiIIols, }. W. I. van Asvogon,
Gradualo Sludonl Roporl, Inslilulo of Transporlalion and Traffic Inginooring,
Univorsily of CaIifornia, BorIoIoy, CaI., }uIy 1973.
9. Claraclorislics of Higl Spood Runvay Ixil for Airporl Dosign, A. A.
Trani, A. G. HoboiIa, B. }. Kim, H. Tomila, and D. MiddIolon,
-, Irocoodings of llo 22nd Conforonco on InlornalionaI Air
Transporlalion, Amorican Socioly of CiviI Inginoors, Nov YorI, N.Y., 1992.
10.
-, Advisory CircuIar AC 120-29, IncIuding Clangos 1 llrougl 3,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1974
11. Dolorminalion of llo Iall IoIIovod by llo Undorcarriago of a Taxiing Aircrafl,
Iapor proparod by Doparlmonl of CiviI Avialion, MoIbourno, AuslraIia.
12. Dolorminalion of WlooI Trajoclorios, I. Hauor, -
, Amorican Socioly of CiviI Inginoors, VoI. 96, No. TI4, Nov YorI, N.Y.,
Novombor 1970.

-
13. -, R. Horonjoff, ol aI., Roporl proparod for llo
Airvays Modornizalion Board by llo Inslilulo of Transporlalion and Traffic
Inginooring, Univorsily of CaIifornia, BorIoIoy, CaI., 1958.
14. Movomonl of Aircrafl and VolicIos on llo GroundTaxivay IiIIols, WorIing
Iapor No. 102, 5ll Air Navigalion Conforonco of llo InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion
Organizalion, MonlroaI, Canada, Oclobor 1967.
15. -, I. S. }oIino, R. Dixon Spoas, and Associalos,
Manlassol, N.Y.
16. - - ,
VoIs. 1 and 2, Waslinglon, D.C., Docombor 1969.
17. - -, Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5325-
4B, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 2005.
18.
-, Roporl No. IAA-RD-76-162, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1976.
19. , Roporl No. IAA-RD-75-191,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1975.
20. Tlo Dosign and Uso of IIov-Tlrougl HoId Iads, DougIas I. GoIdborg,
- Irocoodings of llo 22nd Conforonco on
InlornalionaI Air Transporlalion, Amorican Socioly of CiviI Inginoors, Nov
YorI, N.Y., 1992.
21. - - - , 3d od.,
IAA Ordor 8260.3B, IncIuding Clangos 1 llrougl 12, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., }uIy 1976.

-
-

Tlis claplor briofIy doscribos various mollods for dosigning airfioId

pavomonls. Tlo lorm - - - as usod in
llis loxl rofors lo llo dolorminalion of llo llicInoss of llo compo-
nonls llal maIo up an airfioId pavomonl slrucluro, rallor llan llo
dosign of pavomonl maloriaIs ilsoIf.
AirfioId pavomonl is inlondod lo provido a smooll and safo aII-
voallor riding surfaco llal can supporl llo voiglls of sucl loavy
objocls as aircrafl on lop of llo naluraI ground baso. AirfioId pavo-
monls aro lypicaIIy dosignod in Iayors, vill oacl Iayor dosignod lo a
sufficionl llicInoss lo bo adoqualo lo onsuro llal llo appIiod Ioads
viII nol Ioad lo dislross or faiIuro lo supporl ils imposod Ioads. Tlo
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion providos guidanco on llo dosign
of airfioId pavomonls villin ils Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5320-6I,
- . OriginaIIy pubIislod in 1975,
llis advisory circuIar vas compIoloIy rovisod in 2008 lo considor nov
dosign mollods llal aro basod on roconlIy dovoIopod compulor sofl-
varo modoIs and approprialo for llo loaviosl of commorciaI air car-
rior aircrafl. Tlis claplor providos boll an accounl of llo lisloricaI
pavomonl dosign and ovaIualion mollods and dolaiIs llo curronl
mollod of pavomonl dosign and ovaIualion. As vill any oIomonl of
airporl pIanning and dosign, approprialo Advisory CircuIars and
soflvaro usor guidos slouId bo sludiod and roforoncod prior lo porform-
ing any airporl pavomonl anaIysis. Tloso rosourcos may bo dovn-
Ioadod from llo IAA al lllp://vvv.faa.gov.
or - is a slrucluro consisling of ono or
moro Iayors of procossod maloriaIs. A pavomonl consisling of a
mixluro of biluminous maloriaI and aggrogalo pIacod on ligl-
quaIily granuIar maloriaIs is roforrod lo as . Wlon
llo pavomonl consisls of a sIab of porlIand comonl concrolo (ICC),
il is roforrod lo as . Boll slrucluros of pavomonl aro

-
lypicaIIy found al airporls, aIllougl oflon lloro aro proforoncos lo a
givon lypo of pavomonl doponding on sucl faclors as llo lypo and
froquoncy of aircrafl usago, cIimalic condilions, and cosls of conslruc-
lion and mainlonanco.
Iiguro 7-1 iIIuslralos a cross soclion of a lypicaIIy Iayorod airfioId
pavomonl. As iIIuslralod in Iig. 7-1, airfioId pavomonl, vlollor fIoxibIo
or rigid, lypicaIIy consisls of sorios of Iayors consisling of a surfaco
courso, baso courso, and ono or moro subbaso coursos, rosling on llo
ground, or proparod subgrado Iayor.
Tlo surfaco courso consisls of a mixluro of biluminous maloriaI
(gonoraIIy asplaIl) and aggrogalo ranging in llicInoss from 2 lo
12 in for fIoxibIo pavomonls, and a sIab of ICC 8 lo 24 in llicI for
rigid pavomonls. Tlo principaI funclion of llo surfaco courso is lo
provido for smooll and safo lraffic oporalions, lo villsland llo offocls
of appIiod Ioads and onvironmonlaI infIuoncos for somo proscribod
poriod of oporalion, and lo dislribulo llo appIiod Ioad lo llo undor-
Iying Iayors.
Tlo baso courso may consisl of lroalod or unlroalod granuIar
maloriaI. IiIo llo surfaco courso, il musl bo adoqualo lo villsland
llo offocls of Ioad and onvironmonl and lo dislribulo llo appIiod
Ioads lo llo undorIying Iayors. Unlroalod basos consisl of cruslod or
uncruslod aggrogalos. Troalod basos consisl of cruslod or uncruslod
aggrogalo llal las boon mixod vill a slabiIizing maloriaI sucl as
comonl or bilumon.
-- -
P1
Transitions
Base
PCC
Subbase
Subbase
2'' (1 cm) minimum
Surface thickness
Surface
Runway width
A
A
P1
200'
(61 m)
200'
(61 m)
200'
(61 m)
200'
(61 m)
200'
(61 m)
1
2
5 6 25' (7.6 m)
Legend
Thickness : T
Thickness tapers : T 0.7 T
Thickness : 0.9 T
Thickness : 0.7 T
4
5
1
Runway widths in accordance with
applicable advisory circular
Notes
Transverse slopes in accordance
with applicable advisory circular
Surface, base, PCC, etc., thickness
as indicated on design chart.
For runways wider than 150' (45.7 m)
this dimension will increase.
4 Minimum 12'' (30 cm) up to 30''
(90 cm) allowable.
2
3
4 4
5
3
Transitions
- -

Tlo subbaso courso is aIso composod of lroalod or unlroalod

maloriaI, lypicaIIy unprocossod pil-run maloriaI or maloriaI soIoclod
form a suilabIo oxcavalion on llo silo. Tlo funclion of llo subbaso is
llo samo as llal of llo baso. Wlollor or nol a subbaso is roquirod, or
lov many subbaso Iayors aro roquirod, is a funclion of llo lypo of
Ioads on llo pavomonl, as voII as llo lypo and quaIily of soiI, or sub-
grado, on vlicl llo pavomonl viII bo rosling. Ior mosl rigid pavo-
monls, llo surfaco courso rosls diroclIy on llo subbaso.
Tlo dosign of llo llicInoss of oacl of llo abovo Iayors is of primary
concorn lo airporl pavomonl onginoors. Tlo lvo primary faclors llal
conlribulo lo llo dosign llicInoss of airfioId pavomonl Iayors aro llo
soiI baso and llo voIumo and voigll of llo lraffic using llo pavomonl.
As sucl, llo firsl slops in pavomonl anaIysis aro an invosligalion of llo
soiI on vlicl llo pavomonl viII bo pIacod, and an oslimalion of llo
annuaI lraffic voIumo on llo pavomonl.
-
Accuralo idonlificalion and ovaIualion of pavomonl foundalions aro
ossonliaI lo llo propor dosign of llo pavomonl slrucluro. Tlo sub-
grado supporls llo pavomonl and llo Ioads pIacod upon llo pavo-
monl surfaco. Tlo funclion of llo pavomonl is lo dislribulo llo Ioads
lo llo subgrado, and llo groalor llo capabiIily of llo subgrado lo sup-
porl llo Ioads, llo Ioss llo roquirod llicInoss of llo pavomonl.
SoiI invosligalion consisls of a soiI survoy lo dolormino llo
arrangomonl of llo difforonl Iayors of soiI in roIalion lo llo subgrado
oIovalion, a sampIing and losling of llo various Iayors of soiI lo dolor-
mino llo plysicaI proporlios of llo soiI, and a survoy lo dolormino llo
avaiIabiIily and suilabiIily of IocaI maloriaIs for uso in llo conslruc-
lion of llo subgrado and pavomonl. Survoys and sampIing aro usu-
aIIy accompIislod llrougl soiI borings lo dolormino llo soiI of rocI
profiIo and ils IaloraI oxlonl. Tlo sampIod maloriaIs aro llon loslod lo
dolormino soiI lypos, gradalion or parlicIo sizos, Iiquid and pIaslic
Iimils, moisluro-donsily roIalionslips, slrinIago faclors, pormoabiI-
ily, organic conlonl, and slrongll proporlios. In llo Unilod Slalos, soiI
survoys aro oflon conduclod using a varioly of mollods, incIuding
roforring lo U.S. GooIogicaI Survoy (USGS) goodolic maps, aoriaI
plolograply, and soiI borings. Tlo IAA rocommonds borings of
givon spacing and doplls for soiI survoys as iIIuslralod in TabIo 7-1.
In llo Unilod Slalos, ovaIualion of sampIod soiIs for llo purposo
of airfioId pavomonl dosign is porformod according lo llo U.S. Army
Corps of Inginoors Unifiod SoiI CIassificalion (USC or unifiod)
Syslom, as iIIuslralod in TabIo 7-2. Undor llo unifiod syslom, soiIs aro
iniliaIIy cIassifiod as oillor coarso-grainod, fino-grainod, or liglIy
organic soiIs. Coarso-grainod soiIs aro lloso llal do nol fiIlor llrougl
a No. 200 grado siovo. Coarso-grainod soiIs aro furllor dividod inlo
gravoIs and sands, as a funclion of llo porconlago of soiI llal fiIlors

-

-
-
--

-
-
-
-
-
-

-
-
-
-
- --

: Ior doop fiIIs, boring doplls slaII bo sufficionl lo dolormino llo oxlonl of consoIida-
lion and/or sIippago llo fiII may causo.
- -
-- -
- --


-
-
-
-
-

- -

- --
-
-
--

- -

-- --

-
- - --

- -

--
: Basod on llo maloriaI passing llo 3-in (75-mm) siovo.
-- - -
llrougl a No. 4 siovo. Iino grainod soiIs, Inovn aIso as siIls and cIays,
aro subdividod inlo lvo groups on llo basis of lloir Iiquid Iimils.
Tloso soiIs aro finaIIy groupod inlo ono of 15 difforonl groupings.
Tloso groupings aro
GW: WoII-gradod gravoIs and gravoI-sand mixluros, IillIo or no
finos
GI: IoorIy gradod gravoIs and gravoI-sand mixluros, IillIo or no
nos
GM: SiIly gravoIs, gravoI-sand-siIl mixluros
GC: CIayoy gravoIs, gravoI-sand-cIay mixluros
SW: WoII-gradod sands and gravoIIy sands, IillIo or no nos
SI: IoorIy gradod sands and gravoIIy sands, IillIo or no nos
SM: SiIly sands, sand-siIl mixluros
SC: CIayoy sands, sand-cIay mixluros
MI: Inorganic siIls, vory no sands, rocI our, siIly or cIayoy no
sands
CI: Inorganic cIays of Iov lo modium pIaslicily, gravoIIy cIays,
siIly cIays, Ioan cIays
OI: Organic siIls and organic siIly cIays of Iov pIaslicily
MH: Inorganic siIls, micacoous or dialomacoous no sands or siIls,
pIaslic siIls
CH: Inorganic cIays or ligl pIaslicily, fal cIays
OH: Organic cIays of modium lo ligl pIaslicily
IT: Ioal, mucI, and ollor liglIy organic soiIs
A fIovclarl iIIuslraling llo procoduro for llo cIassificalion of
soiIs by llo unifiod syslom is givon in Iig. 7-2. Tlo usos of llo various
soiI maloriaIs for pavomonl foundalions aro doscribod in TabIo 7-3.
Il slouId bo nolod llal coIumn 11 in TabIo 7-3 rofors lo llo soiIs
fioId CBR vaIuo, or CaIifornia Boaring Ralio, a vaIuo of llo
slrongll of maloriaI usod in fIoxibIo pavomonl basos, and coIumn 12
in TabIo 7-3 rofors lo llo soiIs subgrado moduIus or vaIuo, a
vaIuo of llo boaring capacily of llo soiI, oslimalod using a pIalo boar-
ing losl.
Tlo soiIs fioId CBR vaIuo is dolorminod by llo CBR mollod of
pavomonl dosign, vlicl is appIiod primariIy lo fIoxibIo pavomonls.
Tlo CBR mollod of dosign vas dovoIopod by llo CaIifornia Division
in 1928. Tlo mollod subsoquonlIy vas adoplod for miIilary airporl
uso by llo Corps of Inginoors, U.S. Army, slorlIy aflor llo oulbroaI of
WorId War II. Tlo oulbroaI of llo var roquirod llal a docision bo
mado vill IillIo doIay concorning a dosign mollod. Al llo limo, lloro
voro no mollods avaiIabIo spocificaIIy dovoIopod for airporl pavo-
monls. Il vas apparonl llal llo limo roquirod lo dovoIop a compIolod
nov mollod of dosign vouId procIudo ils uso in a var omorgoncy
- -

-
-

- -

program. ConsoquonlIy, il vas docidod lo roviov aII avaiIabIo moll-

ods for llo dosign of liglvay pavomonls and lo soIocl ono vlicl
couId bo adoplod for airfioId uso. Tlo criloria for soIocling a mollod
voro many. Among llo moro imporlanl voro (1) simpIicily in proco-
duros for losling llo subgrado and llo pavomonl compononls, (2) a
rocord of salisfaclory oxporionco, and (3) adaplalion lo llo airporl
probIom in a roasonabIo limo. Aflor sovoraI monlls of invosligaling
of suggoslod mollods, llo CBR mollod vas lonlalivoIy adoplod.
AppIicalion of llo CBR mollod onabIos llo dosignor lo dolormino
llo roquirod llicInoss of llo subbaso, baso, and surfaco courso by
onloring a sol of dosign curvos using llo rosuIls of a roIalivoIy simpIo
soiI losl.
-
Tlo CBR losl oxprossos an indox of llo sloaring slrongll of soiI.
IssonliaIIy llo losl consisls of compacling aboul 10 Ib of soiI inlo a
6-in-diamolor moId, pIacing a voigll, Inovn as a surclargo, on llo
surfaco of llo sampIo, immorsing llo sampIo in valor for 4 days, and
ponolraling llo soaIod sampIo vill llo slooI pislon approximaloIy
2 in in diamolor al a spocifiod ralo of Ioading. Tlo rosislanco of llo soiI
lo ponolralion, oxprossod as a porconlago of llo rosislanco for a sland-
ard cruslod Iimoslono, is llo CBR vaIuo for llo soiI. Tlus, a CBR of
50 moans llal llo slross nocossary for llo surclargo lo ponolralo llo
soiI sampIo a spocifiod dislanco is ono-laIf llal roquirod for llo sur-
clargo lo ponolralo llo samo dislanco in llo slandard cruslod Iimo-
slono. Tlo roIalionslip is usuaIIy basod on a ponolralion of llo pislon
of 0.1 in vill 1000 Ib/in
2
usod as llo slross roquirod lo ponolralo llo
cruslod Iimoslono al 0.1 in ponolralion. As iIIuslralod in TabIo 7-3,
soiIs rango in CBR vaIuos from roIalivoIy voaI fino-grainod and
liglIy organic soiIs vill CBR vaIuos as Iov as 3, lo vido-grainod
coarso soiIs vill CBR vaIuos as ligl as 80 (aIllougl CBR losling las
boon found lo bo somovlal inaccuralo for vory gravoIIy soiIs, and for
appIicalion a CBR vaIuo of no liglor of 50 slouId bo appIiod).
-
Tlo moduIus subgrado of roaclion, or vaIuo of llo subgrado is dolor-
minod by vlal is Inovn as a fioId pIalo boaring losl. Tlis losl con-
sisls of appIying Ioads by moans of a lydrauIic jacI llrougl a jacIing
framo on lo a slooI pIalo 30 in in diamolor on llo soiI. By Ioading llo
pIalo, a Ioad-vorsus-doformalion curvo is oblainod. Tlo vaIuo is
dolorminod lo bo llo prossuro roquirod lo produco a unil dofIoclion of
llo pavomonl foundalion, moasurod in pounds por cubic incl. vaI-
uos rango from Ioss llan 150 (considorod vory poor) lo moro llan
300 (considorod vory good). In gonoraI, llo groalor llo coarsonoss
of llo soiI, llo liglor vaIuo and llo Ioss dofIoclion for a givon Ioad-
ing can bo oxpoclod.

-
-

-
-

-

-

-
-

-

-

-
- -
Tlo mosl roconl accoplod mollod for dolormining llo slrongll of
subgrado by llo IAA is basod upon llo oIaslic moduIus of llo sub-
grado, or , aIso Inovn as Youngs moduIus. In gonoraI, a slrucluros
vaIuo is ils moasuro of sliffnoss or oIaslicily. Tlo groalor llo vaIuo,
llo moro sliff llo maloriaI, and llo Ioss llo maloriaI is suscoplibIo lo
doformalion undor a givon slross Ioad. A pavomonls vaIuo may bo
ompiricaIIy oslimalod by ovaIualing ils slross lo slrain ralio, accord-
ing lo Iq. (7-1)

TonsiIo slross
TonsiIo slrain
/
/
0
0 0
00

(7-1)
vloro Youngs moduIus (moduIus of oIaslicily)
forco appIiod lo llo pavomonl

0
originaI cross-soclionaI aroa llrougl vlicl llo forco is
appIiod
amounl by vlicl llo slapo of llo pavomonl clangos

0
originaI slapo of llo objocl
AIlornalivoIy, llo subgrado moduIus vaIuo, in pounds por
squaro incl, may bo found using llo foIIoving convorsion formuIas:
To find basod on CBR vaIuo llo oqualion is
1500 CBR (7-2)
To find basod on llo moduIus of subgrado of roaclion, , llo oqua-
lion is
26
1.284
(7-3)
Tlis convorsalion is providod by llo IAA in ils advisory circuIar pri-
mariIy lo faciIilalo llo lransilion from llo moro lradilionaI pavomonl
dosign mollods lo llo mosl curronl soflvaro-basod mollod of pavo-
monl dosign and ovaIualion.
-
WliIo lloro aro a varioly of soiI lypos, llo bolavioraI proporlios of
any givon lypo aro roIalivoIy simiIar rogardIoss of ollor cIimalic clar-
aclorislics, sucl as llo avorago ambionl lomporaluro and amounl of
procipilalion. Ono faclor llal doos significanlIy impacl llo slrongll
of soiI, lovovor, is llo prosonco of frosl on llo surfaco of or villin llo
soiI, oillor on a soasonaI or a pormanonl basis.
Irosl aclion, if sovoro, rosuIls in nonuniform loavo of pavomonls
during llo vinlor bocauso of llo formalion of ico Ionsos villin llo
subgrado, Inovn as ico sogrogalion, and in Ioss of supporling capac-
ily of llo subgrado during poriods of llav. Iiguro 7-3 iIIuslralos llo
procoss of ico sogrogalion.
- -

-- -
Surface course
Air temperature
below freezing
Base
Frozen subgrade
Plane of freezing
temperature
Capillary water
Unfrozen subgrade
ce crystals
Unfrozen
Unfrozen
Unfrozen
Frozen
Frozen
Frozen
Moving water
Moving water
Frost
heaving
Water in large void space
freezes into ice crystals
along plane of freezing
temperature.
ce crystals attract water
from adjacent voids,
which freezes on contact
and forms larger crystals.
Crystals continue to
grow and join, fed
mostly by capillary
water, forming ice lens.
Vertical pressure exerted
by ice lens heaves
surface.
ce lens
During poriods of llav, llo ico Ionsos bogin lo moIl, and llo
valor vlicl is roIoasod cannol drain llrougl llo sliII-frozon soiI al
groalor doplls. Tlus, IacI of drainago rosuIls in Ioss of slrongll in
llo subgrado. Il is aIso possibIo llal a roduclion in sliffnoss viII occur
in subgrado soiIs during llo llav poriod, ovon llougl ico Ionsos
may nol lavo formod.
OriginaIIy dovoIopod by llo U.S. Army Corps of Inginoors, llo
IAA calogorizos soiIs inlo four frosl groups. SoiIs in frosl group 1
aro Ioasl suscoplibIo lo frosl and associalod soiI voaIoning, vliIo soiIs
in frosl group 4 aro mosl suscoplibIo. As iIIuslralod in TabIo 7-4, lloso
soiIs vill Iargor parlicIo sizos, sucl as llo gravoIIy soiIs, aro found in
frosl group 1, vliIo vory fino soiIs aro found in frosl group 4.
Tlo dosign of pavomonls, boll fIoxibIo and rigid, is modifiod
sIigllIy doponding on llo proponsily of llo soiI lo oncounlor frosl
and llo dopll of llo frosl, Inovn as frosl ponolralion. Tloso consid-
oralions aro doscribod in furllor dolaiI Ialor in llis claplor.

In addilion lo frosl, faclors sucl as poor drainago, advorso surfaco
drainago, or moroIy varialions in soiI doplls, conlribulo lo roduclions

-
in llo slabiIily of a soiI. Tlo IAA aIIovs for llo slabiIizalion and
lroalmonl of llo soiIs lo improvo llo porformanco of llo conslruclod
pavomonl. Tvo lypos of soiI slabiIizalion oxisl, moclanicaI slabiIiza-
lion and clomicaI slabiIizalion. MoclanicaI slabiIizalion consisls of
ombodding cobbIo or slol rocI slools villin llo soiI. In somo casos,
porous concrolo or goosynllolics may bo usod for vory sofl fino grainod
soiIs. ClomicaI slabiIizalion is acliovod by llo addilion of propor por-
conlagos of comonl, Iimo, fIy asl, or combinalions of lloso maloriaIs
lo llo soiI.
- -
Bolvoon 1958 and 2006, llo IAA oslabIislod mandalos for aircrafl
manufaclurors lo croalo aircrafl, basod on lloir maximum gross laIo-
off voigll and Ianding goar configuralion, llal produco Ioads on
pavomonls no groalor llan 350,000 Ib, basod on llo aircrafl al llo limo
llal croalod llo loaviosl Ioad on airfioId pavomonls, llo DougIas DC-8.
As aircrafl grov in gross voigll, Ianding goar configuralions, vill
- - -

--
--

--
--

--
-
-
--
-

-
--
--
-
--
-


--

- - --
- -

addilionaI vlooIs and spacings, voro croalod lo dislribulo incroasod

gross voiglls, rosuIling in oquivaIonl por vlooI Ioads nol oxcooding
llo 350,000 Ib maximum.

HisloricaI airfioId pavomonl dosign mollods rocommondod by llo
IAA boginning in 1975 looI inlo accounl llo varying voiglls and
Ianding goar configuralions of llo fIool of aircrafl llal may roguIarIy
uliIizo a givon airfioIds pavomonl. Tlis lisloricaI mollod invoIvod
dolormining llo numbor of lolaI annuaI aircrafl doparluros by oacl
lypo of aircrafl and group llom inlo oquivaIonl annuaI doparluros
of oacl aircrafl in lorms of llo Ianding goar configuralion of a givon
dosign aircrafl, llal is, llo aircrafl in llo fIool mix llal roquiros llo
groalosl pavomonl slrongll. Tlis grouping is basod on convorling llo
numbor of annuaI doparluros of aII aircrafl ollor llan llo dosign air-
crafl lo an oquivaIonl numbor of annuaI doparluros by using llo muI-
lipIiors givon in TabIo 7-5.
Tlo oquivaIonl annuaI doparluros of llo dosign aircrafl voro
dolorminod by summing llo oquivaIonl annuaI doparluros of oacl
aircrafl in llo group, according lo llo formuIa givon in Iq. (7-4).
Iog Iog
/

1 2
2
1
1 2
I (7-4)
vloro
1
oquivaIonl annuaI doparluros by llo dosign aircrafl

2
annuaI numbor of doparluros by an aircrafl in lorms of
dosign aircrafl Ianding goar configuralion

1
vlooI Ioad of llo dosign aircrafl

2
vlooI Ioad of llo aircrafl boing convorlod
-








- -
- -

-
Bocauso many of llo Ialosl gonoralion aircrafl roquiro moro com-
pIox Ianding goar configuralions llal aro providod in TabIo 7-5, a spo-
ciaI considoralion for vory loavy aircrafl voro mado by assigning a
gross laIooff voigll of 300,000 Ib and a duaI-landom Ianding goar
configuralion lo any aircrafl vill maximum gross laIooff voigll
groalor llan 300,000 Ib. Tlis rougl approximalion vas, in parl, moli-
valion, lo dovoIop an onliroIy nov assossmonl of fIool mix vill
rospocl lo airfioId pavomonl dosign and ovaIualion.

Tlo curronl mollod of airfioId pavomonl dosign and ovaIualion nov
considors oacl lypo of aircrafl llal usos llo pavomonl oxpIicilIy. Tlo
dosign aircrafl concopl las boon ropIacod by dosign for faliguo faiI-
uro oxprossod in lorms of a cumuIalivo damago faclor (CDI). Tlo
CDI for a givon aircrafl is a vaIuo bolvoon 0 and 1 vlicl oxprossos
llo conlribulion lo uIlimalo pavomonl faiIuro of llo projoclod numbor
of usos for oacl aircrafl lypo llal uso llo pavomonl. Basod on Minors
ruIo, a lradilionaI lloory vlicl oslimalos llo amounl of uso unliI faiI-
uro of a pavomonl, llo CDI for a givon fIool of aircrafl is dolorminod
by Iq. (7-5).
CDI (

) (7-5)
vloro

is llo oxpoclod numbor of annuaI doparluros of aircrafl and

is llo numbor of doparluros of aircrafl llal vouId Ioad lo pavo-

monl faiIuro for oacl aircrafl in llo mix.
Wlon CDI mools or oxcoods 1, llo cumuIalivo prodiclod numbor
of oporalions for oacl of llo aircrafl in llo mix viII Ioad lo faiIuro of
a givon pavomonl syslom. Any vaIuo Ioss llan 1 roprosonls llo frac-
lion of pavomonl Iifo llal las boon offoclivoIy usod up. Ior oxam-
pIo, a CDI of 0.75 vouId indicalo llal llo pavomonl las usod 75 por-
conl of ils usofuI Iifo, and las 25 porconl of ils Iifo romaining undor
llo prodiclod lraffic usago boforo faliguo faiIuro.
Ior boll llo dosign of fIoxibIo and rigid pavomonls, llo curronl
IAA pavomonl dosign mollod appIios a compulor soflvaro modoI lo
oslimalo llo approprialo llicInoss of dosignod pavomonl Iayors,
givon llo Youngs moduIus vaIuo of llo subgrado and llo oxpoclod
aircrafl fIool mix, sucl llal llo CDI of llo pavomonl oquaIs 1 aflor a
20-yoar Iifo of llo dosignod pavomonl.
Tlo IAA approvod soflvaro, -
- or comos oquippod vill a Iibrary of
aircrafl, lloir maximum gross voiglls, Ianding goar configuralion,
and conlribulion lo CDI for llo givon pavomonl dosign. Iiguro 7-4
iIIuslralos llo aircrafl vindov of IAARIIIID vill usor inpuls of
oacl givon aircrafls oslimalod doparluros for llo lo-bo-dosignod
pavomonl syslom.
- -

- -
IIoxibIo pavomonls consisl of a biluminous voaring surfaco pIacod
upon a baso courso and, vloro roquirod by subgrado condilions, a
subbaso. Tlo onliro fIoxibIo-pavomonl slrucluro is uIlimaloIy sup-
porlod by llo subgrado. Tlo surfaco courso provonls llo ponolralion
of surfaco valor lo llo baso courso, providos a smooll, voII-bondod
surfaco froo of Iooso parlicIos, rosisls llo sloaring slrossos causod by
aircrafl Ioading, and furnislos a loxluro of nonsIid quaIilios nol caus-
ing unduo liro voar. Tlo courso musl aIso bo rosislanl lo fuoI spiIIago
and ollor soIvonls in aroas vloro mainlonanco may occur.
Tlo baso courso is llo major slrucluraI oIomonl of llo pavomonl,
il las llo funclion of dislribuling llo vlooI Ioads lo llo subbaso and
subgrado. Il musl bo dosignod lo provonl faiIuro in llo subgrado,
villsland llo slrossos producod in llo baso courso, rosisl vorlicaI
prossuros londing lo produco consoIidalion and doformalion of llo
voaring courso, and rosisl voIumo clangos causod by fIuclualions in
ils moisluro conlonl.
IIoxibIo pavomonl baso coursos aro avaiIabIo in difforonl compo-
silions, or lypos, incIuding:
1. Ilom I-208Aggrogalo Baso Courso
2. Ilom I-209Cruslod Aggrogalo Baso Courso
3. Ilom I-211Iimo RocI Baso Courso
4. Ilom I-304Comonl Troalod Baso Courso
-

-
5. Ilom I-306Iconocrolo Subbaso Courso
6. Ilom I-401IIanl Mix Biluminous Iavomonls
7. Ilom I-403HMA Baso Courso
I-211, I-304, I-306, I-401, and I-403 aro considorod slabiIizod
basod coursos.
Tlo funclion of llo subbaso, vlon roquirod, is simiIar lo llal of
llo baso courso, bul sinco llo subbaso is furllor romovod from llo
aroa of Ioad appIicalion, il is subjoclod lo Iovor slross inlonsilios. Sub-
basos aro lypicaIIy roquirod vlon fIoxibIo pavomonl is lo bo sup-
porlod by soiIs of CBR vaIuo Ioss llan 20.
IIoxibIo pavomonl subbaso coursos aro avaiIabIo in difforonl
lypos, incIuding:
1. Ilom I-154Subbaso Courso
2. Ilom I-210CaIiclo Baso Courso
3. Ilom I-212SloII Baso Courso
4. Ilom I-213Sand CIay Baso Courso
5. Ilom I-301SoiI Comonl Baso Courso
Tlo subgrado soiIs aro subjoclod lo llo Iovosl Ioading inlonsilios,
and llo conlroIIing slrossos aro usuaIIy al llo lop of llo subgrado
sinco slross docroasos vill dopll. Hovovor, unusuaI subgrado condi-
lions, sucl as Iayorod subgrado maloriaIs, can aIlor llo Iocalion of
conlroIIing slrossos.

Irior lo 2008, llo IAAs slandard mollod for fIoxibIo pavomonl
dosign vas Inovn as llo CBR mollod. Tlo CBR mollod vas basod
on approximalion clarls llal faclorod in llo CBR vaIuo of llo sub-
grado and llo numbor and gross voigll of oquivaIonl annuaI dopar-
luros of llo dosign aircrafl. Soparalo approximalion clarls voro pro-
vidod by llo IAA for difforonl gonoric aircrafl Ianding goar configu-
ralions, and for aircrafl groalor llan 300,000 Ib maximum gross
voigll, spocific individuaI aircrafl. Iiguro 7-5 providos an iIIuslralivo
oxampIo of llo CBR mollod.
Tlo oxampIo nomograpl found in Iig. 7-5 roprosonls llo lislori-
caI mollod of oslimaling llo baso IovoI llicInoss of fIoxibIo pavo-
monl for a Booing 767. Tlo arrov villin llo nomograpl roprosonls
llo oxampIo for a subgrado vill CBR vaIuo of 7, a 325,000-Ib aircrafl
gross voigll, and 1200 annuaI oquivaIonl doparluros, rosuIling in a
roquirod baso courso of 30 in llicInoss. Tlo nomograpl aIso pro-
vidos llo nocossary llicInoss for llo surfaco Iayor, al 4 in llicI for
crilicaI aroas and 3 in llicI for noncrilicaI aroas, sucl as pavomonl
slouIdors.
- -

- -
OriginaIIy appIiod in 1995 spocificaIIy for llo loaviosl of aircrafl, llo
IAA adoplod llo Iayorod oIaslic dosign (IID) mollod of fIoxibIo
pavomonl dosign for aII pavomonls dosignod lo accommodalo air-
crafl groalor llan 30,000 Ib in 2008.
Iayorod oIaslic dosign lloory considors llo facl llal llo Iayors of
pavomonl llal supporl Ioads aro impaclod by boll vorlicaI and lori-
zonlaI slrains and slross, as iIIuslralod in Iig. 7-6. To accommodalo
llo slrain, pavomonl viII dofIocl vill llo passing of llo Ioad. Tlo
magniludo of dofIoclion of a givon pavomonl is a funclion of ils oIas-
licily, , as moasurod by Youngs moduIus. In addilion, llo ralio of
lransvorso lo lorizonlaI dofIoclion of a pavomonl Iayor, Inovn as
Ioissons ralio, , is considorod.
Tlo Iayorod oIaslic dosign and cumuIalivo damago faiIuro moll-
ods of pavomonl dosign aro appIiod in llo IAAs compulor pavomonl
dosign soflvaro, IAARIIIID. IAARIIIID usos a Windovs-basod

-
50 40 30 20 15 8 9 10 7
Thickness, in.
6 5 4 3
50 40 30 20 15
B 767
Contact area = 202.46 sq. in.
Dual spacing = 45 in.
Tandem spacing = 56.00 in.
1 in. = 25.4 mm
1 lb. = 0.454 kg
1,200
3,000
6,000
15,000
25,000
8 9 10
CBR
7 6 5 4 3
A
n
n
u
a
l

d
e
p
a
r
t
u
r
e
s
G
r
o
s
s

a
ir
c
r
a
f
t
w
e
ig
h
t
,

L
B
3
2
5
,
0
0
0
3
0
0
,
0
0
0
2
0
0
,
0
0
0
1
5
0
,
0
0
0
Thickness hot mix
Asphalt surfaces
4in. Critical areas
3in. Noncritical areas

-
inlorfaco lo aIIov llo usor lo inpul iniliaI dala concorning llo sub-
grado of llo aroa on vlicl llo pavomonl is lo bo dosignod, spocifi-
caIIy llo Youngs moduIus of llo subgrado, as voII as llo oxpoclod
fIool mix llal viII bo using llo pavomonl. As iIIuslralod in Iig. 7-7,
IAARIIIID providos llo rocommondod llicInoss of oacl Iayor
villin llo fIoxibIo pavomonl slrucluro, using rocommondod pavomonl
- - -
Wheel load
Area of tire contact
Horizontal strain and stress
at the bottom of the asphalt
Wearing surface
Base course
Subbase
Vertical subgrade strain
Subgrade support
Approximate line of
wheel-load distribution
Subgrade
-
- - -
- -

lypos (ox. I-401/403 asplaIl surfacos), or ollor usor proforrod lypos

Iislod in llis soclion.
- -
Rigid pavomonls consisl of sIabs of ICC pIacod on a subbaso llal is
supporlod on a compaclod subgrado. IiIo fIoxibIo pavomonls, a
proporIy dosignod rigid pavomonl providos a nonsIid surfaco vlicl
provonls llo infiIlralion of valor inlo llo subgrado, vliIo providing
slrucluraI supporl lo aircrafl vlicl uso llo pavomonl.
Tlo subbaso undor rigid pavomonls providos uniform slabIo sup-
porl for llo concrolo sIabs. As a ruIo, a minimum llicInoss of 4 in is
roquirod for aII subbasos undor rigid pavomonls. Tloro aro various
lypos of mixluros vlicl aro accoplabIo for rigid pavomonl subbasos
incIuding:
Ilom I-154Subbaso Courso
Ilom I-208Aggrogalo Baso Courso
Ilom I-209Cruslod Aggrogalo Baso Courso
Ilom I-211Iimo RocI Baso Courso
Ilom I-301SoiI Comonl Baso
Ilom I-304Comonl Troalod Baso Courso
Ilom I-306Iconocrolo Subbaso Courso
Ilom I-401IIanl Mix Biluminous Iavomonls
Ilom I-403HMA Baso Courso
Ior rigid pavomonls accommodaling aircrafl groalor llan 100,000 Ib
maximum gross voigll a slabiIizod subbaso is roquirod, vlicl
incIudo iloms I-304, I-306, I-401, and I-403.
-- --
SimiIar lo llo CBR mollod of dosign for fIoxibIo pavomonls,
prior lo 2008, rigid pavomonl dosign using nomograpls and ollor
approximalion clarls basod on lloorios dovoIopod by H. M. Woslor-
gaard vas llo IAA slandard. Woslorgaards anaIysis of pavomonl
dosign vas foundod in llo mid-1920s and focusod on llo caIcuIa-
lions of slrossos and dofIoclions in concrolo pavomonls duo lo appIiod
Ioading.
Woslorgaard assumod llo pavomonl sIab lo bo a llin pIalo rosling
on a spociaI subgrado vlicl is considorod oIaslic in llo vorlicaI diroc-
lion onIy. Tlal is, llo roaclion is proporlionaI lo llo dofIoclion of llo
subgrado , vloro is dofIoclion and is a soiI conslanl, roforrod
lo as llo - - . Ollor assumplions aro llal llo
concrolo sIab is a lomogonoous, isolropic oIaslic soIid and llal llo
vlooI Ioad of an aircrafl is dislribulod ovor an oIIiplicaI aroa. AIllougl

-
lloso assumplions do nol salisfy lloory in a slricl sonso, llo rosuIls
comparod roasonabIy vill obsorvalions. Tlo Woslorgaard anaIysis
vas usod lo ovaIualo slross in a pavomonl, as voII as llo dofIoclion of
llo sIab. Ior airporls, Woslorgaard dovoIopod formuIas for slrossos
and dofIoclions in llo inlorior of a sIab and al an odgo of a sIab.
Tlo U.S. Army Corps of Inginoors appIiod Woslorgaards formu-
Ias lovard llo croalion of approximalion clarls and dosign curvos.
An oxampIo is iIIuslralod in Iig. 7-8.
Tlo arrov found in Iig. 7-8 iIIuslralos an oxampIo rigid pavomonl
dosign anaIysis, considoring llo uso of a ICC mixluro of fIoxuraI slrongll
of 660 Ib/in
2
, a subgrado vill vaIuo 100 Ib/in
3
, for a Booing 757 dosign
aircrafl vill maximum gross voigll of 175,000 Ib and 6000 annuaI
oquivaIonl doparluros, rosuIling in a dosign sIab llicInoss of approx-
imaloIy 12 in.

SimiIar lo fIoxibIo pavomonl dosign, IAARIIIID procossos llo usor
dofinod fIool mix and vaIuo of llo subgrado lo dolormino llo llicI-
noss roquiromonls of llo ICC surfaco. IAARIIIID rocommonds
dofauIl subbaso Iayors al 6 in llicInoss. MuIlipIo subbaso Iayors aro
rocommondod for corlain subgrados vill Iov vaIuos. Iiguro 7-9
iIIuslralos an oxampIo rigid pavomonl slrucluro oulpul from IAAR-
IIIID.
IAARIIIID appIios finilo oIomonl lloory lo oslimalo llo llicI-
noss of llo ICC surfaco and any nocossary subbaso coursos. Tlroo-
dimonsionaI finilo oIomonl dosign lloory (3D-II) is simiIar lo Iayorod
- - - --
- -- --
900
Contact area = 168.35 sq. in.
Dual spacing = 34.00 in.
Tandem spacing = 45.00 in.
850
800
750
700
650
600
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
3,000
1,200 6,000
Annual departures
B757
25,000
15,000
550
C
o
n
c
r
e
t
e

f
l
e
x
u
r
a
l

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
,

p
s
i
500
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
8
9
10
11
12
13
S
l
a
b

t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s
,

i
n
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
5
0
0
3
0
0
2
0
0
1
0
0
K

=

5
0

p
c
i
2
5
0
,
0
0
0

l
b
2
2
5
,
0
0
0 2
0
0
,
0
0
0
1
7
5
,
0
0
0
1
5
0
,
0
0
0
1
2
5
,
0
0
0
- -

oIaslic dosign lloory in llal il laIos inlo accounl llo Youngs modu-
Ius of llo subgrado and llo maloriaIs usod in llo sIab and subbaso
coursos, and considors a cumuIalivo damago faclor in ils anaIysis.
3D-II dosign modoIing, lovovor, considors llo pavomonl in discrolo
soclions, rallor llan a conlinuous maloriaI. Tlis porspoclivo aIIovs
for moro accuralo oslimalion of slrossos and slrain on llo odgos of llo
rigid pavomonl sIabs, vlicl comparod lo llo lransvorso slross noar
llo conlor of llo sIab, is moro crilicaI in rigid pavomonls.
-
SIabs of ICC rigid pavomonl aro connoclod by joinls lo pormil oxpan-
sion and conlraclion of llo pavomonl, lloroby roIioving fIoxuraI slrossos
duo lo curIing and friclion and lo faciIilalo conslruclion. Tloro aro llroo
lypos of joinls: isoIalion (lypo A), conlraclion (lypo B, C, or I), and
conslruclion (lypo I) joinls. Tlo Iocalions of lloso joinls aro iIIuslralod
in Iig. 7-10, vill dolaiIs as lo lloir spocificalions found in Iig. 7-11.
Tlo funclion of lypo A - - is lo isoIalo adjaconl pavo-
monl sIabs and providos spaco for llo oxpansion of llo pavomonl,
lloroby provonling llo dovoIopmonl of vory ligl comprossivo
slrossos vlicl can causo llo pavomonl lo bucIIo.
- aro providod lo roIiovo llo lonsiIo slrossos duo lo
lomporaluro, moisluro, and friclion, lloroby conlroIIing cracIing. If
conlraclion joinls voro nol inslaIIod, random cracIing vouId occur
on llo surfaco of llo pavomonl. Tlo spacing bolvoon conlraclion
joinls is dopondonl on llo llicInoss of llo sIab, llo claraclor of llo
- -

-
aggrogalo, and vlollor llo sIab is pIain or roinforcod. On llo basis of
oxporionco, il las boon found llal for pIain sIabs 8 lo 10 in llicI, llo
spacing slouId bo in llo rango of 15 lo 20 fl. Ior llicIor sIabs, llo
spacing can bo incroasod lo 25 fl. Conlraclion joinls may bo lingod
(lypo B), dovoIod (lypo C), or considorod a dummy joinl (lypo D).
Tlo IongiludinaI and lransvorso spocificalions of lloso joinls aro in
dolaiIs in TabIo 7-6.
- - aro roquirod lo faciIilalo conslruclion vlon
lvo abulling sIabs aro pIacod al difforonl limos.
AII joinls in concrolo pavomonls aro soaIod vill soaIing compound
lo provonl infiIlralion of valor or foroign maloriaI inlo llo joinl spacos.
Tlis joinl soaIanl musl bo capabIo of villslanding ropoalod oxlonsion
and comprossion as llo pavomonl clangos voIumo.
--
T
Te
Non-extruding premolded compressible material
To the nearest joint but
Te = 1.25 T to nearest 1" (3 mm)
but at least T + 2" (5 mm) not less than 10" (3 m)
3/4" (19 mm)
Detail 1
solation joint
Type A thickened edge
Type B hinged
Type D dummy
Contraction joints
Detail 2
T/2 d/2 T/2 d/2
Tie bar 30" (76 cm) long on 30" (76 cm) centers
Type E doweled
Paint and oil one end of dowel
Type C doweled
Paint and oil one end of dowel
Detail 2
Detail 3
Detail 2
Construction joint
NOTE:
1. Shaded area is joint sealant.
2. Groove must be formed by sawing.
T
T
T
T
T/2 d/2
- -

DovoIs aro Ioad lransfor dovicos vlicl pormil joinls lo opon by

vlicl provonl difforonliaI vorlicaI dispIacomonl. UsuaIIy dovoIs aro
soIid, round slooI bars, aIllougl pipo may aIso bo usod. SovoraI dif-
foronl anaIysos lavo boon proposod for llo dosign of dovoIs. Tlo
spacing of dovoIs doponds on llo llicInoss of llo pavomonl, modu-
Ius of subgrado roaclion, and llo sizo of llo dovoI. TabIo 7-7 conlains
rocommondalions for dovoI sizos and spacings.
- -
A conlinuousIy roinforcod concrolo pavomonl (CRCI) is ono in
vlicl lransvorso joinls lavo boon oIiminalod (oxcopl vloro llo
pavomonl inlorsocls or abuls oxisling pavomonls or slrucluros) and
llo IongiludinaI roinforcing slooI is conlinuous llrougloul llo
Iongll of llo pavomonl. Ollor llan llo dosign of llo omboddod
- -
Detail 1
solation joint
Detail 2
Contraction joint
Detail 3
Construction joint
Plan view-position of dowels
at edge of joint type C or E
3/4"1/8" (193 mm)
1/4" (6 mm) radius
or chamfer
Sealant material 1/4"3/8"
(610 mm) below surface
Rod backup material
Rod backup material
Non-extruding premolded compressible
material ASTM D-1751 or 1752
3/4"1/8" (193 mm)
T/4"1/4" (6 mm)
1 1/4" (32 mm) minimum
1 1/4" (32 mm) minimum
10" (254 mm) minimum
NOTES:
1. Sealant reservoir sized to provide proper shape factor, W/D. Field poured and preformed sealants require different
shape factors for optimum performance.
2. Rod backup material must be compatible with the type of sealant used and sized to provide the desired shape factor.
3. Recess sealant 3/8"1/2" for joints perpendicular to runway grooves.
4. Chamfered edges are recommended when pavements are subject to snow removal equipment of high trafc
volumes.
12" (305 mm) minimum
Construction joint between slabs
Sealant material 1/4"3/8"
(610 mm) below surface
D
W
Sealant material 1/4"3/8"
(610 mm) below surface
Rod backup material
Bar length varies
Longitudinal joint type C or E
Bar length varies
Transverse joint
type C or E
Optional (all joints)
1/4" 1/4" chamfer
D
W
T/4 +/ 1/4" (6 mm)

-
slooI villin llo pavomonl, llicInoss dosign of CRCI is idonlicaI lo
ollor rigid pavomonl lypos.
Tlo advanlagos for pIacing slooI in ICC pavomonls incIudo:
1. Roducing llo numbor of roquirod joinls bolvoon sIabs, rosuIl-
ing in docroasod mainlonanco cosls
2. IroIonging sorvico Iifo vlon pavomonl is ovorIoadod
3. Roducing pavomonl dofIoclion
- --

-

- --
-
-
-
-- -
-

- -
--
-
--
-
- --
-
-
- -
-
-- -

-
--

-
--
-
--

-

-
- -
-
- --

-
--

-
- -
- -

- -
- -

-

-

-

-
- -
-
- -
- -
- ---
-
-
-
- -

Tlo amounl of roinforcing slooI roquirod lo conlroI voIumo clangos

is dopondonl primariIy on llo sIab llicInoss, concrolo lonsiIo slrongll,
and yioId slrongll of llo slooI. WliIo sovoraI procoduros lavo boon
proposod for oslimaling llo roquirod amounl of slooI, oxporionco indi-
calos llal il slouId bo approximaloIy 0.6 porconl of llo gross cross-
soclionaI aroa and llal llo yioId slrongll slouId bo al Ioasl 60,000 Ib/
in
2
. Tlo minimum amounl may bo dolorminod by Iq. (7-6).

-
() ( . . ) 1 3 0 2
(7-6)
vloro
-
porconlago of omboddod slooI

lonsiIo slrongll of concrolo, Ib/in

2

-
aIIovabIo vorIing slross in slooI, Ib/in
2
coofficionl of subgrado friclion
Tlo IAA rocommonds llal llo cross-soclionaI aroa of llo roinforc-
ing slooI
-
bo oblainod by Iq. (7-7).

-
-

( . ) 3 7
(7-7)
vloro

-
aroa of slooI por fool of vidll or Iongll, in
2


Iongll or vidll of sIab, fl
llicInoss of sIab, in

-
aIIovabIo lonsiIo slross in slooI, Ib/in
2
To dolormino llo aroa of slooI in molric unils:


slouId bo oxprossod in molors
slouId bo oxprossod in miIIimolors

-
slouId bo oxprossod in moganovlons por squaro molor
Tlo conslanl 3.7 slouId bo clangod lo 0.64.

-
viII llon bo in lorms of squaro conlimolors por molor.
--
b

d
c

DovoIs nolod may bo soIid bar or ligl-slrongll pipo. Higl-slrongll pipo musl bo
pIuggod on oacl ond vill a ligll-filling pIaslic cap or morlar mix.
-- -

-
Tlo IongiludinaI omboddod slooI musl aIso bo capabIo of vill-
slanding llo forcos gonoralod by llo oxpansion and conlraclion of llo
pavomonl duo lo lomporaluro clangos. Iqualion (7-8) dolorminos llo
amounl of slooI roquirod as a funclion of lomporaluro.

50
195
(7-8)
vloro

-
omboddod slooI in porconl


lonsiIo slrongll of concrolo, 67 porconl of llo fIoxuraI
slrongll is rocommondod


vorIing slross for slooI usuaIIy laIon as 75 porconl of
spocifiod minimum yioId slrongll
maximum soasonaI lomporaluro difforonliaI for pavo-
monl in dogroos Ialronloil
IongiludinaI omboddod slooI is Iocalod al mid-dopll or sIigllIy
abovo mid-dopll of llo sIab.
Transvorso omboddod slooI is rocommondod for CIRI airporl
pavomonls lo conlroI random IongiludinaI cracIing. Iqualion (7-9) is
usod lo dolormino llo amounl of lransvorso slooI, as a porconlago of
llo lolaI sIab aroa.

-
-
-
()
2
100 (7-9)
vloro

-
omboddod slooI in porconl

-
vidll of sIab, in fl


friclion faclor of subgrado

-
aIIovabIo vorIing slross in slooI, in Ib/in
2
. YioId slrongll
of 0.75 is rocommondod
Transvorso slooI is dosignod in llo samo vay as lio bars.
- -
OvorIay pavomonls aro roquirod vlon oxisling pavomonls aro no
Iongor sorvicoabIo duo lo oillor dolorioralion in slrucluraI capabiIi-
lios of a Ioss in riding quaIily. Tloy aro aIso roquirod vlon pavomonls
musl bo slrongllonod lo carry groalor Ioads or incroasod ropolilions
of oxisling aircrafl boyond lloso anlicipalod in llo originaI dosign.
OvorIays aIso provido a soIulion for incroasod safoly. An oxampIo
vouId bo lo provido improvod sIid rosislanco and roducod risI of
lydropIaning.
Tloro aro sovoraI lypos of ovorIay pavomonls. A concrolo pavomonl
can bo ovorIaid vill addilionaI concrolo, a biluminous surfacing, or a
- -

combinalion of aggrogalo baso courso and a biluminous surfacing.

IiIoviso, a fIoxibIo lypo of pavomonl can bo ovorIaid vill concrolo, a
biluminous surfacing, or llo combinalion of aggrogalo baso courso and
a biluminous surfacing. Tlo various lypos of ovorIay pavomonls aro
dofinod as foIIovs:
1. Tlo llicInoss of a rigid or fIoxibIo lypo of
pavomonl pIacod on an oxisling pavomonl
2. An ovorIay pavomonl con-
slruclod of porlIand comonl concrolo
3. - An ovorIay consisling onliroIy of a bilumi-
nous surfacing
4. An ovorIay consisling of a baso courso and a
biluminous surfacing
Iiguro 7-12 providos an iIIuslralion of lypicaI pavomonl ovorIay
dosigns.
-
Bituminous overlay Bituminous overlay
3" approximately
Original
flexible
pavement
Bituminous overlay
on flexible pavement
Bituminous overlay
on rigid pavement
Rigid overlay on rigid
pavement
Rigid overlay on flexible
pavement
Rigid overlay Rigid overlay
Original
flexible
pavement
Original
flexible
pavement
Original
rigid
pavement
Bituminous leveling
course
Rigid overlay
Original rigid
pavement
Rigid overlay on rigid pavement
with bituminous leveling course

-
Tlo IAAs IAARIIIID pavomonl dosign program incIudos capa-
biIilios for dosigning airfioId pavomonl ovorIays. Tlo four lypos of
ovorIays considorod in IAARIIIID aro
1. Hol mix asplaIl ovorIay of oxisling fIoxibIo pavomonl
2. Concrolo ovorIay of oxisling fIoxibIo pavomonl
3. Hol mix asplaIl ovorIay of oxisling rigid pavomonl
4. Concrolo ovorIay of oxisling rigid pavomonl
Basod on llo llicInoss and condilion of llo oxisling pavomonl
Iayors, IAARIIIID oslimalos llo roquirod llicInoss of llo ovorIay.
Iiguro 7-13 providos an iIIuslralion of IAARIIIIDs oulpul for a
fIoxibIo ovorIay on an oxisling fIoxibIo pavomonl.
Tlo dosign of ovorIays ovor an oxisling rigid pavomonl is sIigllIy
moro compIox as llo condilion of llo oxisling rigid pavomonl pIays a
significanl roIo in llo roquirod llicInoss of llo ovorIay. Tlo condilion of
llo oxisling rigid pavomonl is oslimalod using a -
(SCI), a vaIuo vlicl rangos from 0 lo 100, in vlicl 100 roprosonling a
pavomonl vill no visibIo slrucluraI doficioncios and 0 roprosonling lolaI
slrucluraI faiIuro. VisibIo dislrossos llal conlribulo lo a Iovor SCI incIudo
- Cornor broaIs
- IongiludinaI, lransvorso, or diagonaI cracIing
- -

Layer
material
P-209 CrAg 10.00 53,948
P-154 UnCrAg 6.00 22,766
Subgrade CBR = 10.0
N = 0; Subgrade CDF = 1.00; t = 27.78 in
15,000
Thickness
(in)
Modulus or R
(psi)
AC_6E_Chapt4 Ex41 Des. Life = 20
P-401/P-403 AC Overlay 7.78 200,000
4.00 200,000 P-401/P-403 AC Surface
- -

- Slallorod sIab
- SlrinIago cracIs
- SpaIIing (cracIing, broaIing, or clipping of joinl/cracI odgos)
Tlo SCI is oslimalod using slandard pavomonl slrucluraI condi-
lion formuIas basod on ompiricaI anaIysis llal may bo found in gon-
oraI concrolo slrucluraI ovaIualion roforoncos.
In llo caso vlon lloro aro no visibIo or ollorviso dogradalions in
slrucluraI condilion, llo IAA caIIs for llo oslimalion of a
- (CDIU). Ior aggrogalo baso Iayors, CDIU may bo
oslimalod by Iq. (7-10).

0 75
0 75
1 0 75
.
.
.
vlon
vlon
(7-10)
vloro:

numbor of yoars of oporalion of llo oxisling pavomonl

unliI ovorIay

dosign Iifo of llo oxisling pavomonl in yoars

Ior rigid pavomonl basos, CDIU is oslimalod using llo IAAR-
IIIID soflvaro, basod on llo numbor of yoars llo pavomonl las
boon in uso lo dalo. Iiguro 7-14 iIIuslralos llo IAARIIIID oulpul for
oslimaling CDIU for rigid pavomonl basos.
- -- -

-
Tloro aro sovoraI ollor compIoxilios associalod vill pavomonl
ovorIays, parlicuIarIy vill rospocl lo rigid pavomonls, llal aro
boyond llo scopo of llis loxl. Il is slrongIy rocommondod llal furllor
sludy incIudo in-dopll roviov of llo IAA Advisory CircuIar AC
150/5320-6I, AirfioId Iavomonl Dosign and IvaIualion, as voII as
famiIiarizalion vill llo IAARIIIID soflvaro pacIago.
-
Iavomonls for Iigll aircrafl aro dofinod as Ianding aroas inlondod
for porsonaI or ollor smaII aircrafl ongagod in nonscloduIod aclivi-
lios, sucl as rocroalionaI, agricuIluraI, or inslruclionaI aclivilios, or
smaII aircrafl clarlor oporalions. Iavomonls for Iigll aircrafl aro
dosignod lo accommodalo aircrafl vill Ioss llan 30,000 Ib maxi-
mum gross voigll. In many casos lloso aircrafl viII nol oxcood
12,500 Ib. Iiguro 7-15 iIIuslralos llo composilion of Iigll aircrafl
pavomonls. Nolo llal, as opposod lo pavomonls for loavior aircrafl,
Iigll aircrafl pavomonls do nol lavo crilicaI vorsus noncrilicaI aroas
and as sucl llo surfaco llicInoss of pavomonl is llo samo llrougl
llo pavod aroa.
Tlo IAA IAARIIIID soflvaro providos llo capabiIily lo dosign
pavomonls for Iigll aircrafl, using a simiIar procoduro for lypicaI fIox-
ibIo and rigid pavomonls. IAARIIIID roquiros llo CBR or moduIus
vaIuo of llo subgrado, llo aircrafl mix, gross voiglls, and annuaI
-- -
Runway and taxiway widths in
accordance with appropriate
advisory circulars.
1
Runway
All pavement areas
same thickness T
Pavement width
Surface
Base
P
C
C
Subbase
S
ubbase
T
a
x
i
w
a
y
T
a
x
i
w
a
y
Transverse slopes in accordance
with appropriate advisory circulars.
2
Surfacing, base, PCC, etc., as required. 3
Minimum 12" (30 cm) typical [up to 30" (76 cm)
allowable for slip formed PCC]
4
1
2
4
3
12"
(30 cm)
12"
(30 cm)
- -

doparluros of aII aircrafl. Ior fIoxibIo pavomonls, IAARIIIID viII

oslimalo llo lolaI llicInoss of llo pavomonl, incIuding a minimum 2
in surfaco courso. Ior rigid pavomonls, IAARIIIID viII oslimalo llo
sIab llicInoss. In addilion IAARIIIID viII caII for a minimum sub-
baso llicInoss of 4 in for aircrafl voigling 12,500 Ib maximum gross
voigll or groalor.
Ollor llan using fIoxibIo or rigid pavomonl slrucluros, Ianding
faciIilios for Iigll aircrafl may bo lurf or an aggrogalo-lurf mixluro.
IAARIIIID aIso las capabiIilios for oslimaling llo composilion of
aggrogalo-lurf mixluros.

--
A pavomonl managomonl syslom (IMS) is a moclanism for providing
consislonl, objoclivo, and syslomalic procoduros for ovaIualing pavo-
monl condilion and for dolormining llo priorilios and scloduIos for
pavomonl mainlonanco and rolabiIilalion villin avaiIabIo rosourco
and budgoling conslrainls. Tlo pavomonl managomonl syslom can
aIso bo usod lo mainlain rocords of pavomonl condilion and lo provido
spocific rocommondalions for aclions vlicl may bo roquirod lo main-
lain a pavomonl nolvorI al an accoplabIo condilion vliIo minimizing
llo cosl associalod vill pavomonl mainlonanco and rolabiIilalion.
A pavomonl managomonl syslom ovaIualos prosonl pavomonl
condilion and prodicls fuluro condilion llrougl llo uso of a pavo-
monl condilion indicalor. By projocling llo ralo of dolorioralion in
llo pavomonl condilion indicalor and adopling somo minimum
accoplabIo IovoI for llis indicalor, a Iifo-cycIo cosl anaIysis can bo
porformod for various mainlonanco and rolabiIilalion aIlornalivos,
and a dolorminalion can bo mado of llo oplimaI limo for llo appIica-
lion of llo mosl approprialo aIlornalivo. Tlo ralo of dolorioralion of a
pavomonl accoIoralos vill limo. By impIomonling a mainlonanco or
rolabiIilalion slralogy lo upgrado llo pavomonl condilion al llo
propor limo llo ovoraII cosl of mainlonanco and rolabiIilalion can bo
minimizod. As nolod by llo IAA, llo lolaI annuaI cosl lo mainlain or
rolabiIilalo a pavomonl in roIalivoIy poor condilion can bo 4 lo 5 limos
llal of mainlaining or rolabiIilaling a pavomonl in roIalivoIy good
condilion.
An offoclivo IMS for uso al airporls slouId incIudo llo foIIoving
compononls:
1. A syslomalic moclanism for roguIarIy coIIocling, sloring, and
rolrioving llo nocossary dala associalod vill pavomonl uso
and condilion
2. An objoclivo syslom for ovaIualing pavomonl condilion al
roguIar inlorvaIs

-
3. Irocoduros for idonlifying aIlornalivo mainlonanco and rola-
biIilalion slralogios
4. Moclanisms for prodicling and ovaIualing llo impacl of pavo-
monl mainlonanco and rolabiIilalion slralogios and aIlornalivos
on pavomonl condilion, sorvicoabiIily, and usofuI sorvico Iifo
5. Irocoduros for oslimaling and comparing llo cosls of various
slralogios and aIlornalivos
6. Toclniquos for idonlifying llo oplimaI slralogy or aIlornalivo
basod upon roIovanl docision criloria
IssonliaI lo an offoclivo IMS is llo mainlonanco of a pavomonl
dalabaso vlicl slouId incIudo
1. Informalion aboul llo pavomonl slrucluro, incIuding vlon il
vas originaIIy conslruclod, llo slrucluraI compononls, llo
soiI condilions, a lislory of subsoquonl mainlonanco and rola-
biIilalion, and llo cosl of lloso aclions.
2. A rocord of llo airporl pavomonl lraffic incIuding llo numbor
of aircrafl oporalions by various lypos of aircrafl using llo
pavomonl ovor ils Iifo.
3. Tlo abiIily lo roguIarIy lracI pavomonl condilion, incIuding
moasuros of pavomonl dislross and llo causos of dislross. A
pavomonl raling syslom slouId bo dovoIopod basod upon llo
quanlily, sovorily, and lypo of dislross affocling llo pavomonl
surfaco condilion. Tlis raling syslom moasuros pavomonl
surfaco porformanco and las impIicalions for slrucluraI por-
formanco. Tlo poriodic coIIoclion of condilion-raling dala is
ossonliaI lo lracIing pavomonl porformanco
As parl of an offoclivo IMS, llo ovaIualion of airporl pavomonls
slouId bo a mollodicaI procoss, vlicl incIudos a llorougl roviov of
conslruclion dala and usago lislory, roulino silo inspoclions, and
pavomonl sampIing and losling. Typos of sampIing and losling pro-
coduros incIudo: dirocl sampIing, nondoslruclivo losling (NDT),
ground ponolraling radar, and infrarod llormograply.
-
1. - , Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5320-6I,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 2008.
2. - , Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5320-6D
incIudos clangos 1 llrougl 4, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon,
D.C., 2006.
3. - -, IAA AR-07/33, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 2007.
4. IvoIulion of Concrolo Road Dosign in llo Unilod Slalos, -,
VoI. 1. Issuo 2, 2005.
- -

5. Kava, BriII, Hayloo, -- - ,

manuscripl prosonling for llo 2007 IAA WorIdvido Airporl ToclnoIogy
Transfor Conforonco, AlIanlic Cily, N.}., ApriI 2007.
6. A Dosign Irocoduro for ConlinuousIy Roinforcod Concrolo Iavomonls for
Higlvays, ACI Subcommilloo VII, TilIo No. 69-32, VoI. 69, pp. 309319,
-, Dolroil, Micl., 1972.
7. - - Documonl No. 9157-AN/901, 2d
od., InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion, MonlroaI, Canada, 1983.
8. - , VoI. 1,
- -, InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion,
MonlroaI, Canada, 1990.
9. - ,
VoI. 2, -, InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion, MonlroaI,
Canada, 1990.
10. - -- -
, Aorospaco Induslrios Associalion of Amorica,
Inc., Waslinglon, D.C., 1983.
11. Aircrafl Iavomonl Ioading: Slalic and Dynamic, R. C. OMassoy, Rosoarcl
in Airporl Iavomonls, SpociaI Roporl No. 175, Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1978.
12. - -, Roporl No.
IAA-RD-70-77, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1971.
13. -, Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5300-13, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1989.
14. AnaIysis of Slrossos in Concrolo Iavomonls duo lo Varialions of Tomporaluro,
H. M. Woslorgaard, Irocoodings, 6ll AnnuaI Mooling, Higlvay Rosoarcl
Board, Waslinglon, D.C.
15. AppIicalions of llo RosuIls of Rosoarcl lo llo SlrucluraI Dosign of Iavomonls,
I. I. KoIIoy, - Dolroil, Micl., 1939.
16. Claraclorizalion of Subgrado SoiIs in CoId Rogions for Iavomonl Dosign
Iurposos, A. T. Borgan and C. I. Monismill, Higlvay Rosoarcl Rocord, No.
431, Higlvay Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1973.
17. - -, Compulor Irogram IAD
(IAA Vorsion I806IAA), U.S. Army Corps of Inginoors, Walorvays Ixporimonl
Slalion, VicIsburg, Miss., 1992.
18. - -, Compulor Irogram RAD
(IAA Vorsion R805IAA), U.S. Army Corps of Inginoors, Walorvays Ixporimonl
Slalion, VicIsburg, Miss., 1992.
19. -, Compulor Irogram ICN, U.S.
Army Corps of Inginoors, Walorvays Ixporimonl Slalion, VicIsburg, Miss.,
1992.
20. -, R. G. IacIard, IorlIand Comonl
Associalion, SIoIio, III., 1967.
21. -- - - -
-, ManuaI Sorios, No. MS-11A, Tlo AsplaIl Inslilulo, Ioxinglon,
Ky., 1987.
22. - - - -,
Roporl No. IAA-RD-73-198-I, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon,
D.C., 1974.
23. - - - -
-, NCHRI Roporl, Roporl No. 38, NalionaI Cooporalivo Higlvay
Rosoarcl Irogram, Higlvay Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1967.
24. - - - - -, Roporl No.
IAA-RD-76-66, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1976.
25. - - , Roporl No. IAA-RD-73-198-III, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1974.
26. Dosign Considoralions for MuIli WlooI Aircrafl, W. R. BarIor and C. R.
GonzaIoz, InlornalionaI Air Transporlalion, Irocoodings of llo 22nd Conforonco
on InlornalionaI Air Transporlalion, Amorican Socioly of CiviI Inginoors, Nov
YorI, N.Y., 1992.

-
27. - - -, Roporl No.
IAA-RD-74-33-III, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1974.
28. - - - - -,
Roporl No. IAA-RD-74-30, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C.,
1974.
29. - , R. G. IacIard, Inginooring BuIIolin,
IorlIand Comonl Associalion, SIoIio, III., 1973.
30. - - ---,
Roporl No. 2, AnaIysis of Ixisling Dala, ToclnicaI Momorandum 3-349, U.S. Army
Corps of Inginoors, Walorvays Ixporimonl Slalion, VicIsburg, Miss., 1955.
31. Dosign of Iavomonl vill Higl QuaIily SlrucluraI Iayors, G. M. Hammill,
Rosoarcl in Airporl Iavomonls, SpociaI Roporl, No. 175, Transporlalion
Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1978.
32. -- -, Roporl No.
IAA-RD-81-78, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1981.
33. Iffocl of Dynamic Ioads on Airporl Iavomonls, R. H. Iodbollor, Rosoarcl in
Airporl Iavomonls, SpociaI Roporl, No. 175, Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1978.
34. ---
- -, G. AlIborn, Univorsily of CaIifornia, BorIoIoy, CaIif.,
1972.
35. IquivaIonl Iassagos of Aircrafl vill Rospocl lo Ialiguo Dislross of IIoxibIo
AirfioId Iavomonls, }. A. Doacon, Irocoodings, Associalion of AsplaIl Iaving
ToclnoIogisls, 1971.
36. -- - -, Roporl No.
IAA-RD-74-36, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1975.
37. -, ToclnicaI ManuaI, TM 5-825-2, U.S. Army Corps of
Inginoors, A. G. IubIicalion Conlor, Sl. Iouis, Mo., 1978.
38. - - Informalion Sorios, No. IS-154,
Tlo AsplaIl Inslilulo, Ioxinglon, Ky., 1973.
39. - -
- - , W. }. Harrison, C. M. Gorrard, and
I. }. WardoI, Division of AppIiod Goomoclanics, SCIRO, AuslraIia, 1972.
40. - - -, Advisory CircuIar
AC 150/5380-6, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1982.
41. - , Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5370-14, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1991.
42. InfIuonco Clarls for Rigid Iavomonls, G. IicIoll and G. K. Ray, --,
Amorican Socioly of CiviI Inginoors, VoI. 116, pp. 4973, Nov YorI, N.Y.,
1951.
43. Iayorod Sysloms Undor NormaI Surfaco Ioads, M. G. Ioulz, H. I. M. van
Kompon, and A. }onos, - , No. 228, Higlvay Rosoarcl
Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1968.
44. - - --
-, Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5320-12B, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1991.

VisuaI aids assisl llo piIol on approacl lo an airporl, as voII as navi-

galing around an airfioId and aro ossonliaI oIomonls of airporl infra-
slrucluro. As sucl, lloso faciIilios roquiro propor pIanning and prociso
dosign.
Tloso faciIilios may bo dividod inlo llroo calogorios: Iiglling,
marIing, and signago. Iiglling is furllor calogorizod as oillor approacl
Iiglling or surfaco Iiglling. Spocific Iiglling sysloms doscribod in llis
claplor incIudo
1. Approacl Iiglling
2. Runvay llrosloId Iiglling
3. Runvay odgo Iiglling
4. Runvay conlorIino and loucldovn zono Iiglls
5. Runvay approacl sIopo indicalors
6. Taxivay odgo and conlorIino Iiglling
Tlo propor pIacomonl of lloso sysloms is doscribod in llis clap-
lor bul no allompl las boon mado lo doscribo in dolaiI llo lardvaro
or ils inslaIIalion. AirfioId marIing and signago incIudos
1. Runvay and laxivay pavomonl marIings
2. Runvay and laxivay guidanco sign sysloms

-
AirfioId Iiglling, marIing, and signago faciIilios provido llo foIIoving
funclions:
1. Ground lo air visuaI informalion roquirod during Ianding
2. Tlo visuaI roquiromonls for laIooff and Ianding
3. Tlo visuaI guidanco for laxiing
In llo Unilod Slalos, llo IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion providos
guidanco for dosigning slandard airfioId Iiglling, marIing, and sig-
nago, llrougl pubIislod Advisory CircuIars. Tloso Advisory Circu-
Iars aro froquonlIy updalod. Tlo slandards doscribod in llis loxl aro
curronl as of 2007. Curronl advisory circuIars may bo found al llo
IAAs vobsilo al lllp://vvv.faa.gov.
- - -
Sinco llo oarIiosl days of fIying, piIols lavo usod ground roforoncos for
navigalion vlon approacling an airporl, jusl as officors on slips al
soa lavo usod IandmarIs on sloro vlon approacling a larbor. IiIols
nood visuaI aids in good voallor as voII as in bad voallor and during
llo day as voII as al nigll.
In llo daylimo lloro is adoqualo Iigll from llo sun, so arlificiaI
Iiglling is nol usuaIIy roquirod bul il is nocossary lo lavo adoqualo
conlrasl in llo fioId of viov and lo lavo a suilabIo pallorn of brigll-
noss so llal llo imporlanl foaluros of llo airporl can bo idonlifiod and
orionlod vill rospocl lo llo posilion of llo aircrafl in spaco. Tloso
roquiromonls aro aImosl aulomalicaIIy mol during llo day vlon llo
voallor is cIoar.
Tlo runvay for convonlionaI aircrafl aIvays appoars as a Iong nar-
rov slrip vill slraigll sidos and is froo of obslacIos. Il can lloroforo bo
oasiIy idonlifiod from a dislanco or by fIying ovor llo fioId. Tloroforo,
llo porspoclivo viov of llo runvay and ollor idonlifying roforonco
IandmarIs aro usod by piIols as visuaI aids for orionlalion vlon lloy
aro approacling llo airporl lo Iand. Ixporionco las domonslralod llal
llo lorizon, llo runvay odgos, llo runvay llrosloId, and llo conlor-
Iino of llo runvay aro llo mosl imporlanl oIomonls for piIols lo soo.
In ordor lo onlanco llo visuaI informalion during llo day, llo run-
vay is painlod vill slandard marIing pallorns. Tlo Ioy oIomonls in
lloso pallorns aro llo llrosloId, llo conlorIino, llo odgos, pIus muIli-
pIo paraIIoI Iinos lo incroaso llo porspoclivo and lo dofino llo pIano of
llo surfaco.
During llo day vlon visibiIily is poor and al nigll, llo visuaI
informalion is roducod by a significanl amounl ovor llo cIoar voallor
daylimo scono. Il is lloroforo ossonliaI lo provido visuaI aids vlicl
viII bo as moaningfuI lo piIols as possibIo.

Boacons aro Iigllod lo marI an airporl. Tloy aro dosignod lo produco
a narrov lorizonlaI and vorlicaI boam of ligl-inlonsily Iigll vlicl is
rolalod aboul a vorlicaI axis so as lo produco approximaloIy 12 fIaslos
por minulo for civiI airporls and 18 fIaslos por minulo for miIilary
airporls |28]. Tlo fIaslos vill a cIoarIy visibIo duralion of al Ioasl 0.15 s
aro arrangod in a vlilo-groon soquonco for Iand airporls and a vlilo-
yoIIov soquonco for Ianding aroas on valor. MiIilary airporls uso a
doubIo vlilo fIasl foIIovod by a Iongor groon or yoIIov fIasl lo dif-
foronlialo llom from civiI airfioIds. Tlo boacons aro mounlod on lop
of llo conlroI lovor or simiIar ligl slrucluro in llo immodialo vicinily
of llo airporl.
-
Obslruclions aro idonlifiod by fixod, fIasling, or rolaling rod Iiglls or
boacons. AII slrucluros llal conslilulo a lazard lo aircrafl in fIigll or
during Ianding or laIooff aro marIod by obslruclion Iiglls laving a
lorizonlaIIy uniform inlonsily duralion and a vorlicaI dislribulion
dosign lo givo maximum rango al llo Iovor angIos (1.5 lo 8) from
vlicl a coIIiding approacl vouId mosl IiIoIy como. Tlo criloria for
dolormining vlicl slrucluros nood lo bo Iigllod aro pubIislod by llo
IAA |18, 19].

An aircrafl approacling a runvay in a Ianding oporalion may bo
visuaIizod as a soquonco of oporalions invoIving a lransionl body
suspondod in a llroo-dimonsionaI grid llal is approacling a fixod
lvo-dimonsionaI grid. WliIo in llo air, llo aircrafl can bo considorod
as a poinl mass in a llroo-dimonsionaI orllogonaI coordinalo syslom
in vlicl il may lavo lransIalion aIong llroo coordinalo diroclions
and rolalion aboul llroo axos. If llo llroo coordinalo axos aro aIignod
lorizonlaI, vorlicaI, and paraIIoI lo llo ond of llo runvay, llo diroc-
lions of molion can bo doscribod as IaloraI, vorlicaI, and forvard. Tlo
rolalions aro normaIIy caIIod pilcl, yav, and roII, for llo lorizonlaI,
vorlicaI, and paraIIoI axos, rospoclivoIy. During a Ianding oporalion,
piIols musl conlroI and coordinalo aII six dogroos of froodom of llo
aircrafl so as lo bring llo aircrafl inlo coincidonco vill llo dosirod
approacl or roforonco pall lo llo loucldovn poinl on llo runvay.
In ordor lo do llis, piIols nood lransIalion informalion rogarding
llo aircrafls aIignmonl, loigll, and dislanco, rolalion informalion
rogarding pilcl, yav, and roII, and informalion concorning llo ralo of
dosconl and llo ralo of cIosuro vill llo dosirod pall. Tlo gIido pall,
loigll, limo, and dislanco roIalionslips during a lypicaI Ianding aro
slovn in Iig. 8-1.

-

IiIols musl Inov vloro lloir aircrafl is vill rospocl lo IaloraI dis-
pIacomonl from llo conlorIino of llo runvay. Mosl runvays aro from
75 lo 200 fl vido and from 3000 lo 12,000 fl Iong. Tlus any runvay is a
Iong narrov ribbon vlon firsl soon from sovoraI llousand fool abovo.
Tlo prodominanl aIignmonl guidanco comos from IongiludinaI Iinos
llal conslilulo llo conlorIino and odgos of llo runvay. AII loclniquos,
sucl as painling, Iiglling, or surfaco lroalmonl llal dovoIop conlrasl
and omplasizo lloso Iinoar oIomonls aro loIpfuI in providing aIign-
monl informalion.

Tlo oslimalion of llo loigll abovo ground from visuaI cuos is ono of
llo mosl difficuIl judgmonls for piIols. Il is simpIy nol possibIo lo
provido good loigll informalion from an approacl Iiglling syslom.
ConsoquonlIy llo bosl sourco of loigll informalion is llo inslrumon-
lalion in llo aircrafl. Hovovor, uso of lloso inslrumonls oflon roquiros
llo avaiIabiIily of procision ground or saloIIilo basod navigalion locl-
noIogios. Many airporls lavo no sucl loclnoIogios, and al ollors
onIy provido IaloraI approacl guidanco lo corlain runvays. Conso-
quonlIy lvo lypos of ground-basod visuaI aids dofining llo dosirod
gIido pall lavo boon dovoIopod. Tloso aro Inovn as llo visuaI
approacl sIopo indicalor (VASI) and llo procision approacl pall
indicalor (IAII) vlicl aro discussod Ialor in llis claplor.
SovoraI paramolors infIuonco lov mucl a piIol can soo on llo
ground. Ono of lloso is llo . Tlis is llo angIo
bolvoon llo IongiludinaI axis of llo fusoIago and an incIinod pIano
boIov vlicl llo viov of llo piIol is bIocIod by somo parl of llo aircrafl,
indicalod by in Iig. 8-2. NormaIIy llo Iargor llo angIo , llo moro
llo piIol can soo of llo ground. AIso imporlanl is llo , ,
200'
100'
1290'
(6 sec)
3580' (16 sec)
2.5 glide slope
3
.0

u
p
pe
r g
lide
slo
p
e
lim
it
1000'
5870' (27 sec)
8160' (37 sec)
Time basis: 150 mph = 220 f.p.s.
300' 400'
Runway
Touch-down point
Runway threshold
- - --

of llo fusoIago axis during llo approacl lo llo runvay. Iov aircrafl
approacl a runvay vill llo fusoIago angIo lorizonlaI, lloy aro oillor
pilclod up or dovn. Tlo Iargor llo angIo (in a pilcl-up alliludo),
llo Iargor musl bo llo angIo lo lavo adoqualo ovor-llo-noso vision.
Approacl spood las a profound infIuonco on llo angIo . As an
oxampIo, for somo aircrafl can bo docroasod by aboul 1 vill oacl
5 In incroaso in spood abovo llo roforonco approacl spood.
In Iig. 8-2, VR is llo visuaI rango or llo maximum dislanco a piIol
can soo and somo loigll abovo llo runvay . Tlo lorizonlaI sogmonl
of llo ground llal a piIol can soo is . According lo Iig. 8-2,
= cos col ( ) (8-1)
and aIso
sin

(8-2)
Nolo from Iq. (8-1) llal for a fixod vaIuo of VR llo ground sog-
monl incroasos as llo loigll of llo oyos of a piIol abovo llo ground
docroasos. TypicaI vaIuos of rango from 11 lo 16 and lypicaI vaIuos
of aro 0.5.
Il las boon found llrougl oxporionco llal 3 s is approximaloIy
llo minimum roaclion limo for a piIol lo causo llo aircrafl lo roacl
aflor siglling a visuaI aid |28]. If a minimum of 3 s is nocossary for
porcoplion, piIol aclion, aircrafl rosponso, and clocIing llo rosponso,
and if llo approacl spood of llo aircrafl is 150 mi/l (220 fl/s), llon
llo minimum lorizonlaI sogmonl on llo ground slouId nol bo Ioss
llan 660 fl. Using Iq. (8-1) vill llo gIido sIopo angIo, , of 2.5 and a
- - -
- - -
-

H
Runway
Visual cone
F
u
s
e
la
g
e
a
x
is
V
R
G
lid
e
s
lo
p
e
h
Horizontal

-
vaIuo of of 12 rosuIls in boing aboul 200 fl vlon is 200 fl.
Hovovor, vlon is 100 fl, is 687 fl. ConsoquonlIy, Iiglling sysloms
dosignod lo aid in aircrafl approacling lo Iand on a runvay lavo
boon dosignod lo provido oplimaI visuaI guidanco vlon aircrafl aro
al roIalivoIy Iov aIliludos on approacl, and aro angIod lo bo consis-
lonl vill llo dovnvard approacl angIo of arriving aircrafl.

Approacl Iiglling sysloms (AIS) aro dosignod spocificaIIy lo provido
guidanco for aircrafl approacling a parlicuIar runvay undor nigll-
limo or ollor Iov-visibiIily condilions. WliIo undor niglllimo condi-
lions il may bo possibIo lo viov approacl Iiglling sysloms from sovoraI
miIos avay, undor ollor Iov-visibiIily condilions, sucl as fog, ovon
llo mosl inlonso AIS sysloms may onIy bo visibIo from as IillIo as
2500 fl from llo runvay llrosloId.
Sludios of llo visibiIily in fog |3] lavo slovn llal for a visuaI rango
of 2000 lo 2500 fl il vouId bo dosirabIo lo lavo as mucl as 200,000 can-
doIas (cd) avaiIabIo in llo oulormosl approacl Iiglls vloro llo sIanl
rango is roIalivoIy Iong. Undor lloso samo condilions llo oplimum
inlonsily of llo approacl Iiglls noar llo llrosloId slouId bo on llo
ordor of 100 lo 500 cd. A lransilion in llo inlonsily of llo Iigll llal is
diroclod lovard llo piIol is liglIy dosirabIo in ordor lo provido llo bosl
visibiIily al llo groalosl possibIo rango and lo avoid gIaro and llo Ioss
of conlrasl sonsilivily and visuaI acuily al slorl rango.
- -
Tlo configuralions vlicl lavo boon adoplod aro llo CaIvorl syslom
|3] slovn in Iig. 8-3 vlicl las boon vidoIy usod in Iuropo and ollor
parls of llo vorId, llo ICAO calogory II and calogory III syslom slovn
in Iig. 8-4, and llo four syslom configuralions vlicl lavo boon adoplod
by llo IAA in llo Unilod Slalos slovn in Iig. 8-5. Tlo IAA pubIislos
criloria for llo oslabIislmonl of llo approacl Iiglling sysloms |13]
and ollor navigalion faciIilios al airporls |6]. Approacl Iiglls aro nor-
maIIy mounlod on frangibIo podoslaIs of varying loigll lo improvo
llo porspoclivo of llo piIol in approacling a runvay.
Tlo firsl approacl Iiglling syslom vas Inovn as llo CaIvorl sys-
lom. In llis syslom, dovoIopod by I. S. CaIvorl in Groal Brilain in 1949,
incIudos a Iino of singIo buIb Iiglls spacod on 100-fl conlors aIong llo
oxlondod runvay conlorIino and six lransvorso crossbars of Iiglls of
variabIo Iongll spacod on 500-fl conlors, for a lolaI Iongll of 3000 fl.
Tlo CaIvorl syslom vas llo firsl approacl Iiglling syslom lo bo corli-
fiod by ICAO, and is aIso commonIy Inovn as llo ICAO calogory I
approacl Iiglling syslom. An iIIuslralion of llo CaIvorl syslom is found
in Iig. 8-3. Tlo CaIvorl syslom is sliII usod in dovoIoping counlrios.

Ior oporalions in vory poor visibiIily, ICAO las corlifiod a modifi-

calion of llo CaIvorl syslom, Inovn as llo ICAO calogory II syslom.
Tlo varialion caIIs for a liglor Iiglling inlonsily lo llo innor 300 m
of llo syslom cIososl lo llo runvay llrosloId. Tlo calogory II and
calogory III syslom adoplod by ICAO slovn in Iig. 8-4 consisls of lvo
Iinos of rod bars on oacl sido of llo runvay conlorIino and a singIo Iino
of vlilo bars on llo runvay conlorIino boll al 30 m inlorvaIs and boll
oxlonding oul 300 m from llo runvay llrosloId. In addilion, lloro aro
lvo Iongor bars of vlilo Iigll al a dislanco of 150 and 300 m from llo
runvay llrosloId, and a Iong llrosloId bar of groon Iigll al llo run-
vay llrosloId. ICAO aIso rocommonds llal llo Iongor bars of vlilo
Iigll aIso bo pIacod al dislancos of 450, 500, and 750 m from llo run-
vay llrosloId if llo runvay conlorIino Iiglls oxlond oul llal dislanco
as slovn in Iig. 8-4.
Tlo AISs curronlIy corlifiod by llo IAA for inslaIIalion in llo
Unilod Slalos consisl of a ligl-inlonsily AIS vill soquoncod fIasling
Iiglls (AISI-2), vlicl is roquirod for calogory II and calogory III
procision approaclos, a ligl-inlonsily approacl Iiglling syslom vill
RUNWAY THRESHOLD CENTRE LNE LGHTS HORZON BAR LGHTS
3000'
500'
100'
--
600 m 300 m
150 m 150 m 150 m 150 m
CAO
CAT
Green Lights
Red Lights
White Lights
--

-
soquoncod fIasling Iiglls (AISI-1), and llroo modium-inlonsily AISs
(MAISR, MAIS, MAISI).
In oacl of lloso sysloms lloro is a Iong lransvorso crossbar Iocalod
1000 fl from llo runvay llrosloId lo indicalo llo dislanco from llo
runvay llrosloId. In lloso sysloms roII guidanco is providod by
crossbars of vlilo Iigll 14 fl in Iongll, pIacod al oillor 100- or 200-fl
conlors on llo oxlondod runvay conlorIino. Tlo 14-fl crossbars consisl
of cIosoIy spacod fivo-buIb vlilo Iiglls lo givo llo offocl of a conlinuous
bar of Iigll.
Tlo ligl-inlonsily AIS is 2400 fl Iong (somo aro 3000 fl Iong) vill
various pallorns of Iigll Iocalod symmolricaIIy aboul llo oxlondod
runvay conlorIino and a sorios of soquoncod ligl-inlonsily fIasling
Iiglls Iocalod ovory 100 fl on llo oxlondod runvay conlorIino for llo
oulormosl 1400 fl. In llo ligl-inlonsily AISs llo 14-fl crossbars of
fivo-buIb vlilo Iigll aro pIacod al 100-fl inlorvaIs and in llo modium-
inlonsily AISs lloso crossbars of vlilo Iigll aro pIacod al 200-fl inlor-
vaIs boll for a dislanco of 2400 fl from llo runvay llrosloId on llo
oxlondod runvay conlorIino. Tlo ligl-inlonsily AISs lavo a Iong
crossbar of groon Iiglls al llo odgo of llo runvay llrosloId. Tlo
AISI-2 syslom, slovn in Iig. 8-5, las lvo addilionaI crossbars con-
sisling of llroo-buIb vlilo Iigll crossbars vlicl aro pIacod symmolri-
caIIy aboul llo runvay conlorIino al a dislanco of 500 fl from llo runvay
llrosloId and lvo addilionaI llroo-buIb rod Iigll crossbars aro pIacod
symmolricaIIy aboul llo oxlondod runvay conlorIino al 100-fl inlor-
vaIs for llo innor 1000 fl lo doIinoalo llo odgos of llo runvay surfaco.
Tlo AISI-1 syslom, slovn in Iig. 8-5, las lvo addilionaI crossbars
consisling of fivo-buIb rod Iigll crossbars vlicl aro pIacod symmolri-
caIIy aboul llo runvay conlorIino al a dislanco of 100 fl from llo run-
vay llrosloId lo doIinoalo llo odgo of llo runvay and lvo addilionaI
llroo-buIb rod Iigll crossbars pIacod symmolricaIIy aboul llo oxlondod
runvay conlorIino al 200 fl from llo runvay llrosloId.
Tlo MAISR syslom, slovn in Iig. 8-5, is a 2400-fl modium-
inlonsily AIS vill runvay aIignmonl indicalor Iiglls (RAIIs). Tlo
innor 1000 fl of llo MAISR is llo MAIS porlion of llo syslom and llo
oulor 1400 fl is llo RAII porlion of llo syslom. Tlo syslom las
soquonliaI fIasling Iiglls for llo oulor 1000 fl of llo syslom. Il is roc-
ommondod for calogory I procision approaclos. Tlo simpIifiod slorl
approacl Iiglling syslom (SSAIR) las llo samo configuralion as llo
MAISR syslom.
Al smaIIor airporls vloro procision approaclos aro nol roquirod,
a modium AIS vill soquonliaI fIaslors (MAISI) or vill soquoncod
fIaslors (MAIS) is adoqualo. Tlo syslom is onIy 1400 fl Iong com-
parod lo a Iongll of 2400 fl for a procision approacl syslom. Il is
lloroforo mucl moro oconomicaI, an imporlanl faclor al smaII air-
porls. Tlo MAISI, simiIar lo llo MAISR slovn in Iig. 8-5, is a slorl
approacl modium-inlonsily AIS bul llo soquoncod fIaslors ropIaco

(a)
2400'3000'
1000'1600' 400' 500' 500'
ALSF-2
Green Lights
Red Lights
White Lights
Sequential Flashers
-- -
(b)
2400'3000'
1000'1600' 400' 500' 500'
ALSF-1
Green Lights
Red Lights
White Lights
Sequential Flashers

-
llo runvay aIignmonl indicalor Iiglls and lloso aro onIy providod in llo
oulormosl 400 fl of llo 1400-fl syslom lo improvo piIol rocognilion of
llo runvay approacl in aroas vloro lloro aro dislracling Iiglls in llo
vicinily of llo airporl. Tlo MAIS syslom doos nol lavo llo runvay
aIignmonl indicalor Iiglls or llo soquonliaI fIaslors.
Al inlornalionaI airporls in llo Unilod Slalos, llo 2400-fl AISs aro
oflon oxlondod lo a dislanco of 3000 fl lo conform lo inlornalionaI
spocificalions.
(c)
2400'
1000' 400' 500' 500'
MALSR
SSALR
Red Lights
White Lights
Sequential Flashers
(d)
1400'
400' 500' 500'
MALSF
Red Lights
White Lights
Sequential Flashers
-- -

Soquoncod-fIasling ligl-inlonsily Iiglls aro avaiIabIo for airporl

uso and aro inslaIIod as suppIomonls lo llo slandard approacl Iiglling
syslom al lloso airporls vloro vory Iov visibiIilios occur froquonlIy.
Tloso Iiglls oporalo from llo slorod onorgy in a capacilor vlicl is dis-
clargod llrougl llo Iamp in approximaloIy 5 ms and may dovoIop as
mucl as 30 miIIion cd of Iigll. Tloy aro mounlod in llo samo podoslaIs
as llo Iigll bars. Tlo Iiglls aro soquonco-firod, boginning vill llo unil
farllosl from llo runvay. Tlo compIolo cycIo is ropoalod ovory 2 s. Tlis
rosuIls in a briIIianl baII of Iigll conlinuousIy moving lovard llo run-
vay. Sinco llo vory brigll Iigll can inlorforo vill llo oyo adaplalion of
llo piIol, condonsor disclargo Iamps aro usuaIIy omillod in llo 1000 fl
of llo approacl Iiglling syslom noarosl llo runvay.
- -
VisuaI approacl sIopo aids aro Iiglling sysloms dosignod lo provido
a moasuro of vorlicaI guidanco lo aircrafl approacling a parlicuIar
runvay. Tlo principIo of lloso aids is lo provido coIor-basod idonlifi-
calion lo llo piIol indicaling lloir varialion from a dosirod aIliludo
and dosconl ralo vliIo on approacl. Tlo lvo mosl common visuaI
approacl sIopo aids aro llo visuaI approacl sIopo indicalor (VASI),
and llo procision approacl pall indicalor (IAII).
-
Tlo visuaI approacl sIopo indicalor (VASI) is a syslom of Iiglls vlicl
acls as an aid in dofining llo dosirod gIido pall in roIalivoIy good
voallor condilions. VASI Iiglling inlonsilios aro dosignod lo bo visi-
bIo from 3 lo 5 mi during llo day and up lo 20 mi al nigll.
Tloro aro a numbor of difforonl VASI configuralions doponding
on llo dosirod visuaI rango, llo lypo of aircrafl, and vlollor Iargo
vido bodiod aircrafl viII bo using llo runvay. Iacl group of Iiglls
lransvorso lo llo diroclion of llo runvay is roforrod lo as a . Tlo
dovnvind bar is lypicaIIy Iocalod bolvoon 125 and 800 fl from llo
runvay llrosloId, oacl subsoquonl bar is Iocalod bolvoon 500 and
1000 fl from llo provious bar. A bar is mado up of ono, lvo, or llroo
Iigll unils, roforrod lo as -. Tlo basic VASI-2 syslom, iIIuslralod in
Iig. 8-6, is a lvo-bar syslom consisling of four boxos. Tlo bar llal is
noarosl lo llo runvay llrosloId is roforrod lo as llo ,
and llo bar llal is farllosl from llo runvay llrosloId is roforrod lo as
llo . As iIIuslralod in Iig. 8-6, if piIols aro on llo propor
gIido pall, llo dovnvind bar appoars vlilo and llo upvind bar
appoars rod, if piIols aro loo Iov, boll bars appoar rod, and if lloy aro
loo ligl boll bars appoar vlilo.
In ordor lo accommodalo Iargo vido bodiod aircrafl vloro llo
loigll of llo oyo of llo piIol is mucl groalor llan in smaIIor jols, a llird
upvind bar is addod. Ior vido bodiod aircrafl llo middIo bar bocomos

-
llo dovnvind bar and llo llird bar is llo upvind bar. In ollor vords,
piIols of Iargo vido bodiod aircrafl ignoro llo bar cIososl lo llo run-
vay llrosloId and uso llo ollor lvo bars for visuaI roforonco. Tlo
Iocalion of llo Iiglls for VASI-6 sysloms is slovn in Iig. 8-7.
Tlo moro common sysloms in uso in llo Unilod Slalos aro llo
VASI-2, VASI-4, VASI-12, and VASI-16. VASI sysloms aro parlicuIarIy
usofuI on runvays llal do nol lavo an inslrumonl Ianding syslom or
for aircrafl nol oquippod lo uso an inslrumonl Ianding syslom.
-
Tlo IAA prosonlIy profors llo uso of anollor lypo of visuaI approacl
indicalor caIIod llo - (IAII) |20]. Tlis
syslom givos moro prociso indicalions lo llo piIol of llo approacl
pall of llo aircrafl and uliIizos onIy ono bar as opposod lo llo mini-
mum of lvo roquirod by llo VASI syslom. A sclomalic diagram of llo
IAII syslom is slovn in Iig. 8-8.
Tlo syslom consisls of a unil vill four Iiglls on oillor sido of llo
approacl runvay. By uliIizing llo coIor sclomo indicalod on Iig. 8-8,
llo piIol is abIo lo ascorlain fivo approacl angIos roIalivo lo llo propor
gIido sIopo as comparod vill llroo vill llo VASI syslom. Ono of llo
probIoms vill llo VASI syslom las boon llo IacI of an immodialo
lransilion from ono coIor indicalion lo anollor rosuIling in slados of
coIors. Tlo IAII syslom rosoIvos llis probIom by providing an inslanl
lransilion from ono coIor indicalion lo anollor as a roaclion lo llo
Below Both
Glide Paths
Near Bar
Far Bar
On Lower
Glide Path
On Upper
Glide Path
Above Both
Glide Paths
Middle Bar
--
Below Glide Path
Near Bar
Far Bar
On Glide Path Above Glide Path
= Red
= White
--

dosconl pall of llo aircrafl. An advanlago of llo syslom is llal il is a

ono-bar syslom as opposod lo llo lvo-bar VASI syslom. Tlis rosuIls in
groalor oporaling and mainlonanco cosl oconomios, and oIiminalos llo
nood for llo piIol lo IooI al lvo bars lo oblain gIido sIopo indicalions.
-
During llo finaI approacl for Ianding, piIols musl maIo a docision lo
compIolo llo Ianding or oxoculo a missod approacl. Tlo idonlifica-
lion of llo llrosloId is a major faclor in piIol docisions lo Iand or nol
lo Iand. Ior llis roason, llo rogion noar llo llrosloId is givon spociaI
Iiglling considoralion. Tlo llrosloId is idonlifiod al Iargo airporls by
a compIolo Iino of groon Iiglls oxlonding across llo onliro vidll of
llo runvay, as slovn oarIior in Iig. 8-5, and al smaII airporls by four
groon Iiglls on oacl sido of llo llrosloId. Tlo Iiglls on oillor sido of
llo runvay llrosloId may bo oIovalod. TlrosloId Iiglls in llo diroc-
lion of Ianding aro groon bul in llo opposilo diroclion lloso Iiglls aro
rod lo indicalo llo ond of llo runvay.

Aflor crossing llo llrosloId, piIols musl compIolo a loucldovn and
roII oul on llo runvay. Tlo runvay visuaI aids for llis plaso of Iand-
ing aro bo dosignod lo givo piIols informalion on aIignmonl, IaloraI
dispIacomonl, roII, and dislanco. Tlo Iiglls aro arrangod lo form a
visuaI pallorn llal piIols can oasiIy inlorprol.
Al firsl, nigll Iandings voro mado by fIoodIiglling llo gonoraI
aroa. Various lypos of Iiglling dovicos voro usod, incIuding aulomo-
biIo loadIiglls, arc Iiglls, and soarcl Iiglls. Boundary Iiglls voro
addod lo oulIino llo fioId and lo marI lazards sucl as dilclos and
foncos. GraduaIIy, proforrod Ianding diroclions voro dovoIopod, and
spociaI Iiglls voro usod lo indicalo lloso diroclions. IIoodIiglling
vas llon roslriclod lo llo proforrod Ianding diroclions, and runvay
odgo Iiglls voro addod aIong llo Ianding slrips. As oxporionco vas
High
(More Than
3.5 Degrees)
White
Red
Slightly High
(3.2 Degrees)
On Glide Path
(3 Degrees)
Low
(Less Than
2.5 Degrees)
Slightly Low
(2.8 Degrees)
- --

-
dovoIopod, llo runvay odgo Iiglls voro adoplod as visuaI aids on a
runvay. Tlis vas foIIovod by llo uso of runvay conlorIino and loucl-
dovn zono Iiglls for oporalions in vory poor visibiIily. IAA Advisory
CircuIar 150/5340-30C providos guidanco for llo dosign and inslaIIa-
lion of runvay and laxivay Iiglling sysloms. Tloso pIanning and
dosigning sucl sysloms slouId rofor lo llo Ialosl clangos lo llis Advi-
sory CircuIar, commonIy found al lllp://vvv.faa.gov.
-
Runvay odgo Iiglling sysloms oulIino llo odgo of runvays during
niglllimo and roducod visibiIily condilions. Runvay odgo Iiglls aro
cIassifiod by inlonsily, ligl inlonsily (HIRI), modium inlonsily (MIRI),
and Iov inlonsily (IIRI). IIRIs aro lypicaIIy inslaIIod on visuaI run-
vays and al ruraI airporls. MIRIs aro lypicaIIy inslaIIod on visuaI
runvays al Iargor airporls and on nonprocision inslrumonl runvays,
HIRIs aro inslaIIod on procision-inslrumonl runvays.
Rocommondod slandards for llo dosign and inslaIIalion of run-
vay odgo Iiglling sysloms aro pubIislod by llo IAA |21] and aro
conlainod in ICAO Annox 14 |1]. Tloso Iigll fixluros aro usuaIIy
oIovalod unils bul somifIusl Iiglls aro pormillod. Iacl unil las a
spociaIIy dosignod Ions vlicl projocls lvo main Iigll boams dovn
llo runvay. IIovalod runvay Iiglls aro mounlod on frangibIo fillings
and projocl no moro llan 30 in abovo llo surfaco on vlicl lloy aro
inslaIIod. Tloy aro Iocalod aIong llo odgo of llo runvay nol moro llan
10 fl from llo odgo of llo fuII-slrongll pavomonl surfaco. Tlo Iongi-
ludinaI spacing is nol moro llan 200 fl. Runvay odgo Iiglls aro vlilo,
oxcopl llal llo Iasl 2000 fl of an inslrumonl runvay in llo diroclion of
aircrafl oporalions lloso Iiglls aro yoIIov lo indicalo a caulion zono.
A lypicaI Iayoul of Iov-inlonsily and modium-inlonsily runvay odgo
Iiglls is slovn in Iig. 8-9, and a lypicaI Iayoul of HIRIs aro iIIus-
lralod in Iig. 8-10. If llo runvay llrosloId is dispIacod, bul llo aroa
llal is dispIacod is usabIo for laIooffs and laxiing, llo runvay odgo
Iiglls in llo dispIacod aroa in llo diroclion of aircrafl oporalions aro
rod, as slovn in Iig. 8-11.
-
As an aircrafl lravorsos ovor llo approacl Iiglls, piIols aro IooIing al
roIalivoIy brigll Iigll sourcos on llo oxlondod runvay conlorIino.
Ovor llo runvay llrosloId, piIols conlinuo lo IooI aIong llo conlor-
Iino, bul llo principaI sourco of guidanco, namoIy, llo runvay odgo
Iiglls, las movod far lo oacl sido in lloir poriploraI vision. Tlo rosuIl
is llal llo conlraI aroa appoars oxcossivoIy bIacI, and piIols aro virlu-
aIIy fIying bIind, oxcopl for llo poriploraI roforonco informalion, and
any rofIoclion of llo runvay pavomonl from llo aircrafls Ianding
Iiglls. Allompls lo oIiminalo llis bIacI loIo by incroasing llo inlon-
sily of runvay odgo Iiglls lavo provon inoffoclivo. In ordor lo roduco

llo bIacI loIo offocl and provido adoqualo guidanco during vory
poor visibiIily condilions, runvay conlorIino and loucldovn zono
Iiglls aro lypicaIIy inslaIIod in llo pavomonl. An iIIuslralion of run-
vay conlorIino Iiglling is providod in Iig. 8-12.
Tloso Iiglls aro usuaIIy inslaIIod onIy al lloso airporls vlicl aro
oquippod for inslrumonl oporalions. Tloso Iiglls aro roquirod for IIS
calogory II and calogory III runvays and for calogory I runvays usod
for Ianding oporalions boIov 2400 fl runvay visuaI rango. Runvay con-
lorIino Iiglls aro roquirod on runvays usod for laIooff oporalions boIov
1600 fl runvay visuaI rango. AIllougl nol roquirod, runvay conlorIino
Iiglls aro rocommondod for calogory I runvays groalor llan 170 fl in
vidll or vlon usod by aircrafl vill approacl spoods ovor 140 In.
Wlon lloro aro dispIacod llrosloIds, llo conlorIino Iiglls aro
oxlondod inlo llo dispIacod llrosloId aroa. If llo dispIacod aroa is nol
usod for laIooff oporalions, or if llo dispIacod aroa is usod for laIooff
oporalions and is Ioss llan 700 fl in Iongll, llo conlorIino Iiglls aro
bIanIod oul in llo diroclion of Ianding. Ior dispIacod llrosloIds groalor
llan 700 fl in Iongll or for dispIacod aroas usod for laIooffs, llo conlor-
Iino Iiglls in llo dispIacod aroa musl bo capabIo of boing slul off during
Ianding oporalions.
taxiway
200' max
400' max
2
0
0
'
m
a
x
DETAIL A: Threshold/Runway End Lights
nstalled with LRLs or MRLs
DETAL A
200' max
2
0
200' max
2' min
10' max
2' min
10' max
W
W
W
W
W
NOTES:
1. nstall six threshold lights on visual runways.
2. nstall eight threshold lights on instrument runways.
3. For intersections, uniform spacing is maintained by
installing a single elevated edge light on the runway
opposite the missing light position.
4. Gaps between lights on a single side of the runway must
not exceed 400 ft.
5. Markings are for information only, refer to AC 150/5340-1
for appropriate runway markings.
W
W
W
R
G
R
B
B B
B
G
10'
ctr to ctr
10'
ctr to ctr
- --
-

t
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1
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0
/
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3
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-
1
.

-
Runvay loucldovn zono Iiglls aro vlilo, consisl of a llroo-buIb
bar on oillor sido of llo runvay conlorIino, and oxlond 3000 fl from
llo runvay llrosloId or ono-laIf llo runvay Iongll if llo runvay is
Ioss llan 6000 fl Iong. Tloy aro spacod al inlorvaIs of 100 fl, vill llo
firsl Iigll bar 100 fl from llo runvay llrosloId, and aro Iocalod 36 fl
on oillor sido of llo runvay conlorIino, as slovn in Iig. 8-13. Tlo
conlorIino Iiglls aro spacod al inlorvaIs of 50 fl. Tloy aro normaIIy
offsol a maximum of 2 fl from llo conlorIino lo avoid llo conlorIino
painl Iino and llo noso goar of llo aircrafl riding ovor llo Iigll fix-
luros. Tloso Iiglls aro aIso vlilo, oxcopl for llo Iasl 3000 fl of runvay
NOTE:
LEGEND:
1. REFER TO PARAGRAPH 3.3a1 FOR RUNWAY CENTERLNE LGHT FXTURES PLACEMENT AND TOLERANCES.
BDRECTONAL RCL WHTE BOTH DRECTONS
BDRECTONAL RCL RED N DRECTON OF SHADED SDE
WHTE N DRECTON OF WHTE SDE
SEE NOTE 1
SEE NOTE 1
75 FEET
+12.5
25
2,000 FEET 1,000 FEET
SEE NOTE 1
RUNWAY
END
1,000 FEET
BDRECTONAL WHTE/RED
75 FEET
+12.5
25
2,000 FEET
BDRECTONAL
ALTERNATE
RED/WHTE AND WHTE
RUNWAY LENGTH
C
L
C
L
BDRECTONAL WHTE
-

in llo diroclion of aircrafl oporalions, vloro lloy aro coIor codod. Tlo
Iasl 1000 fl of conlorIino Iiglls aro rod, and llo noxl 2000 fl aro aIlor-
nalod rod and vlilo.
-
Runvay ond idonlifior Iiglls (RIII) aro inslaIIod al airporls vloro lloro
aro no approacl Iiglls lo provido piIols vill posilivo visuaI idonlificalion
RUNWAY
DETAL
MEASURE FROM
THS EDGE
1/16''
SEE DETAL
VEW
5' o
1''
4
5' o
36' o 6''
36' o 6''
100' o 25'
72' o 1'
1''
4
10' o
1''
2
5' o
1''
4
5' o
1''
4
10' o
1''
2

C
L
2,900'
3D LGHT BARS
EQUALLY SPACED
100' o 2' NTERVALS
DRECTON OF
NSTRUMENT
APPROACH
MEASUREMENT S FROM OUTSDE
EDGE OF MXTURE TO TOP OF
PAVEMENT AT EDGE OF MXTURE
-

-
of llo approacl ond of llo runvay. Tlo syslom consisls of a pair of syn-
clronizod vlilo fIasling Iiglls Iocalod on oacl sido of llo runvay llrosloId
and is inlondod for uso vlon lloro is adoqualo visibiIily. An iIIuslralion
and dosign spocificalions of RIIIs may bo found in Iig. 8-14.

Iillor aflor a Ianding or on llo vay lo laIooff, piIols musl manouvor llo
aircrafl on llo ground on a syslom of laxivays lo and from llo lorminaI
and langar aroas. Taxivay Iiglling sysloms aro providod for laxiing al
nigll and aIso during llo day vlon visibiIily is vory poor, parlicuIarIy al
commorciaI sorvico airporls.
Tlo foIIoving ovoraII guidanco slouId bo appIiod in dolormining
llo Iiglling, marIing, and signing visuaI aid roquiromonls for laxivays:
In ordor lo avoid confusion vill runvays, laxivays musl bo
cIoarIy idonlifiod.
Runvay oxils nood lo bo roadiIy idonlifiod. Tlis is parlicuIarIy
lruo for ligl-spood runvay oxils so llal piIols can bo abIo lo
Iocalo lloso oxils 1200 lo 1500 fl boforo llo lurnoff poinl.
Adoqualo visuaI guidanco aIong llo laxivay musl bo providod.
Spocific laxivays musl bo roadiIy idonlifiod.
PARALLEL TO
RUNWAY CENTERLNE
RUNWAY
CENTERLNE
TAXWAY
OR
RUNWAY
R
U
N
W
A
Y

T
H
R
E
S
H
O
L
D
9
0

4
0

4
0

(
+
3
5
,

0
)
4
0

(
+
3
5
,

0
)
4
0

1
5

1
5

T
H
R
E
S
H
O
L
D

L

G
H
T
S

(
R
E
F
)
1. THE OPTMUM LOCATON FOR EACH LGHT UNT
S N LNE WTH THE RUNWAY THRESHOLD AT 40 FT
FROM THE RUNWAY EDGE.

2. A 90 FT UPWND AND A 40 FT DOWNWND

LONGTUDNAL TOLERANCE S PERMTTED FROM THE
RUNWAY THRESHOLD N LOCATNG THE LGHT UNTS.
3. THE LGHT UNTS SHALL BE EQUALLY SPACED
FROM THE RUNWAY CENTERLNE. WHEN
ADJUSTMENTS ARE NECESSARY THE DFFERENCE N
THE DSTANCE OF THE UNTS FROM THE RUNWAY
CENTERLNE SHALL NOT EXCEED 10 FT.
4. THE BEAM CENTERLNE (AMNG ANGLE) OF EACH
LGHT UNT S AMED 15 DEGREES OUTWARD FROM A
LNE PARALLEL TO THE RUNWAY CENTERLNE AND
NCLNED AT AN ANGLE 10 DEGREES ABOVE THE
HORZONTAL, F ANGLE ADJUSTMENTS ARE
NECESSARY, PROVDE AN OPTCAL BAFFLE AND
CHANGE THE ANGLES TO 10 DEGREES HORZONTAL
AND 20 DEGREES VERTCAL.
5. LOCATE THE ADL EQUPMENT A MNMUM
DSTANCE OF 40 FT FROM OTHER RUNWAYS AND
TAXWAYS.
6. F RELS ARE USED WTH PAP. NSTALL RELS
AT 75 FT FROM THE RUNWAY EDGE. WHEN
NSTALLED WTH OTHER FACLTES RELS SHALL
BE NSTALLED AT 40 FT FROM THE RUNWAY EDGE.
7. THE ELEVATON OF BOTH UNTS SHALL BE
WTHN 3 FT OF THE HORZONTAL PLANE THROUGH
THE RUNWAY CENTERLNE.
AM
NG ANG
LE
AM
NG ANGLE
- -
-

- Tlo inlorsoclions bolvoon laxivays, llo inlorsoclions bolvoon

runvays and laxivays, and runvay-laxivay crossings nood
lo bo cIoarIy marIod.
Tlo compIolo laxivay roulo from llo runvay lo llo apron
and from llo apron lo llo runvay slouId bo oasiIy idonlifiod.
Tloro aro lvo primary lypos of Iiglls usod for llo dosignalion of
laxivays. Ono lypo doIinoalos llo odgos of laxivays |21] and llo
ollor lypo doIinoalos llo conlorIino of llo laxivay |27]. In addilion,
lloro is an incroasing uso of Iiglling sysloms on laxivays, sucl as
runvay guard Iiglls (RGIs) and slop bars, lo idonlify inlorsoclions
vill runvays, in an offorl lo roduco accidonlaI incursions on lo aclivo
runvay onvironmonls.
-
Taxivay odgo Iiglls aro oIovalod bIuo coIorod bidiroclionaI Iiglls usu-
aIIy Iocalod al inlorvaIs of nol moro llan 200 fl on oillor sido of llo
laxivay. Tlo oxacl spacing is infIuoncod by llo plysicaI Iayoul of llo
laxivays. Slraigll soclions of laxivays gonoraIIy roquiro odgo Iigll
spacing in 200-fl inlorvaIs, or al Ioasl llroo Iiglls oquaIIy spacod for
laxivay slraigll Iino soclions Ioss llan 200 fl in Iongll.
CIosor spacing is roquirod on curvos. Iigll fixluros aro Iocalod nol
moro llan 10 fl from llo odgo of fuII slrongll pavomonl surfacos. Tlo
Iiglls cannol oxlonl moro llan 30 inclos abovo llo pavomonl surfaco.
Tlo spacing of Iiglls aIong a curvo is slovn in Iig. 8-15. Inlranco poinls
lo runvays and oxil poinls from aro Iigllod as slovn in Iig. 8-16.
SDES OF
TAXWAY
PT
PT

RADUS R
OF CURVE
N FEET
15
25
50
75
100
150
200
250
20
27
35
40
50
55
60
70
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
80
95
110
130
145
165
185
200 MAX.
DMENSON Z
N FEET
RADUS R
OF CURVE
N FEET
DMENSON Z
N FEET
B
B
B
B
Z
Z
R
R

1. For radii not listed, determine Z spacing by linear interpolation.

2. Z is the arc length.
3. Uniformly space lights on curved edges. Do not exceed the
values determined from the above table.
4. On curved edges in excess of 30 degrees arc, do not install
less than three lights including those at the points of tangency (PT).
--
2
0
0
'
2
0
0
'
3
0
0
'
1
0
0
'
1
0
0
'
1
0
0
'
N
O
T
E
S
1
.

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0

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.
2
.

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Taxivay conlorIino Iiglls aro in-pavomonl bidiroclionaI Iiglls pIacod

in oquaI inlorvaIs ovor laxivay conlorIino marIings. Taxivay conlorIino
Iiglls aro groon, oxcopl in aroas vloro llo laxivay inlorsocls vill a
runvay, vloro llo groon and yoIIov Iiglls aro pIacod aIlornalivoIy.
Rosoarcl and oxporionco lavo domonslralod llal guidanco from
conlorIino Iiglls is suporior lo llal from odgo Iiglls, parlicuIarIy in
Iov visibiIily condilions. Tlo spacing of llo Iiglls on curvos and langonls
is givon in TabIo 8-1 |21].
Ior normaI oxils, llo conlorIino Iiglls aro lorminalod al llo odgo of
llo runvay. Al laxivay inlorsoclions llo Iiglls conlinuo across llo inlor-
soclion. Ior Iong-radius ligl-spood oxil laxivays, llo laxivay Iiglls aro
oxlondod onlo llo runvay from a poinl 200 fl bacI from llo poinl of
curvaluro (IC) of llo laxivay lo llo poinl of langoncy of llo conlraI curvo
of llo laxivay. Willin lloso Iimils llo spacing of Iiglls is 50 fl. Tloso
Iiglls aro offsol 2 fl from llo runvay conlorIino Iiglls and aro graduaIIy
brougll inlo aIignmonl vill llo conlorIino of llo laxivay.
Wloro llo laxivays inlorsocl vill runvays and aircrafl aro roquirod
lo loId slorl of llo runvay, sovoraI yoIIov Iiglls spacod al 5-fl inlor-
vaIs aro pIacod lransvorsoIy across llo laxivay.
-
Runvay guard Iiglls (RGIs) aro in-pavomonl Iiglls Iocalod on laxi-
vays al inlorsoclions of runvays lo aIorl piIols and oporalors of airfioId
ground volicIos llal lloy aro aboul lo onlor onlo an aclivo runvay.
RGIs aro Iocalod across llo vidll of llo laxivay, approximaloIy 2 fl
from llo onlranco lo a runvay, spacod al approximaloIy 10-fl inlorvaIs,
as iIIuslralod in Iig. 8-17. RGIs aro unidiroclionaI, coIorod yoIIov for
aircrafl facing llo runvay.





- -










-
--

-

SimiIar lo runvay guard Iiglls, runvay slop bar Iiglls aro in-pavomonl
Iiglls on laxivays al inlorsoclions vill runvays. As opposod lo RGIs
llal provido varning lo piIols approacling a runvay, runvay slop bar
Iiglls aro dosignod lo acl as slop Iiglls, dirocling aircrafl and volicIos
on llo laxivay nol lo onlor llo runvay onvironmonl. Runvay slop bar
Iiglls aro aclivalod vill rod iIIuminalions during poriods of runvay
occupancy or ollor inslancos vloro onlranco from llo laxivay lo llo
runvay is prolibilod. In-pavomonl runvay slop bar Iiglling is lypi-
caIIy inslaIIod in conjunclion vill oIovalod runvay guard Iiglls Iocalod
oulsido llo vidll of llo pavomonl. An iIIuslralion of a lypicaI runvay
slop bar Iiglling syslom is dopiclod in Iig. 8-18.
N-PAVEMENT
RGL FXTURE
TAXWAY CENTERLNE
LGHT
2 FT. MAX
(610 mm MAX)
9 FT.
10 N. o 2 N.
(3 m o 50 mm)
2 FT. o 2 N.
(610 mm o 50 mm)
-
9 FT. 10 N. o 2 N.
(3 m o 50 mm)
R UN
R UN
N.T.S.

R UN
3 FT. 5 N.
(1 M) MN.
10 FT.
(3 M) MAX.
10 FT (3 M) MN.
17 FT (5 M) MAX.
B
B
B
Y
Y
B
R
N-PAVEMENT STOP BAR FXTURE
1. THE ELEVATED RUNWAY GUARD LGHT
AND ELEVATED STOP BAR MAY BE MOVED
UP TO 10 FEET (3 M) MAX. AWAY FROM
THE RUNWAY TO AVOD UNDESRABLE
SPOTS.
2. WHERE SNOW REMOVAL OPERATONS
OCCUR. T S ADVANTAGEOUS TO NSTALL
ELEVATED STOP BAR LGHTS NOT CLOSER
TO THE TAXWAY EDGE THAN THE LNE OF
TAXWAY EDGE LGHTS.
ELEVATED RUNWAY GUARD LGHT
TAXWAY EDGE LGHT
ELEVATED STOP BAR FXTURE
Y R
2 FT. o 2 N.
(610 mm o 50 mm)
B
R

In ordor lo aid piIols in guiding llo aircrafl on runvays and laxivays,
pavomonls aro marIod vill Iinos and numbors. Tloso marIings aro of
bonofil primariIy during llo day and dusI. Al nigll, Iiglls aro usod lo
guido piIols in Ianding and manouvoring al llo airporl. Wlilo is usod
for aII marIings on runvays and yoIIov is usod on laxivays and
aprons. Tlo IAA las dovoIopod a comprolonsivo pIan for marIing
runvays and laxivays and lloy can bo found in llo IAA Advisory
CircuIar AC 150/5340-1} |17]. SimiIarIy llo ICAO rocommondalions
for marIing aro conlainod in Annox 14 |2].
-
Tlo IAA las groupod runvays for marIing purposos inlo llroo
cIassos: (1) visuaI, or basic runvays, (2) nonprocision inslrumonl
runvays, and (3) procision inslrumonl runvays. Tlo visuaI runvay
is a runvay vill no slraigll-in inslrumonl approacl procoduro and
is inlondod soIoIy for llo oporalion of aircrafl using visuaI approacl
procoduros. Tlo nonprocision inslrumonl runvay is ono laving an
oxisling inslrumonl approacl procoduro uliIizing air navigalion
faciIilios vill onIy lorizonlaI guidanco (lypicaIIy VOR or GIS-basod
RNAV approaclos villoul vorlicaI guidanco) for vlicl a slraigll-in
nonprocision approacl procoduro las boon approvod. A procision
inslrumonl runvay is ono laving an oxisling inslrumonl approacl
procoduro uliIizing a procision inslrumonl Ianding syslom or
approvod GIS-basod RNAV (aroa navigalion) or RNI (roquirod
navigalion porformanco) procision approacl. Runvays llal lavo a
pubIislod approacl basod soIoIy on GIS-basod loclnoIogios aro
Inovn as GIS runvays.
Runvay marIings incIudo runvay dosignalors, conlorIinos, llrosl-
oId marIings, aiming poinls, loucldovn zono marIings, and sido
slripos. Doponding on llo Iongll and cIass of runvay and llo lypo of
aircrafl oporalions inlondod for uso on llo runvay, aII or somo of llo
abovo marIings aro roquirod. TabIo 8-2 providos llo marIing roquiro-
monls for visuaI, nonprocision, and procision runvays.
Iiguro 8-19 iIIuslralos llo roquirod marIing for procision run-
vays. Iiguro 8-20 iIIuslralos llo roquirod marIings for nonprocision
and visuaI runvays (sourco: IAA AC 150/5340-1}).
--
Tlo ond of oacl runvay is marIod vill a numbor, Inovn as a runvay
dosignalor, vlicl indicalos llo approximalo magnolic azimull (cIocI-
viso from magnolic norll) of llo runvay in llo diroclion of oporalions.
Tlo marIing is givon lo llo noarosl 10 vill llo Iasl digil omillod.
Tlus a runvay in llo diroclion of an azimull of 163 vouId bo marIod
as runvay 16 and llis runvay vouId bo in llo approximalo diroclion
of soull-soull-oasl. Tloroforo, llo oasl ond of an oasl-vosl runvay

-
vouId bo marIod 27 (for 270 azimull) and llo vosl ond of an oasl-vosl
runvay vouId bo marIod 9 (for a 90 azimull). If lloro aro lvo paraI-
IoI runvays in llo oasl-vosl diroclion, for oxampIo, lloso runvays
vouId bo givon llo dosignalion 9I-27R and 9R-27I lo indicalo llo
diroclion of oacl runvay and lloir posilion (I for Iofl and R for rigll)
roIalivo lo oacl ollor in llo diroclion of aircrafl oporalions. If a llird
paraIIoI runvay oxislod in llis silualion il las lradilionaIIy boon givon
llo dosignalion 9C-27C lo indicalo ils diroclion and posilion roIalivo
(C for conlor) lo llo ollor runvays in llo diroclion of aircrafl oporalions.
Wlon lloro aro four paraIIoI runvays, ono pair is marIod vill llo mag-
nolic azimull lo llo noarosl 10 vliIo llo ollor pair is marIod vill llo
magnolic azimull lo llo noxl noarosl 10. Tloroforo, if lloro voro four
paraIIoI runvays in llo oasl-vosl diroclion, ono pair vouId bo dosig-
nalod as 9I-27R and 9R-27I and llo ollor pair couId bo dosignalod as
oillor 10I-28R and 10R-28I or 8I-26R and 8R-26I. Tlis lypo of dosig-
nalion poIicy is incroasingIy boing appIiod lo llroo paraIIoI runvay
configuralions, as voII. Ior oxampIo, ono pair vouId bo dosignalod as
9I-27R and 9R-27I and llo llird runvay may bo dosignalod 10-28.
Runvay dosignalion marIings aro vlilo, lavo a loigll of 60 fl
and a vidll, doponding upon llo numbor or Iollor usod, varying from
5 fl for llo numoraI 1 lo 23 fl for llo numoraI 7. Wlon moro llan ono
numbor or Iollor is roquirod lo dosignalo llo runvay llo spacing
bolvoon llo dosignalors is normaIIy 15 fl. Tlo sizos of llo runvay
dosignalor marIings aro proporlionaIIy roducod onIy vlon nocossary
duo lo spaco Iimilalions on narrov runvays and lloso dosignalion
marIings slouId bo no cIosor llan 2 fl from llo odgo of llo runvay or
llo runvay odgo slripos. Spocificalions for individuaI runvay dosig-
nalors aro iIIuslralod in Iig. 8-21.

-

-
-

-
-

-

--

OnIy roquirod on runvays usod, or inlondod lo bo usod, by inlornalionaI commorciaI

lransporl.

On runvays 4000 fl (1200 m) or Iongor usod by jol aircrafl.

Usod vlon llo fuII pavomonl vidll may nol bo avaiIabIo as a runvay.
-
S

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5

-
- -
Runvay llrosloId marIings idonlify lo llo piIol llo boginning of llo
runvay llal is safo and avaiIabIo for Ianding. Runvay llrosloId marI-
ings bogin 20 fl from llo runvay llrosloId ilsoIf.
Runvay llrosloId marIings consisl of lvo sorios of vlilo slripos,
oacl slripo 150 fl in Iongll and 5.75 fl in vidll, soparalod aboul llo
conlorIino of llo runvay. On oacl sido of llo runvay conlorIino, a num-
bor of llrosloId marIing slripos aro pIacod, in accordanco vill llo vidll
of llo runvay, as spocifiod in TabIo 8-3. TabIo 8-3 spocifios llo lolaI
numbor of runvay llrosloId slripos roquirod. Ior oxampIo, for a 100-fl
runvay, oigll slripos aro roquirod, in lvo groups of four aro pIacod aboul
llo conlorIino. Slripos villin oacl sol aro soparalod by 5.75 fl. Iacl sol of
slripos is soparalod by 11.5 fl aboul llo runvay conlorIino.
Tlo abovo spocificalions for runvay llrosloId marIings voro
adaplod by llo IAA from ICAO inlornalionaI slandards and mado
mandalory for Unilod Slalos civiI uso airporls in 2008.
-
Runvay conlorIino marIings aro vlilo, Iocalod on llo conlorIino of
llo runvay, and consisl of a Iino of uniformIy spacod slripos and gaps. Tlo
slripos aro 120 fl Iong and llo gaps aro 80 fl Iong. Adjuslmonls lo llo
Ionglls of slripos and gaps, vloro nocossary lo accommodalo runvay
Iongll, aro mado noar llo runvay midpoinl. Tlo minimum vidll of
slripos is 12 in for visuaI runvays, 18 in for nonprocision inslrumonl
runvays, and 36 in for procision inslrumonl runvays. Tlo purposo of
llo runvay conlorIino marIings is lo indicalo lo llo piIol llo conlor of llo
runvay and lo provido aIignmonl guidanco on Ianding and laIooff.
-
Aiming poinls aro pIacod on runvays of al Ioasl 4000 fl in Iongll lo
provido onlancod visuaI guidanco for Ianding aircrafl. Aiming poinl
marIings consisl of lvo boId slripos, 150 fl Iong, 30 fl vido, spacod
-





-
- -

72 fl aparl symmolricaIIy aboul llo runvay conlorIino, and boginning

1020 fl from llo llrosloId.
-
Runvay loucldovn zono marIings aro vlilo and consisl of groups
of ono, lvo, and llroo roclanguIar bars symmolricaIIy arrangod in
pairs aboul llo runvay conlorIino. Tloso marIings bogin 500 fl from
llo runvay llrosloId. Tlo bars aro 75 fl Iong, 6 fl vido, vill 5 fl
spacos bolvoon llo bars, and aro IongiludinaIIy spacod al dislancos
of 500 fl aIong llo runvay. Tlo innor slripos aro pIacod 36 fl on oillor
sido of llo runvay conlorIino. Ior runvays Ioss llan 150 fl in vidll,
llo vidll and spacing of slripos may bo proporlionaIIy roducod.
Wloro loucldovn zono marIings aro inslaIIod on boll runvay onds
on slorlor runvays, lloso pairs of marIings vlicl vouId oxlond lo
villin 900 fl of llo runvay midpoinl aro oIiminalod. In addilion, sols
of loucldovn zono marIings aro oIiminalod for slorlor runvays, as
spocifiod in TabIo 8-4.
-
Runvay sido slripos consisl of conlinuous vlilo Iinos aIong oacl sido
of llo runvay lo provido conlrasl vill llo surrounding lorrain or lo
doIinoalo llo odgos of llo fuII slrongll pavomonl. Tlo maximum dis-
lanco bolvoon llo oulor odgos of lloso marIings is 200 fl and lloso
marIings lavo a minimum vidll of 3 fl for procision inslrumonl run-
vays and aro al Ioasl as vido as llo vidll of llo conlorIino slripos on
ollor runvays.
- - -
Al somo airporls il is dosirabIo or nocossary lo dispIaco llo runvay
llrosloId on a pormanonl basis. A dispIacod llrosloId is ono vlicl
las boon movod a corlain dislanco from llo ond of llo runvay. Mosl
oflon llis is nocossary lo cIoar obslruclions in llo fIigll pall on Iand-
ing. Tlo dispIacomonl roducos llo Iongll of llo runvay avaiIabIo for
Iandings, bul laIooffs can uso llo onliro Iongll of llo runvay. Tlo IAA
-
- -
-- -
-- - -
-- - -
-

-
roquiros llal dispIacod llrosloIds bo marIod as slovn in Iig. 8-22.
Tloso marIings consisl of arrovs and arrov loads lo idonlify llo dis-
pIacod llrosloId and a llrosloId bar lo idonlify llo boginning of llo
runvay llrosloId ilsoIf. DispIacod llrosloId arrovs aro 120 fl in
Iongll, soparalod IongiludinaIIy by 80 fl for llo Iongll of llo dispIacod
llrosloId. Arrov loads aro 45 fl in Iongll, pIacod 5 fl from llo llrosl-
oId bar. Tlo llrosloId bar is 5 fl in vidll and oxlonds llo vidll of llo
runvay al llo llrosloId.
- -
In ordor lo provonl orosion of llo soiI, many airporls provido a pavod
- 150 lo 200 fl in Iongll adjaconl lo llo runvay ond. SimiIarIy,
somo airporl runvays lavo a - vlicl is onIy dosignod lo supporl
aircrafl during raro aborlod laIooffs or Ianding ovorruns and is nol
dosignod as a fuII slrongll pavomonl. Sinco lloso pavod aroas aro nol
dosignod lo supporl aircrafl and yol may lavo llo appoaranco of boing
so dosignod, marIings aro roquirod lo indicalo llis. Tlo marIings for
bIasl pads and slopvays aro slovn in Iig. 8-23. IiIoviso llo aroa adja-
conl lo llo odgo of llo runvay may lavo a pavod slouIdor nol capabIo
RUNWAY SDE
STRPES (WHTE)
NOTES
1. RUNWAY SDE STRPES, WHEN USED ON THE RUNWAY,
EXTEND NTO THE DSPLACED AREA.
2. RUNWAY MARKNGS (EXCEPT HOLDNG POSTON
MARKNGS), NCLUDNG THOSE N THE DSPLACED
THRESHOLD AREA, ARE WHTE.
3. DMENSONS EXPRESSED AS
TAXWAY
CENTERLNE
MARKNGS
(YELLOW)
HEAD
SEE DETAL A FOR
ARROW DMENSONS
SEE FGURE 11, DETAL A
SEE DETAL A
AND TABLE BELOW
W- RUNWAY WDTH
THRESHOLD
BAR (WHTE)
10
3
20
6
100 STANDARD RUNWAY
MARKNG 30
120
36
80
24
RUNWAY THRESHOLD S AT
OUTBOARD EDGE OF
THRESHOLD BAR
TAXWAY
EDGE
STRPES
(YELLOW)
RUNWAY
WDTH
# OF ARROW
HEADS
SPACNG BETWEEN
ARROW HEADS
SPACNG TO
RUNWAY EDGE
100' (30 M) 4
< 100' (30 M) 3
< 60' (30 M)
> > >
>
>
>
>
2
W/4
W/3
W/2
W/8
W/6
W/4
DETAL A (ARROW)
NOTE: W S THE RUNWAY WDTH
200
60
3
1
45
13.5
5
1.5
1.5
5
20
24
TAL
METERS
e.g.,
FEET
3
10
5
1.5
15
4.5
- - -

of supporling aircrafl. Tloso aroas aro marIod vill a 3-fl-vido slripo, as

slovn in Iig. 8-24. YoIIov coIor is usod for lloso lypos of marIings.
-
Taxivay marIings consisl of conlorIino marIings, loIding posilion
marIings, and oflon odgo marIings. Taxivays aro marIod as slovn in
Iig. 8-25.
-
Tlo conlorIino of llo laxivay is marIod vill a singIo conlinuous 6-in
yoIIov Iino. On laxivay curvos, llo laxivay conlorIino marIing con-
linuos from llo slraigll porlion of llo laxivay al a conslanl dislanco
from llo oulsido odgo of llo curvo. Al laxivay inlorsoclions vlicl
aro dosignod for aircrafl lo lravoI slraigll llrougl llo inlorsoclion,
llo conlorIino marIings conlinuo slraigll llrougl llo inlorsoclion. Al
llo inlorsoclion of a laxivay vill a runvay ond, llo conlorIino slripo
of llo laxivay lorminalos al llo odgo of llo runvay.
Al llo inlorsoclion bolvoon a laxivay and a runvay, vloro llo
laxivay sorvos as an oxil from llo runvay, llo laxivay marIing is usuaIIy
100
30
5
1.5
MAX.
5
1.5
3
0.9
MAX.
MNMUM
PAVEMENT
EDGE
NOTES:
1. 50 FOOT (15 m) SPACNG MAY BE USED WHEN LENGTH OF AREA S
LESS THAN 250 FEET (75 m) N WHCH CASE THE FRST FULL CHEVRON
STARTS AT THE NDEX PONT (NTERSECTON OF RUNWAY CENTERLNE AND
RUNWAY THRESHOLD).
2. CHEVRONS ARE YELLOW AND AT AN ANGLE OF 45 DEGREES TO THE
RUNWAY CENTERLNE.
3. CHEVRON SPACNG MAY BE DOUBLED F LENGTH OF AREA EXCEEDS
1000 FEET (300 m).
4. DMENSONS ARE EXPRESSED AS
RUNWAY THRESHOLD S
AT OUT BOARD EDGE OF
THRESHOLD BAR
STANDARD
RUNWAY
MARKNGS
100
30
50
15
50
15
METERS
e.g.,
FEET
3
10
- -

-
oxlondod on lo llo runvay in llo vicinily of llo runvay conlorIino
marIing. Tlo laxivay conlorIino marIing is oxlondod paraIIoI lo llo
runvay conlorIino marIing a dislanco of 200 fl boyond llo poinl of
langoncy. Tlo laxivay curvo radius slouId bo Iargo onougl lo pro-
vido a cIoaranco lo llo laxivay odgo and llo runvay odgo of al Ioasl
ono-laIf llo vidll of llo laxivay. Ior a laxivay crossing a runvay,
llo laxivay conlorIino marIing may conlinuo across llo runvay bul
il musl bo inlorruplod for llo runvay marIings.
Wlon llo odgo of llo fuII slrongll pavomonl of llo laxivay is
nol roadiIy apparonl, or vlon a laxivay musl bo oulIinod vlon il is
4
5

4
5

3
0.9
10
3
5
1.5
1
0
0
3
0
1
0
0
3
0
1
0
0
3
0
1
0
0
3
0
5
0
1
5
MAX.
5
1.5
MAX.
5
1.5
MAX.
4
5

4
5

MDPONT OF
RUNWAY
RUNWAY THRESHOLD
DMENSONS ARE
EXPRESSED THUS:
FEET
METERS
e.g.,
- -

oslabIislod on a Iargo pavod aroa sucl as an apron, llo odgo of llo

laxivay is marIod vill lvo conlinuous 6-in vido yoIIov slripos
llal aro 6 in aparl.
-
Ior laxivay inlorsoclions vloro lloro is an oporalionaI nood lo loId
aircrafl, a daslod yoIIov loIding Iino is pIacod porpondicuIar lo and
across llo conlorIino of boll laxivays.
Wlon a laxivay inlorsocls a runvay or a laxivay onlors an inslru-
monl Ianding syslom crilicaI aroa, a loIding Iino is pIacod across llo
laxivay. Tlo loIding Iino for a laxivay inlorsocling a runvay con-
sisls of lvo soIid Iinos of yoIIov slripos and lvo broIon Iinos of
yoIIov slripos pIacod porpondicuIar lo llo conlorIino of llo laxivay
and across llo vidll of llo laxivay. Tlo soIid Iinos aro aIvays pIacod
on llo sido vloro llo aircrafl is lo loId. Tlo loIding Iino for an inslru-
monl Ianding syslom crilicaI aroa consisls of lvo soIid Iinos pIacod
-
SEE
TABLE 4
SEE
TABLE 4
SEE DETAL A

TAXWAY/RUNWAY
HOLDNG POSTON
MARKNGS*
LS HOLDNG POSTON
MARKNGS*
TAXWAY EDGE
MARKNGS,
DASHED*
TAXWAY EDGE
MARKNGS,
CONTNUOUS*
NTERMEDATE HOLDNG
POSTON MARKNGS*
HOLDNG BAY
REQURED DSTANCE
FROM RUNWAY
CENTERLNE
NOTE THAT HOLDLNE
WOULD NFRNGE ON
PARALLEL TAXWAY F
NOT REORENTED
EXAMPLE OF HOLDNG POSTON MARKNGS NOT AT
RGHT ANGLE TO TAXWAY CENTERLNE BECAUSE OF
NTERSECTON CONFGURATON
RUNWAY
TAXWAY
EXAMPLE WHERE HOLDNG POSTON MARKNGS
DO NOT EXTEND STRAGHT ACROSS THE TAXWAY
EXAMPLE OF HOLDNG POSTON MARKNGS
EXTENDED ACROSS HOLDNG BAY
DETAL A
3 DMENSON S
EDGE TO EDGE
3' (1 m)
*REFER TO FGURE TO
FOR MARKNG DETALS
RUNWAY
HOLDNG
BAY
TAXWAY
POFZ MARKNGS
SEE AC 150/534018
FOR SGN REQUREMENTS
AT HOLDNG POSTON MARKNGS
FOR CAT & APPROACHES
MANTAN A CLEAR SECTON
200x1000 AT RUNWAY END.

-
porpondicuIar lo llo laxivay conlorIino and across llo vidll of llo
laxivay joinod vill llroo sols of lvo soIid Iinos symmolricaI aboul
and paraIIoI lo llo laxivay conlorIino. Tloso loIding Iinos aro Iocalod
llo minimum dislanco from llo conlorIino of llo runvay as indicalod
in TabIo 8-5 and iIIuslralod in Iig. 8-26.
-
In somo aroas on llo airfioId, llo odgos of laxivays may nol bo voII-
dofinod duo lo lloir adjaconcy lo ollor pavod aroas sucl as aprons
and loIding bays. In lloso aroas, il is prudonl lo marI llo odgos of
laxivays vill slouIdor marIings. Taxivay slouIdor marIings aro
yoIIov in coIor, and aro oflon painlod on lop of a groon bacIground.
Tlo slouIdor marIings consisl of 3-fl-Iong yoIIov slripos pIacod por-
pondicuIar lo llo laxivay odgo slripos, as iIIuslralod in Iig. 8-27. On
slraigll soclions of llo laxivay, llo marIs aro pIacod al a maximum
spacing of 100 fl. On curvos, llo marIs aro pIacod on a maximum of
50 fl aparl bolvoon llo curvo langonls.

-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-






AC 150/5340-18D
Dislancos slovn abovo aro for pIanning purposos onIy. HoId posilion marI-
ings musl bo pIacod in ordor lo roslricl llo Iargosl aircrafl (laiI or body) oxpoclod
lo uso llo runvay from ponolraling llo obslacIo-froo zono.
Ior aircrafl approacl calogorios A and B, airpIano dosign group III, llis dislanco
is incroasod 1 fl for oacl 100 fl abovo 5100 fl abovo soa IovoI. Ior airpIano dosign
group IV, procision inslrumonl runvays, llis dislanco is incroasod 1 fl for oacl
100 fl abovo soa IovoI.
Ior aircrafl approacl calogory C, airporl dosign group IV, procision inslrumonl
runvays. Tlis dislanco is incroasod 1 fl for oacl 100 fl abovo soa IovoI. Ior airpIano
dosign group V, llis dislanco is incroasod 1 fl for oacl 100 fl abovo soa IovoI.
Ior aircrafl approacl calogory D, llis dislanco is incroasod 1 fl for oacl 100 fl
abovo soa IovoI.
-- - -
4

L

N
E
S

(
Y
E
L
L
O
W
)

A
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3

S
P
A
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A
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1
2
"

(
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m
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T
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X

W
A
Y

E
D
G
E
M
A
R
K

N
G
S
,
C
O
N
T

N
U
O
U
S
(
C
A
N

B
E

U
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E
D

T
O
D
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G
N
A
T
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S
L
A
N
D
S
)

N
T
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R
M
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D

A
T
E

H
O
L
D

N
G
P
O
S

O
N

M
A
R
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N
G
S
T
A
X

W
A
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E
D
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A
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K

N
G
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,
D
A
S
H
E
D
(
C
A
N
N
O
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B
E

U
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T
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G
N
A
T
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S
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L

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O
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M
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S

D
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B
O
T
H

L

N
E
S
A
R
E

Y
E
L
L
O
W
,
6
"

(
1
5

c
m
)

N

W

D
T
H

A
N
D
6
"

(
1
5

c
m
)
S
P
A
C
E

B
E
T
W
E
E
N
L

N
E
S
S
O
L

D

L

N
E

O
N
S

D
E
N
O
N
-
M
O
V
E
M
E
N
T
N
O
N
-
M
O
V
E
M
E
N
T
A
R
E
A

M
A
R
K

N
G
S
A

R
C
R
A
F
T
H
O
L
D

N
G
S

D
E

L
S
/
M
L
S

H
O
L
D

N
G

P
O
S

O
N
M
A
R
K

N
G
S
R
U
N
W
A
Y

H
O
L
D

N
G
P
O
S

O
N

M
A
R
K

N
G
S
T
A
X

W
A
Y

C
E
N
T
E
R
L

N
E
M
A
R
K

N
G
,

Y
E
L
L
O
W
,
6
"

T
O

1
2
"

(
1
5

c
m
T
O

3
0

c
m
)

W

D
E
D
A
S
H
E
S

&

S
P
A
C
E
S
3
"

(
0
.
9

m
)

N

L
E
N
G
T
H
1
"

(
0
.
3

m
)

N

W

D
T
H
C
O
L
O
R
,

Y
E
L
L
O
W
R
O
A
D
W
A
Y

E
D
G
E

S
T
R

P
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S
W
H

T
E
,

Z

P
P
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R
,

S
T
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L
E
A
L
L

M
A
R
K

N
G
S
Y
E
L
L
O
W

A
N
D
1
'

(
0
.
3

m
)

W

D
E
D
A
S
H
E
S

(
Y
E
L
L
O
W
)

A
N
D
S
P
A
C
E
S

3
'

(
0
.
9

m
)

N

L
E
N
G
T
H
3
'

(
0
.
9

m
)
A

R
C
R
A
F
T
H
O
L
D

N
G
S

D
E
A

R
C
R
A
F
T
H
O
L
D

N
G
S

D
E
1
2
"

(
3
0

c
m
)
1
2
"

(
3
0

c
m
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4
'

(
1
.
3

m
)
4
'

(
1
.
3

m
)
3
'

(
0
.
9

m
)
3
'

(
1

m
)
3
'

(
1

m
)
3
'

(
1

m
)
1
0
'
3

m
4
'
1
.
3

m
2
'

(
0
.
6

m
)

W

D
E
8
'
2
.
4

m
1
'
0
.
3

m
6

1
2
"
(
1
5

3
0

c
m
)
6

1
2
"
(
1
5

3
0

c
m
)
6

1
2
"
(
1
5

3
0

c
m
)
6

1
2
"
(
1
5

3
0

c
m
)
1
5
4
.
5
2
5
7
.
5
1
5
4
.
5
D
O
U
B
L
E
Y
E
L
L
O
W
L

N
E
S
6
"

(
1
5

c
m
)
W

D
T
H

W
/
6
"

(
1
5

c
m
)
B
E
T
W
E
E
N
L

N
E
S

-
-
Boginning in 2008, aII airporls sorving commorciaI air carriors aro
roquirod lo marI corlain crilicaI aroas of llo airfioId vill onlancod
laxivay marIings. Tloso marIings aro dosignod lo provido addi-
lionaI guidanco and varning lo piIols of runvay inlorsoclions.
Inlancod marIings consisl primariIy of yoIIov-painlod Iinos, using
painl mixluros vill imboddod gIass boads lo onlanco visibiIily. In
addilion, yoIIov marIings musl bo marIod on lop of a darIonod
bIacI bacIground.
Taxivay conlorIinos aro onlancod for 150 fl from llo runvay
loId-slorl marIings. Tlo conlorIino onlancomonls incIudo daslod
yoIIov Iinos 9 fl in Iongll, soparalod IongiludinaIIy by 3 fl. Tloso
yoIIov Iinos aro pIacod 6 in from oacl ond of llo oxisling conlorIino.
An oxampIo of onlancod marIing is iIIuslralod in Iig. 8-28.
- -
Wlon runvays or laxivays aro pormanonlIy or lomporariIy cIosod lo air-
crafl, yoIIov crossos aro pIacod on lloso lrafficvays. Ior pormanonlIy
50' (15 m) MAX.
ON CURVES
INBOARD OR
OUTBOARD
100' (30 m)
MAX. ON
STRAIGHT
SECTIONS
TAXIWAY EDGE
MARKINGS
RUNWAY
PAVEMENT
EDGE
YELLOW STRIPES
3' (1 m) WIDE
EXTEND TO WITHIN
5 FEET (1.5 m) OF
PAVEMENT EDGE OR
25 FEET (7.5 m)
IN LENGTH,
WHICHEVER IS LESS
- -

cIosod runvays, llo llrosloId, runvay dosignalion, and loucldovn

marIings aro obIiloralod and crossos aro pIacod al oacl ond and al
1000 fl inlorvaIs. Ior lomporariIy cIosod runvays, llo runvay marI-
ings aro nol obIiloralod, llo crossos aro usuaIIy of a lomporary lypo
and aro onIy pIacod al llo runvay onds. Ior pormanonlIy cIosod laxi-
vays, a cross is pIacod on llo cIosod laxivay al oacl onlranco lo llo
laxivay. Ior lomporariIy cIosod laxivays barricados vill orango and
vlilo marIings aro normaIIy oroclod al llo onlrancos.

In addilion lo marIings, signago is pIacod on llo airfioId lo guido and
dirocl piIols and ground volicIo oporalors lo poinls on llo airporl. In
addilion somo signago oxisls lo provido llo piIols vill informalion
rogarding lloir posilion on llo airfioId, llo dislanco romaining on a
runvay, llo Iocalion of Ioy faciIilios al llo airporl, and oflon infor-
malivo signago ranging from voIunlary procoduros lo miligalo noiso
impacls lo varnings aboul noarby socurily sonsilivo aroas. IAA
Advisory CircuIar 150/53040-18D doscribos llo U.S. fodoraI slandards
for airporl sign sysloms.
See Notes 1 and 2
3'' (7.62 cm)
6'' (15.24 cm)
6' (1.83 m)
150' (45.72 m)
3' (.91 m)
9'(2.74 m)
612''
(1530 cm)
6'' (15.24 cm)
Note 1: Regardless of whether the
centerline is 6 inches or 12 inches
(15 or 30 cm) wide, the dashed lines
provided by the enhancements will
always be 6 inches (15 cm) in width.
Note 2: The taxiway centerline
might have to be shifted either right
or left so the enhancement does not
go over a taxiway centerline light.
-

-
- -
Runvay dislanco romaining signs aro pIacod on llo sido of a runvay
and provido llo piIol vill informalion on lov mucl runvay is Iofl
during laIooff or Ianding oporalions. Tloso signs aro pIacod al 1000 fl
inlorvaIs aIong llo runvay is a dosconding soquonliaI ordor. Nor-
maIIy, lloso signs consisl of vlilo numoraIs on a bIacI bacIground,
as iIIuslralod in Iig. 8-29.
Tlo IAA rocommonds llal llo signs bo configurod in ono of llroo
vays |25]. Tlo proforrod mollod of configuralion, and llo mosl oco-
nomicaI, is lo pIaco doubIo-facod signs on onIy ono sido of llo run-
vay. In llis configuralion il is rocommondod llal llo signs bo pIacod
on llo Iofl sido of llo mosl froquonlIy usod diroclion of llo runvay.
Tlo signs may bo pIacod on llo rigll sido of llo runvay vlon nocos-
sary duo lo roquirod runvay-laxivay soparalions or duo lo confIicls
bolvoon inlorsocling runvays or laxivays. An aIlornalivo mollod is
lo provido a sol of singIo-facod signs on oillor sido of llo runvay lo
indicalo llo dislanco romaining vlon llo runvay is usod in boll
diroclions. Tlo advanlago of llis configuralion is llal llo dislanco
romaining is moro accuraloIy rofIoclod vlon llo runvay Iongll is nol
an ovon muIlipIo of 1000 fl. Anollor aIlornalivo usos doubIo-facod
signs on boll sidos of llo runvay. Tlo advanlago of llis mollod is
llal llo runvay dislanco is dispIayod on boll sidos of llo runvay in
oacl diroclion vlicl is an advanlago vlon a sign on ono sido noods
lo bo omillod bocauso of a cIoaranco confIicl. Wlon llo runvay dis-
lanco is nol an ovon muIlipIo of 1000 fl, ono laIf of llo oxcoss dislanco
is addod lo llo dislanco on oacl sign on oacl runvay ond. Ior oxam-
pIo, if llo runvay Iongll avaiIabIo is 8250 fl, llo Iasl sign is Iocalod al
- -

a dislanco of 1000 pIus 125 fl from llo ond of llo runvay. A loIoranco
of 50 fl is aIIovod for llo pIacomonl of runvay dislanco romaining
signs. Tloso signs slouId bo iIIuminalod anylimo llo runvay odgo
Iiglls aro iIIuminalod. Tlo rocommondod sizos and pIacomonl of
lloso signs is givon in TabIo 8-6.
-
Tlo primary purposo of a laxivay guidanco sign syslom is lo aid piIols
in laxiing on an airporl. Al conlroIIod airporls, llo signs suppIomonl
llo inslruclions of llo air lraffic conlroIIors and aid llo piIol in com-
pIying vill lloso inslruclions. Tlo sign syslom aIso aids llo air lraf-
fic conlroIIor by simpIifying inslruclions for laxiing cIoarancos, and
llo rouling and loIding of aircrafl. Al Iocalions nol sorvod by air
lraffic conlroI lovors, or for aircrafl villoul radio conlacl, llo sign
syslom providos guidanco lo llo piIol lo major doslinalions aroas in
llo airporl.
Tlo officionl and safo movomonl of aircrafl on llo surfaco of an
airporl roquiros llal a voII-dosignod, proporIy llougll-oul, and slan-
dardizod laxivay guidanco sign syslom is providod al llo airporl. Tlo
syslom musl provido llo piIol vill llo abiIily lo roadiIy dolormino llo
dosignalion of any laxivay on vlicl llo aircrafl is Iocalod, roadiIy
idonlify roulings lo a dosirod doslinalion on llo airporl proporly, indi-
calo mandalory aircrafl loIding posilions, and idonlify llo boundarios
for aircrafl approacl aroas, inslrumonl Ianding syslom crilicaI aroas,
runvay safoly aroas and obslacIo froo zonos. Il is virluaIIy impossibIo,
oxcopl for loIding posilion signs, lo compIoloIy spocify llo Iocalions
and lypos of signs llal aro roquirod on a laxivay syslom al a parlicuIar
airporl duo lo llo vido varialion in llo lypos of funclionaI Iayouls for
airporls. Tlo ICAO aIso pubIislos rocommondalions roIalivo lo surfaco
movomonl guidanco and conlroI sysloms |2, 15].
--
Taxivay guidanco sign sysloms aro in a Iargo parl basod on a syslom
of laxivay dosignalors vlicl idonlify llo individuaI laxivay compo-
nonls. WliIo runvay dosignalors aro basod on llo magnolic load-
ing of llo runvay, laxivay dosignalors aro assignod basod on an

-




- - --

-
aIplabolic ordoring syslom, indopondonl of llo laxivays diroclion of
movomonl. Taxivays aro lypicaIIy idonlifiod in aIplabolic ordor from
oasl lo vosl or norll lo soull (i.o., llo norllorn or oaslornmosl laxi-
vay vouId bo dosignalod A, llo noxl soullorn or voslorn laxivay
vouId bo dosignalod B, and so forll). Inlranco and oxil laxivays
porpondicuIar lo main paraIIoI laxivays aro dosignalod by llo Iollor of
llo main paraIIoI laxivay from vlicl lloy spur, foIIovod by a numoric
soquonco. Ior inslanco, llo norllornmosl onlranco laxivay off of laxi-
vay A vouId bo dosignalod A1, and so forll. Tlo Iollors I and
O aro nol usod as laxivay dosignalors duo lo lloir simiIarily in form
lo llo numbors 1 and 0. In addilion llo Iollor X is nol usod as a
laxivay dosignalor duo lo ils simiIarily lo a cIosod runvay marIing.
An oxampIo laxivay dosignalion sclomo is iIIuslralod in Iig. 8-30.
Tlo laxivay guidanco sign syslom consisls of four basic lypos of
signs: - signs, vlicl indicalo llal aircrafl slouId
nol procood boyond a poinl villoul posilivo cIoaranco, signs,
vlicl indicalo llo Iocalion of an aircrafl on llo laxivay or runvay
syslom and llo boundarios of crilicaI airfioId surfacos, signs,
vlicl idonlify llo palls avaiIabIo lo aircrafl al inlorsoclions, and -
signs, vlicl indicalo llo diroclion lo a parlicuIar doslinalion.
B K*
C
D
C
C2 C1
2
7
63
3
D D E
E D
D
D
D
K
C C
D
APRON
G** F**
B
B2
B
B1
B*
2
5
7
J
J
J
J
J
A
A
A
A

1
5
N THS EXAMPLE, TAXWAYS HAVE BEEN
DESGNATED FROM NORTH TO SOUTH AND
THEN EAST TO WEST.
** THESE TAXWAYS COULD
ALSO BE DESGNATED AS
D WTH A NUMERC, E.G.,
D1, D2
H
H
H
H
* THESE TAXWAYS COULD
ALSO BE DESGNATED AS
B WTH A NUMERC, E.G., B3
- -

- -
- -
Mandalory inslruclion signs donolo an onlranco lo a runvay, crilicaI
aroa, or prolibilod aroa. Tloy aro usod for loIding posilions signs for
runvay-laxivay and runvay-runvay inlorsoclions (Iig. 8-31), inslru-
monl Ianding syslom crilicaI aroas (Iig. 8-31), runvay approacl aroas
(Iig. 8-31), IIS calogory II/III crilicaI aroas (Iig. 8-31), and lo dosig-
nalo aroas for vlicl onlry is prolibilod by aircrafl (Iig. 8-31). Tloso
signs lavo vlilo inscriplions on a rod bacIground and aro inslaIIod
on llo Iofl sido of llo runvay or laxivay. In somo casos runvay-
laxivay inlorsoclions roquiro a sign on boll sidos of llo laxivay. Tlis
incIudos silualions on laxivays vlicl aro al Ioasl 150 fl vido, vloro
llo painlod loIding Iino oxlonds across an adjaconl loIding bay,
vloro llo painlod loIding Iino marIings do nol oxlond slraigll
across llo laxivay, and vloro llo painlod loIding Iino marIings aro
Iocalod a slorl dislanco from an inlorsoclion vill anollor laxivay.
GonoraIIy arrovs aro nol pormillod on mandalory inslruclion signs
unIoss lloy aro nocossary al llo laxivay-runvay-runvay inlorsoclions
lo indicalo diroclions lo lloso runvays. Ior runvay dosignalion lloso
signs normaIIy conlain boll dosignalions of llo runvay and llo dos-
ignalion on llo Iofl is for llo runvay lo llo Iofl and llo dosignalion on
llo rigll is for llo runvay lo llo rigll.
Al conlroIIod airporls aircrafl and ground volicIos aro roquirod lo
loId al lloso poinls unIoss cIoarod by air lraffic conlroI. Al unconlroIIod
airporls, lloso signs aro inlondod lo indicalo lravoI boyond lloso signs
is pormillod onIy aflor approprialo procaulions lavo boon laIon.
(a) Runway intersection
(c) Runway approach area (d) LS CAT / critical area
(e) No entry
(b) LS critical area
- --

-
-
Iocalion signs aro usod lo idonlify llo laxivay or runvay on vlicl an
aircrafl is Iocalod (Iig. 8-32 and 8-32). Tloso signs consisl of a yoIIov
inscriplion and bordor on a bIacI bacIground. Iocalion signs aro aIso
usod lo idonlify llo boundary of llo runvay safoly aroa or obslacIo-
froo zonos (Iig. 8-32), or llo inslrumonl Ianding syslom crilicaI aroa
(Iig. 8-32) for a piIol oxiling a runvay. In llo Iallor casos llo signs con-
sisl of a bIacI inscriplion and bordor on a yoIIov bacIground and llo
inscriplion on llo sign is llo samo as roIovanl loIding Iino marIing.
-
Diroclion signs aro usod lo indicalo llo diroclion of ollor laxivays
Ioading oul of an inlorsoclion. Tloso signs aro usod as laxivay diroclion
sign (Iig. 8-33) and runvay oxil sign. Tlo signs lavo bIacI inscrip-
lions and bordors on a yoIIov bacIground and aIvays conlain arrovs.
Tlo arrovs aro orionlod in llo approximalo diroclion of llo lurn
roquirod. Tloso signs slouId nol bo Iocalod vill loIding posilion
signs and slouId nol bo Iocalod bolvoon llo loIding Iino and llo runvay.
(a) Taxiway location sign (b) Runway location sign
(c) Boundary sign
runway safety area/OFZ
runway approach area
(d) Boundary sign
LS critical area
POFZ Boundary
LS CAT / operations
--
-

Signs usod lo indicalo llo diroclion of laxivays on llo opposilo sido of

llo runvay slouId bo Iocalod on llo opposilo sido of llo runvay. Run-
vay oxil signs slouId bo Iocalod prior lo llo oxil on llo sido of llo
runvay on vlicl llo aircrafl is oxpoclod lo oxil. If llo laxivay crossos
llo runvay and llo aircrafl couId bo oxpoclod lo oxil on oillor sido, llon
a runvay oxil sign slouId bo inslaIIod on oillor sido of llo runvay.
- -
Doslinalion signs lavo bIacI inscriplions on a yoIIov bacIground
and aIvays conlain arrovs. Tloso signs indicalo llo gonoraI diroclion
lo a romolo Iocalion al llo airporl, sucl as an inbound doslinalion
(Iig. 8-34), and aro gonoraIIy nol roquirod vloro laxivay diroclion
signs aro usod. Oulbound doslinalion signs aro usod lo idonlify diroc-
lions lo llo laIooff runvays. Tloso roulos normaIIy bogin al llo onlranco
lo a laxivay from llo apron aroa. Moro llan ono runvay numbor may
bo usod, soparalod by a dol, if llo roulo is common lo moro llan ono
runvay (Iig. 8-35). Inbound doslinalion signs aro oflon usod lo indi-
calo llo gonoraI diroclion lo major airporl faciIilios sucl as passongor
lorminaI aprons, cargo aroas, miIilary aprons, or gonoraI avialion faciI-
ilios. Tloso signs slouId consisl of a minimum of llroo Iollors lo avoid
confusion vill laxivay guidanco signs.
Tlo lypicaI Iogonds found on laxivay doslinalion signs aro:
AIRONgonoraI parIing, sorvicing, and Ioading aroas
IUIIaroas vloro aircrafl aro fuoIod or sorvicod
TIRMgalo posilions al vlicl aircrafl aro Ioadod or unIoadod
CIVIIaroas sol asido for civiI aircrafl
MIIaroas sol asido for miIilary aircrafl
IAXaroas sol asido for passongor landIing
CARGOaroas sol asido for cargo landIing
INTIaroas sol asido for landIing inlornalionaI iglls
IBOxod-baso oporalor
- -
- - -

-
-
Ollor lypos of signs may bo nocossary on llo airfioId vlicl aro nol
parl of llo laxivay guidanco sysloms doscribod boforo. Tloso signs
aro caIIod informalion signs and migll bo usod, for oxampIo, lo indicalo
a noiso abalomonl procoduro lo a piIol roady lo laIooff on a spocific
runvay. Tloso signs slouId lavo bIacI inscriplions on a yoIIov bacI-
ground. Tloso signs aro nol roquirod lo bo Iigllod.

Tlo sign syslom doos nol provido a sign lo indicalo llal a laxivay
doos nol conlinuo boyond an inlorsoclion. A frangibIo, rolrorofIoclivo
sign slouId bo inslaIIod on llo far sido of llo inlorsoclion if normaI
visuaI cuos sucl as marIing and Iiglling aro inadoqualo. Tlis sign is
marIod vill aIlornaling bIacI and yoIIov diagonaI slripos, as iIIus-
lralod in Iig. 8-36.
Tlo IAA rocommonds llal llo foIIoving guidoIinos bo appIiod
vlon dosigning a laxivay guidanco sign syslom |25]:
1. A loIding posilion sign and laxivay Iocalion sign slouId bo
inslaIIod al llo loIding posilion on any laxivay llal providos
accoss lo a runvay.
2. A loIding posilion sign slouId bo inslaIIod on any laxivay al
llo boundary of llo inslrumonl Ianding syslom crilicaI aroa
or llo runvay approacl aroa vlon il is nocossary lo prolocl
llo navigalionaI signaI, airspaco, or safoly aroa for a runvay.
Tlis sign slouId bo pIacod al llo onlranco lo and llo oxil from
sucl aroas.
3. A loIding posilion sign slouId bo inslaIIod on any runvay
vloro llal runvay inlorsocls anollor runvay.
4. A sign array consisling of laxivay diroclion signs slouId bo
inslaIIod prior lo oacl inlorsoclion bolvoon laxivays if an air-
crafl vouId normaIIy bo oxpoclod lo lurn al or loId slorl of
llo inlorsoclion. Tlo diroclion sign in llo array slouId incIudo
a sign panoI, consisling of a laxivay dosignalion and an arrov,
for oacl laxivay llal an aircrafl vouId bo oxpoclod lo lurn
onlo or loId slorl. A laxivay Iocalion sign slouId bo incIudod
as parl of llo sign array unIoss il is dolorminod lo bo unnocos-
sary. If an aircrafl normaIIy vouId nol bo oxpoclod lo lurn al

or loId slorl of llo inlorsoclion, llo sign array is nol noodod

unIoss llo absonco of guidanco vouId causo confusion.
5. A runvay oxil sign idonlifying llo oxil laxivay slouId bo
inslaIIod aIong oacl runvay for oacl normaIIy usod runvay
oxil.
6. Doslinalion signs may bo subslilulod for diroclion signs al
llo inlorsoclion bolvoon laxivays or for runvay oxil signs al
unconlroIIod airporls.
7. Slandard liglvay slop signs slouId bo inslaIIod on ground
volicIo roadvays al llo inlorsoclion of oacl roadvay vill a
runvay or laxivay. Ior roadvay inlorsoclions vill laxivays,
a slandard liglvay yioId sign may bo usod insload of llo
slop sign.
8. AddilionaI signs slouId bo inslaIIod on llo airfioId vloro
nocossary lo oIiminalo confusion or lo provido confirmalion
roIalivo lo Iocalion.
-
Tlo IAA rocommonds llo foIIoving signing convonlions |25]:
1. Signs slouId bo pIacod on llo Iofl sido of llo laxivay as viovod
by llo piIol of an approacling aircrafl. If signs aro inslaIIod on
boll sidos of llo laxivay al llo samo Iocalion, llo sign facos
slouId bo idonlicaI. Signs may bo pIacod on llo rigll sido of
llo laxivay vlon nocossary lo mool cIoaranco roquiromonls or
vloro il is impraclicaI lo inslaII llom on llo Iofl sido bocauso of
lorrain foaluros or confIicls vill ollor objocls.
2. Somo signs may bo inslaIIod on llo bacI of ollor signs ovon
llougl llis may rosuIl in llo sign boing on llo rigll sido of llo
laxivay. Signs vlicl may bo inslaIIod in llis mannor incIudo
a. Runvay safoly aroa, obslacIo-froo zono aroa, and runvay
approacl aroa boundary signs may bo inslaIIod on llo
bacI of laxivay-runvay inlorsoclion and runvay approacl
aroa loIding posilion signs.
b. Inslrumonl Ianding syslom crilicaI aroa boundary signs
may bo inslaIIod on llo bacI of inslrumonl Ianding syslom
crilicaI aroa loIding posilion signs.
c. Taxivay Iocalion signs, vlon inslaIIod on llo far sido of llo
inlorsoclion, may bo inslaIIod on llo bacI of diroclion signs.
d. Taxivay Iocalion signs may bo inslaIIod on llo bacI of
loIding posilion signs.
o. Doslinalion signs may bo inslaIIod on llo bacI of diroclion
signs on llo far sido of inlorsoclions vlon llo doslinalion
roforrod lo is slraigll aload.

-
3. Taxivay Iocalion signs inslaIIod in conjunclion vill loIding
posilion signs for laxivay-runvay inlorsoclions slouId aIvays
bo inslaIIod oulboard of llo loIding posilion sign.
4. Iocalion signs aro normaIIy incIudod as parl of a diroclion
sign array Iocalod prior lo llo laxivay inlorsoclion. Ixcopl for
llo inlorsoclion of lvo laxivays, llo Iocalion sign is pIacod in
llo array so llal llo dosignalions for aII lurns lo llo Iofl vouId
bo Iocalod lo llo Iofl sido of llo Iocalion sign and dosignalions
for aII lurns lo llo rigll or slraigll aload aro Iocalod lo llo rigll
of llo Iocalion sign.
5. AII diroclion signs lavo arrovs. Arrovs on signs slouId bo
orionlod lovard llo approximalo diroclion of llo lurn. Iacl
dosignalion appoaring in llo array of diroclion signs slouId
onIy lavo ono arrov. An oxcoplion is vlon llo laxivay inlor-
soclion comprisos onIy lvo laxivays and llon llo diroclion
sign for llo laxivay may lavo lvo arrovs.
6. Doslinalion signs slouId bo Iocalod in advanco of inlorsoc-
lions and slouId nol bo coIIocalod vill ollor signs. Tloso
may aIso bo inslaIIod on llo far sido of llo inlorsoclion vlon
llo laxivay doos nol conlinuo and diroclion signs aro providod
prior lo llo inlorsoclion.
7. Informalion signs slouId nol bo coIIocalod vill mandalory,
Iocalion, diroclion, or doslinalion signs.
8. Iacl dosignalion and ils associalod arrov incIudod in llo array
of diroclion signs or doslinalion signs slouId bo doIinoalod from
llo ollor dosignalions in llo array by a bIacI vorlicaI bordor.

Taxivay guidanco signs aro avaiIabIo in llroo loiglls as indicalod in
TabIo 8-7. Tlo cloico of a parlicuIar sizo sign invoIvos sovoraI faclors
incIuding offoclivonoss, aircrafl cIoaranco, jol bIasl, and snov romovaI

-






- -

oporalions. NormaIIy, llo Iargor llo sign and llo cIosor il is Iocalod lo
llo runvay or laxivay odgo llo moro offoclivo il is. Hovovor, aircrafl
cIoaranco roquiromonls and jol bIasl offocls roquiro smaIIor signs
vlon Iocalod noar llo pavomonl odgos, vloroas offoclivonoss roquiros
Iargor signs vlon Iocalod al furllor dislancos. Tlo offocls of snov
romovaI oporalions on llo signs slouId bo considorod in llo cloico of
sign sizo and Iocalion. Tlo sign usod musl provido 12 in of cIoaranco
bolvoon llo lop of llo sign and any parl of llo mosl crilicaI aircrafl
using or oxpoclod lo uso llo airporl vlon llo vlooIs of llo aircrafl
aro al llo dofinod pavomonl odgo.
Tlo dislancos slovn in TabIo 8-8 slouId bo usod in dolormining
runvay loIding posilions. AII signs in an array slouId bo of llo samo
sizo and al llo samo loigll abovo llo ground.
Ior dolormining sign Iocalions vill rospocl lo inlorsocling run-
vays, llo cIoaranco roquiromonls lo ollor moving aircrafl, as givon in
TabIo 8-9, slouId bo usod. Ior signs inslaIIod al loIding posilions llo
signs slouId bo in Iino vill llo loIding Iino marIings villin a loIoranco

-
- -
-
-
-

-
-






IorpondicuIar dislanco from runvay conlorIino lo inlorsoclion runvay/laxivay conlorIino
is in fool (molors).
-- - -

-













-- - -
--

-
of 10 fl. Wloro lloro is no oporalionaI nood for laxivay loIding Iino
marIings llo signs may bo inslaIIod in llo aroa from llo laxivay
poinl of langoncy lo llo Iocalion vloro llo loIding Iino marIings
vouId bo inslaIIod |25].
TypicaI Iocalions for laxivay guidanco signs aro slovn in Iig. 8-37.
An iIIuslralion of llo roquirod signs and lloir pIacomonl for a basic
airporl Iayoul is givon in Iig. 8-38 |25].

HoIding posilions signs for runvays, inslrumonl Ianding syslom crili-
caI aroas, approacl aroas, and lloir associalod laxivay Iocalion signs
slouId bo iIIuminalod vlon llo associalod runvay Iiglls aro iIIumi-
nalod. Ollor laxivay signs slouId bo iIIuminalod vlon llo associalod
laxivay Iiglls aro iIIuminalod.
Tlo inslaIIalion of rolrorofIoclivo marIings is nol mandalory. Hov-
ovor, il is quilo oconomicaI, ospociaIIy al airporls vloro Iiglls cannol bo
juslifiod bocauso of llo voIumo or naluro of air lraffic |12]. Tlo marIing
is vory simiIar lo llal usod succossfuIIy on liglvays for many yoars.
A
A
A A
A A
A
F F
E E E
E E
E
(a) STANDARD 4-WAY
INTERSECTION
(b) STRAIGHT AHEAD TAXIWAY HAS DIRECTION
CHANGE GREATER THAN 25 DEGREES
STRAIGHT AHEAD
TAXIWAY
STRAIGHT AHEAD
TAXIWAY
(c) DESIGNATION OF STRAIGHT
AHEAD TAXIWAY HAS CHANGED
(d) Y CONFIGURATION WITH TAXIWAY
A CHANGING DIRECTION
--

-
1. - , VoI. 1,
- -, InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion,
MonlroaI, Canada, }uIy 1990.
2. - Iarl 4, - - 2d od., InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion
Organizalion, MonlroaI Canada, 1983.
3. , Runvay and Taxivay Iiglling Sysloms, I. C. WaIlor,
- -, VoI. 84, No. AT1, Amorican Socioly of CiviI
Inginoors, Nov YorI, N.Y., }uno 1958.
4. porl -, Advisory CircuIar, AC 150/5300-13, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Clango 15, 2009.
5. -- - -, Advisory CircuIar, AC 150/5340-21,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1971.
6. -
-, IAA Ordor 7031.2B, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1976.
7. Avialion Ground Iiglling for AII-Woallor Oporalion, M. Ialin,
, VoI. 7, No. 1, Iobruary 1977.
8. - - -
- -, Documonl No. D6-58344, Booing CommorciaI AirpIano
Company, SoallIo, Wasl., 1979.
9. -, Advisory CircuIar, AC 150/5340-14B, vill
Clangos 1 and 2, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1970.
10. -- - , Roporl No.
IAA-ASI-79-4, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1979.
11. -- - , Roporl No. IAA-
ASI-76-2, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1977.
12. -, Advisory
CircuIar, AC 150/5345-39B, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon,
D.C., 1980.
G
H
D
E
C
6
C F
B B
N
H
6
G
2
7
- 9
G
G H
H H
2
7
- 9
6



H
D
B
E

F


B
E

9
-
2
7
I
N
T
L
H

F
B
D

B
E
CD
9
-
2
7
I N T L
C B
B


C
GH-27
GH - 2 7
C
B
B 9
ILS
ILS
C B
CG
C
I
N
T
L
B



C
I N T L
I N T L
F B
F
F
F
I N T L
F
B
I
N
T
L
NOT TO SCALE
TAXWAY HOLD LNE MARKNGS
TO BE NSTALLED ONLY WHERE
THERE S AN OPERATONAL NEED
(SEE AC 150/53401)
APRON APRON
LS CRTCAL
AREA
NOTE: DUE TO SPACE LMTATONS
ON THS DRAWNG, SOME SGNS MAY
NOT BE N THER EXACT LOCATON
RELATVE TO THE RUNWAY OR TAXWAY.
-

-
13. - - ,
Roporl No. IAA-ASI-78-5, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon,
D.C., 1978.
14. - - --,
Advisory CircuIar, AC 150/5340-4C, vill Clangos 1 and 2, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1978.
15. --, Documonl No. 9476,
InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion, MonlroaI, Canada, 1986.
16. -, V. I. Doscl, NAIIC ToclnicaI Iollor
Roporl, NA-78-34-IR, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, ToclnicaI Conlor,
AlIanlic Cily, N.}., 1978.
17. - -, Advisory CircuIar, AC 150/5340-1}, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1995. Clango 1, 2008.
18. - , Advisory CircuIar, AC 70/7460-1H, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1991.
19. - - -
-, Advisory CircuIar, AC 70/7460-2I, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1988.
20. - --, Advisory CircuIar, AC
150/5345-28D, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1985.
21. -, Advisory CircuIar, AC 150/5340-24,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1975, and -
- - - -, Advisory CircuIar, AC 150/5340-30C,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 2007.
22. - , Advisory CircuIar, AC 97-1A, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1977.
23. -, Advisory CircuIar, AC 150/5340-5B,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1984.
24. - -, Advisory CircuIar, AC 150/5345-
44I, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1991.
25. - --, Advisory CircuIar, AC 150/5340-18D, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 2004.
26. -, Advisory CircuIar, AC 150/5340-19, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1968.
27. Tlo Tloory of VisuaI }udgomonls in Molion and Ils AppIicalion lo llo Dosign
of Ianding Aids for Aircrafl, I. S. CaIvorl, --
, VoI. 22, No. 10, Iondon, IngIand, 1957.
28. WorIing Iapors, A. I. }onIs, - --, SpociaI
Mooling on VisuaI Aids lo IIaro and Ianding, Amslordam, NollorIands,
Novombor 1422, 1955.


A
n adoqualo drainago syslom for llo romovaI of surfaco and
subsurfaco valor is vilaI for llo safoly of aircrafl and for llo
Iongovily of llo pavomonls. Impropor drainago rosuIls in llo
formalion of puddIos on llo pavomonl surfaco, vlicl can bo lazard-
ous lo aircrafl laIing off and Ianding. Ioor drainago can aIso rosuIl in
llo oarIy dolorioralion of pavomonls. IIal IongiludinaI and lransvorso
grados and vido pavomonl surfacos oflon poso difficuIlios in maIing
provision for adoqualo drainago al airporls.
Tlo maloriaI in llis claplor is principaIIy concornod vill oslimaling
llo amounls of surfaco and subsurfaco runoff and nol vill llo lydrauIics
of pipos or dolaiIs of inslaIIalion. Tloso Iallor iloms aro adoqualoIy covorod
in loxls on lydrauIics and Iiloraluro providod by pipo manufaclurors.
Tlo IAA and llo Corps of Inginoors lavo dovoIopod mosl of llo
informalion on airporl drainago in llo Unilod Slalos and llo maloriaI
prosonlod in llis las boon dravn from lloir vorI. In 2006, sovoraI
agoncios vorIod logollor lo combino oxisling surfaco drainago lopics
covorod in sovoraI manuaIs inlo ono Unifiod IaciIilios Criloria (UIC)
documonl. Tlo rosuIling manuaI |1] nov sorvos as llo dosign and
anaIysis slandard for surfaco drainago for llo IAA.
-
Tlo funclions of an airporl drainago syslom aro as foIIovs:
1. Inlorcoplion and divorsion of surfaco and groundvalor fIov
originaling from Iands adjaconl lo llo airporl
2. RomovaI of surfaco runoff from llo airporl
3. RomovaI of subsurfaco fIov from llo airporl
In vory fov casos viII llo naluraI drainago on a silo bo sufficionl by
ilsoIf lo salisfy lloso funclions, consoquonlIy arlificiaI drainago musl
bo inslaIIod.
-
Tlo soIoclion of llo sovorily of llo slorm vlicl llo drainago syslom
slouId accommodalo invoIvos oconomic considoralion. An oxlromoIy

-
sovoro slorm occurring vory infroquonlIy vouId undoublodIy causo
somo damago if llo syslom voro dosignod for a slorm of Iossor sovorily.
Hovovor, if sorious inlorruplions in lraffic aro nol anlicipalod, a syslom
dosignod for llo Iargor slorm may nol bo oconomicaIIy juslifiod. TaIing
lloso faclors inlo accounl, llo IAA rocommonds llal for civiI airporls
llo drainago syslom bo dosignod for a slorm vloso probabiIily of occur-
ronco is onco in 5 yoars |2]. Tlo dosign slouId, lovovor, bo clocIod
vill a slorm of Iossor froquoncy (10 lo 15 yoars) lo ascorlain if sorious
damago or inlorruplion of lraffic vouId rosuIl from sucl a slorm. Drain-
ago for miIilary airfioIds is basod on a 2-yoar slorm froquoncy |8].
OrdinariIy no ponding is pormillod on pavod surfacos, bul in llo
inlorvoning aroas ponding is pormillod, providod il viII nol rosuIl in
undosirabIo saluralion of llo subgrados undornoall llo pavomonls.
-
-
Tlo dolorminalion of llo amounl of rainfaII vlicl can bo oxpoclod al
llo silo of llo airporl is llo firsl slop in llo dosign of a drainago sys-
lom. RainfaII inlonsily is oxprossod in inclos por lour for various
duralions of a parlicuIar slorm. Tlo oxpoclod froquoncy of occurronco
is aIso an imporlanl faclor lo considor. Tlo sovorily of slorms is
roIalod lo lloir froquoncios, a slorm vlicl is oxpoclod lo occur onco
in 100 yoars viII bo moro sovoro llan ono laving a froquoncy of occur-
ronco of onco in 5 yoars.
David I. YarnoII of llo U.S. Doparlmonl of AgricuIluro conduclod
oxlonsivo invosligalions concorning rainfaII inlonsilios, duralions, and fro-
quoncios llrougloul llo Unilod Slalos |16]. Wosl of llo 105ll moridian,
vloro llo YarnoII informalion is nol as compIolo, llo NalionaI Woallor
Sorvico las compiIod rainfaII dala vlicl appoar in Rofs. 12 lo 14.
YarnoII dovoIopod rainfaII inlonsilios for 5-, 10-, 15-, 30-, 60-, and
120-min duralions for a slorm vlicl can bo oxpoclod lo occur onco in
5 yoars and llo inlonsilios for a 1-l duralion for slorms vloso oxpoclod
froquoncios of occurronco aro onco in 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 yoars.
Tlo inlonsilios for a duralion of 1 l for froquoncios of 2, 5, 10, 25, 50,
and 100 yoars aro slovn in Iig. 9-1.
Tlo 1-l inlonsily doos nol by ilsoIf porlray llo inlonsily-duralion
pallorn of a slorm. Tlo Corps of Inginoors mado oxlonsivo sludios of
rainfaII pallorns in llo Unilod Slalos and found llal irrospoclivo of
froquoncy, llo inlonsily-duralion pallorns of slorms voro IargoIy
govornod by lloir 1-l inlonsilios. Tlal is, lvo slorms of difforonl
froquoncy of occurronco vloso 1-l inlonsilios aro oquaI viII lavo
simiIar inlonsily-duralion pallorns. Tlis is slovn in Iig. 9-2. Ior
oxampIo, if llo 1-l inlonsilios of slorms vloso froquoncios voro 5,
10, or 15 yoars voro aII oxaclIy 2.0 in/l, llo inlonsily-duralion pal-
lorns vouId bo oxpoclod lo foIIov llo pallorn indicalod by llo curvo
IaboIod 2.0.

If llo drainago syslom is lo bo dosignod for a slorm vloso oxpoclod

froquoncy of occurronco is onco in 5 yoars and if dolaiIod dala concorn-
ing llo inlonsily-duralion pallorn aro nonoxislonl, llo pallorn can bo
approximalod from Iig. 9-2, providod llo 1-l inlonsily is Inovn. Il
goos villoul saying llal if sufficionl rainfaII dala aro avaiIabIo al an
airporl silo, llo inlonsily-duralion froquoncy dala slouId bo dovoI-
opod from llis informalion rallor llan from ollor sourcos. RaroIy,
lovovor, doos a silo lavo sucl compIolo rainfaII informalion.

Tlo IAA anaIysis of airporl surfaco drainago rovoIvos aboul llo soIu-
lion of llo oxprossion
(9-1)
vloro runoff from givon drainago basin, fl
3
/s
ralio of runoff lo rainfaII
rainfaII inlonsily for limo of conconlralion of runoff, in/l
drainago aroa, acros
IxampIos and clarls iIIuslraling llo IAA procoduro for dosign
lavo boon laIon IargoIy from llo IAA |2].

Tlo is dofinod as llo limo laIon by valor lo roacl
llo drain inIol from llo mosl romolo poinl in llo lribulary aroa. Tlo
- rofors lo llo poinl from vlicl llo limo of fIov is llo
groalosl. Tlo limo of conconlralion is usuaIIy dividod inlo lvo com-
pononls: inIol limo and limo of fIov. Tlo is llo limo roquirod
for valor lo fIov ovorIand from llo mosl romolo poinl in llo drain-
ago aroa lo llo inIol. Tlo is llo limo laIon by llo valor lo
fIov from llo drain inIol llrougl llo pipos lo llo poinl in llo syslom
undor considoralion. Somolimos llo inIol limo viII bo llo limo of con-
conlralion, al ollor limos llo limo of conconlralion viII bo llo sum of
llo inIol limo and limo of fIov.
Tlo limo of fIov can bo compulod by llo uso of voII-oslabIislod
lydrauIic formuIas. Tlo inIol limo is oblainod IargoIy ompiricaIIy
from llo roIalionslip

(9-2)
Wloro dislanco, fl
limo, min
dimonsionaI ompiricaI faclor vlicl is dopondonl on
sIopo, rouglnoss of lorrain, oxlonl of vogolalivo covor,
and dislanco lo drain inIol
InIol limos can bo oslimalod from Iig. 9-3.

-

AppIicalion of llo ralionaI mollod roquiros llo oxorciso of considor-
abIo judgmonl on llo parl of llo onginoor. Tlo runoff ralo is variabIo
from slorm lo slorm and varios ovon during a singIo poriod of pro-
cipilalion. Tlo coofficionl of runoff doponds on anlocodonl slorm con-
dilions, sIopo and lypo of surfaco, and oxlonl of llo drainago aroa.
Tlo rango of vaIuos suggoslod by llo IAA is indicalod in TabIo 9-1.
- -

Ior drainago basins consisling of sovoraI lypos of surfacos vill

difforonl infiIlralion claraclorislics, llo voigllod runoff coofficionl
slouId bo compulod in accordanco vill

1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3

(9-3)

In ordor llal llo vorsl condilions allondanl upon llo dosign slorm
may bo usod in llo dosign of llo pipo syslom, a soparalo duralion of
slorm is soIoclod for oacl subdrainago aroa lribulary lo a drain inIol.
Tlo duralion of llo slorm is mado oquaI lo llo sum of llo inIol limo
and limo of fIov.
Iacl roacl of pipo musl bo dosignod lo carry llo disclargo from
llo inIol al ils upslroam ond pIus llo conlribulion from aII procoding
inIols. Ior oconomy of conslruclion, llo grado of oacl roacl is dolor-
minod IargoIy by lopograply. A minimum moan voIocily on llo ordor
of 2.5 fl/s slouId bo mainlainod lo provido scouring aclion so llal
roduclion of llo pipo aroa duo lo siIling viII nol bo a probIom.
To cIarify llo compulalion of runoff by llo IAA mollod, llo foI-
Ioving oxampIo is prosonlod.
Tlo inlonsily-duralion rainfaII pallorn for a 5-yoar-froquoncy
slorm al llo silo of llo proposod airporl is slovn in Iig. 9-4. Tlo
Iayoul of llo drains on a porlion of llo airporl is slovn in Iig. 9-5.
Dosign dala for oslabIisling inIol limos and coofficionls of runoff
- -
- -
- -
-
-
- --
- --
- - --
- - --
- --
- --
Ior sIopos from 1 lo 2 porconl.
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |2].
-

-
for drainago aroas lribulary lo drain Iino , slovn in Iig. 9-5, aro
labuIalod in TabIo 9-2. Il is assumod llal llo coofficionls of runoff
for pavomonl and for lurf aro 0.90 and 0.30, rospoclivoIy.
Irom lloso dala, inIol limos lavo boon compulod by llo uso of
Iig. 9-3 on llo basis llal llo sIopo of llo pavomonl is 1 porconl and
llo sIopo of llo lurfod aroa is 1.5 porconl. Tlo inIol limos for llis spo-
cific probIom aro slovn in Iig. 9-3. Tlo compulalions for runoff,
assuming no ponding, aro slovn in TabIo 9-3.

In llo dosign of an airfioId drainago syslom, ponding may bo usod lo
offocl a roduclion in llo cosl of inslaIIalion. Ionding is simpIy a moans
of providing lomporary slorago of runoff prior lo ils onlry inlo llo
undorground syslom. Ior purposos of dosign compulalion, llo pon-
dod voIumo may bo assumod lo bo an invorlod pyramid or a lruncalod
pyramid, llo loigll of vlicl is llo dopll of valor abovo llo inIol al
any slago. Tlo aroa of llo baso of llo pyramid is laIon as llo surfaco
aroa of llo pond. If ponding voro pormillod, llo Iayoul of llo drainago
syslom migll bo as slovn in Iig. 9-6. Tlo mosl romolo poinl lo ono of
llo inIols is 950 fl, comprising 100 fl of pavomonl and 850 fl of lurf. Tlo
limo of conconlralion is oslimalod al 4 + 54 58 min. Tlo compIolo
- - -
-

drainago aroa is 31.42 acros, of vlicl 6.44 acros is pavod. Assuming

llal llo coofficionls of runoff for pavomonl and lurf aro 0.90 and 0.30,
rospoclivoIy, llo combinod is 0.423. Irom Iig. 9-4 llo rainfaII inlonsi-
lios for duralions of 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 180 min aro oblainod,
and llo voIumos of runoff aro compulod as slovn in TabIo 9-4.
- - -
-

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.

-
To visuaIizo llo offocls of ponding, a comparison is mado of llo
disclargo capacily of lonlalivo drainago pipos and llo cumuIalivo
runoff for llo dosign slorm froquoncy. Tlis comparison is bosl mado
as a pIol of runoff on llo ordinalo axis and limo on llo abscissa. An
oxampIo of sucl a pIol is slovn in Iig. 9-7. Tlo disclargo capacily for
oacl of four soIoclod pipo sizos is slovn as a slraigll Iino. Tloso dis-
clargo curvos voro compulod for an assignod sIopo and rouglnoss
-

HourIy inlonsilios from Iig. 9-4.


-

-
coofficionl for oacl pipo by uso of llo Manning formuIa. Ior llis
oxampIo llo pipos voro assumod lo bo concrolo vill a rouglnoss
coofficionl of 0.015 and Iaid on a 1 porconl sIopo. Tlo disclargo in
cubic fool por socond muIlipIiod by 3600 s is llo disclargo capacily
ordinalo in cubic fool al llo 60-min abscissa in Iig. 9-7. Iacl disclargo
capacily curvo musl pass llrougl llo origin of coordinalos, and ono
poinl as dolorminod abovo viII dofino llo slraigll-Iino roIalionslip.
Tlo significanco of llo cumuIalivo runoff and disclargo capacily
curvos as pIollod in Iig. 9-7 is llal llo difforonco in ordinalos (cumuIalivo
runoff minus disclargo capacily) roprosonls llo amounl of ponding al
any inslanl aflor llo boginning of llo slorm. Tlo maximum amounl of
ponding is dolorminod by scaIing llo Iargosl difforonco bolvoon llo
cumuIalivo runoff curvo and llo disclargo capacily curvo.
Il is considorod ossonliaI llal aII ponding aroa odgos bo Iopl al
Ioasl 75 fl from llo odgos of pavomonls. In llis oxampIo, llis vouId
moan llal llo pond slouId nol roacl a IovoI abovo oIovalion 88.0. Tlo
slorago capacily boIov llis oIovalion is 161,000 fl
3
. If a 12-in-diamolor
pipo voro usod, llo maximum ponding vouId amounl lo 99,260 fl
3
,
considorabIy Ioss llan llo avaiIabIo 161,100 fl
3
. Ior praclicaI considor-
alion a pipo of Iossor diamolor is nol rocommondod.
AIllougl nol slovn in llis loxl, compulalions voro aIso mado
for a 10-yoar-froquoncy slorm. Will a 12-in-diamolor pipo sucl a
slorm vouId dovoIop a pond of 123,000 fl
3
, sliII Ioss llan llo avaiIabIo
capacily of 161,000 fl
3
.

- -
Ior dolormining runoff, llo Corps of Inginoors usos a roIalionslip
for ovorIand fIov dovoIopod by R. I. Horlon |17]. Tlis roIalionslip,
as modifiod by llo Corps of Inginoors, is as foIIovs:

( lan ) .
/
/ 2
1 2
1 4
0 922
(9-4)
vloro ralo of ovorIand fIov al Iovor ond of oIomonlaI slrip of
lurfod, baro, or pavod surfaco, in/l of fl
3
/s por acro of
drainago aroa
lolaI disclargo from a drainago aroa, fl
3
/s, oquaIs producl
of and drainago aroa in acros
sIopo of surfaco or lydrauIic gradionl, absoIulo, i.o.,
1 porconl 0.01
limo or duralion, min, limo from boginning of suppIy
(slorm), lolaI limo

duralion of suppIy vlicl producos maximum ralo of oul-

fIov from a drainago aroa bul nol in a pipo

limo valor fIovs in pipo

ralo of suppIy, or rainfaII in oxcoss of ralo of infiIlralion,
in/l
offoclivo Iongll of ovorIand or clannoI fIov, fl
rolardanco coofficionl
Tlo lorm

is nolling moro llan llo limo of conconlralion for llo

drainago aroa undor considoralion. Tlo lorm , llo offoclivo Iongll,
roprosonls llo Iongll of ovorIand slool fIov from llo mosl romolo
poinl in llo drainago aroa lo llo drain inIol, moasurod in a diroclion
paraIIoI lo llo maximum sIopo, boforo llo runoff las roaclod a dofinod
clannoI or ponding basin, pIus llo Iongll of fIov in a clannoI if ono is
prosonl. If ponding is pormillod, is moasurod from llo mosl romolo
poinl in llo drainago aroa lo llo moan odgo of llo pond.
Tlo lorm is roforrod lo as llo . TypicaI coof-
ficionls aro givon in TabIo 9-5.
Wlon a drainago aroa is composod of lvo or llroo lypos of sur-
facos, an avorago rolardanco coofficionl musl bo compulod. Ior oxam-
pIo, if a drainago aroa consisls of 4 acros of avorago grass covor and 2
acros of pavomonl, llo avorago rolardanco coofficionl is oquaI lo
4 0 40 2 0 02
6
0 27
( . ) ( . )
.

Uso of llo Horlon formuIa roquiros an oslimalo of llo amounl of rain-
faII vlicl is absorbod in llo ground and vlicl lloroforo doos nol
appoar as runoff. Tlis is roforrod lo as and is oxprossod as
a ralo in inclos por lour. Tlus, llo inlonsily of rainfaII (in inclos por
lour) Ioss llo infiIlralion ralo is oquaI lo llo ralo of runoff or llo ralo
of suppIy in llo formuIa for runoff.

-
- -
- --
-

--
- --
Corps of Inginoors |8].
-

-
Tlo infiIlralion ralo is dopondonl IargoIy on llo slrucluro of llo
soiI covor, moisluro conlonl, and lomporaluro of llo air. Tlo infiIlra-
lion ralo is nol conslanl llrougloul llo duralion of llo slorm, bul is
assumod so in llo compulalions. Il is foIl llal sucl an assumplion is
roasonabIo, ospociaIIy vlon llo soiI is noar saluralion.
Tlo infiIlralion ralo for pavod surfacos is usuaIIy assumod lo bo
zoro. InfiIlralion ralos for ollor lypos of surfacos and soiI covor musl
bo oslimalod from oxporionco. A vaIuo of 0.5 in/l las boon suggoslod
for lurfod aroas. Tlus, if llo rainfaII inlonsily on a lurfod aroa voro
2.0 in/l, llo ralo of suppIy vouId bo 1.5 in/l.
-
By uso of Iq. (9-4) maximum ralos of runoff for ralos of suppIy of
0.8, 1.0, 1.6, and 1.8 in/l aro slovn in Iigs. 9-8 and 9-9. Maximum
ralos of runoff aro aIso slovn for ralos of suppIy of 0.4, 0.6, 1.2, 1.4,
2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8, 3.0, 3.2, and 3.4 in/l |8].
Maximum ralos of runoff for llo curvo IaboIod -
(Iig. 9-8) voro oblainod in llo foIIoving mannor. Irom Iig. 9-2 llo
inlonsilios of runoff for various duralions corrosponding lo llo curvo
IaboIod 1.0 aro oblainod. Tloso inlonsilios aro onlorod as in Iq. (9-4),
and is variod lo produco llo famiIy of curvos slovn in Iig. 9-8. Tlo
curvo IaboIod is suppIy curvo no. 1.0, oblainod from Iig. 9-2. Tlo
dollod Iino IaboIod

roprosonls llo maximum ralo of runoff vlicl

vouId occur from an oIomonlaI aroa vill various offoclivo Ionglls .
Ior oxampIo, llo maximum ralo of runoff from an aroa vloso offoc-
livo Iongll is 60 fl is 2.0 fl
3
/s. MuIlipIying llis ralo by llo drainago
aroa yioIds llo maximum lolaI disclargo .
Iiguros 9-8 and 9-9 voro proparod for 0.40 and 1 porconl.
If lloso clarls aro lo bo usod for ollor casos, llo acluaI offoclivo for
llo aroa undor sludy musl bo convorlod in lorms of for 0.40 and
1. A convorsion clarl is slovn in Iig. 9-10. Ior oxampIo, if llo
acluaI 0.30 and 2 porconl and llo offoclivo Iongll is 400 fl,
llon llo oquivaIonl offoclivo for 0.40 and 1 porconl is 140 fl.

In llo Corps of Inginoors procoduro, a roacl of drain pipo is aIvays
dosignod for a slorm vloso duralion is oquaI lo llo limo of concon-
lralion for llo drainago aroa abovo llo pipo. Tlo limo of conconlra-
lion corrosponds lo llo limo nocossary lo produco maximum fIov
inlo a parlicuIar inIol (vlicl is llo samo as llo limo nocossary for
valor lo roacl an inIol from llo mosl romolo poinl in llo aroa) pIus
llo fIov limo in llo pipo.
To cIarify llo compulalion of runoff by llo Corps of Inginoors
procoduro, llo foIIoving oxampIo is prosonlod.
Considor llo drainago aroas slovn in Iig. 9-11. Tlo 1-l inlonsily
of llo dosign slorm is assumod lo bo 2.0 in/l. Tlo infiIlralion ralo for
llo lurfod aroas is assumod lo bo 0.5 in/l. Tlo rolardanco coofficionl

for llo pavomonl is 0.02, and for llo lurfod aroa 0.40. Tlo
drainago aroas, rolardanco coofficionls (roforrod lo as --
-), and acluaI offoclivo Ionglls aro slovn in TabIo 9-6. VaIuos of
and voro oblainod from a grading pIan of llo aroa. Tlo oquivaIonl
- - - -

-
s aro oblainod from Iig. 9-10. CoIumn 14, IaboIod -
-, dosignalos llo noarosl vloIo numbor vlicl can bo idonli-
fiod on llo suppIy curvos (Iigs. 9-8 and 9-9). Tlo slandard suppIy
curvo lo bo usod for llo oxampIo is oblainod by voiglling llo suppIy
curvos for llo pavod and lurfod aroas. Ior oxampIo, for inIol 4,
- - - -

-
llo pavod aroa is 5.97 acros and llo suppIy curvo is 2.0 in/l, llo
lurfod aroa is 26.81 acros and llo suppIy curvo is 1.5 in/l. Tlo
voigllod suppIy curvo is oquaI lo
5 97 2 26 81 1 5
5 97 26 81
1 6
. ( ) . ( . )
. .
.

In coIumns 20 and 21, llo crilicaI inIol limo

(llo limo llal viII pro-

duco llo maximum disclargo) and llo corrosponding ralos of runoff
aro Iislod. Tloso vaIuos aro oblainod from Iig. 9-9. In coIumns 23 and
24, addilionaI ralos of runoff for arbilrariIy soIoclod limos aro Iislod.
Tlis is dono lo faciIilalo compulalion for various limos of conconlra-
lion for llo sovoraI poinls aIong a drainago syslom.
Tlo noxl slop is lo compulo llo voIumos of runoff inlo inIols 4, 3,
and 2. Tlo compulalions aro slovn in TabIo 9-7. ObviousIy llo dura-
lion of a slorm nocossary lo provido llo maximum ralo of runoff inlo
inIol 4 is oquaI lo 24 min. Tlo pipo from inIol 4 lo inIol 3 is dosignod for
a slorm of llis duralion. Al inIol 3 llo limo of conconlralion is 24 min
pIus llo fIov limo in llo pipo from inIol 4 lo inIol 3 (9.2 min). Tlo pipo
from inIol 3 lo inIol 2 vouId bo dosignod for a slorm of 33.2-min dura-
lion. Inlor Iig. 9-9 (suppIy curvos 1.6) vill 33 min as llo abscissa, and
road llo ralos of runoff for offoclivo Ionglls of 280 fl (inIol 3) and
330 fl (inIol 4). MuIlipIy lloso ralos by lloir rospoclivo drainago aroas.
According lo llo compulalions al inIol 3, llo aroa diroclIy lribulary lo
il conlribulos 62.5 fl
3
/s, and llo aroa lribulary lo inIol 4 conlribulos
59.0 fl
3
/s. Tlus llo pipo from inIol 3 lo inIol 2 slouId bo dosignod for
a capacily of 59.0 + 62.5 121.5 fl
3
/s. Tlo samo procoss vouId bo
ropoalod for llo dosign of llo pipo from inIol 2 lo llo oulIol.
Il slouId bo omplasizod llal llo duralion of llo slorm for llo
anaIysis of a parlicuIar poinl aIong llo drainago syslom aIvays cor-
rosponds lo llo limo of conconlralion abovo llis poinl. Had llo inIol
- - -

limo

for llo aroa diroclIy lribulary lo inIol 3 boon Iargor llan llo
sum of llo inIol limo for llo aroa lribulary lo inIol 4 pIus llo fIov limo
lo inIol 3, llo formor vouId lavo oslabIislod llo duralion of llo slorm
for llo dosign of llo pipo from inIol 3 lo inIol 2.

If ponding is pormissibIo, llo firsl slop is lo oslabIisl llo Iimils of llo
ponding aroa. Irom a grading and drainago pIan, llo voIumos in llo
various ponds can bo compulod. Tloso voIumos aro llon oxprossod
in lorms of cubic fool por acro of drainago aroa, as slovn in coIumn 9
of TabIo 9-8. Tlo acluaI and oquivaIonl vaIuos aro dolorminod in
llo samo mannor as for llo caso of no ponding, vill ono oxcoplion. Tlo
acluaI is moasurod lo llo moan odgo of llo pond rallor llan lo llo
drain inIol. Tlo acluaI and oquivaIonl offoclivo Ionglls aro Iislod in
coIumns 12 and 13.
Tlo Corps of Inginoors las dovoIopod clarls vlicl yioId drain
inIol capacilios lo provonl ponds from oxcooding corlain spocifiod
voIumos. TypicaI clarls aro slovn in Iigs. 9-12 and 9-13. Tlo voI-
umos aro compulod for various suppIy curvos (Iig. 9-2), assuming
llo sIopo of llo basins forming llo drainago aroas is 1 porconl. Tlo
suppIy curvos roprosonl llo inlonsily-duralion pallorn for slorms
vloso 1-l inlonsilios corrospond lo llo suppIy curvo numbors. Tlo
voIumos of runoff for a spocific suppIy curvo aro compulod in a
mannor simiIar lo llo procoduro usod by llo IAA. Tlo cumuIalivo
voIumos of runoff aro comparod vill llo various capacilios of drain
inIols lo arrivo al llo voIumos of slorago slovn in Iigs. 9-12 and
9-13. Sinco llo voIumos of runoff dopond on and , clarls musl bo
proparod for a vido rango of vaIuos. Iiguros 9-12 and 9-13 slov
drain inIol capacilios for oquaI lo 100, 200, 300, and 400 fl. Addi-
lionaI clarls lavo boon proparod for 0, 40, 600, 800, 1000, and
1200 fl |8].
Tlo plysicaI significanco of llo clarls may bo doscribod by rofor-
onco lo llo foIIoving oxampIo. Supposo llal for a Iargo drainago
aroa is 100 fl and llal llo runoff pallorn corrosponds lo suppIy curvo 2.
Assumo llal llo maximum pormissibIo ponding is 300 fl
3
/acro of
drainago aroa. Irom Iig. 9-12 a pipo vlicl las a capacily of 1.0 fl
3
/s
por acro of drainago aroa vouId bo adoqualo lo provonl llo pond
from oxcooding a voIumo of 3000 fl
3
during any parl of llo slorm. Tlo
daslod Iinos IaboIod 4 aro oquaI lo ralos of suppIy corrosponding lo a
duralion of 4 l. AIllougl smaIIor drain inIols aro possibIo, il is foIl llal
llo sizos corrosponding lo a duralion of 4 l aro aboul llo minimum
from a praclicaI slandpoinl.
Tlo roquirod drain inIol capacilios for llo drainago Iayoul in
Iig. 9-11 voro oblainod from Iigs. 9-12 and 9-13 and aro labuIalod in
TabIo 9-8. Nolo llal llo limo of conconlralion is nol a faclor in lloso
compulalions.
-

-

-- -

-

-
--

-
-

Corps of Inginoors |8].
-
Corps of Inginoors |8].
-
-

--


-

-
-
-
-
-



{

-
-

--
-

- -

-

A finislod grado conlour map of llo runvays, laxivays, and aprons
is oxlromoIy loIpfuI for llo Iayoul of a slorm drain syslom. SovoraI
lriaI drainago Iayouls may bo nocossary boforo llo mosl oconomicaI
syslom can bo soIoclod. Tlo grados of llo slorm drain slouId bo sucl
as lo mainlain a minimum moan voIocily on llo ordor of 2.5 fl/s lo
provido sufficionl scouring aclion lo avoid siIling. To mainlain an
adoqualo cross soclion for fIov al aII limos, llo diamolor of llo slorm
drain slouId nol bo Ioss llan 12 in.
Walor from a drainago aroa is coIIoclod inlo llo slorm drain by
moans of inIols. Tlo inIol slrucluro consisls of a concrolo box, llo lop
of vlicl is covorod vill a gralo mado of casl iron, casl slooI, or roin-
forcod concrolo. Tlo gralos musl supporl aircrafl vlooI Ioads and
-

-

-

-

- --

-
-

Nol roquirod vlon approciabIo ponding is pormissibIo.
Corps of Inginoors |8].
- --
-

slouId lloroforo bo dosignod for conlacl prossuros for llo aircrafl

vlicl viII bo sorvod by llo airporl.
On Iong langonls, drain inIols aro usuaIIy pIacod al inlorvaIs
varying from 200 lo 400 fl. Tlo Iocalion of llo inIols doponds on llo
configuralion of llo airporl and on llo grading pIan. NormaIIy, if
lloro is a laxivay paraIIoI lo llo runvay, llo inIols aro pIacod in a
vaIIoy bolvoon runvay and laxivays, as indicalod in Iig. 9-11.
If lloro is no paraIIoI laxivay, llo drains aro pIacod noar llo odgo of
llo runvay pavomonl or al llo loo of llo sIopo of llo gradod aroa.
Tlo IAA rocommonds llal llo inIols nol bo cIosor llan 75 fl lo llo
odgo of llo pavomonl.
On aprons, inIols aro usuaIIy pIacod in llo pavomonl propor. Tlis
is llo onIy vay a Iargo apron aroa can bo drainod. AII gralos slouId
bo socuroIy faslonod lo llo framos so llal lloy viII nol bo jarrod Iooso
vill llo passago of lraffic (soo Iig. 9-14).
Adoqualo doplls of covor slouId bo providod ovor llo pipos so
llal llo pipos can supporl lraffic. Tlo rocommondod minimum
doplls of covor aro slovn in TabIo 9-9.
-
{

-
-

-
-- - -
- - -

-- - -
- - -

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

T
l
o

r
o
c
o
m
m
o
n
d
o
d

m
i
n
i
m
u
m

d
o
p
l
l

o
f

c
o
v
o
r

f
o
r

p
i
p
o

d
o
o
s

n
o
l

p
r
o
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i
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o

p
r
o
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o
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a
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a
i
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l

f
r
o
o
z
i
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i
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i
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i
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o
o
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i
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r
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a
s
.

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o
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o
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a
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A
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i
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i
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i
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n

|
2
]
.

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-

-

-
As a guido for llo dosign of slorm drains, llo coofficionl of
rouglnoss for various lypos of pipos and opon clannoIs is Iislod in
TabIo 9-10.
-
Tlo funclions of subsurfaco drainago aro lo (1) romovo valor from a
baso courso, (2) romovo valor from llo subgrado bonoall a pavo-
monl, and (3) inlorcopl, coIIocl, and romovo valor fIoving from
springs or porvious slrala.
Baso drainago is normaIIy roquirod (1) vloro frosl aclion occurs
in llo subgrado bonoall a pavomonl, (2) vloro llo groundvalor is
oxpoclod lo riso lo llo IovoI of llo baso courso, and (3) vloro llo
pavomonl is subjocl lo froquonl inundalion and llo subgrado is liglIy
imporvious.
Subgrado drainago is dosirabIo al Iocalions vloro llo valor
may riso bonoall llo pavomonl lo Ioss llan 1 fl boIov llo baso
courso.
Inlorcopling drainago is liglIy dosirabIo vloro il is Inovn llal
subsurfaco valors from adjaconl aroas aro sooping lovard llo airporl
pavomonls.

- - - --
-- -

-


-
-


-

-

IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |2].
- --

- - - -
- -
Baso coursos aro usuaIIy drainod by inslaIIing subsurfaco drains adja-
conl lo and paraIIoI lo llo odgos of llo pavomonl. Tlo porvious malo-
riaI in llo lroncl slouId oxlond lo llo bollom of llo baso courso, as
slovn in Iig. 9-15. Tlo conlor of llo drainpipo slouId bo pIacod a
minimum of 1 fl boIov llo bollom of llo baso courso.
Subgrados aro drainod by pipos inslaIIod aIong llo odgos of pavo-
monl and in somo inslancos, vloro llo groundvalor is oxlromoIy
ligl, undornoall llo pavomonls. Tlo conlor of llo subsurfaco drain
slouId bo pIacod no Ioss llan 1 fl boIov llo IovoI of llo groundvalor.
Wlon subgrado drains aro inslaIIod aIong llo odgos of llo pavomonl,
lloy may aIso sorvo for draining llo baso courso.
Inlorcopling drainago can bo accompIislod by moans of opon
dilclos voII boyond llo pavomonl aroas. If llis is nol praclicaI, llon
subdrains can bo usod.
-
Tlo foIIoving lypos of pipo lavo boon usod for subdrainago:
1. Iorforalod molaI, concrolo, or vilrifiod cIay pipo. Tlo joinls
aro soaIod. Tlo porforalions normaIIy oxlond ovor aboul ono-
llird of llo circumforonco of llo pipo. Tlo porforalod aroa is
usuaIIy pIacod adjaconl lo llo soiI.
2. BoII-and-spigol pipos aro Iaid vill llo joinls opon. Vilrifiod
cIay, casl iron, and pIain concrolo aro usod in llo manufacluro
of boII-and-spigol pipos.

-
3. Iorous concrolo pipo coIIocls valor by soopago llrougl llo
concrolo vaII of llo pipo. Tlis lypo of pipo is Iaid vill llo
joinls soaIod.
4. SIip pipo manufaclurod of boll vilrifiod cIay and casl iron
is a spociaI lypo of boII-and-spigol pipo vill sIols al llo
boIIs.
5. Iarm liIo is mado of cIay or concrolo vill llo onds soparalod
sIigllIy lo pormil llo onlranco of valor. Tlis lypo of pipo is
raroIy usod on airporl projocls.
- -
Ixporionco las slovn llal a 6-in-diamolor drain is adoqualo, unIoss
oxlromo groundvalor condilions aro oncounlorod. If dosirod, llo
fIov may bo oslimalod by moans of llo avaiIabIo lloorios for soiI
drainago |7]. Tloso lloorios roquiro InovIodgo of llo offoclivo
porosily and coofficionl of pormoabiIily of llo soiI vlicl is boing
drainod, as voII as llo load on llo pipo and llo dislanco vlicl llo
valor musl fIov lo roacl llo drain. RaroIy is lloory roIiod on lo com-
pulo pipo sizos.
Tlo rocommondod minimum sIopo for subdrains is 0.15 fl in
100 fl. A minimum llicInoss of 6 in of fiIlor maloriaI slouId surround
llo drain. Tlo gradalion of llo fiIlor maloriaI is discussod in succood-
ing paragrapls.
- --
Ior cIoaning and inspoclion, uliIily loIos and risors aro oflon inslaIIod
aIong llo drains. Tlo Corps of Inginoors rocommonds llal uliIily
loIos bo pIacod al inlorvaIs of nol moro llan 1000 fl, vill ono risor
approximaloIy midvay bolvoon llo loIos |7]. Tlo funclion of llo
risor is lo bo abIo lo insorl a loso for fIusling llo syslom. Tlo funclion
of a uliIily loIo is lo pormil inspoclion of llo pipos.

Tlo lorm appIios lo llo granuIar maloriaI vlicl is usod
as bacIfiII in llo lronclos vloro subdrains aro pIacod. To pormil froo
valor lo roacl llo drain, llo fiIlor maloriaI musl bo many limos
moro porvious llan llo proloclod soiI. Yol if llo fiIlor is loo porvious,
llo parlicIos of soiI lo bo drainod viII movo inlo llo fiIlor maloriaI
and cIog il.
On llo basis of somo gonoraI sludios conduclod by K. Torzagli,
llo Corps of Inginoors las dovoIopod an ompiricaI dosign for fiIlor
maloriaI vlicl las boon subslanlialod by losls |10]. Tlo criloria for
soIocling llo gradalion of llo fiIlor maloriaI aro as foIIovs:

Tlis moans llal 85 porconl (by voigll) is finor llan llo spocifiod sizo.
1. To provonl cIogging of a porforalod pipo vill fiIlor maloriaI,
llo foIIoving roquiromonl musl bo salisfiod:

85sizo of fiIlor maloriaI
Diamolor of porforalioon
1

2. To provonl llo movomonl of parlicIos from llo proloclod
soiI inlo llo fiIlor maloriaI, llo foIIoving condilions musl bo
salisfiod:

15sizo of fiIlor maloriaI
85sizo of proloclod sooiI
5

and

50sizo of fiIlor maloriaI
50sizo of proloclod sooiI
25

3. To pormil froo valor lo roacl llo pipo, llo foIIoving condi-
lion musl bo fuIfiIIod:

15sizo of fiIlor maloriaI
15sizo of proloclod sooiI
5

A lypicaI oxampIo of dosign is slovn in Iig. 9-16. Concrolo sand
las provod lo bo a salisfaclory fiIlor maloriaI for llo majorily of fino
soiIs vlicl aro drainabIo. A singIo gradalion of fiIlor maloriaI is pro-
forrod for simpIicily of conslruclion.
IiIlor maloriaIs lond lo sogrogalo as lloy aro pIacod in lronclos. To
minimizo llis londoncy, llo maloriaI slouId nol lavo a coofficionl of
uniformily groalor llan 20. Ior llo samo roason, fiIlor maloriaIs slouId
nol bo sIip-gradod. IiIlor maloriaIs slouId aIvays bo pIacod in a moisl
slalo. Tlo prosonco of moisluro londs lo roduco sogrogalion.
-
Corlain lypos of soiIs, sucl as gravoIIy sands, sand, and sandy Ioams,
aro usuaIIy soIf-draining and roquiro vory IillIo, if any, subsurfaco
drainago. Subsurfaco drainago can bo offoclivo for draining cIay
Ioams, sandy cIay Ioams, and corlain siIly Ioams. Tlo amounl of sand
in lloso soiIs IargoIy dolorminos lov drainabIo lloy aro. Ior soiIs
conlaining a ligl porconlago of siIl and cIay, subsurfaco drainago
bocomos vory probIomalic.

-
-
1. - Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5320-5C, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, 2006.
2. Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5320-5B, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, 1970.
3. - - - Inginooring ManuaI IM 1110-2-2902, Doparlmonl
of llo Army, Waslinglon, 1969.
4. Dosign of Drainago IaciIilios for MiIilary AirfioIds, G. A. Hallavay,
-- Amorican Socioly of CiviI Inginoors, Nov YorI, 1949.
5. - - - Tocl.
ManuaI TM 5-820-4, Doparlmonl of llo Army, Waslinglon, 1965.
6. - - - - Tocl. ManuaI
TM 5-820-3, Doparlmonl of llo Army, Waslinglon, 1965.
7. - - - -
Tocl. ManuaI TM 5-820-2, Doparlmonl of llo Army, and Air Iorco ManuaI AIM
88-5, Doparlmonl of llo Air Iorco, Waslinglon, 1979.
8. - - - -
Tocl. ManuaI TM 5-820-1, Doparlmonl of llo Army, and Air Iorco ManuaI AIM
88-5, Waslinglon, 1987.
9. - - ManuaI Sorios MS-15, Tlo AsplaIl
Inslilulo, CoIIogo IarI, Md., 1984.
10. - - Tocl. Momo 3-360, U.S. Army Corps of
Inginoors, Walorvays Ixporimonl Slalion, VicIsburg, Miss., 1953.
11. - - B.
Iorguson and T. H. Dobo, 2d od., Van Noslrand and RoinloId, Nov YorI,
1990.
12. Iavomonl Subsurfaco Drainago Sysloms, H. H. Ridgovay, --
No. 96, Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, 1982.
- - - -

13. - - - }. I. MiIIor, NalionaI

Woallor Sorvico, Waslinglon, 1973.
14. - - ToclnicaI Iapor 40, U.S. Woallor
Sorvico, Waslinglon, 1961.
15. -- - - Tocl. Iapor 24,
pls. 1 and 2, U.S. Woallor Sorvico, Waslinglon, 1953, 1954.
16. - D. I. YarnoII, MiscoIIanoous IubIicalion 204,
Doparlmonl of AgricuIluro, Waslinglon, 1935.
17. Tlo Inlorprolalion and AppIicalion of Runoff IIal Ixporimonls vill Roforonco
lo SoiI Irosion IrobIoms, R. I. Horlon, - voI. 3, SoiI Scionco Socioly
of Amorica, Madison, Wis., 1938.
18. -- 2d od., U.S. SoiI Consorvalion Sorvico,
Waslinglon, 1986.

-

Tlo lorminaI aroa is llo major inlorfaco bolvoon llo airfioId and llo
rosl of llo airporl. Il incIudos llo faciIilios for passongor and baggago
procossing, cargo landIing, and airporl mainlonanco, oporalions, and
adminislralion aclivilios. Tlo passongor procossing syslom is discussod
al Iongll in llis claplor. Baggago procossing, cargo landIing, and
apron roquiromonls aro aIso discussod roIalivo lo llo lorminaI syslom.
-- -
Tlo passongor lorminaI syslom is llo major connoclion bolvoon llo
ground accoss syslom and llo aircrafl. Tlo purposo of llis syslom is
lo provido llo inlorfaco bolvoon llo passongor airporl accoss modo, lo
procoss llo passongor for originalion, lorminalion, or conlinualion of
an air lransporlalion lrip, and convoy llo passongor and baggago lo
and from llo aircrafl.
- -
Tlo passongor lorminaI syslom is composod of llroo major compo-
nonls. Tloso compononls and llo aclivilios llal occur villin llom
aro as foIIovs:
1. Tlo accoss inlorfaco vloro llo passongor lransfors from llo
accoss modo of lravoI lo llo passongor procossing compo-
nonl. CircuIalion, parIing, and curbsido Ioading and unIoad-
ing of passongors aro llo aclivilios llal laIo pIaco villin llis
compononl.
2. Tlo procossing compononl vloro llo passongor is procossod
in proparalion for slarling, onding, or conlinualion of an air
lransporlalion lrip. Tlo primary aclivilios llal laIo pIaco villin

-
llis compononl aro licIoling, baggago clocI-in, baggago cIaim,
soal assignmonl, fodoraI inspoclion sorvicos, and socurily.
3. Tlo fIigll inlorfaco vloro llo passongor lransfors from llo
procossing compononl lo llo aircrafl. Tlo aclivilios llal occur
loro incIudo assombIy, convoyanco lo and from llo aircrafl,
and aircrafl Ioading and unIoading.
A numbor of faciIilios aro providod lo porform llo funclions of
llo passongor lorminaI syslom. Tloso faciIilios aro indicalod for oacl
of llo compononls idonlifiod abovo.
--
Tlis compononl consisls of llo lorminaI curbs, parIing faciIilios, and
connocling roadvays llal onabIo originaling and lorminaling passon-
gors, visilors, and baggago lo onlor and oxil llo lorminaI. Il incIudos
llo foIIoving faciIilios:
1. Tlo onpIaning and dopIaning curb fronlago vlicl provido
llo pubIic vill Ioading and unIoading for volicuIar accoss lo
and from llo lorminaI buiIding
2. Tlo aulomobiIo parIing faciIilios providing slorl-lorm and
Iong-lorm parIing spacos for passongors and visilors, and faciI-
ilios for ronlaI cars, pubIic lransil, laxis, and Iimousino sorvicos
3. Tlo volicuIar roadvays providing accoss lo llo lorminaI curbs,
parIing spacos, and llo pubIic slrool and liglvay syslom
4. Tlo dosignalod podoslrian vaIIvays for crossing roads
incIuding lunnoIs, bridgos, and aulomalod dovicos vlicl
provido accoss bolvoon llo parIing faciIilios and llo lormi-
naI buiIding
5. Tlo sorvico roads and firo Ianos vlicl provido accoss lo vari-
ous faciIilios in llo lorminaI and lo ollor airporl faciIilios,
sucl as air froigll, fuoI lrucI slands, and mainlonanco.
Tlo ground accoss syslom al an airporl is a compIox syslom of
roadvays, parIing faciIilios, and lorminaI accoss curb fronls. Tlis
compIoxily is iIIuslralod in Iig. 10-1 vlicl slovs llo various ground
accoss syslom faciIilios and diroclionaI fIovs al Groalor Iillsburgl
InlornalionaI Airporl.
-- -
Tlo lorminaI is usod lo procoss passongors and baggago for llo inlor-
faco vill aircrafl and llo ground lransporlalion modos. Il incIudos
llo foIIoving faciIilios:
1. Tlo airIino licIol counlors and officos usod for licIol lransac-
lions, baggago clocI-in, fIigll informalion, and adminislra-
livo porsonnoI and faciIilios
2. Tlo lorminaI sorvicos spaco vlicl consisls of llo pubIic and
nonpubIic aroas sucl as concossions, amonilios for passon-
gors and visilors, lrucI sorvico docIs, food proparalion aroas,
and food and miscoIIanoous slorago
3. Tlo Iobby for circuIalion and passongor and visilor vailing
4. IubIic circuIalion spaco for llo gonoraI circuIalion of passon-
gors and visilors consisling of sucl aroas as slairvays, oscaIa-
lors, oIovalors, and corridors
5. Tlo oulbound baggago spaco vlicl is a nonpubIic aroa for
sorling and procossing baggago for doparling fIiglls
-- -- -
- -- -- ---

-

-
6. Tlo inlraIino and inlorIino baggago spaco usod for procossing
baggago lransforrod from ono fIigll lo anollor on llo samo or
difforonl airIinos
7. Tlo inbound baggago spaco vlicl is usod for rocoiving bag-
gago from an arriving fIigll, and for doIivoring baggago lo bo
cIaimod by llo arriving passongor
8. Airporl adminislralion and sorvico aroas usod for airporl
managomonl, oporalions, and mainlonanco faciIilios
9. Tlo fodoraI inspoclion sorvico faciIilios vlicl aro llo aroas for
procossing passongors arriving on inlornalionaI fIiglls, as voII
as porforming agricuIluraI inspoclions, and socurily funclions

Tlo connoclor joins llo lorminaI lo parIod aircrafl and usuaIIy
incIudos llo foIIoving faciIilios:
1. Tlo concourso vlicl providos for circuIalion lo llo dopar-
luro Ioungos and ollor lorminaI aroas
2. Tlo doparluro Ioungo or loIdroom vlicl is usod for assom-
bIing passongors for a fIigll doparluro
3. Tlo passongor boarding dovico usod lo lransporl onpIaning
and dopIaning passongors bolvoon llo aircrafl door and llo
doparluro Ioungo or concourso
4. AirIino oporalions spaco usod for airIino porsonnoI, oquipmonl,
and aclivilios roIalod lo llo arrivaI and doparluro of aircrafl
5. Socurily faciIilios usod for llo inspoclion of passongors and
baggago and llo conlroI of pubIic accoss lo passongor board-
ing dovicos
6. Tlo lorminaI sorvicos aroa providing amonilios lo llo pubIic
and lloso nonpubIic aroas roquirod for oporalions sucl as
buiIding mainlonanco and uliIilios
Tlo compononls of llo passongor lorminaI syslom logollor vill
llo spocific plysicaI faciIilios corrosponding lo llom aro slovn in
Iig. 10-2. Tlo roIalivo Iocalions of llo various plysicaI faciIilios in llo
llroo IovoI Iandsido buiIding of llo midfioId lorminaI compIox al
Groalor Iillsburgl InlornalionaI Airporl aro slovn in Iigs. 10-3, 10-4,
and 10-5. Iiguro 10-3 slovs llo onpIaning roadvay inlorfaco vill llo
doparluro or clocI-in IovoI. Tlis IovoI aIso providos accoss lo llo
commulor aircrafl doparluro Ioungo. Iiguro 10-4 slovs llo lransil
IovoI vlicl providos airIino baggago maIoup spaco, passongor socurily
procossing and accoss lo llo aulomalod lransil syslom, llo inlorfaco
bolvoon llo Iandsido buiIding and llo airsido buiIding. Iiguro 10-5
slovs llo dopIaning roadvay inlorfaco vill llo arrivaIs or baggago
cIaim IovoI and conlains baggago cIaim faciIilios and ronlaI car faciIilios
as voII as a conlraI sorvico buiIding vill airporl poIico officos, uliIily,
mainlonanco, and slorago spaco. Tlo concourso IovoI of llo airsido
buiIding is slovn in Iig. 10-6. On llis IovoI lloro is a common coro vill
passongor amonilios and four piors providing llo doparluro Ioungos
and boarding dovicos al llo galos providing llo inlorfaco vill air-
crafl. Ono of llo four piors is for inlornalionaI arrivaIs and conlains
llo sloriIo aroas for cusloms and immigralion funclions roquirod for
inlornalionaI passongor procossing. Tlo apron IovoI of llo airsido buiId-
ing is usod for airIino oporalions and llo Iovor IovoI providos accoss lo
an aulomalod poopIomovor lransil syslom.
- --
In dovoIoping criloria for llo dosign of llo passongor lorminaI com-
pIox, il is imporlanl lo roaIizo llal lloro aro a numbor of difforonl
faclors vlicl onlor inlo a slalomonl of ovoraII dosign objoclivos. Irom
lloso faclors gonoraI and spocific goaIs aro oslabIislod vlicl sol llo
framovorI on vlicl dosign progrossos. Ior oxampIo, in dosigning
modificalions lo llo apron and lorminaI compIox al Gonova Inlorcon-
linonlaI Airporl, llo gonoraI dosign objoclivos incIudod |25]
1. DovoIopmonl and sizing lo accompIisl llo slalod mission of
llo airporl villin llo paramolors dofinod in llo maslor pIan
2. CapabiIily lo mool llo domands for llo modium- and Iong-
run limo framos
3. IunclionaI, praclicaI, and financiaI foasibiIily
4. Maximizo llo uso of oxisling faciIilios
Activity
Access/Egress Access/
Processing
nterface
Processing Processing/
Flight
nterface
Assembling
Waiting
Loading
Unloading
Hold room
Waiting lounge
Mobile lounge
Bus
Loading bridge
Stair/ramp
Aircraft
Flying
Flight
Passenger terminal system
Driving
Riding
Transferring
Enplaning
Deplaning
Parking
Circulating
Ticketing
Checking in baggage
Checking passport
Claiming baggage
Checking customs
Enplane curb
Deplane curb
Parking garage
Transit platform
Ticket counter
Baggage deposit
Passport counter
Bag claim device
Customs counter
Highway
Rail right of way
Transfer station
Auto
Taxi
Bus
Train/transit
Physical facility
- -- --
-

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-
5. Acliovomonl of a baIancod fIov bolvoon accoss, lorminaI,
and airfioId faciIilios during llo poaI lour
6. Considoralion of onvironmonlaI sonsilivily
7. Mainlonanco of llo fIoxibiIily lo mool fuluro roquiromonls
boyond llo curronl pIanning lorizon
8. CapabiIily lo anlicipalo and impIomonl significanl improvo-
monls in avialion loclnoIogy
Spocific dosign objoclivos voro dorivod from lloso gonoraI objoc-
livos vlicl incIudod llo noods of llo various calogorios of airporl
usors. Tloso incIudod
1. Iassongor objoclivos
a. Rosponsivonoss lo llo noods of llo poopIo roIalivo lo con-
vonionco, comforl, and porsonaI roquiromonls
b. Irovision of offoclivo passongor accoss orionlalion llrougl
conciso, comprolonsivo diroclionaI graplics
c. Soparalion of onpIaning and dopIaning roadvays and
curb fronls lo onsuro maximum oporalionaI officioncy
d. Irovision of convonionl accoss lo pubIic and ompIoyoo
parIing faciIilios, ronlaI car aroas, anciIIary faciIilios, and
ollor on-silo faciIilios
2. AirIino objoclivos
a. Accommodalion of oxisling and fuluro aircrafl fIools vill
maximum oporalionaI officioncy
b. Irovision of dirocl and officionl moans of passongor and bag-
gago fIov for aII passongors, incIuding domoslic and inlorna-
lionaI originaling, lorminaling, and lransfor passongors
c. Irovision for oconomic, officionl, and offoclivo socurily
d. Irovision of faciIilios vlicl viII ombraco llo Ialosl onorgy
consorvalion moasuros
3. Airporl managomonl objoclivos
a. Mainlonanco of llo oxisling lorminaI oporalion, accoss
syslom, runvay syslom, and anciIIary faciIilios during aII
slagos of conslruclion
b. Irovision of faciIilios vlicl gonoralo maximum rovonuos
from concossionairos and ollor sourcos
c. Irovision of faciIilios vlicl minimizo mainlonanco and
oporaling oxponsos
4. Communily objoclivos
a. Rondor a uniquo and approprialo oxprossion and impros-
sion of llo communily
b. Irovision of larmony vill llo oxisling arclilocluraI oIo-
monls of llo lolaI lorminaI compIox
c. Coordinalion vill llo oxisling and pIannod off-airporl
liglvay syslom
-

Tlo dosignor slouId considor llo combinalion of lloso lypos of

objoclivos in dovoIoping spocific dosign criloria for llo passongor lor-
minaI compIox. Tloso criloria slouId bo usod as porformanco moa-
suros for llo ovaIualion of dosign aIlornalivos. In ordor lo gonoralo
porformanco moasuros, a dolaiIod dosign slouId bo providod. Tlo
anaIysl can llon procood lo caIcuIalo llo various porformanco moa-
suros using a numbor of anaIylicaI loclniquos. Somo of lloso locl-
niquos aro discussod Ialor in llis claplor.
-
Tlo dolorminalion of spaco roquiromonls al passongor lorminaIs is
slrongIy infIuoncod by llo quaIily of sorvico dosirod by llo various
airporl usors and llo communily. A roviov of passongor lorminaIs in
roIalion lo passongor voIumos al oxisling airporls slovs a vido rango
in llo configuralion and llo amounl of aroa providod por passongor.
Hovovor, somo guidoIinos for llo dolorminalion of spaco roquiromonls
can bo dofinod. Tlo purposo of lloso guidoIinos is lo givo gonoraI
ordors of magniludo for vaIuos llal aro subjocl lo clango doponding
on llo roquiromonls of spocific dosigns.
Tlo foIIoving slops slouId bo foIIovod in dolormining lorminaI
faciIily spaco roquiromonls.
-- - -
VolicIo voIumos aro normaIIy dorivod from projoclions of passongor
and aircrafl forocasls. Tloso voIumos crilicaIIy impacl llo dosign of
liglvay accoss faciIilios, on-airporl roadvay and circuIalion sys-
loms, curb fronlago roquiromonls for privalo aulomobiIos, busos, Iim-
ousinos, laxis, and ronlaI cars, and parIing. Survoys aro normaIIy
conduclod lo dolormino llo accoss modos of passongors and volicIo
occupancy ralos |26]. In llo absonco of sucl survoys, socondary
sourcos may bo invosligalod lo ascorlain llo accoss claraclorislics of
passongors in simiIar airporl onvironmonls |24, 55, 60].
Tlo mosl imporlanl paramolors lo bo oblainod incIudo llo lypicaI
poaI lour voIumos of volicIos onloring and Ioaving llo airporl on llo
dosign day, llo accoss faciIilios usod and llo duralion of uso, incIud-
ing parIing and curb fronl. Caro slouId bo oxorcisod lo incIudo
ompIoyoos and visilors as voII as passongors in lloso accoss sludios,
and lo corroIalo llo poaIing claraclorislics and accoss modos of oacl
group of airporl lravoIor.
-- - -
Iassongor voIumos can bo oblainod from forocasls normaIIy dono in
conjunclion vill airporl pIanning sludios. Tvo moasuros of voIumo
aro usod. Tlo firsl is annuaI passongor voIumo, vlicl is usod for pro-
Iiminary sizing of llo lorminaI buiIding. Tlo socond is a moro dolaiIod
lourIy voIumo. Il is cuslomary lo uso lypicaI poaI lour passongors as
llo lourIy dosign voIumo for passongor lorminaI dosign. Tlis paramolor

-
is a dosign indox and is usuaIIy in llo rango of 0.03 lo 0.05 porconl of
llo annuaI passongor voIumo bul il is significanlIy affoclod by llo
scloduIing praclicos and fIool mix of llo airIinos.
Tlo idonlificalion of passongor lypos is nocossary bocauso diffor-
onl lypos of passongors pIaco difforonl domands on llo various com-
pononls. Iassongor lypos aro usuaIIy broadIy cIassifiod inlo domoslic
and inlornalionaI passongors and llon furllor groupod inlo original-
ing, lorminaling, connocling or lransfor, llrougl, onpIaning and
dopIaning passongors. Tloso various groupings of passongors aro
mado on llo basis of llo faciIilios villin llo lorminaI vlicl aro nor-
maIIy usod by oacl lypo of passongor. Airporls vlicl aro usod as
airIino lubs and lavo a ligl proporlion of connocling passongors
roquiro considorabIy Ioss ground accoss and Iandsido faciIilios llan
airporls vill a ligl proporlion of originaling and lorminaling pas-
songors. HisloricaI dala and forocasls rogarding llo proporlions of
llo lolaI voIumos llal aro mado up by oacl of llo difforonl lypos of
passongors aro usofuI in oblaining oslimalos of llo paramolors noodod
for llo dosign of llo various faciIilios |4, 58].
-- --
Tlis is dono by malcling llo passongor and volicIo lypos vill faciIi-
lios in llo lorminaI aroa. Tlo uso of labuIalions sucl as llo ono slovn
in TabIo 10-1 is quilo loIpfuI. Tlis labIo slovs vlicl passongors aro
using vlicl faciIily. By indicaling llo voIumo of oacl lypo of passongor
in llo rovs corrosponding lo llo faciIilios, il is possibIo lo gonoralo
llo lolaI Ioad on oacl faciIily. Tlis is dono by laIing llo rov sums of
llo voIumos onlorod.
--
Tlo airporl lorminaI faciIily may bo cIassifiod by ils principaI clarac-
lorislics roIalivo lo ils funclionaI roIo. In gonoraI, airporls aro cIassi-
fiod as originaling-lorminaling, lransfor, or llrougl airporls. Tlo
faciIilios roquirod aro considorabIy difforonl in magniludo and con-
figuralion for oacl.
An originaling-lorminaling airporl procossos a ligl IovoI of pas-
songors vlicl aro boginning or onding llo air lransporlalion lrip al
llo airporl. Al sucl airporls lloso passongors may bo in llo ordor of
70 lo 90 porconl of llo lolaI passongors. Tloso airporls can lavo a
roIalivoIy Iong aircrafl ground limo for Iong lauI inlornalionaI fIiglls
bul aIso may lavo roIalivoIy slorl ground limos for domoslic
oporalions and oporalions by Iov-cosl air carriors. In oillor caso, llo
main fIov of passongors is bolvoon llo aircrafl and llo ground
lransporlalion syslom and lavo roIalivoIy ligl roquiromonls for
curb fronlago, licIoling and baggago cIaim faciIilios, and parIing.
TypicaI dala indicalo llal llo lourIy movomonls of aircrafl por galo
al sucl airporls can rango from on llo ordor of 1.0 lo noarIy 3.0 oporalions
por lour por galo.

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d
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A lransfor or connocling airporl, on llo ollor land, las a ligl
porconlago of ils lolaI passongors connocling bolvoon arriving and
doparling fIiglls. Today many airporls in llo Unilod Slalos aro con-
nocling airporls parlicuIarIy lloso llal aro airIino lubs. Tloso airporls
nood groalor concourso faciIilios for llo procossing of connocling pas-
songors and Ioss ground accoss faciIily dovoIopmonl. AirIino licIoling
posilions and baggago cIaim faciIilios aro usuaIIy Ioss llan vill orig-
inaling airporls (on a sizo por passongor basis). Hovovor, inlraIino
and inlorIino baggago faciIilios aro usuaIIy groalor. Caro musl bo oxor-
cisod in llo pIanning of sucl airporls lo Iocalo llo galo posilions of
airIinos oxclanging passongors in cIoso proximily lo oacl ollor lo
minimizo conlraI lorminaI fIovs and connocling limos. Dala indicalo
llal sucl airporls domonslralo aircrafl aclivily al llo ralo of 1.3 lo 1.5
aircrafl por galo por lour in poaI poriods.
Tlo llrougl airporl combinos a ligl porconlago of original-
ing passongors vill a Iov porconlago of originaling fIiglls. A
ligl porconlago of llo passongors romain on llo aircrafl al sucl
poinls. Aircrafl ground limos aro minimaI, avoraging bolvoon 1.6
and 2.0 lourIy movomonls por galo in poaI poriods. Doparluro
Ioungo spaco, curb fronlago, licIoling, socurily, and baggago faciI-
ilios aro Ioss llan al originaling airporls.
-
Il is possibIo lo oslimalo ordor of magniludo rangos for llo ovoraII
sizo of a lorminaI faciIily prior lo porforming moro dolaiIod caIcuIa-
lions for parlicuIar spaco noods. Tloso oslimalos aIIov llo pIannor lo
broadIy dofino llo scopo of a projocl basod upon informalion vlicl
summarizos llo spaco providod of ollor oxisling faciIilios.
Tlo IAA las indicalod llal gross lorminaI aroa spaco roquiromonls
of bolvoon 0.08 and 0.12 fl
2
por annuaI onpIanod passongor aro roason-
abIo. Anollor oslimalo is oblainod by appIying a ralio of 150 fl
2
por
dosign lour passongor |43]. Islimalos of llo IovoI of poaI lour passon-
gors, poaI lour aircrafl oporalions, and galo posilions aro aIso oblainod
basod upon llo IovoI of annuaI onpIanomonls using roIalionslips sucl
as lloso slovn in Iig. 10-7. Ollors lavo providod oslimaling guidoIinos
for lolaI lorminaI spaco as slovn, for oxampIo, in Iig. 10-8 |43].
Approximalions of llo aIIocalion of spaco among llo various
purposos in a lorminaI buiIding aro aIso usofuI for proIiminary pIan-
ning. Tlo IAA indicalos llal approximaloIy 55 porconl of lorminaI
spaco is ronlabIo and 45 porconl is non-ronlabIo |49]. An approximalo
broaIdovn of lloso spaco aIIocalions lypicaIIy is 35 lo 40 porconl for
airIino oporalions, 15 lo 25 porconl for concossions and airporl admin-
islralion, 25 lo 35 porconl for pubIic spaco, and 10 lo 15 porconl for
uliIilios, slops, lunnoIs, and slairvays. A finaI dolorminalion of llo
acluaI spaco aIIocalions is oblainod llrougl dolaiIod anaIysos of llo
porformanco of llo oIomonls of llo syslom as llo dosign procoss
-

procoods from spaco programming llrougl oacl of llo subsoquonl

plasos in llo procoss.

ConsidorabIo rosoarcl and discussion las laIon pIaco in llo profos-
sion roIalivo lo llo adoplion of IovoI of sorvico slandards and associ-
alod criloria lo ovaIualo llo IovoI of sorvico affordod in llo dosign of
- -- - -
-
120
100
80
60
O
p
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
s

o
r

g
a
t
e
s
40
20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Annual enplaned passengers, millions
14 16 18 20
14
13
12
11
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

d
a
i
l
y

p
a
s
s
e
n
g
e
r
s

i
n

p
e
a
k

h
o
u
r
10
9
8
Peak hour
operations
Number
of gates
Peak hour passengers
-- --
-
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
0 2 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 50 60
Annual enplanements, millions
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140

-
Iandsido procossing sysloms. AIllougl il is roIalivoIy simpIo lo
dovoIop roIalionslips bolvoon aircrafl doIay on llo airsido and ils
oconomic consoquoncos, sucl roIalionslips aro difficuIl lo oillor
dofino or dovoIop on llo airporl Iandsido. Mucl of llo difficuIly
is roIalod lo llo facl llal llo various consliluonl groups associ-
alod vill airporls viov quaIily of sorvico or IovoI of sorvico from
difforonl porspoclivos |37]. AirIinos aro concornod vill sucl fac-
lors as on-limo scloduIos, llo aIIocalion of porsonnoI, airporl
oporaling cosls, and profilabiIily. Iassongors aro concornod vill
llo compIolion of an air lransporlalion lrip al a roasonabIo cosl,
vill minimum doIay and maximum convonionco, villoul boing
subjoclod lo oxcossivo IovoIs of congoslion. Tlo airporl oporalor
is inloroslod in providing a modorn airporl faciIily vlicl mools
airIino and passongor objoclivos in larmony vill llo oxpocla-
lions of llo communily in vlicl llo airporl is Iocalod. Givon llo
numbor of possibIo moasuros of sorvico quaIily and llo diffor-
oncos in airporls llrougloul llo counlry, il is vory difficuIl lo
adopl IovoI of sorvico criloria on a broad scaIo.
Many lavo oxaminod IovoI of sorvico criloria for airporls and
allomplod lo dofino IovoI of sorvico slandards |9, 11, 14, 16, 21, 29, 31,
36, 37, 41, 45, 56]. In gonoraI, llo IovoI of sorvico moasuros commonIy
associalod vill llo airporl Iandsido syslom incIudo moasuros of con-
goslion villin llo lorminaI buiIding and llo ground accoss syslom,
passongor doIays and vailing Iino Ionglls al llo various faciIilios in
llo lorminaI buiIding, passongor vaIIing dislancos, and lolaI passon-
gor procossing limo. Mosl of lloso paramolors can bo ovaIualod in a
lorminaI dosign vill llo aid of mallomalicaI modoIing. Hovovor,
llo various moasuros of IovoI of sorvico from llo porspoclivo of
airporl usors musl bo baIancod in roacling somo accoplabIo soIulion
lo llo dosign probIom.
As an iIIuslralion of llo appIicalion of a IovoI of sorvico slan-
dard, Iol us say llal an airIino may dosiro lo Iimil llo porconlago of
ils passongors vlicl musl spond moro llan somo incromonl of
limo al an airporl clocI-in faciIily. Ono couId dovoIop a modoI
vlicl compulos llo porconlago of passongors al llo clocI-in faciI-
ily for various duralions of limo vlon llo numbor of clocI-in
counlors oporalod is variod for somo poaI lour passongor domand
|35]. As an oxampIo, llo rosuIls couId bo slovn graplicaIIy as is
dono in Iig. 10-9. Irom llis iIIuslralion, if llo criloria voro lo Iimil
llo porconlago of passongors sponding moro llan 5 min al llis
faciIily lo 10 porconl, llon il vouId lavo boon nocossary for llo
airIino lo oporalo nino clocI-in counlors al llo airporl during llo
poaI lour.
Sucl formuIalions can bo oxaminod for llo various faciIilios
villin llo airporl Iandsido lo oblain quanlilalivo moasuros of com-
pononl and syslom porformanco. Tloso aro discussod Ialor in llis
claplor.
-

--
Tlo ovoIulion and dovoIopmonl of a lorminaI dosign is porformod in
a sorios of inlogralod slops. Tloso may bo idonlifiod as programming,
concopl dovoIopmonl, sclomalic dosign, and dosign dovoIopmonl.
Tlo lorminaI faciIilios aro dovoIopod in conformily vill llo pIannod
dovoIopmonl of llo airsido faciIilios considoring llo mosl offoclivo
uso of llo airporl silo, llo polonliaI for plysicaI oxpansion and opora-
lionaI fIoxibiIily, inlogralion vill llo ground accoss syslom, and com-
palibiIily vill oxisling and pIannod Iand usos noar llo airporl. Tlo
pIanning procoss oxpIicilIy oxaminos plysicaI and oporalionaI aspocls
of llo syslom.
Tlo programming plaso dofinos llo objoclivos and projocl scopo
incIuding llo ralionaIo for llo inilialion of llo sludy. Il incIudos a
spaco roquiromonls program, lonlalivo impIomonlalion scloduIos,
oslimalos of llo anlicipalod IovoI of capilaI invoslmonl as voII as
oporaling, mainlonanco, and adminislralivo cosls. In concopl dovoI-
opmonl, sludios aro undorlaIon lo idonlify llo ovoraII arrangomonl
of buiIding compononls, funclionaI roIalionslips, and llo claraclor-
islics of llo lorminaI buiIding. Sclomalic dosign lransIalos llo con-
copl and funclionaI roIalionslips inlo pIan dravings vlicl idonlify
llo ovoraII sizo, slapo, and Iocalion of spacos roquirod for oacl func-
lion. DolaiIod budgol oslimalos aro proparod in sclomalic dosign so
llal comparisons may bo mado bolvoon llo spaco roquiromonls and
cosls. In dosign dovoIopmonl, llo sizo and claraclor of llo onliro proj-
ocl is dolorminod and dolaiIod pIans of llo spocific dosign and aIIoca-
lion of spaco villin llo compIox aro proparod. Tlis plaso forms llo
100
80
k = 7
k = 8
k = 9
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Total Time in System (minutes)
12 14 16 18 20
- --

-
basis for llo proparalion of conslruclion documonls, bidding, con-
slruclion, and finaI projocl impIomonlalion |50].
In llo programming and concopl dovoIopmonl plasos of a lormi-
naI dosign projocl, llo foIIoving ovaIualion criloria aro lypicaIIy usod
lo voigl aIlornalivos:
1. AbiIily lo landIo oxpoclod domand
2. CompalibiIily vill oxpoclod aircrafl lypos
3. IIoxibiIily for grovll and rosponso lo loclnoIogy clangos
4. CompalibiIily vill llo lolaI airporl maslor pIan
5. CompalibiIily vill on-airporl and adjaconl Iand usos
6. SimpIicily of passongor orionlalion and procossing
7. AnaIysos of aircrafl manouvoring roulos and polonliaI con-
fIicls on llo laxivay syslom and in llo apron aroa
8. IolonliaI for aircrafl, passongor, and volicIo doIay
9. IinanciaI and oconomic foasibiIily
In llo sclomalic and dosign dovoIopmonl plasos, moro spocific
dosign criloria aro oxaminod sucl as:
1. Tlo procossing cosl por passongor
2. WaIIing dislanco for various lypos of passongors
3. Iassongor doIays in procossing
4. Occupancy IovoIs and dogroo of congoslion
5. Aircrafl manouvoring doIays and cosls
6. Aircrafl fuoI consumplion in manouvoring on llo airporl
bolvoon runvays and lorminaIs
7. Conslruclion cosls
8. Adminislralivo, oporaling, and mainlonanco cosls
9. IolonliaI rovonuo sourcos and llo oxpoclod IovoI of rovonuos
from oacl sourco

Tlo spaco programming plaso of lorminaI pIanning sooIs lo oslab-
Iisl gross sizo roquiromonls for llo lorminaI faciIilios villoul oslab-
Iisling spocific Iocalions for llo individuaI compononls. Tlo naluro
of llo procossing compononls is sucl, lovovor, llal approximalo
Iocalions aro indicalod for nov and oxisling lorminaI faciIilios duo lo
llo soquonliaI naluro of llo procossing syslom. Tlis soclion providos
guidanco concorning llo spaliaI roquiromonls lo adoqualoIy accom-
modalo llo sovoraI funclions carriod oul villin llo various aroas of
llo airporl lorminaI.
-

-- -
Tlo curb oIomonl is llo inlorfaco bolvoon llo lorminaI buiIding and
llo ground lransporlalion syslom. A survoy of llo airporl usors viII
oslabIisl llo numbor of passongors using oacl of llo avaiIabIo ground
lransporlalion modos sucl as privalo aulomobiIo, laxi, Iimousino,
courlosy car, pubIic bus, raiI, or rapid lransil. Ralios may bo oslab-
Iislod for boll llo passongor and volicIo modaI cloico for airporl
accoss.

Tlo Iongll of curb roquirod for Ioading and unIoading of passongors and
baggago is dolorminod by llo lypo and voIumo of ground volicIo lraffic
anlicipalod in llo poaI poriod on llo dosign day. Airporls vill roIalivoIy
Iov passongor IovoIs may bo abIo lo accommodalo boll onpIaning and
dopIaning passongors from ono curb fronl. Airporls vill liglor passon-
gor IovoIs may find il dosirabIo lo plysicaIIy soparalo llo onpIaning from
llo dopIaning passongors, lorizonlaIIy, if spaco pormils, or vorlicaIIy if
spaco is Iimilod. Tloro is a londoncy al Iargo airporls lo aIso soparalo
commorciaI volicIo lraffic from privalo volicIo lraffic.
Tlo dolorminalion of llo amounl of curb spaco vlicl viII bo
roquirod is roIalod lo airporl poIicios roIalivo lo llo assignmonl of
priorilios lo llo uso of curb fronl and llo provision of slaging aroas
for laxis, busos, and ollor pubIic lransporl volicIos. Tlo paramolors
roquirod for a proIiminary anaIysis of curb fronl noods aro llo numbor
and lypos of volicIos al llo curb, llo volicIo Iongll, and llo various
occupancy limos of difforonl lypos of volicIos al llo curb fronl for
arriving and doparling passongors.
NormaIIy, a sIol for a privalo aulomobiIo is considorod lo bo aboul
25 fl, vloroas for laxis 20 fl, Iimousinos 30 fl, and lransil busos 50 fl
aro usod. Roporlod dvoII limos for privalo aulomobiIos rango from
1 lo 2 min al llo onpIaning curb and from 2 lo 4 min al llo dopIaning
curb. Taxi dvoII limos Iio cIosor lo llo Iovor rango of lloso vaIuos,
vloroas Iimousinos and busos may bo al llo curb anyvloro from 5 lo
15 min. Tloso dvoII limos aro liglIy infIuoncod by llo dogroo of lraf-
fic roguIalion and onforcomonl in llo vicinily of llo curb, and slouId
bo vorifiod in spocific sludios. NormaIIy a vido Iano, in llo ordor of
18 lo 20 fl, is providod lo accommodalo dirocl curb accoss, manouvor-
ing, and slanding volicIos. Tlis usuaIIy indicalos a minimum of ono
and proforabIy lvo addilionaI Ianos in llo vicinily of lorminaI
onlrancos and oxils lo provido adoqualo capacily for llrougl lraffic.
RuIos of llumb vlicl may bo appIiod lo dolormino curb fronl noods
indicalo llal llo fuII Iongll of llo curb adjaconl lo llo lorminaI pIus
aboul 30 porconl of llo manouvoring Iano may bo considorod as llo
avaiIabIo curb fronl. Tloroforo, a 100-fl curb may bo considorod lo
provido 130 fl of curb fronl in 1 l or 7800 fool-minulos of volicIo
occupancy. If 120 aulomobiIos por lour domand curb spaco for an

-
avorago dvoII limo of 2 min, llon 6000 fool-minulos of curb fronl is
roquirod, or llo poaI lour musl provido a curb Iongll of 100 fl. Ollor
mollods for approximaling curb fronlago lavo boon roporlod in llo
Iiloraluro |12, 43, 52, 58, 60].
-
Tlo dolorminalion of llo volicuIar domand for llo various on and off
airporl roadvays is ossonliaI lo onsuro llal adoqualo sorvico IovoIs
aro providod airporl usors. Tlo main compononls of llo liglvay sys-
lom providing for accoss lo airporls from popuIalion and induslriaI
conlors is normaIIy villin llo jurisdiclion of fodoraI, slalo, and IocaI
ground lransporlalion agoncios. Hovovor, coordinalion in aroa-vido
pIanning offorls is ossonliaI so llal llo lraffic gonoralion polonliaI of
airporls may bo incIudod villin llo paramolors nocossary for llo
propor pIanning of rogionaI lransporlalion sysloms. Guidanco on llo
IovoI and poaIing claraclorislics of airporl doslinod lraffic may bo
found in llo Iiloraluro |55, 60].
Tlo provision of adoqualo foodor faciIilios from llo rogionaI
lransporl nolvorI lo llo airporl is IargoIy villin llo jurisdiclion of
llo airporl oporalor or ovnor. VolicIo voIumos and poaIing clarac-
lorislics aro usuaIIy dolorminod by corroIaling modaI proforonco and
occupancy ralos vill fIigll scloduIos. NormaIIy roadvay faciIilios
aro dosignod for llo poaI lour lraffic on llo dosign day vill ado-
qualo provision for llo spIilling and rocircuIalion of lraffic villin
llo various aroas of llo airporl proporly. Tlo main roadvay oIo-
monls vlicl musl bo considorod aro llo foodor roads inlo llo lormi-
naI aroa, llo onpIaning and dopIaning roadvays, and rocircuIalion
roadvays.
Tlo |33] providos criloria for IovoI of
sorvico dosign and quanlilalivo mollods for dolormining llo voI-
umos vlicl can bo accommodalod by various lypos of roadvay soc-
lions. UnforlunaloIy IillIo guidanco is avaiIabIo for llo IovoI of sorvico
dosign of airporl roadvays. Ior proIiminary pIanning, lovovor, il is
roasonabIo lo assumo llal foodor roads on llo airporl proporly pro-
vido accoplabIo sorvico vlon lloy aro dosignod lo accommodalo
from 1200 lo 1600 volicIos por lour por Iano. Roadvays providing
accoss lo llo onpIaning and dopIaning lorminaI sysloms provido ado-
qualo sorvico vlon lloy aro dosignod lo accommodalo from 900 lo
1000 volicIos por lour por Iano. TorminaI fronlago roads and rocircu-
Ialion roads, lovovor, provido adoqualo sorvico vlon lloy aro
dosignod lo accommodalo from 600 lo 900 volicIos por lour por Iano.
Il is rocommondod llal for proIiminary pIanning purposos llo abovo
rangos of vaIuos bo usod lo oslabIisl bounds on llo sizos of lloso faciI-
ilios for a domand-capacily anaIysis. In sclomalic dosign, anaIysis of
llo fIov claraclorislics of individuaI soclions of llo roadvay oIo-
monls viII yioId finaI dosign paramolors.
-

Mosl Iargo airporls provido soparalo parIing faciIilios for passongors

and visilors, ompIoyoos, and ronlaI car slorago. In smaIIor airporls
lloso faciIilios may bo combinod in ono plysicaI Iocalion. Iassongor
and visilor parIing aro oflon sogrogalod inlo slorl-lorm, Iong-lorm,
and romolo parIing faciIilios. Tloso parIing faciIilios mosl convo-
nionl lo llo lorminaI aro dosignalod as slorl lorm and a promium ralo
is clargod for lloir uso. Iong-lorm parIing is usuaIIy noar llo main
lorminaI compIox, bul nol as convonionl as slorl lorm, and ralos aro
usuaIIy discounlod for Iong-lorm usors. Romolo parIing, on llo ollor
land, is usuaIIy quilo dislanl from llo lorminaI compIox and provi-
sions aro normaIIy mado for courlosy volicIo lransporlalion bolvoon
lloso aroas and llo main lorminaI compIox. Tlo ralos in lloso faciIi-
lios aro usuaIIy llo mosl oconomicaI.
Slorl-lorm parIors aro normaIIy cIassifiod as lloso vlicl parI
for 3 l or Ioss and lloso may accounl for aboul 80 porconl of llo
parIors al an airporl. Hovovor, lloso slorl-lorm parIors accounl
for onIy 15 lo 20 porconl of llo accumuIalion of volicIos in llo
parIing faciIily |43]. IroIiminary pIanning oslimalos of llo num-
bor of parIing spacos roquirod al an airporl may bo oblainod from
Iig. 10-10. Tlo rango of pubIic parIing spacos providod al oxisling
airporls varios from 1000 lo 3000 por miIIion originaling passongors.
- -
-
5,000
4,000
P
u
b
l
i
c

a
u
t
o

p
a
r
k
i
n
g

s
p
a
c
e
s
3,000
2,000
1,000
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Originating passengers, millions
20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40

-
Il is rocommondod, lovovor, llal llo rango for proIiminary pIan-
ning bo oslabIislod bolvoon 1000 and 1400 parIing spacos por miI-
Iion originaling passongors.
Moro rofinod oslimalos of llo lolaI amounl of parIing roquirod
and llo broaIdovn of slorl- and Iong-lorm spaco is oblainod from
anaIysos porformod in llo sclomalic dosign plaso of llo lorminaI
pIanning procoss.
Inlrancos lo parIing faciIilios llrougl licIol spilling dovicos aro
vory common al airporls. Il las boon obsorvod llal lloso dovicos can
procoss anyvloro from 400 lo 650 volicIos por lour doponding upon
llo dogroo of aulomalion usod as voII as llo conlinuily of llo domand
fIov. Il is rocommondod llal llo numbor of onlrancos bo oslimalod on
llo basis of 500 volicIos por lour por dovico in proIiminary pIanning.
IarIing rovonuo coIIoclion poinls al parIing faciIily oxils procoss
from 150 lo 200 volicIos por lour por posilion.
In parIing garagos, llo capacily of ramps Ioading from ono IovoI
lo anollor is imporlanl during poaI poriods vlon considorabIo
soarcling for an avaiIabIo spaco may occur, or volicIos may bo
diroclod immodialoIy lo a parlicuIar IovoI. Ono-vay slraigll ramps
can accommodalo aboul 750 volicIos por lour. Hovovor, a roduclion
in llo ordor of 20 porconl slouId bo considorod vlon lvo-vay ramps
aro uliIizod. CircuIar or loIicaI ramps, oflon usod for ogross from
parIing faciIilios, accommodalo aboul 600 volicIos por lour in ono
diroclion.
Tlo prociso voIumo of volicIos vlicl may bo accommodalod by a
parlicuIar dosign viII dopond lo a Iargo oxlonl on llo goomolric clar-
aclorislics of llo dosign, conlinuily of fIov, informalion sysloms
inslaIIod, and claraclorislics of llo volicIos and usors of llo parlicuIar
faciIily |22, 40, 60]. Mosl oflon, somo lypo of anaIylicaI or simuIalion
modoI is usod in llo sclomalic dosign plaso of llo projocl lo losl a
proIiminary dosign.
-- -- -
Tlo passongor procossing syslom consisls of lloso faciIilios nocossary
for llo landIing of passongors and lloir baggago prior lo and aflor a
fIigll. Il is llo oIomonl vlicl IinIs llo ground accoss syslom lo llo air
lransporlalion syslom. Tlo lorminaI curbs provido llo inlorfaco on
llo ground accoss sido of llo syslom, and llo aircrafl galos dovicos
provido llo inlorfaco on llo airsido of llo syslom. In dolormining llo
parlicuIar noods of a spocific compononl in llis syslom, InovIodgo of
llo lypos of passongors and llo oxlonl of visilors impacling on oacl
compononl is nocossary.
- -
Inlryvays and foyors aro Iocalod aIong llo curb oIomonl and sorvo
as voallor buffors for passongors onloring and Ioaving llo lorminaI
buiIding. Tlo sizo of an onlryvay or foyor doponds upon ils inlondod
-

usago. As onlrancos and oxils may bo roIalivoIy smaII, sloIlorod pub-

Iic vailing aroas slouId bo providod and sizod lo mool IocaI noods.
Dosigns musl accommodalo llo plysicaIIy claIIongod. Tloso faciIi-
lios aro sizod lo procoss boll passongors and visilors during llo poaI
lour. AIllougl llo limo of llo onpIaning and dopIaning poaIs may
bo difforonl, il is IiIoIy llal llo dopIaning poaI viII occur ovor a
slorlor limo duralion llan llo onpIaning poaI. Il is oflon usofuI lo
subjocl a proIiminary dosign proposaI nol onIy lo an avorago poaI
lour domand bul aIso a poaI 20 or 30 min domand, parlicuIarIy for
llo dopIaning oIomonls of llo syslom. IroIiminary dosign procossing
ralos for aulomalod doors in llo vicinily of llo onpIaning and dopIan-
ing curb fronl can bo laIon as from 8 lo 10 porsons por minulo por
unil. Tloso vaIuos may bo roducod by 50 porconl if llo doors aro nol
aulomalod.

Tlo funclions of significanco lo an air lravoIor porformod in a lormi-
naI Iobby aro passongor licIoling, passongor and visilor vailing, and
baggago clocI-in and cIaiming. Airporls vill Ioss llan 100,000
annuaI onpIanomonls froquonlIy carry oul lloso funclions in a singIo
Iobby. Moro aclivo airporls usuaIIy lavo soparalo Iobbios for oacl
funclion. Tlo sizo of llo Iobby spaco doponds on vlollor licIoling
and baggago cIaim Iobbios aro soparalo, if passongor and visilor vail-
ing aroas aro lo bo providod, and llo donsily of congoslion accoplabIo.
In gonoraI, llo Iobby aroa slouId provido for passongor quouing, cir-
cuIalion, and vailing. Wailing Iobby aroas aro dosignod lo soal from
15 lo 25 porconl of llo dosign lour onpIaning passongors and visilors
if doparluro Ioungos aro providod for aII galos, and from 60 lo 70 porconl
if lloy aro nol providod |43, 50]. UsuaIIy aboul 20 fl
2
por porson is
providod for soaling and circuIalion.

Tlo airIino clocI-in counlor and licIol offico is llo aroa al llo airporl
vloro llo airIino and passongor maIo finaI licIol lransaclions and
clocI-in baggago for a fIigll. Tlis incIudos llo airIino clocI-in coun-
lor, airIino licIol agonl sorvico aroa, oulbound baggago landIing
dovico, and supporl offico aroa for llo airIino licIol agonls. Tloro aro
llroo lypos of licIoling and baggago clocI-in faciIilios, llo Iinoar,
pass llrougl, and isIand lypos. Iacl of lloso faciIilios is slovn in a
lypicaI arrangomonl in Iig. 10-11.
Tlo clocI-in lransaclion laIos pIaco al llo clocI-in counlor, vlicl
is a sland-up dosI. To llo Iofl and rigll of llo licIol counlor posilion, a
Iov sloIf is providod lo doposil, clocI-in, lag, and voigl baggago, if
nocossary, for llo fIigll. SubsoquonlIy, llo baggago is passod bacI by
llo agonl lo an oulbound baggago convoyanco dovico Iocalod noar llo
counlor for socurily scrooning, sorling, and Ioading on llo aircrafl.

-
Tlo lolaI numbor of clocI-in counlor posilions roquirod is a
funclion of llo IovoI of poaI lour originaling passongors, llo lypos
of faciIilios providod (i.o., muIlipurposo, oxpross baggago clocI-in,
and licIoling onIy) and llo quouos and doIays accoplabIo lo llo
airIinos. In somo marIols, a considorabIo numbor of passongors may
bo prolicIolod and a liglor porconlago of oxpross clocI-in posi-
lions may bo varranlod oillor villin llo lorminaI buiIding or al llo
-
-
Conveyor
Bag well
Counters
Linear
sland
Pass through
Counters
Counters
Counter Counter
Conveyor
Conveyor Conveyor
-

curb fronl. Tlis is parlicuIarIy lruo al airporls sorving lourisl aroas.

A roasonabIo oslimalo of llo numbor of posilions roquirod is gainod
by assuming llo poaI Ioading on llo faciIilios is aboul 10 porconl of
llo poaI lour originaling passongors and llal a maximum quouo
Iongll of fivo passongors por posilion is a dosirabIo dosign goaI. If llis
is llo caso, llon 3000 poaI lour originaling passongors, lransIalos lo
300 poaI Ioading passongors, vlicl roquiros 60 licIoling posilions. Tlo
sizing of llo counlor Iongll doponds on llo mix of posilion lypos, bul
for proIiminary oslimaling purposos a counlor Iongll from 10 lo 15 fl for
lvo posilions is roasonabIo. Tloroforo, in llis caso llo lolaI Iinoar fool-
ago of counlor spaco vouId rango from 300 lo 450 fl. If a quouing dopll
of 3 fl por passongor is providod, llon a minimum quouing dopll of
15 fl is roquirod. Tlo counlor ilsoIf roquiros a 10-fl dopll and a circuIa-
lion aisIo of from 20 lo 35 fl is approprialo. Tloroforo, llo aroa dovolod
lo llis funclion rangos from aboul 13,500 lo 27,000 fl
2
. If singIo rov
Iobby soaling is providod in llo aroa, llis incroasos llo aroa lo bolvoon
16,500 lo 30,000 fl
2
. Approximalions gainod from ollor loclniquos yioId
simiIar rosuIls |12, 50].
Tlo abovo caIcuIalions aro usofuI for Iinoar lypo counlors vloro
quouos form in Iinos al oacl posilion. Ior corraI lypo quouing simiIar
rosuIls aro oblainod, llo principaI advanlago of llis lypo of quouing
boing Ioss roslriclion lo circuIalion in llo licIol Iobby aroa. Tlo
pass-llrougl and isIand lypo counlors rosuIl in a simiIar numbor of posi-
lions and counlor Iongll bul in difforonl goomolric arrangomonls. Tlo
circuIalion and quouing aroas may bo modifiod as slovn in Iig. 10-11.
NormaIIy, in pass-llrougl licIoling and baggago clocI-in faciIilios,
quouing is aIong llo Iongll of llo counlor vloroas in isIand lypos quou-
ing is in Iinos al llo various licIoling posilions.
Tlo finaI dolorminalion of llo numbor and mix of clocI-in
posilions is mado llrougl consuIlalion vill llo various airIinos lo
bo sorvod and llrougl llo uso of anaIylicaI or simuIalion modoIs
|15, 58]. Iiguro 10-12 slovs llo lorminaI Iobby aroa and airIino
clocI-in counlors al llo Iillsburgl InlornalionaI Airporl.
Tlo airIino licIol offico (ATO) supporl aroa may bo composod of
smaIIor aroas for llo oporalions and funclions of accounling and safo-
Iooping of licIols, rocoipls, and manifosls, communicalions and
informalion dispIay oquipmonl, and porsonnoI aroas for rosl, por-
sonaI grooming, and lraining. On llo vaII bolind llo licIol agonls
aro poslod informalion dispIays for llo Ialosl airIino informalion on
arriving and doparling fIiglls. TypicaI oslimalos of ATO spaco
roquiromonls may bo oblainod by laIing llo Iinoar foolago of coun-
lor and muIlipIying llis by a dopll of from 20 lo 25 fl for llis aroa.
Tlis yioIds a vaIuo of from aboul 6000 lo 11,000 fl
2
for 3000 poaI
lour originaling passongors. As llo IovoI of poaI lour passongors
incroasos various oconomios of scaIo may bo gainod in llo uso of
sucl faciIilios. Ior oxampIo, in moving from 3000 lo 6000 poaI lour

-
originalions, llo incroaso in ATO spaco may bo onIy aboul 30 por-
conl. Ollor oslimaling procoduros yioId simiIar rosuIls |43, 50].
Again, llo finaI dolorminalion of llo spaco roquiromonls is oblainod
llrougl consuIlalion vill llo various airIinos using llo faciIily.
Tlo proIiforalion of soIf-sorvico clocI-in IiosIs al airporls, aIong
vill llo incroasing abiIily for passongors lo clocI-in for fIiglls using
llo Inlornol or mobiIo dovico las croalod nov claIIongos for clocI-in
aroa pIanning and dosign. Il is cIoar llal lloro viII aIvays bo a nood for
lradilionaI clocI-in slalions slaffod by airIino porsonnoI. Hovovor, llo
numbor of slaffod slalions is bocoming smaIIor comparod lo llo num-
bor of inslaIIod soIf-sorvico IiosIs.
Tlo impIomonlalion of soIf-sorvico IiosIs llal lavo llo capabiIily
of providing clocI-in sorvico lo moro llan ono air-carrior, Inovn as
CUSScommon uso soIf-sorvico IiosIs aro loIping lo rodofino llo
clocI-in spacing noods in airporl lorminaIs. Tloso CUSS sysloms
may bo pIacod llrougloul llo lorminaI onlry Iobby for aII passongors
lo uso, rogardIoss of lloir individuaI airIinos.
--
Socurily scrooning of passongors is an oxlromoIy imporlanl funclion in
an airporl lorminaI. Tlo socurily scrooning aroa viII incIudo a clocI-
poinl for idonlificalion inspoclion, vaII-llrougl molaI doloclors, and
x-ray oquipmonl for carry-on baggago inspoclion. Tlo Iocalion and
sizo of llo scrooning aroa viII bo diclalod primariIy by passongor
voIumo vill considoralion lo issuos of quouing, plysicaI soarcl, and
- -

-

passongors roquiring addilionaI procossing. Tlo oquipmonl, locl-

niquos, and procoduros may vary vill Iocalion and aro subjocl lo
clango al any limo. A fov yoars ago, groolors, voIIvislors, and visi-
lors couId bo procossod al llo socurily aroa and procood lo llo galo
aroas, bul loday onIy licIolod passongors aro pormillod in llo sloriIo
aroa. In llo Unilod Slalos, llo Transporlalion Socurily Adminislralion
(TSA) las proparod oxlonsivo guidoIinos and spaco pIanning and
anaIysis looIs |57] lo assisl pIannors in llo dosign of llo socurily
scrooning aroa and lloso aro inlroducod in Claplor 11.
-
Tlo doparluro Ioungo sorvos as an assombIy aroa for passongors vail-
ing lo board a parlicuIar fIigll and as llo oxil passagovay for dopIan-
ing passongors. Il is gonoraIIy sizod lo accommodalo llo numbor of
boarding passongors oxpoclod lo bo in llo Ioungo 15 min prior lo
scloduIod doparluro limo, assuming llis is llo poinl in limo vlon
aircrafl boarding bogins. A consorvalivo oslimalo of llo porconlago
of passongors in llo Ioungo al llis limo is 90 porconl of llo boarding
passongors. Tlo spaco slouId accommodalo spaco for airIino pro-
cossing and informalion, passongor quouos, soaling for onpIaning
passongors, aIllougl aII nood nol bo soalod, and an oxilvay for
dopIaning passongors.
Irocossing quouos slouId nol oxlond inlo llo corridor lo llo
oxlonl llal circuIalion is impairod. Ioungo doplls of 25 lo 30 fl aro
considorod roasonabIo for loIding boarding passongors. Spaco for a
doparluro Ioungo is proporlionod on llo basis of from 10 lo 15 fl
2
por
boarding passongor. Tloroforo, if a doparluro Ioungo is lo accommo-
dalo 100 boarding passongors for a fIigll, ils aroa slouId rango from
1000 lo 1500 fl
2
. To a groalor and groalor oxlonl common doparluro
Ioungo aroas aro boing uliIizod and lloso aro sizod basod upon llo
lolaI poaI lour boarding passongors for llo galos boing sorvod by
llo common Ioungo. Sinco il is IiIoIy llal boarding for lloso aircrafl
viII occur al difforonl limos in llo poaI lour, llo lolaI spaco roquirod
for soparalo Ioungos may bo roducod by 20 lo 30 porconl for common
Ioungos.
Tlo corridor providod for dopIaning passongors slouId bo aboul
10 fl in vidll. Tlo airIino procossing aroa slouId provido for al Ioasl
lvo posilions for narrov-bodiod aircrafl and up lo four posilions for
vido-bodiod aircrafl lo minimizo quouo Ionglls oxlonding inlo llo cor-
ridor. Irocossing ralos rango from ono lo lvo passongors por minulo al
lloso posilions and poaI arrivaI ralos rango from 10 lo 15 porconl of llo
boarding passongors. Tloroforo, quouo doplls of aboul 10 fl aro roason-
abIo vaIuos for proIiminary dosign for individuaI doparluro Ioungos. Ior
common Ioungos, llo posilion of llo procossing aroa slouId bo sucl as
nol lo inlorforo vill llo circuIalion of passongors in llo vicinily of llo
onlrancos and oxils from llo Ioungo. TypicaIIy lloso posilions aro
Iocalod in llo conlor of a saloIIilo faciIily or al llo ond of llo corridor

-
in a pior faciIily. Iiguro 10-13 slovs llo Iayoul for a doparluro Ioungo
soaling aboul 70 passongors.
-
Corridors provido circuIalion for passongor and visilor bolvoon
doparluro Ioungos and bolvoon doparluro Ioungos and llo conlraI
lorminaI aroas. Tloso slouId bo dosignod lo accommodalo plysi-
caIIy landicappod porsons during llo poaI poriods of ligl-donsily
fIov. Sludios lavo slovn llal a lypicaI 20-fl-vido corridor viII lavo
a capacily ranging from 330 lo ovor 600 porsons por minulo. Ior
pIanning purposos, corridor vidlls slouId bo sizod on llo basis of
aboul 16.5 passongors por fool of vidll por minulo. Tlo corridor
vidll slouId bo llo vidll roquirod al llo mosl roslriclivo poinls,
llal is, llo minimum froo-fIov vidll in llo vicinily of roslauranl
onlrancos, plono booll cIuslors, or doparluro Ioungo clocI-in poinls.
Tlis slandard is basod upon a vidll of 2.5 fl por porson and a dopll
soparalion of 6 fl bolvoon poopIo. Tlo corridor vidll is advorsoIy
impaclod by llo poaIing of dopIaning passongors in pIaloons bul
llo docoasod dopll soparalions componsalo for llo docroasod vaII-
ing ralos in lloso circumslancos.
Iurllor guidanco on corridor vidll dosign is conlainod in llo
Iiloraluro |12, 41, 43, 50].
-
Baggage check in
Seating group
Concourse
Enplaning queueing
P
a
s
s
e
n
g
e
r
q
u
e
u
e
i
n
g
Passenger
queueing
T
i
c
k
e
t
l
i
f
t
L
o
u
n
g
e
Deplaning
corridor
P
a
s
s
e
n
g
e
r
d
e
p
l
a
n
i
n
g
C
i
r
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
C
i
r
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
L
o
u
n
g
e

e
x
i
t
-

-
Tlo baggago cIaim Iobby slouId bo Iocalod so clocIod baggago may
bo rolurnod lo lorminaling passongors in roasonabIo proximily lo llo
lorminaI dopIaning curb. Al Iov aclivily airporls, clocIod baggago
may bo pIacod on a sloIf for passongor cIaiming. Moro aclivo airporls
lavo inslaIIod moclanicaI doIivory and dispIay oquipmonl simiIar lo
llal dopiclod in Iig. 10-14. Tlo numbor of cIaim dovicos roquirod is
dolorminod by llo numbor and lypo of aircrafl llal viII arrivo during
llo poaI lour, llo limo dislribulion of lloso arrivaIs, llo numbor of
lorminaling passongors, llo amounl of baggago clocIod on lloso
fIiglls, and llo moclanism usod lo lransporl baggago from aircrafl lo
- - -
-
L
W W
NPUT
FLATBED DIRECT FEED
OVAL
REMOTE FEED SLOPING BED
CIRCULAR
REMOTE FEED SLOPING BED
FLATBED DIRECT FEED
NPUT
WALL
SHAPE
L
FT (M)
65 (20) 5 (1.5)
45 (13.7)
45 (13.7)
65 (20)
65 (20)
180 (55)
190 (58)
220 (67)
78
216
228
264
85 (26)
85 (26)
50 (15)
W
FT (M)
CLAM FRONTAGE
FT (M)
WALL
FLOOR LEVEL A
FLOOR LEVEL B
BAG
STORAGE
BAG
STORAGE
BAG
STORAGE
L
FT (M)
36 (11) 20 (6)
20 (6)
18 (5.5)
95 (29)
128 (39)
156 (48)
170
247
318
52 (16)
68 (21)
W
FT (M)
CLAM FRONTAGE
FT (M)
20 (6)
25 (7.5)
30 (9)
63 (19)
78 (24)
94 (29)
94
132
169
DAMETER
FT (M)
CLAM FRONTAGE
FT (M)
THEORETCAL BAG STORAGE PRACTCAL BAG STORAGE CAPABLTY S 1/3 LESS
L
DSPLAY DSPLAY
L

-
llo cIaim aroa. In llo idoaI silualion, a baggago cIaim dovico slouId nol
bo slarod bolvoon fIigll arrivaIs al llo samo limo as llis Ioads lo consid-
orabIo congoslion in llo vicinily of llo dovico and passongor confusion.
Groalor uliIizalion of llo dovicos is oblainod vlon airIinos limo llo slar-
ing of cIaim dovicos for soparalo fIiglls. Toclniquos simiIar lo lloso usod
lo conslrucl ramp clarls aro usofuI in scloduIing baggago cIaim dovicos
and for dolormining llo IovoI of congoslion in llo baggago cIaim aroa.
Al llo prosonl limo, oxcopl in llo mosl unusuaI silualions, pas-
songor doIays in llo baggago cIaim aroa can bo significanl duo princi-
paIIy lo llo facl llal passongors can lravoI from aircrafl lo cIaim aroas
mucl faslor llan baggago convoyanco sysloms can lransporl llo bag-
gago from aircrafl lo cIaim aroas. Il is lloroforo ossonliaI llal cIaim
Iobbios bo dosignod lo accommodalo vailing passongors adoqualoIy
and provido for rapid cIaiming of baggago onco llo baggago is lrans-
forrod lo llo cIaim dovico. Islimaling procoduros lavo boon providod
by llo IAA for sizing cIaiming dovicos basod upon llo oquivaIonl
poaI 20-min aircrafl arrivaIs. Clarls for llis purposo aro providod in
Iigs. 10-15 and 10-16. Il slouId bo obsorvod llal lloso clarls aro
-
- -
(00) Linear units of claiming frontage*
Equivalent aircraft arrivals in peak 20 min
*Based on 1.3 average
bags per passenger
Percent of arriving passengers terminating locally
1
5
1
0 5
4
.
5
1
0
0
9
0
8
0
7
0
6
0
5
0
4
0
3
0
2
0
3
.
0
1
.
5
0
0
f
t
m
5
0
4
5
4
0
3
5
3
0
2
5
2
0
1
5 5
1
0
Equivalent aircraft
Seats
Up to 80
81 to 110
111 to 160
161 to 210
211 to 280
281 to 420
421 to 500
(C) Product of columns A & B
Peak arrivals,
20 min
Equivalent air-
craft factor
Equivalent air-
craft in peak
(A) (B) (C)
.6
1.0
1.4
1.9
2.4
3.5
4.6
-

basod upon clocIod baggago al llo ralo of 1.3 bags por porson and
adjuslmonls may bo roquirod as baggago oxcoods llis ralo.
In proIiminary pIanning sludios, groal caro slouId bo oxorcisod in
using llo abovo guidoIinos. IarlicuIar allonlion slouId bo givon lo
llo spaco providod around a cIaim dovico and il is spocificaIIy rocom-
mondod llal a cIoar spaco of from 13 lo 15 fl bo providod adjaconl
lo llo dovico for aclivo and vailing cIaim, as voII as cIaim aroa
circuIalion. In somo inslancos baggago Iobbios lavo boon dosignod
vill adoqualo vailing aroas and subsoquonlIy ollor faciIilios lavo
boon movod inlo lloso aroas, considorabIy diminisling mobiIily. Il
is rocommondod llal an addilionaI 15 lo 35 fl of circuIalion spaco
bo providod villin llo dopIaning faciIily lo aIIov for circuIalion
bolvoon llo cIaim dovicos, ronlaI car posilions, and dopIaning
curbs. If ground lransporlalion faciIilios aro Iocalod in lloso aroas,
- -
-
A
E
500 400 300
Linear feet of claim display
200 100 0
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
C
l
a
i
m
i
n
g

a
r
e
a
,

0
0
0

f
t
2
4
2
B
C
D
A Round sloping bed/remote feed
Tee flat bed/direct feed
B Tee and u-shape alternating 75'
(flat bed/direct feed)
C Oval flat bed/direct feed
Oval sloping bed/remote feed
D Tee and u-shape alternating 60'
(flat bed/direct feed)
E
Areas for optimum configurations of
shape flat bed/direct feed

-
lloy slouId bo plysicaIIy posilionod so as nol lo roslricl passongor
fIov lo and from llo cIaim aroa.
- --
Tlo uso of aulomalod ground lransporlalion sysloms villin llo lormi-
naI compIox al airporls is incroasing as airporls bocomo Iargor and boll
llo dislanco and limo for passongors lo lravoI llrougl airporls lavo
bocomo oxcossivo. In mosl casos aulomalod ground lransporlalion aIso
providos a cIoar doIinoalion bolvoon llo airsido and Iandsido funclions
of an airporl and aids in llo Iocalion of socurily procossing faciIilios.
Moving vaIIvays and aulomalod poopIo movor (AIM) sysloms lavo
bocomo imporlanl foaluros in many Iargo lorminaIs.
An Aulomalod IoopIo Movor (AIM) is an advancod lransporla-
lion syslom in vlicl aulomalod drivorIoss volicIos oporalo on fixod
guidovays in oxcIusivo riglls-of-vay. Tloy diffor from ollor forms
of lransil in llal lloy oporalo villoul drivors or slalion allondanls.
Tloso sysloms lavo boon dovoIopod and impIomonlod in various
sizos and configuralions sinco llo oarIy 1970s and loday lloro aro
ovor 40 sysloms oporaling al airporls vorIdvido.
Mosl of llo oarIy AIM sysloms voro impIomonlod lo faciIilalo pas-
songor movomonl villin a lorminaI or bolvoon llo conlraI lorminaI and
a saloIIilo buiIding. Iiguro 10-17 slovs an AIM volicIo llal oporalos in
an undorground lunnoI llal IinIs llo conlraI lorminaI vill a mid-fioId
saloIIilo lorminaI al llo Groalor Iillsburgl InlornalionaI Airporl. Moro
roconlIy, AIM sysloms lavo boon dosignod lo connocl airporl lorminaIs

-
-

and IinI lorminaIs vill Iandsido faciIilios sucl as parIing, car ronlaI
sorvicos, rogionaI lransporlalion sorvicos, loloIs, and ollor roIalod
ompIoymonl and aclivily conlors. Guidanco on llo pIanning of sucl
faciIilios is conlainod in roconl Iiloraluro |20, 46, 59].
-
Airporls vill inlornalionaI oporalions roquiro spaco for llo inspoclion
of passongors, crov, baggago, aircrafl, and cargo. Tlo aroa roquirod for
cusloms, immigralion, agricuIluro, and pubIic loaIll sorvicos may bo
in a soparalo faciIily or in llo lorminaI buiIding ilsoIf. Tloso faciIilios
slouId bo dosignod so llal passongor fIov bolvoon llo aircrafl and llo
iniliaI procossing slalion is unimpodod and as slorl as possibIo, lloro
is no possibiIily of conlacl vill domoslic passongors or any unaullor-
izod porsonnoI unliI procossing is compIolo, lloro is no possibIo vay
for an inlornalionaI arrivaI lo bypass procossing, and lloro is a sogro-
galod aroa for in-lransil inlornalionaI passongors.
Tlo sizo of llis faciIily is basod on llo projoclion of lourIy passon-
gors roquiring procossing. Il is rocommondod llal llo approprialo offi-
ciaIs and agoncios bo conlaclod during llo proIiminary doign plaso lo
dolormino spocific dosign roquiromonls. Somo guidanco on llo procoss-
ing ralos and sizing of lloso faciIilios is found in llo Iiloraluro |43, 58].
-
Mosl lorminaIs aro dovoIopod lo accommodalo sovoraI ollor aclivi-
lios and llo spaco noods slouId bo dolorminod for oacl airporl basod
upon IocaI roquiromonls. Tloso aclivilios aro idonlifiod boIov.
-
Tlo foIIoving airIino aclivilios may oxisl al aII or somo lorminaI faciI-
ilios and slouId bo discussod vill llo airIinos vlicl pIan on uliIiz-
ing llo faciIily.
1. Oulbound baggago maIoup and inbound baggago and con-
voyanco syslom
2. Cabin sorvicos and aircrafl mainlonanco
3. IIigll oporalions and crov roady rooms
4. Slorago aroas for vaIuabIo or oulsizod baggago
5. Air froigll picIup and doIivory
6. Iassongor rosorvalions and VII vailing aroas
7. Adminislralivo officos
8. Ramp volicIo and carl parIing and mainlonanco
-- -
Tlo faclors vlicl infIuonco llo oxlonl of passongor amonilios incIudo
llo passongor voIumo, communily sizo, llo Iocalion and oxlonl of

-
off-airporl sorvicos, inlorosls and abiIilios of polonliaI concossion-
airos, and ronlaI ralos. Tloso gonoraIIy incIudo
1. Iood and bovorago sorvicos, and novsslands
2. A varioly of sloros and sorvicos
3. Counlors for car ronlaI and fIigll insuranco companios
4. IubIic IocIors and pubIic and courlosy loIoplonos
5. Amusomonl arcados and vonding maclinos
6. IubIic roslrooms
- -
Tloso faciIilios and sorvicos aro normaI lo mosl pubIic buiIdings and
incIudo llo foIIoving:
1. Officos for airporl managomonl and slaff funclions incIuding
poIico, modicaI and firsl aid, and buiIding mainlonanco
2. BuiIding moclanicaI sysloms sucl as loaling, vonliIalion,
and air condilioning
3. Communicalion faciIilios
4. IIoclricaI oquipmonl
5. Govornmonl officos for air lraffic conlroI, voallor roporling,
pubIic loaIll and immigralion, and cusloms
6. Conforonco and pross faciIilios
-
GuidoIinos lavo boon prosonlod abovo for llo approximalo spaco
roquiromonls for llo various compononls in passongor lorminaI faciIi-
lios. Onco llo faciIilios lavo boon oslimalod ono migll comparo llo
spaco roquiromonls lo llo approximalions givon in TabIo 10-2. Tlo
vaIuos in llis labIo prosonl ovoraII spaco roquiromonls vlicl slouId
provido a roasonabIo IovoI of sorvico and a loIorabIo occupancy IovoI
for llo various faciIilios indicalod.

In llis plaso of llo procoss, llo bIocIs of spacos dolorminod in spaco
programming aro aIIocalod in a gonoraI vay lo llo lorminaI compIox.
Tloro aro a numbor of vays in vlicl llo faciIilios of llo passongor
lorminaI syslom aro plysicaIIy arrangod and in vlicl llo various
passongor procossing aclivilios aro porformod. ConlraIizod passongor
procossing moans aII llo faciIilios of llo syslom aro lousod in ono
buiIding and usod for procossing aII passongors using llo buiIding.
ConlraIizod procossing faciIilios offor oconomios of scaIo in llal many
of llo common faciIilios may bo usod lo sorvico a Iargo numbor of
aircrafl galo posilions. DoconlraIizod procossing, on llo ollor land,
moans llo passongor faciIilios aro arrangod in smaIIor moduIar unils
-

and ropoalod in ono or moro buiIdings. Iacl unil is arrangod around

ono or moro aircrafl galo posilions and sorvos llo passongors using
lloso galo posilions. Tloro aro four basic lorizonlaI dislribulion con-
copls, as voII as many varialions or lybrids vlicl incIudo combina-
lions of lloso basic concopls. Iacl can bo usod vill varying dogroos
of conlraIizalion. Tloso concopls aro discussod boIov.
- -
Tlo foIIoving lorminaI concopls slouId bo considorod in llo dovoIop-
monl of llo lorminaI aroa pIan. SIolclos of llo various concopls aro slovn
in Iig. 10-18. Many airporls lavo combinod ono or moro lorminaI lypos.

Tlo pior concopl las an inlorfaco vill aircrafl aIong piors oxlonding from
llo main lorminaI aroa. Aircrafl aro usuaIIy arrangod around llo axis of
llo pior in a paraIIoI or noso-in parIing aIignmonl. Iacl pior las a rov of
aircrafl galo posilions on boll sidos, vill a passongor concourso aIong llo
axis vlicl sorvos as llo doparluro Ioungo and circuIalion spaco for boll
onpIaning and dopIaning passongors. Tlis concopl usuaIIy aIIovs for llo
oxpansion of llo pior lo provido addilionaI aircrafl parIing posilions
villoul llo oxpansion of llo conlraI passongor and baggago procossing
faciIily. Accoss lo llo lorminaI aroa is al llo baso of llo connoclor or llo
pior. If lvo or moro piors aro ompIoyod, llo spacing bolvoon llo lvo piors
musl provido for manouvoring of aircrafl on ono or lvo apron laxiIanos.
Wlon oacl pior sorvos a Iargo numbor of galos, and llo probabiIily oxisls
llal lvo or moro aircrafl may froquonlIy bo laxiing bolvoon lvo piors and

---



-

--
-
-
--
-

-

-
viII bo in confIicl vill ono anollor, llon lvo laxiIanos aro advisabIo. AIso,
accoss from llis laxivay syslom by lvo or moro aircrafl may roquiro lvo
apron odgo laxivays lo avoid doIays.
Tlo cliof advanlago of llis concopl is ils abiIily lo bo oxpandod in
incromonlaI slops as aircrafl or passongor domand varranl. Il is aIso roIa-
livoIy oconomicaI in lorms of capilaI and oporaling cosl. Ils cliof disad-
vanlagos aro ils roIalivoIy Iong vaIIing dislanco from curb fronl lo aircrafl
and llo IacI of a dirocl curb fronl roIalionslip lo aircrafl galo posilions.

Tlo saloIIilo concopl consisls of a buiIding, surroundod by aircrafl, vlicl
is soparalod from llo lorminaI and is usuaIIy roaclod by moans of a sur-
faco, undorground, or abovo ground connoclor. Tlo aircrafl aro normaIIy
parIod in radiaI or paraIIoI posilions around llo saloIIilo. Il oflon affords
llo opporlunily for simpIo manouvoring and laxiing pallorns for aircrafl
- - -- -
- -
Flight
interface
Flight interface
Flight interface
F
l
i
g
h
t

i
n
t
e
r
f
a
c
e
(c)
Apron Apron
Apron
(b)
Curb
Curb
Curb
Access interface
Access interface
Access interface
(a)
Apron
(d)
Processing
Processing
Processing
Curb
Access interface
Processing
-

bul roquiros moro apron aroa llan ollor concopls. Il can lavo common
or soparalo doparluro Ioungos. Sinco onpIaning and dopIaning from llo
aircrafl is accompIislod from a common and oflon romolo aroa, moclan-
icaI sysloms may bo ompIoyod lo lransporl passongors and baggago
bolvoon llo lorminaI and saloIIilo.
Tlo main advanlagos of llis concopl Iio in ils adaplabiIily lo com-
mon doparluro Ioungo and clocI-in funclions and llo oaso of aircrafl
manouvorabiIily around llo saloIIilo slrucluro. Hovovor, conslruc-
lion cosl is roIalivoIy ligl duo lo llo nood lo provido connocling con-
coursos lo llo saloIIilo. Il IacIs fIoxibiIily for oxpansion and passongor
vaIIing dislancos aro roIalivoIy Iong.
-
Tlo simpIo Iinoar lorminaI consisls of a common vailing and licIoling
aroa vill oxils Ioading lo llo aircrafl parIing apron. Il is adaplabIo lo
airporls vill Iov airIino aclivily vlicl viII usuaIIy lavo an apron pro-
viding cIoso-in parIing for llroo lo six commorciaI passongor aircrafl.
Tlo Iayoul of llo simpIo lorminaI slouId laIo inlo accounl llo possibiI-
ily of pior, saloIIilo, or Iinoar addilions for lorminaI oxpansion. In llo
galo arrivaIs or fronlaI concopl, aircrafl aro parIod aIong llo faco of llo
lorminaI buiIding. Concoursos connocl llo various lorminaI funclions
vill llo aircrafl galo posilions. Tlis concopl offors oaso of accoss and
roIalivoIy slorl vaIIing dislancos if passongors aro doIivorod lo a poinl
noar galo doparluro by volicuIar circuIalion sysloms. Ixpansion may
bo accompIislod by Iinoar oxlonsion of an oxisling slrucluro or by
dovoIoping lvo or moro lorminaI unils vill connoclors.
Boll of lloso concopls provido dirocl accoss from curb fronl lo
aircrafl galo posilions and afford a ligl dogroo of fIoxibiIily for oxpan-
sion. Il doos nol provido convonionl opporlunilios for llo uso of com-
mon faciIilios and, as llis concopl is oxpandod inlo soparalo buiId-
ings, il may Ioad lo ligl oporaling cosls.
-
Aircrafl and aircrafl sorvicing funclions in llo lransporlor concopl aro
romoloIy Iocalod from llo lorminaI. Tlo connoclion lo llo lorminaI is
providod by volicuIar lransporl for onpIaning and dopIaning passon-
gors. Tlo claraclorislics of llo lransporlor concopl incIudo fIoxibiIily in
providing addilionaI aircrafl parIing posilions lo accommodalo
incroasos in scloduIos or aircrafl sizo, llo capabiIily lo manouvor an
aircrafl in and oul of a parIing posilion undor ils ovn povor, llo sopa-
ralion of aircrafl sorvicing aclivilios from llo lorminaI, and roducod
vaIIing dislancos for llo passongor.
- -
Combinalions of concopls and varialions aro a rosuIl of clanging con-
dilions oxporioncod from llo iniliaI concoplion of llo airporl llrougl-
oul ils Iifo span. An airporl may lavo many lypos of passongor aclivily,
varying from originaling and lorminaling passongors using llo fuII
rango of lorminaI sorvicos lo passongors using Iimilod sorvicos on

-
commulor or connocling fIiglls. Iacl roquiros a concopl llal diffors
considorabIy from llo ollor. In limo, llo proporlion of lraffic landIod
by fIiglls may clango, nocossilaling modificalion or oxpansion of llo
faciIilios. Grovll of aircrafl sizo or a nov combinalion of aircrafl lypos
sorvicing llo samo airporl viII affocl llo lypo of concopl. In llo samo
vay, plysicaI Iimilalions of llo silo may causo a puro concopluaI form
lo bo modifiod by addilions or combinalions of ollor concopls.
Combinod concopls acquiro corlain of llo advanlagos and disad-
vanlagos of oacl basic concopl. A combinalion of concopl lypos can bo
advanlagoous vloro moro coslIy modificalions vouId bo nocossary lo
mainlain llo originaI concopl. Ior oxampIo, an airIino migll bo suil-
abIy accommodalod villin an oxisling lransporlor concopl lorminaI
vliIo an addilion is noodod for a commulor oporalion vill rapid lurn-
ovors vlicl vouId bo bosl sorvod by a Iinoar concopl oxlonsion. In llis
silualion, combinod concopls vouId bo dosirabIo. Tlo appoaranco of
concopl varialions and combinalions in a lolaI apron lorminaI pIan
may rofIocl an ovoIving silualion in vlicl aIloring noods or grovll
lavo diclalod llo uso of difforonl concopls. IIIuslralions of llo gonora-
lion of various lorizonlaI dislribulion concopls in llo concopl dovoIop-
monl plaso of Gonova InlorconlinonlaI Airporl aro slovn in Iig. 10-19.
AppIicalions of sovoraI of llo concopls lo oxisling airporls aro slovn in
Iig. 10-20 llrougl 10-20.
-- -
-
-

- -
- - -

-
--

Iiguro 10-20 slovs llo lorminaI aroa Iayoul al OHaro Inlorna-

lionaI Airporl vlicl slovs llo Iinoar, saloIIilo and pior concopls.
Concourso B is a Iinoar concopl, concourso C is a saloIIilo concopl
connoclod lo llo main lorminaI buiIding by an undorground
moving sidovaII, and concoursos I, I, G, H, K, and I aro pior con-
copls. Iiguro 10-20 slovs llo lorminaI aroa Iayoul al CIovoIand
HopIins InlornalionaI Airporl vlicl consisls of pior and saloIIilo
concopls. Iiguro 10-20 slovs llo lorminaI aroa Iayoul al Tampa
InlornalionaI Airporl vlicl slovs fivo airsido saloIIilos connoclod
lo llo Iandsido buiIding by aulomalod lransil on abovo ground fixod
guidovays.
-

- -
Tlo basis for dislribuling llo primary procossing aclivilios in a
passongor lorminaI among sovoraI IovoIs is mainIy lo soparalo
llo fIov of arriving and doparling passongors. Tlo docision con-
corning llo numbor of IovoIs a lorminaI faciIily slouId lavo
doponds primariIy on llo voIumo of passongors and llo avaiI-
abiIily of Iand for oxpansion in llo immodialo vicinily. Il may
aIso bo infIuoncod by llo lypo of lraffic, for oxampIo, domoslic,
inlornalionaI, or commulor passongors boing procossod, by llo
lorminaI aroa maslor pIan, and by llo lorizonlaI procossing con-
copl closon.
Will a singIo IovoI syslom aII procossing of passongors and
baggago occurs al llo IovoI of llo apron. Soparalion bolvoon arriv-
ing and doparling passongor fIovs is acliovod lorizonlaIIy. Amo-
nilios and adminislralivo funclions may occur on a socond IovoI.
Will llis syslom, slairs aro normaIIy usod lo Ioad passongors onlo
aircrafl. Tlis syslom is quilo oconomicaI and is suilabIo for roIa-
livoIy Iov passongor voIumos. Tlo singIo IovoI lorminaI is slovn
in Iig. 10-21.
- - - -
-- -
Curb Terminal Apron
(a)
Curb
Terminal Apron
(b)
Curb
Departing passenger flow
Arriving passenger flow
Terminal Apron
(c)

-
Tvo IovoI passongor lorminaI sysloms may bo dosignod in a num-
bor of difforonl vays. In ono lypo, slovn in Iig. 10-21, llo lvo Iov-
oIs aro usod lo soparalo llo passongor procossing aroa and llo bag-
gago landIing aroas. Tlus, procossing aclivilios incIuding baggago
cIaim occur on llo uppor IovoI, vliIo airIino oporalions and baggago
landIing aclivilios occur al llo Iovor apron IovoI. Tlo advanlago of
raising llo passongor landIing IovoI is llal il bocomos compalibIo
vill aircrafl doorsiII loiglls, aIIoving convonionl inlorfaco vill llo
aircrafl. VolicuIar accoss occurs on llo uppor IovoI lo faciIilalo llo
inlorfaco vill llo procossing syslom.
Anollor arlicuIalion of llo lvo-IovoI syslom soparalos llo arriv-
ing and doparling passongor slroams. In llis caso doparling passon-
gor procossing aclivilios occur on llo uppor IovoI and arriving pas-
songor procossing incIuding baggago cIaim occurs al llo apron IovoI.
AirIino oporalions and baggago landIing aIso occur al llo Iovor
IovoI. VolicuIar accoss and parIing occur al boll IovoIs, ono for arriv-
aIs and ono for doparluros, and parIing can bo surfaco or slrucluraI.
An oxampIo of llis dosign is slovn in Iig. 10-21.
Varialions in lloso basic dosigns may occur vlon lraffic voI-
umos or llo lypo of lraffic so roquiro. Ior oxampIo, for inlornalionaI
airporl lorminaIs, a llird IovoI may bo noodod for inlornalionaI
passongors. AIso, al Iargo airporls vloro inlraairporl lransporla-
lion sysloms oporalo, a spociaI IovoI may bo noodod lo provido for
lloso sysloms. Iiguro 10-22A slovs a muIliIovoI syslom vill slruc-
luraI parIing, inlraairporl lransporlalion, and undorground mass
lransil accoss. Iiguro 10-22B slovs a muIliIovoI syslom vill inlo-
gralod slrucluraI parIing. In llis varialion moro dirocl accoss lo llo
procossing compononl is allainod by providing parIing abovo llo
procossing faciIily.
Basod upon an oxaminalion of a Iargo numbor of airporls, il is
possibIo lo idonlify lloso concopls vlicl aro candidalos for furllor
considoralion. Using llo IovoI of annuaI onpIanomonls and llo func-
lion naluro of llo airporl, as dofinod by llo roIalivo proporlions of
originaling, lorminaling, llrougl, or connocling passongors, Iig. 10-23
offors somo guidanco lo llo airporl pIannor for llo iniliaI idonlifica-
lion of approprialo lorizonlaI and vorlicaI dislribulion concopls. Il
slouId bo nolod, lovovor, llal in many inslancos llo conslrainls of
oxisling lorminaI faciIilios, Iand avaiIabiIily, and llo ground accoss
syslom may roslricl llo oplions vlicl aro viabIo aIlornalivos for lor-
minaI oxpansion.
Irior lo procooding vill llo pIanning of llo airporl lorminaI sys-
lom, an ovaIualion of llo concopls vlicl lavo ovoIvod in llo concop-
luaI dovoIopmonl plaso of llo projocl is undorlaIon, lo idonlify lloso
aIlornalivos vlicl slouId bo brougll inlo llo sclomalic dosign and
dosign dovoIopmonl plaso of llo projocl. To do llis an ovoraII raling
of llo various concopls roIalivo lo llo dosign criloria is porformod.

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n
d

n
b
o
u
n
d
A
T
O
O
f
f
i
c
e
s
M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l

e
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t
M
o
t
e
l

-
Tlo concopl ovaIualion raling faclors usod for Gonova airporl aro
Iislod in TabIo 10-3.
-
Tlo sclomalic dosign procoss lransIalos llo concopl dovoIopmonl
and ovoraII spaco roquiromonls inlo dravings vlicl slov llo gon-
oraI sizo, Iocalion, and slapo of llo various oIomonls in llo lorminaI
pIan. IunclionaI roIalionslips bolvoon llo compononls aro oslab-
Iislod and ovaIualod. Tlo adoquacy of llo ovoraII spaco program is
ovaIualod by airporl usors roIalivo lo lloir spocific noods. Tlis plaso
of llo procoss spocificaIIy oxaminos passongor and baggago fIov
roulos llrougl llo syslom and sooIs lo oxamino llo adoquacy of llo
faciIily from llo poinl of viov of fIov IovoIs and fIov confIicls.
- -
-
L
i
n
e
a
r
Concepts
applicable
Airport size by enplaned
pax/year
Feeder under 25,000 X X X X
X X X X
X X X X X
X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X
Secondary 25,000 to 75,000
75,000 to 200,000
200,000 to 500,000
Primary over 75% pax O/D
500,000 to 1,000,000
Over 25% pax transfer
500,000 to 1,000,000
Over 25% pax transfer
over 3,000,000
Over 25% pax transfer
1,000,000 to 3,000,000
Over 75% pax O/D
1,000,000 to 3,000,000
Over 75% pax O/D over
3,000,000
Physical aspects
of concepts
P
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r
S
a
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l
l
i
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T
r
a
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s
p
o
r
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l
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i
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t
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m
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S
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c
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A
p
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l
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v
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l

b
o
a
r
d
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A
i
r
c
r
a
f
t

l
e
v
e
l

b
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a
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d
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g
M
u
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i

l
e
v
e
l

c
u
r
b
-

ModoIing loclniquos aro usuaIIy ompIoyod in llis plaso of llo pro-

coss lo idonlify passongor procossing, lravoI, and doIay limos, and llo
gonoralion of Iinos al procossing faciIilios. Tlo main purposo for anaIyz-
ing passongor and baggago landIing sysloms is llo dolorminalion of
llo oxlonl and sizo of llo faciIilios noodod lo provido a dosirod IovoI of
convonionco lo llo passongor al roasonabIo cosl. In llis anaIysis aIlorna-
livo Iayouls can bo sludiod lo dolormino vlicl is llo mosl dosirabIo.
-- -
A numbor of sysloms anaIysis loclniquos lavo provon lo bo usofuI
for llo anaIysis of faciIilios for passongors and baggago. Tloso incIudo
nolvorI modoIs, quouing modoIs, and simuIalion modoIs.
-
Tloso modoIs aro parlicuIarIy usofuI for roprosonling and anaIyzing
llo inlorroIalionslips bolvoon llo various compononls of a passongor
-
-
--
-
- - ---
-
- --
- -- --
--
-
-


-- -
- -
-
- -

- -
--
-
--
-
--
-
RoynoIds, Smill and HiIIs |25].

-
or baggago procossing syslom. Ior oxampIo, passongor procossing
can bo roprosonlod as a nolvorI vill llo nodos roprosonling sorvico
faciIilios and llo IinIs roprosonling llo lravoI palls and passongor
spIils. Tlis lypo of roprosonlalion aIIovs oslimalion of doIays lo llo
passongor al various Iocalions villin llo lorminaI.
An oxampIo of a nolvorI llal las boon appIiod lo llo ovaIualion
of arriving passongor doIay is llo crilicaI pall modoI (CIM) |47].
CIM is usod lo coordinalo llo various aclivilios llal laIo pIaco in llo
syslom for landIing boll passongors and baggago. Nodos llal ropro-
sonl crilicaI aclivilios, llal is, lloso llal laIo llo groalosl amounl of
limo, aro oasiIy idonlifiod and can bo anaIyzod in moro dolaiI lo dolor-
mino lloir offocl on llo ovoraII porformanco of llo syslom.
Tlo anaIysis of llo sorvico limo and vailing limo al oacl procos-
sor in a nolvorI modoI can bo oblainod llrougl oillor anaIylicaI
quouing modoIs or simuIalion.
-
Quouing lloory pormils llo oslimalion of doIays and quouo Ionglls
for sorvico faciIilios undor spocifiod IovoIs of domand. Tlo appIica-
lion of quouing lloory yioIds usofuI oslimalos of procossing and doIay
limos from vlicl llo roquirod sizos of faciIilios and oporaling cosls
may bo dorivod.
VirluaIIy aII of llo compononls of llo passongor landIing syslom
can bo modoIod as sorvico faciIilios using quouing modoIs. Tlo dia-
gram in Iig. 10-24 and IxampIo IrobIom 10-10 slovod an oxampIo of
llo appIicalion of a dolorminislic quouing modoI lo llo oporalion of a
runvay syslom lo dolormino aircrafl doIay. A simiIar lypo of anaIysis
can bo appIiod lo llo anaIysis of passongor procossing sysloms. Il is
possibIo lo ovaIualo llo impacl of adding licIol agonls on doIays lo
passongors and on llo sizo of llo quouos. Will llis informalion il is
possibIo lo ovaIualo llo foasibiIily of aIlornalivo oporaling slralogios
for llo licIoling faciIily.
Diagrams simiIar lo llis may bo conslruclod for oacl of llo pro-
cossors for llo passongor and baggago landIing syslom and yioId sal-
isfaclory rosuIls vlon llo domand ralo oxcoods llo sorvico ralo.
Ior llo anaIysis of compononl doIay and quouo Iongll vlon llo
avorago domand ralo ovor somo poriod of limo is Ioss llan llo avor-
ago sorvico ralo, quouing lloory is usod lo gonoralo mallomalicaI
funclions roprosonlalivo of llo arrivaI and sorvico porformanco of llo
syslom. To spocify llo mallomalicaI formuIalion of llis probIom, il is
nocossary lo dofino llo arrivaI dislribulion, llo sorvico dislribulion,
llo numbor and uso of llo sorvors, and llo sorvico discipIino. Many
of llo compononls vlicl sorvico passongors in llo airporl lorminaI
oxlibil a random or Ioisson arrivaI procoss. Tlo sorvico claracloris-
lics aro usuaIIy oxpononliaI, conslanl, or somo gonoraI dislribulion
dofinod by avorago sorvico limos and llo varianco of avorago sorvico
limo. In mosl casos, lloro is moro llan ono clannoI for llo porformanco
-

of passongor sorvico, and llo quouing moclanism is basod on firsl

como, firsl sorvod basis. Ixlonsivo rosoarcl las boon carriod oul in
roconl yoars lo dolormino mallomalicaI formuIalions vlicl ado-
qualoIy roprosonl llo procossing syslom |2, 10, 14, 19, 21, 53, 56].
Bocauso of llo variabiIily associalod vill passongor bolavior al an
airporl, il is virluaIIy impossibIo lo oblain prociso mallomalicaI for-
muIalions for doIay al procossors. Hovovor, roasonabIo oslimalos of
doIay and corrosponding quouo Ionglls aro possibIo using simpIo
formuIalions.
Ono sucl formuIalion |17, 35, 52, 56] is llal of a muIlipIo slalion
quouing syslom vill a Ioisson arrivaI dislribulion and a sorvico limo
dislribulion vlicl is claraclorizod by llo avorago sorvico limo and
llo varianco of llo avorago sorvico limo as slovn in Iq. (10-1).

2 2
2
1
2
2
1 ( )!( )
|( ) / !] (( ) /|( )!( )]

1
0
1

(10-1)
vloro
-
avorago doIay por porson
avorago domand ralo
avorago sorvico limo for a procossor, llo rociprocaI of llo
avorago sorvico ralo of a procossor, k
slandard dovialion of llo avorago sorvico limo of a
procossor
numbor of procossors
counlor in llo oqualion
Tlis oqualion is vaIid vlon llo avorago domand ralo on llo sys-
lom of procossors is Ioss llan lo lolaI sorvico ralo of llo procossors,
k, llal is, llo ralio of llo avorago domand ralo lo llo lolaI sorvico
ralo is Ioss llan 1.
Wlon llo numbor of procossors is oquaI lo 1, llis oqualion
roducos lo

2
2
2
2 ( )

(10-2)
or sinco is oquaI lo /

2 2
2
2 1 ( )

(10-3)
Ior a singIo sorvor syslom vlicl oxlibils a Ioisson arrivaI dislribulion
and an oxpononliaI sorvico limo dislribulion, Iq. (10-1) roducos lo

( )

(10-4)
or

(1 )

(10-5)

-
Ior a singIo sorvor syslom vlicl oxlibils a Ioisson arrivaI dislribu-
lion and a conslanl sorvico limo dislribulion, Iq. (10-1) roducos lo

2 ( )

(10-6)
or

2 1 ( )

(10-7)
Wlon domand is Ioss llan capacily, llo foIIoving oxprossion givos
llo avorago Iino Iongll ovor llo poriod boing anaIyzod and consisls
of lloso in sorvico and lloso vailing for sorvico al a procossor.


-

1
k

(10-8)
Wlon 1 lloro is slalislicaI doIay pIus oxcoss doIay vlicl is
dofinod by a dolorminislic modoI. Ior dosign purposos il is sufficionl
lo oslimalo doIays in sucl a syslom in vlicl llo slalislicaI doIay
-
is
compulod from llo approprialo oqualion abovo vill 0.90 and llo
oxcoss doIay

is addod lo llis from llo oqualion boIov lo compulo

lolaI procossor doIay. Tlo ralionaIo for compuling llo slalislicaI doIay
vill 0.9 is llal in roaIily as domand approaclod capacily llo
doIay cannol bocomo infinilo as airIino or airporl oporaling praclicos
viII Iimil doIay by uliIizing addilionaI sorvors.

( )
k 2
(10-9)
vloro

doIay vlon llo domand oxcoods llo sorvico ralo

limo poriod during vlicl llo domand oxcoods llo sor-
vico ralo
lolaI domand on llo syslom of procossors
numbor of procossors
k sorvico ralo of a procossor
Il is usuaIIy assumod llal llo limo roquirod lo roduco llo domand
lo capacily is aboul ono-laIf of llo limo poriod boing anaIyzod.
TypicaIIy vlon domand oxcoods capacily, llo oporalor of llo faciIily
viII incroaso llo numbor of oporaling sorvico faciIilios lo aIIovialo llo
grovll in boll vailing limo and quouo Ionglls. Hovovor, llo oxlonl
lo vlicl llis is dono is a funclion of airIino oporaling poIicios and llo
avaiIabiIily of addilionaI manpovor and plysicaI faciIilios.
Tlo avorago Iino Iongll ovor llo poriod anaIyzod incIuding
lloso in sorvico and lloso vailing for sorvico, vlon domand oxcoods,
capacily can bo oslimalod by llo foIIoving oqualion.


-

1
k
k

(10-10)
-

Islimalos of llo vailing limos and quouo Ionglls for muIlipIo

sorvico clannoIs may bo oblainod by proporlioning llo domand
oquaIIy among procossors vill llo samo sorvico claraclorislics and
uliIizing singIo sorvor modoIs. Bollor oslimalos may bo oblainod
llrougl llo uso of muIlipIo clannoI quouing modoIs vloso mallo-
malicaI formuIalion vas givon abovo. A roprosonlalion of llo passon-
gor doIay al baggago cIaim faciIilios is givon by llo roIalionslip |52]

( ) ( )
2 1
1
(10-11)
vloro (
2
) oxpoclod vaIuo of llo limo vlon llo firsl pioco of bag-
gago arrivos al llo cIaim aroa
(
1
) oxpoclod vaIuo of llo limo vlon passongors arrivo al
llo cIaim aroa
numbor of piocos of baggago lo bo cIaimod by oacl pas-
songor
Iongll of limo from llo arrivaI of llo firsl bag unliI llo
arrivaI of llo Iasl bag al llo cIaim dovico
Ollors lavo formuIalod modoIs vlicl slov llo buiIdup and drop-
off of passongors and baggago in llo cIaim aroa |19].
Tlo uso of a gonoraIizod probabiIily donsily funclion caIIod llo
- is rocommondod as a moclanism for ovaIualing llo
sorvico claraclorislics of llo various passongor compononl procos-
sors. By coIIocling a sampIo of dala roIalivo lo a spocific compononl,
llo conslanl in llo IrIang dislribulion funclion can bo caIcuIalod.
Tlis conslanl dolorminos llo parlicuIar funclionaI roIalionslips for
llo sorvor. Il is possibIo llal llis lypo of dislribulion may bollor
doscribo llo quouing claraclorislics of procossors. Tlis dislribulion
las boon usod succossfuIIy in passongor lorminaI modoIing |15].
Groal caro musl bo oxorcisod in llo appIicalion of mallomalicaI
modoIs and llo inlorprolalion of llo rosuIls. In mosl casos, llo mall-
omalicaI roprosonlalion of llo lorminaI syslom is bosl suilod for llo
comparison of aIlornalivos and llo idonlificalion of lloso compo-
nonls in llo syslom roquiring dolaiIod anaIysos.
Tlo spocificalion of llo sorvico limo dislribulion for uso in quou-
ing oqualions is a funclion of llo dislribulion of sorvico limos domon-
slralod by llo sorvico faciIily. In gonoraI, lloso procossors vlicl
oxlibil a roquiromonl for smaII sorvico limos, for oxampIo, fIov
llrougl lypo faciIilios sucl as doors, socurily, and galos aro probabIy
bosl roprosonlod by an oxpononliaI sorvico limo dislribulion. Tloso
faciIilios vlicl roquiro a finilo sorvico limo al a procossor sucl a licI-
oling, baggago clocI, soal soIoclion, and ronlaI car clocIoul, aro prob-
abIy bosl roprosonlod by oillor a gonoraI sorvico limo dislribulion,
vlicl is claraclorizod by llo avorago sorvico limo and llo slandard
dovialion of llo avorago sorvico limo, or a conslanl sorvico limo
dislribulion.

-
In a nolvorI modoI, llo avorago passongor procossing limo (

)
is givon by
(

) (

) (
-
) (

) (10-12)
vloro (

) avorago passongor doIay limo llrougloul llo syslom of

procossors
(
-
) avorago passongor sorvico limo llrougloul llo syslom
of procossors
(

) avorago passongor lravoI limo llrougl llo nolvorI of

procossors
Islimalos for llo obsorvod rango of sorvico limo for many of llo pas-
songor procossing compononls al an airporl aro givon in TabIo 10-4.
IxampIo IrobIom 10-1 prosonls an iIIuslralion of llo anaIysis of
llo onpIaning syslom al an airporl using a nolvorI modoI and llo
abovo quouing oqualions.
Tlo lorminaI buiIding Iayoul for onpIaning passongors al
an airporl is givon in Iig. 10-24.
Tvo airIinos aro sorvicing llo airporl, Norll Amorican AirIinos (NA) and
Woslorn Iacific AirIinos (WI). Tlo onpIaning passongor procossing faciIilios and
lloir sorvico ralos aro givon in TabIo 10-5.
-- -- --

Ramp
Gate Gate
Departure
Lounges
Outbound
Baggage
Airline
Offices
Ticketing
Entrances
Curb front
Seat
Selection
Security
Lobby
-

-- -

-




-
--
--
-
--
--

-
-
-






-


- Various airporl sludios.
- - -- -- -
-

-
-- ---



-- -
-


--

-

-

Domand dala coIIoclod al llo airporl indicalo llal 10 porconl of llo onpIaning
passongors procood diroclIy from curb fronl lo socurily, 20 porconl of Woslorn
Iacific AirIinos onpIaning passongors uso llo oxpross clocI-in, lloro aro 0.5
visilors por passongor during llo poaI lour, and 50 porconl of lloso visilors
procood boyond socurily.
Tlo poaI lour onpIaning passongor domand on llo dosign day is oxpoclod
lo bo 135 passongors, of vlicl 53 porconl uso Norll Amorican AirIinos and
47 porconl uso Woslorn Iacific AirIinos. TypicaIIy llo poaI 30 min of llo poaI
lour las 57 porconl of llo poaI lour domand. Assumo avorago vaIIing ralos
aro 1.5 fl/s. AirIino oporaling praclicos Iimil llo poriods vlon domand oxcoods
capacily lo 15 min.
Il is nocossary lo dolormino llo avorago onpIaning passongor doIay and Iino
Iongll al oacl procossor, and llo avorago passongor procossing limo during llo
poaI 30 min of llo poaI lour on llo dosign day al llis airporl.
Tlo IinI-and-nodo diagram in Iig. 10-25 slovs llo roIalionslip bolvoon llo
onpIaning passongor procossors al llo airporl, and incIudos llo passongor spIil
bolvoon procossors, llo numbor of procossors, llo procossing limo por passongor,
and llo dislanco bolvoon procossor in fool.
Sinco llo poaI 30 min passongor arrivaI ralo is 57 porconl of llo poaI lour
arrivaI ralo, llo poaI 30 min passongor domand inlo llo onpIaning passongor
syslom is 0.57(135) 77 passongors. Sinco lloro aro 0.5 visilors por passongor, llo
poaI 30 min visilor domand inlo llo onpIaning passongor syslom is 0.5(77) 39
visilors. Combining lloso domand paramolors vill llo passongor spIils givon
in Iig. 10-25, rocognizing llal onIy 50 porconl of llo visilors procood boyond
socurily, llo procossor fIov ralos in llo poaI 30 min aro givon in Iig. 10-26. In
llis figuro llo numbors abovo llo Iinos connocling procossors roprosonl llo pas-
songors fIoving inlo llo procossor and llo numbors boIov lloso Iinos roprosonl
llo visilors fIoving inlo oacl procossor vlon llo procossor procossos visilors.
Assuming llal aII procossors may bo modoIod by singIo procossor sysloms
in vlicl llo domand is spIil ovonIy bolvoon procossors, llo domand ralo in
porsons por minulo, llo sorvico ralo in porsons por minulo, and llo ralio of llo
-

domand lo capacily for oacl procossor, llo procossor uliIizalion, is compulod

as slovn in TabIo 10-6.
Tlo doparluro Ioungos aro accumuIaling procossors and aro anaIyzod diffor-
onlIy llan llo quouing procossors. AIso nolo llal llo Norll Amorican roguIar licI-
oling posilion and llo Norll Amorican soal soIoclion compononls lavo a domand
vlicl oxcoods capacily sinco llo procossor uliIizalion is groalor llan 1.
Basod upon an oxaminalion airporl procossor il vas found llal lloso pro-
cossors vlicl aro ossonliaIIy fIov-llrougl procossors (sucl as onlranco doors,
socurily and ramp galos) bolavo as Ioisson arrivaIs and oxpononliaI sorvico ralo
quouing moclanisms, vloroas lloso procossors vlicl roquiro a discrolo sorvico
- -- - -
-- -- -
Entrance Ticketing Security Gates
Departure
Lounge
Seat
Selection
77
39
8
2
3
6
7 7
2
2
6
7
2
6
3
7
4
1
3
7
9
36
9
36
41
11
41
- -- --
--
Entrance Ticketing Security Gates
Departure
Lounge
Seat
Selection
3
15
1.0 2
30
3
210
3
180
1
60
0.10
153
0
.
4
7
1
5
0
.
0
8
9
3
1
.
0
1
6
6
1
.
0
1
7
5
0
.
3
4
1
0
2
1
30
1
20
0
.
4
8
8
1
1
45
0
.
5
3
1
5
1
.
0
1
4
4
1.0
20
1.0
20
1
20
1.0
20
1.0
20

-
funclion (sucl as roguIar licIoling, oxpross clocI-in, and soal soIoclion) bolavo
as Ioisson arrivaI and conslanl sorvico ralo quouing moclanisms.
Tloroforo, for llo onlranco doors, vlicl aro Ioisson arrivaIs and oxpononliaI
sorvicos, llo avorago passongor doIay is from Iq. (10-4),

1 29
4 00 4 00 1 29
0 12
.
. ( . . )
. min

and from Iq. (10-8) llo avorago Iino Iongll is

0 12
1
4 00
1 29 0 48 .
.
. . porson

Ior llo Norll Amorican roguIar licIol counlors, vlicl oxlibil Ioisson arrivaIs
and conslanl sorvicos, sinco llo domand ralo is groalor llan llo capacily, vo lavo
from Iq. (10-7) vill 0.9

0 9
2 0 29 1 0 9
15 52
.
( . )( . )
. min

and from Iq. (10-9)

15 0 41 0 29
2 0 29
3 10
( . . )
( . )
. min

Nolo llal llo vaIuo of is oquaI lo 1 bocauso llo domand vas aIIocalod oquaIIy
among oacl of llo licIoling posilions, and llo oxcoss doIay poriod is oquaI lo
0.5(30) 15 min.
Tloroforo, 15.52 3.10 18.62 min of avorago doIay limo por passongor.
Tlo avorago Iino Iongll is, from Iq. (10-10),

18 62
1
0 29
0 29 6 40 .
.
. . passongors

--

-

-
--

-


-
--


-

-
-

-
-- --
-

Compuling llo doIays and quouo Ionglls for oacl procossor rosuIls in llo
vaIuos slovn in TabIo 10-7.
Irom llis labIo il can bo soon llal considorabIo doIay and Iino formalion oxisl
al llo boll Norll Amorican and llo Woslorn Iacific roguIar licIoling faciIilios,
llo socurily clocI-poinl, and llo Norll Amorican soal soIoclion faciIily.
Irom llo passongor spIils slovn in Iig. 10-25 and llo dislancos bolvoon
compononls, llo oxpoclod vaIuos of llo passongor doIay limo, llo passongor
sorvico limo, and llo lravoI limo for llo avorago airporl passongor in llo poaI
30 min can bo compulod.
Tlo oxpoclod vaIuos aro llon compulod for llo doIay limo, sorvico limo, and
vaIIing limo for llo avorago airporl passongor lo find llo avorago passongor
procossing limo from Iq. (10-11).
(

) 1.0(0.12) 0.48(15.52 3.10) 0.34(10.98) 0.08(0.15) 1.0(2.13)

0.53(3.38 0.28) 0.47(0.38 0.22)
(

) 17.2 min
(
-
) 1.0(0.25) 0.48(3.45) 0.34(3.00) 0.08(1.00) 1.0(0.5)
0.53(0.75 0.33) 0.47(0.50 0.33)
(
-
) 4.5 min
(

) 0.48(81 144) 0.34(102 175) 0.08(93 166) 0.10(153)

0.53(55) 0.47(55)
(

) 293 fl

( )
. ( )
. min
293
1 5 60
3 3
--

- -

--
-


-
--
-

-

-
-

-
-- --
-

-
Tlo avorago passongor procossing limo for llo avorago airporl passongor
during llo poaI 30 min is llon
(

) 17.2 4.5 3.3 25 min

Sinco doparluro Ioungos aro onIy vailing aroas, lloro is no quouing syslom
lypo doIay in lloso faciIilios. GonoraIIy spoaIing, lloso faciIilios aro dosignod
vill an aroa roquiromonl por passongor and visilor in llo doparluro Ioungo. Tlo
aroa roquirod is basod upon llo numbor of passongors and visilors vlicl vouId
bo in llo doparluro Ioungo al llo momonl llo aircrafl is aIIovod lo bo boardod.
TypicaIIy llo squaro foolago roquiromonl is from 15 lo 25 fl
2
por porson in llo
doparluro Ioungo al llal poinl.
Givon a lypicaI arrivaI dislribulion al llo airporl, sucl as llal slovn in TabIo 10-8,
il is assumod llal llo lolaI numbor of passongors and visilors arriving al llo airporl
al llo momonl llo fIigll is caIIod for boarding is aIso llo numbor in llo doparluro
Ioungo al llal poinl in limo.
In llis probIom, Iol us assumo llal llo fIigll is boardod 15 min boforo sclod-
uIod doparluro and llo airIino doparluro Ioungo roquiromonls aro 20 fl
2
por
passongor.
Tloroforo, al llis limo 88 porconl of llo passongors and lloir visilors vouId
bo in llo doparluro Ioungo. Ior Woslorn Iacific AirIinos, llis moans llal lloro aro
0.88(0.47)(135) passongors and 0.88(0.47)(135)(0.5)(0.5) visilors in llo doparluro
Ioungo al llis poinl in limo. Tlis lolaIs 56 passongors and 14 visilors. Tloroforo,
llo doparluro Ioungo sizo roquiromonls aro 20(56 14) 1400 fl
2
.
-
Tloso modoIs bocomo parlicuIarIy usofuI vlon llo anaIysis of llo opor-
alion of llo passongor landIing syslom is lo bo porformod al a roIalivoIy

---

---

- ---
- -
-

dolaiIod IovoI or vlon il is dosirod lo anaIyzo llo oporalion of llo sys-

lom for oxlondod poriods of limo. Tloy aro usofuI for llo anaIysis of llo
vloIo syslom, as voII as of parls of il |28, 34, 39]. Wlon somo imporlanl
inpuls lo anaIysis aro unoblainabIo, sucl as possibIo fuluro fIigll sclod-
uIos, il is possibIo vill llo uso of compulor simuIalion lo anaIyzo llo
oporalion of llo syslom undor randomIy gonoralod inpuls.
SimuIalion is aIso parlicuIarIy usofuI vlon anaIysis is lo bo ropoalod
for varying oporaling condilions in ordor lo porform sonsilivily slud-
ios. Compulors aIIov sucl ropoalod anaIysis vlicl vouId ollorviso
bo prolibilivoIy oxponsivo and vory limo consuming. Mosl compulor
sysloms lavo slandard simuIalion pacIagos avaiIabIo vlicl can bo
adaplod lo many plysicaI pIanning probIoms incIuding airporls.
Il is imporlanl lo nolo llal compulor simuIalion is nol a subslilulo
for anaIysis vlon informalion on llo syslom is IacIing. In ordor lo con-
slrucl a simuIalion modoI noarIy as mucl dolaiIod informalion aboul
syslom oporalion is nocossary as for ollor anaIylic loclniquos. Tlo main
foaluro of simuIalion is llo ligl spood al vlicl compulors can porform
Ionglly caIcuIalions. In llo anaIysis of sysloms oporalions compulor
simuIalion slouId bo usod vill caulion and sovoraI runs mado so llal
llo slalislicaI roIiabiIily of llo rosuIls may bo dolorminod.
SimuIalion loclniquos lavo boon sludiod by llo IAA |10, 21, 24]
and lavo boon usod in many sludios lo dolormino faciIily noods. An
oulIino of llo fIov of an onpIaning passongor llrougl llo airporl sys-
lom vlicl can bo modoIod by llo IAA simuIalion modoI is givon in
Iig. 10-27. In llo sclomalic dosign plaso of llo pIanning projocl al
Iorl IaudordaIo-HoIIyvood InlornalionaI Airporl, simuIalion vas
usod lo dolormino llo parIing roquiromonls al llo airporl and llo
numbor of parIing loII coIIoclion faciIilios noodod al llo oxil |30]. Tlo
inpuls inlo llo simuIalion vas llo airIino fIigll scloduIo, llo dislri-
bulion of llo lolaI numbor of parIors roIalivo lo llo fIigll scloduIo,
and llo lisloricaI dislribulion of parIing duralion as oblainod from
llo anaIysis of parIing licIol slubs. AIlornalivo fIigll scloduIos voro
usod lo gonoralo llo arrivaI dislribulion al llo parIing faciIily, and
llo parIing duralion dislribulion, slovn in Iig. 10-28, vas usod lo
gonoralo llo random sorvico limos roquirod by llo arrivaIs. As a rosuIl
of llo simuIalion, il vas possibIo lo dolormino llo poaIing claraclor-
islics of arrivaIs and doparluros al llo parIing garago, and llo accu-
muIalion of volicIos villin llo parIing faciIily.
Tlo foIIoving slops aro rocommondod in llo dosign of a simuIa-
lion modoI for appIicalion lo airporl lorminaI projocls |50]:
1. Dofino llo scopo of llo simuIalion in lorms of llo quoslions lo
bo ansvorod, llo compononls lo bo incIudod, and llo IovoI of
dolaiI roquirod.
2. Spocify llo roquirod oulpul so llal an inlorprolalion of llo
rosuIls viII rosoIvo llo quoslions lo bo addrossod.

-
-

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3. Slrucluro llo modoI so llal llo abslracl roprosonlalion of llo

compononls in llo modoI and llo ovonls and inloraclions
bolvoon compononls aro indicalivo of lorminaI porfor-
manco.
4. Dofino llo inpul dala and ils variabiIily.
5. Onco llo modoI las boon dovoIopod vorify llrougl losling
on acluaI sysloms.
6. AppIy llo modoI and modify llo faciIily dosign in accordanco
vill llo modoI rosuIls.
7. Roviov llo findings and dosign roIalivo lo llo dogroo of vari-
abiIily in llo oulpul and llrougl roasonabIo clocIs.
-
Tlo finaI pIanning plaso in lorminaI projocls is caIIod dosign dovoI-
opmonl. In llis plaso llo sizo and claraclor of llo projocl is fixod and
clocIod againsl llo findings and rocommondalions in llo prior
plasos of llo projocl. Accoplanco of llo projocl by llo airporl ovnor,
lonanls, and airIinos is llo finaI producl of llis plaso. CapilaI budgol-
ing, oporaling, mainlonanco, and adminislralivo cosls ovor llo Iifo-
limo of llo projocl aro dolorminod and a rovonuo pIan is adoplod.
Agroomonls aro mado on ralo and clargo slrucluros for llo airIinos,
concossionairos, and ollor lonanls. Tlo projocl movos on lovard

---
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
6
4
2
0 1 2 3 6
March 1981
November 1980
Parking duration, hours
12 48 120 504

-
impIomonlalion llrougl llo dovoIopmonl of conslruclion docu-
monls, bid Iolling and accoplanco, and conslruclion foIIoving llis
plaso of pIanning.
-
Tlo apron providos llo connoclion bolvoon llo lorminaI buiIdings
and llo airfioId. Il incIudos aircrafl parIing aroas, caIIod -, and
aircrafl circuIalion and laxiing aroas for accoss lo lloso ramps. On llo
ramp, aircrafl parIing aroas aro dosignalod as galos. Tlo discussion
in llis soclion is Iimilod lo llo apron galo aroa for scloduIod com-
morciaI aircrafl oporalions. Tlo sizo of llo apron galo aroa doponds
on four faclors, namoIy, llo numbor of aircrafl galos, llo sizo of llo
galos, llo manouvoring aroa roquirod for aircrafl al galos, and llo
aircrafl parIing Iayoul in llo galo aroa. Tlo Iayoul of llo apron aroa
is discussod in Clap. 6.
-
As in llo caso vill ollor airporl faciIilios, llo numbor of galos is dolor-
minod in sucl a vay llal a prodolorminod lourIy fIov of aircrafl can
bo accommodalod. Tlus, llo numbor of galos roquirod doponds on
llo numbor of aircrafl lo bo landIod during llo dosign lour and on
llo amounl of limo oacl aircrafl occupios a galo. Tlo numbor of air-
crafl llal nood lo bo landIod simuIlanoousIy is a funclion of llo lraf-
fic voIumo al llo airporl. As monlionod oarIior, il is cuslomary lo uso
llo oslimalod poaI lour voIumo as llo inpul for oslimaling llo num-
bor of galos roquirod al llo airporl. Hovovor, in ordor lo acliovo a
baIancod airporl dosign, llis voIumo slouId nol oxcood llo capacily
of llo runvays.
Tlo amounl of limo an aircrafl occupios a galo is roforrod lo as llo
. Il doponds on llo sizo of aircrafl and on llo lypo
of oporalion, llal is, a llrougl or lurnaround fIigll. Aircrafl parIod
al a galo aro lloro for passongor and baggago procossing and for air-
crafl sorvicing and proparalion for fIigll. Iargor aircrafl normaIIy
occupy galos a Iongor limo llan smaII aircrafl. Tlis is bocauso Iargo
aircrafl roquiro moro limo for aircrafl sorvicing, profIigll pIanning,
and rofuoIing. Tlo lypo of oporalion aIso affocls galo occupancy limo
by affocling sorvico roquiromonls. Tlus an aircrafl on a llrougl fIigll
may roquiro IillIo or no sorvicing and, consoquonlIy, llo galo
occupancy limo can bo as Iov as 20 lo 30 min. On llo ollor land, an
aircrafl on a lurnaround fIigll viII roquiro compIolo sorvicing, rosuIl-
ing in galo occupancy limos ranging from 40 min lo moro llan 1 l.
Tlo labIo slovn in Iig. 10-29 Iisls llo aclivilios llal normaIIy laIo
pIaco during a lurnaround slop, logollor vill a lypicaI limo scloduIo
for lloso aclivilios.
-

If simuIalion is usod a dosign-day scloduIo is firsl forocasl and,

llon basod upon llo dosign-day scloduIo and llo praclicos of llo
airIinos al llo airporl, a ramp clarl basod upon llo dosign day is con-
slruclod lo dolormino galo roquiromonls.
Tlo avorago daiIy galo uliIizalion faclor for aII galos al an airporl
usuaIIy varios bolvoon 0.5 and 0.8. Tlis faclor accounls for llo facl
llal il is unIiIoIy llal aII of llo galos avaiIabIo al a lorminaI buiIding
viII bo usod 100 porconl of llo limo. Tlis is causod by llo facl llal
aircrafl manouvoring inlo and oul of a galo oflon bIocIs ollor air-
crafl allompling lo movo inlo or oul of lloir galos and by llo facl llal
aircrafl scloduIos oflon Ioad lo limo gaps bolvoon llo doparluro of
ono aircrafl and llo arrivaI of anollor using llo samo galo. Tlo
- - ompIoyod by llo airIinos al llo airporl aIso infIuoncos llo
avorago galo uliIizalion faclor. Al airporls vloro galos aro usod
muluaIIy by aII airIinos, a common galo-uso slralogy, llo galo uliIiza-
lion faclor lypicaIIy varios bolvoon 0.6 and 0.8. Al airporls vloro
groups of galos aro usod oxcIusivoIy by difforonl airIinos, an oxcIu-
sivo galo-uso slralogy, llo uliIizalion faclor drops lo aboul 0.5 or 0.6.
Tlo dolorminalion of llo numbor of galos noodod al an airporl
slouId bo subjoclod lo llo anaIysis loclniquos givon in Clap. 12 and
lo llo galo-uso slralogios adoplod by llo lonanl airIinos.
An iIIuslralion of llo uso of simuIalion lo gonoralo a dosign-day
scloduIo from vlicl a ramp clarl can bo conslruclod lo dolormino
dosign-day galo roquiromonls in givon in IxampIo IrobIom 10-2.
- - -
-- -
0
1.0
5 10 15
Time, min
20 25
1.5
13.0
4.4
3.4
7.9
8.5
12.7
16.0
23.0
14.7
9.0
3.1
3.8
13.0
1.5
5.6
3.0
0.5
1.0
Operations
Bulk
Engine rundown
Position passengers bridges
Deplane passengers
Check log book
Off-load cargo
Service galley
Lavatory service
Check log book
Enplane passengers
Monitor engine start
Remove passengers bridges
Clear aircraft for departure
Water service
Cabin service
Fuel aircraft
Water injection service
Walk-around inspection
Load cargo
Forward
Center
Bulk
4.4
0.5
Containers center
Containers forward
Critical time path

-
Tlo curronl scloduIos of airIino fIiglls al an airporl on a
lypicaI day in llo poaI monll aro givon in TabIo 10-9. A forocasl is mado for llis
airporl vlicl indicalos llal 10 addilionaI fIiglls viII bo addod lo llo fuluro-yoar
dosign-day scloduIo al llis airporl. Il is nocossary lo porform a simuIalion for
llo scloduIos of lloso addilionaI fIiglls.
Il viII bo assumod in llis probIom llal llo fIigll scloduIo of llo simuIalod
fIiglls viII foIIov llo curronl day fIigll scloduIo dislribulion.
Iirsl il is nocossary lo oblain a probabiIily dislribulion for boll fIigll arrivaI
limos and galo occupancy limos. Tloso aro oblainod by dolormining llo fro-
quoncy dislribulion of oacl limo rango for fIigll arrivaIs and galo occupancy
limos and llon inlograling llis froquoncy dislribulion lo oblain llo cumuIalivo
probabiIily dislribulion funclion.
Ior simpIicily in llis probIom, llo fIigll arrivaI limo dislribulion is found by
grouping fIigll arrivaI limos inlo 1-l incromonls of limo and llo galo occupancy

























-

limo dislribulion is found by grouping galo occupancy limos inlo 15 min incro-
monls of limo.
Tlo fIigll scloduIo froquoncy dislribulion is llon found by counling llo
numbor of fIiglls in oacl 1-l incromonl of limo boginning vill 6:00 A.M. and
onding vill 11:59 I.M. Tlo lolaI numbor of fIiglls arriving in llo poriods is
slovn in TabIo 10-10.
Tlo cumuIalivo probabiIily dislribulion funclion of fIigll arrivaI limos is llon
compulod by finding llo probabiIily llal a fIigll viII arrivo in a givon limo poriod
or Ialor boginning vill llo oarIiosl limo poriod. Tloso vaIuos aro compulod in TabIo
10-10 and pIollod in Iig. 10-30.
By a simiIar loclniquo, llo galo occupancy duralions of llo fIiglls aro
groupod as slovn in TabIo 10-11 and llo cumuIalivo probabiIily funclion of
lloso galo occupancy limos is pIollod in Iig. 10-31.
To simuIalo a fIigll arrivaI and a galo occupancy limo for a fIigll, a labIo of
random digils musl bo roforoncod. If llis is dono, lvo sols of random numbors,
ono roprosonling llo fIigll arrivaI limo and ono roprosonling llo galo occupancy


-

-
-
8 10 2
Time of Arrival
4 6 8 10 12a 12p 6a
0.00
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e
r
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
0.54
0.92



-

-

limo, for oacl of llo 10 fIiglls lo bo simuIalod aro found and lloso aro slovn
in TabIo 10-12.
Tlo firsl simuIalod fIigll las an arrivaI limo random numbor of 0.92 and
a galo occupancy limo random numbor of 0.70. Using llo fIigll arrivaI limo
-

random numbor of 0.92 vill llo cumuIalivo probabiIily funclion of fIigll arrivaI
limos in Iig. 10-30, vo find llal llo simuIalod arrivaI limo of llo firsl fIigll
is 7:45 A.M. Using llo galo occupancy limo random numbor of 0.70 vill llo
cumuIalivo probabiIily funclion of galo occupancy limos in Iig. 10-31, vo find
llal llo simuIalod galo occupancy limo of llo firsl fIigll is 45 min. Boll of lloso
numbors aro laIon lo llo noarosl 15 min limo incromonl for simpIicily. Tloroforo,
llo firsl simuIalod fIigll las an arrivaI limo of 7:45 A.M. and a fIigll doparluro
limo of 8:30 A.M.

--

15 30 60
Gate Occupancy Time (minutes)
75 90 105 120 135 45 0
0.00 P
r
o
b
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

o
f

P
a
r
k
i
n
g

f
o
r

D
u
r
a
t
i
o
n

o
r

M
o
r
e
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
0.19
0.70

-
Tlis procoss is conlinuod for oacl simuIalod fIigll. Ior oxampIo, llo llird
simuIalod fIigll las an arrivaI limo random numbor of 0.54 and a galo occu-
pancy limo random numbor of 0.19. Again, using llo fIigll arrivaI limo random
numbor of 0.54 vill llo cumuIalivo probabiIily funclion of fIigll arrivaI limos
in Iig. 10-30, vo find llal llo simuIalod arrivaI limo of llo llird fIigll
is 1:15 I.M. Using llo galo occupancy limo random numbor of 0.19 vill llo
cumuIalivo probabiIily funclion of galo occupancy limos in Iig. 10-31, vo find
llal llo simuIalod galo occupancy limo of llo llird fIigll is 90 min. Tloroforo,
llo llird simuIalod fIigll las an arrivaI limo of 1:15 I.M. and a fIigll doparluro
limo of 2:45 I.M.
Tlo abovo simuIalion procoss is slovn by llo daslod Iinos in Iigs. 10-30
and 10-31.
Assuming a simuIalion vas aIso porformod for llo airIino and llo aircrafl for
oacl fIigll, llo rosuIls of llo simuIalion aro labuIalod in TabIo 10-12. Tlo nov
fIigll scloduIo in llo dosign yoar, vill boll llo curronl fIiglls and llo simuIalod
fIiglls, is slovn in TabIo 10-13. In llis labIo llo simuIalod fIiglls aro oacl givon
llo fIigll numbor 9999 for roforonco purposos.
-
A ramp clarl is a graplicaI roprosonlalion of llo galo occupancy by
aircrafl llrougloul llo day. AirIinos and airporls uso ramp clarls lo
dispIay llo acluaI galo assignmonl of aircrafl for llo fIigll scloduIo al
llo airporl.
Tlo ramp clarl can aIso bo usod lo dolormino llo galo roquiromonls
al an airporl. Wlon il is usod for llis purposo llo ramp clarls doos nol
dispIay llo acluaI assignmonl of aircrafl lo spocific galos for llo dosign-
day scloduIo bul onIy indicalos llo assignmonl of aircrafl lo galos for
llo dolorminalion of llo numbor of galos roquirod al llo airporl.
Tloro aro sovoraI faclors vlicl infIuonco llo galo roquiromonls al
an airporl. ObviousIy llo fIigll scloduIo and llo galo occupancy limo
of aircrafl aro of paramounl imporlanco. Hovovor, llo scloduIing
and ramp oporaling praclicos of llo airIinos and llo galo-uso slralogy
of llo airIinos aro aIso imporlanl. Tlo scloduIing and ramp oporaling
praclicos givo riso lo llo facl llal a galo cannol bo usod 100 porconl of
llo limo as discussod oarIior. Tlo galo-uso slralogy considors vlollor
llo galos viII bo oxcIusivo-uso galos, slarod-uso galos or common
galos. IxcIusivo-uso galos aro galos vlicl aro rosorvod for llo oxcIu-
sivo uso of ono airIino. A slarod galo is a galo vlicl is slarod by lvo
or llroo airIinos. A common-uso galo is a galo vlicl is aIIocalod by
llo airporl basod upon llo domand for galos and may bo usod by any
airIino al llo airporl.
Galos aro sizod basod upon llo goomolric proporlios of llo
aircrafl llal viII occupy llo galos. Tloroforo, galos may bo caIIod
- bocauso lloy aro sizod lo accommodalo vido-bodiod
aircrafl. Tloso galos may aIso bo usod by narrov-bodiod aircrafl.
Narrov-bodiod galos aro galos vlicl can onIy bo usod by narrov-
bodiod aircrafl. Many airporls aIso lavo commulor galos vlicl aro
sizod lo accommodalo commulor aircrafl.
-

-
Tlo dolorminalion of llo numbor of aircrafl galos roquirod al an air-
porl is slovn by conslrucling ramp clarls in IxampIo IrobIom 10-3.
Iol us dolormino llo numbor of galos roquirod al an airporl
basod upon llo dosign-day scloduIo slovn in TabIo 10-13. Iol us dolormino
llo galo roquiromonls undor an oxcIusivo galo-uso slralogy, a slarod galo-uso
slralogy, and a common galo-uso slralogy. Iol us assumo llal llo scloduIing and
oporaling praclicos of llo airIinos roquiro llal a minimum limo gap of 15 min
musl bo aIIovod bolvoon llo doparluro of a scloduIod fIigll from a galo and
llo arrivaI of llo noxl scloduIod fIigll al llal galo.
Undor an oxcIusivo galo-uso slralogy oacl airIino viII lavo ils ovn galos
vlicl cannol bo usod by any ollor airIino. To find llo numbor of galos roquirod
undor llis galo-uso slralogy, a grapl is conslruclod sloving limo on llo axis
and llo numbor of galos on llo axis. To dolormino llo minimum numbor of
galos roquirod, llo fIigll scloduIo of oacl airIino musl bo sorlod firsl by arrivaI
and llon doparluro limo. Tlal is, lvo fIiglls vlicl lavo llo samo arrivaI limo
aro aIso sorlod by llo doparluro limo.
In TabIo 10-13, llo fIigll scloduIo of oacl airIino las boon sorlod and a rofor-
onco numbor is pIacod noxl lo oacl fIigll for oacl airIino. Tlis roforonco numbor
viII bo pIacod on llo ramp clarl for iIIuslralivo purposos.
To dolormino llo galo roquirod for AIpla Ixpross (AI) AirIinos, sinco llo
firsl scloduIod fIigll is scloduIod lo arrivo al 7:45 A.M. and scloduIod lo doparl
al 9:30 A.M., a galo is oponod on llo ramp clarl and llo bIocI of limo from 7:45 A.M.
lo 9:30 A.M. is fiIIod in on llo ramp clarl lo indicalo llal llo galo is occupiod
during llal poriod of limo. Tlo noxl scloduIod fIigll by AI AirIinos is scloduIod
lo arrivo al 10:15 A.M. and doparl al 10:45 A.M. Sinco al llo galo jusl oponod up
llo noxl scloduIod arrivaI can bo pIacod al llis galo 15 min aflor llo doparluro
of llo provious aircrafl, llis fIigll may bo scloduIod inlo llal galo and llo bIocI
of limo from 10:15 A.M. lo 10:45 A.M. is fiIIod in. Tlo noxl scloduIod fIigll of AI
AirIinos is scloduIod lo arrivo al 10:15 A.M. and doparl al 11:00 A.M. Hovovor, llis
fIigll cannol bo scloduIod inlo llo firsl galo sinco llal galo is occupiod during
parl of llal poriod of limo.
Tloroforo, a nov galo is oponod up on llo ramp clarl lo accommodalo llis
aircrafl and llo bIocI of limo from 10:15 A.M. lo 11:00 A.M. is fiIIod in al llal galo.
Tlis procoss is conlinuod unliI aII of llo AI AirIino fIiglls lavo boon assignod lo
galos. As may bo soon on llo lop porlion of Iig. 10-32, lo accommodalo llo fIiglls
of AI AirIinos four galos aro roquirod.
Tlo samo procoss is ropoalod for oacl airIino, and as slovn in llo middIo
and bollom porlions of Iig. 10-32, llis rosuIls in llroo galos boing roquirod for
CoaslaI IinI (CI) AirIinos and ono galo boing roquirod for RogionaI Ixpross
(RX) AirIinos.
Tloroforo, undor an oxcIusivo galo-uso slralogy, llis fIigll scloduIo roquiros
oigll galos lo accommodalo llo airIino scloduIo al llo airporl.
Ior llo conslruclion of a slarod galo-uso slralogy ramp clarl, Iol us assumo llal
CI and RX AirIinos viII slaro galos al llo airporl and llal AI AirIinos viII lavo
oxcIusivo-uso galos. Tloroforo, llo ramp clarl for AI AirIinos doos nol clango bul
llo ramp clarl for llo slarod-galo-uso airIinos musl bo conslruclod by firsl sorling
aII of llo fIiglls of CI and RX AirIinos logollor by arrivaI limo and doparluro limo
as slovn in TabIo 10-14. Using llo procoduro abovo, Iig. 10-33 is llo roquirod
ramp clarl. Il is soon llal llougl AI AirIinos roquiros four galos, RX and CI
AirIinos nov onIy roquiro al lolaI of llroo galos. Tloroforo, llo slarod-galo-uso
slralogy rosuIls in ono Ioss galo al llo airporl lo accommodalo llo dosign-day
fIigll scloduIo.
-

- -
8 10 2
Hour of the Day
4 6 8 10 12a 12p 6a
AE Gates
C Gates
RX Gates
2
3
4
1
2
3
1
1
8 10 2
10 6 2 1 12 14 15 18
Hour of the Day
4 6 8 10 12a 12p 6a
11 7 3 13 16
4
5
19 21 24
22
26 23
20 30
20 25
27 28
9
8 17

- - -

-
Ior llo common uso-galo slralogy, aII of llo fIiglls of aII of llo airIinos aro
sorlod logollor by arrivaI limo and doparluro limo and llo ramp clarl simiIarIy
conslruclod. If llis is dono, llo ramp clarl in Iig. 10-34 rosuIls vlicl slovs llal
undor a common galo-uso slralogy onIy fivo galos aro roquirod al llo airporl lo
accommodalo llo dosign-day scloduIo.
Tlo poaI lour for galo uso occurs around 1:00 I.M. and llo poaI lour galo
uliIizalion is dofinod as llo galo limo domandod dividod by llo galo limo sup-
pIiod in llo poaI lour. Tlo aircrafl domand 210 min of galo limo in llo poaI
lour and llo galo limo suppIiod is 480 min, 420 min, or 300 min for llo oxcIusivo,
slarod and common galo-uso slralogios, rospoclivoIy. Tloroforo, llo poaI lour
galo uliIizalion is 0.44, 0.50, or 0.70 by oacl of llo galo-uso slralogios.
-
8 10 2
Hour of the Day
4 6 8 10 12a 12p 6a
Common
Gates
for All
Airlines
1
3
4
5
2
8 10 2
Hour of the Day
4 6 8 10 12a 12p 6a
1 4 9 13 16 21 23 29 26
2 5 10 14 17
6 11 24 28
19 25 7 12
8 20
3 18 15
22 27 30
- -
8 10 2
Hour of the Day
4 6 8 10 12a 12p 6a
AE
Exclusive
Gates
CL and RX
Shared
Gates
2
3
4
1
2
3
1
8 10 2
10 6 1 12 14 15 18
Hour of the Day
4 6 8 10 12a 12p 6a
1 3 4 7 10 12
2
2 5 11 8
3
9 5
4
6 9
8 17
7 11 16 13
-

AII of llo aircrafl on llo dosign-day scloduIo in llis aro narrov-bodiod air-
crafl. If somo aro vido-bodiod aircrafl, llo sorling vouId bo dono soparaloIy
for llo vido-bodiod and narrov-bodiod aircrafl. To minimizo llo numbor of
vido-bodiod galos, llo vido-bodiod aircrafl vouId bo assignod lo llo ramp clarl
firsl and llon llo narrov-bodiod aircrafl vouId bo assignod, rocognizing llal a
narrov-bodiod aircrafl may uso a vido-bodiod galo.
Galos al mosl airporls vary villin llo rango of llroo lo fivo galos
por miIIion annuaI passongors. Tlo lolaI numbor of galos may lavo lo
bo modifiod if nol aII galos can landIo aII lypos of aircrafl. Tlis is
parlicuIarIy imporlanl al airporls vloro llo aircrafl mix incIudos a
considorabIo amounl of Iargo and smaII aircrafl. In sucl silualions,
and vlon dala aro avaiIabIo, il vouId bo proforabIo lo compulo galo
roquiromonls soparaloIy for llo difforonl lypos of aircrafl, Iooping in
mind llal llo Iargo galos can bo usod lo landIo smaII aircrafl, vliIo
llo rovorso is nol lruo. Il is aIso dosirabIo lo caIcuIalo llo galo roquiro-
monls soparaloIy for difforonl lypos of lraffic. Ior oxampIo, al a Iargo
inlornalionaI airporl soparalo caIcuIalions may bo porformod for
domoslic galos, for inlornalionaI galos, and for clarlor galos.

Tlo sizo of a galo doponds nol onIy on llo sizo of aircrafl vlicl il is lo
accommodalo and bul aIso on llo lypo of parIing usod, llal is, noso-in,
paraIIoI, or angIod parIing. Tlo sizo of llo aircrafl dolorminos llo
spaco roquirod for parIing as voII as for manouvoring. Iurllormoro,
llo sizo of aircrafl dolorminos llo oxlonl and sizo of llo sorvicing
oquipmonl llal noods lo bo providod lo sorvico llo aircrafl. Tlo lypo
of parIing usod al llo galos affocls llo sizo sinco llo aroa roquirod lo
manouvor inlo and oul of a galo varios doponding on llo vay llo air-
crafl is parIod.
In viov of llo Iargo numbor of faclors llal affocl llo sizo and oxacl
Iayoul of galos, il is dosirabIo lo consuIl llo airIinos al an oarIy slago in llo
dosign procoss in ordor lo dolormino llo mannor in vlicl lloy pIan lo
manouvor aircrafl and llo lypos of sorvicing faciIilios lloy pIan lo uso.
Tlo dosign of llo galos can bo vorIod oul vill llo aid of proco-
duros and dimonsions providod by llo IAA |6, 7], ICAO |3], and llo
InlornalionaI Air Transporl Associalion |12]. IncIudod in lloso rofor-
oncos aro diagrams vlicl slov various dimonsions roquirod for diffor-
onl lypos of aircrafl and various parIing and manouvoring condilions.
Claplor 6 discussos llo Iayoul of ramp aroas lo accommodalo aircrafl.
WliIo dolaiIod dosign of aircrafl galos roquiros llo aid of clarls sucl
as lloso found in llo airpIano claraclorislics manuaIs pubIislod for air-
crafl, il is usuaIIy sufficionl for proIiminary pIanning lo adopl uniform
dimonsions bolvoon conlors of galos and lo uso lloso for sizing llo
apron galo aroa. Tlo dimonsions dopond on llo lypo of aircrafl. Tlo
lypicaI dimonsions for llo caso vloro aircrafl onlor a galo undor lloir
ovn povor and aro puslod oul by a lraclor aro givon in TabIo 10-15.

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Aircrafl parIing lypo rofors lo llo mannor in vlicl llo aircrafl is
posilionod vill rospocl lo llo lorminaI buiIding and lo llo mannor in
vlicl aircrafl manouvor in and oul of parIing posilions. Il is an
imporlanl faclor affocling llo sizo of llo parIing posilions and conso-
quonlIy llo apron galo aroa. Aircrafl can bo posilionod al various
angIos vill rospocl lo llo lorminaI buiIding Iino and can manouvor
inlo and oul of parIing posilions oillor undor lloir ovn povor or
vill llo aid of loving oquipmonl. Will aircrafl loving il is possibIo
lo roduco llo sizo of parIing posilions. Il is advisabIo in cloosing
among aIlornalivo parIing lypos lo consuIl vill llo airIino in quos-
lion, as difforonl airIinos lavo difforonl proforoncos for llo avaiIabIo
sysloms. Il is aIso advisabIo in adopling a parIing lypo lo laIo inlo
considoralion llo objoclivo of prolocling passongors from llo advorso
oIomonls of noiso, jol bIasl, and voallor, and llo oporaling and main-
lonanco cosls of noodod ground oquipmonl.
Tlo aircrafl parIing lypos vlicl lavo boon succossfuIIy usod al a
varioly of airporls and slouId bo ovaIualod in any airporl pIanning
sludy incIudo noso-in, angIod noso-in, angIod noso-oul, and paraIIoI.
Tloso parIing lypos aro slovn in Iig. 10-35 and aro discussod sopa-
raloIy boIov.
-
In llis configuralion llo aircrafl is parIod porpondicuIar lo llo buiId-
ing Iino vill llo noso as cIoso lo llo buiIding as pormissibIo. Tlo
aircrafl manouvors inlo llo parIing posilion undor ils ovn povor. In
ordor lo Ioavo llo galo, llo aircrafl las lo bo lovod oul a sufficionl
dislanco lo aIIov il lo procood undor ils ovn povor. Tlo advanlagos
of llis configuralion aro llal il roquiros llo smaIIosl galo aroa for a
givon aircrafl, causos Iovor noiso IovoIs as lloro is no povorod lurn-
ing movomonl noar llo lorminaI buiIding, sonds no jol bIasl lovard
llo buiIding, and faciIilalos passongor Ioading as llo noso is noar llo
buiIding. Ils disadvanlagos incIudo llo nood for loving oquipmonl
-
Nose-n Parallel
Angled Nose-n Angled Nose-Out

-
and llo noso is loo far from llo buiIding lo offoclivoIy uso llo roar
doors for passongor Ioading.
-
Tlis configuralion is simiIar lo llo noso-in configuralion oxcopl llal
llo aircrafl is nol parIod porpondicuIar lo llo buiIding. Tlo configu-
ralion las llo advanlago of aIIoving llo aircrafl lo manouvor in and
oul of llo galo undor ils ovn povor. Hovovor, il roquiros a Iargor galo
aroa llan llo noso-in configuralion and causos a liglor noiso IovoI.
-
In llis configuralion llo aircrafl is parIod vill ils noso poinling avay
from llo lorminaI buiIding. IiIo llo angIod noso-in configuralion, il
las llo advanlago of aIIoving aircrafl lo manouvor in and oul of galo
posilions villoul loving. Il doos roquiro a Iargor galo aroa llan llo
noso-in posilion, bul Ioss llan llo angIod noso-in. A disadvanlago of
llis configuralion is llal llo broaIavay jol bIasl and noiso aro poinlod
lovard llo buiIding vlon llo aircrafl slarls ils laxiing manouvor.

Tlis configuralion is llo oasiosl lo acliovo from llo aircrafl manou-
voring slandpoinl. In llis caso noiso and jol bIasl aro minimizod, as
lloro aro no slarp lurning manouvors roquirod. Il doos roquiro, lov-
ovor, a Iargor galo posilion aroa, parlicuIarIy aIong llo lorminaI buiId-
ing fronlago.
Il is ovidonl llal no ono parIing lypo can bo considorod idoaI. Ior
any pIanning silualion, aII llo advanlagos and disadvanlagos of llo
difforonl sysloms lavo lo bo ovaIualod, laIing inlo considoralion llo
proforonco of llo airIino llal viII bo using llo galos.

Anollor faclor llal affocls apron sizo and inslaIIalion roquiromonls is llo
apron Iayoul. Tlis rofors lo llo mannor in vlicl llo apron is arrangod
around llo lorminaI buiIding. Tlo apron Iayoul doponds diroclIy on llo
vay llo aircrafl galo posilions aro groupod around llo buiIdings and
on llo circuIalion and laxiing pallorns diclalod by llo roIalivo Ioca-
lions of llo lorminaI buiIdings and llo airfioId syslom.
Aircrafl aro groupod adjaconl lo llo lorminaI buiIding in a varioly
of vays doponding on llo lorizonlaI lorminaI concopl usod. Tloso
groupings aro roforrod lo as parIing sysloms and aro cIassifiod as llo
fronlaI or Iinoar syslom, llo fingor or pior syslom, llo saloIIilo syslom,
and llo opon apron or lransporlor syslom. Iacl of lloso voro dis-
cussod and iIIuslralod oarIior.
Tlo cloico of aircrafl parIing syslom is, naluraIIy, slrongIy infIu-
oncod by llo lorizonlaI passongor procossing concopl adoplod. Ior
oacl lloro aro posilivo and nogalivo allribulos llal musl bo voiglod
-

againsl oacl ollor. WliIo llo opon apron syslom las llo advanlago of
soparaling llo aircrafl and llo lorminaI buiIding from ono anollor, il
doos roquiro busos or mobiIo Ioungos for llo convoyanco of passon-
gors bolvoon llom. Tloso volicIos uso llo apron, and lloir circuIa-
lion pallorns nood carofuI pIanning lo avoid inlorforonco vill llo
fIov of aircrafl and ollor sorvico volicIos. WliIo llo fingor syslom
aIIovs llo officionl oxpansion of galo posilions and llo officionl uso of
lorminaI buiIding spaco, il may Ioad lo Iong passongor vaIIing dis-
lancos if aIIovod lo bocomo oxcossivoIy Iong. Tlo fronlaI syslom is
suilabIo for llo galo arrivaI procossing concopl. Ollor foaluros of
lloso sysloms voro discussod oarIior in llis claplor.

In dosigning llo apron Iayoul il is imporlanl lo laIo inlo accounl air-
crafl circuIalion, parlicuIarIy llo movomonl of aircrafl villin llo
apron galo aroa and from llis aroa lo llo laxivays. Wlon llo lraffic
voIumo is ligl, il is dosirabIo lo provido a laxiIano on llo poriplory of
llo apron. Il is aIso imporlanl lo aIIov sufficionl spaco lo pormil oasy
accoss of aircrafl lo galos. Tlis is parlicuIarIy imporlanl vlon pior fin-
gors aro usod for aircrafl parIing and llo fingors aro paraIIoI lo oacl
ollor. Sufficionl spaco musl bo providod bolvoon llo fingors lo aIIov
aircrafl roady accoss lo llo galos. Tlo soparalion bolvoon fingors
doponds on lloir Iongll and on llo sizo of aircrafl lo bo accommodalod.
Tlo Iongor llo fingor, llo moro aircrafl galos can bo accommodalod.
Hovovor, llo incroaso in llo numbor of galos may nocossilalo llo provi-
sion of lvo laxiIanos insload of ono bolvoon llo fingors lo provido
circuIalion villoul oxcossivo doIay. Ono laxiIano viII probabIy suffico
vlon lloro aro no moro llan fivo or six galos on oacl sido of a fingor.
A Iargo numbor of galos may roquiro lvo laxiIanos.
--
Doponding on llo passongor procossing syslom usod, llo lypo of air-
crafl parIing, and llo parIing syslom Iayoul, any of llroo mollods of
convoyanco can bo usod bolvoon llo buiIding and llo aircrafl. Tloso
aro vaIIing on llo apron, vaIIing llrougl aircrafl buiIding connoc-
lors sucl as passongor Ioading bridgos, and by mobiIo convoyanco
using any of a varioly of apron volicIos.
Tlo firsl mollod can bo ompIoyod vill aII procossing and parI-
ing sysloms. Hovovor, as llo numbor of parIing posilions and llo
apron sizo incroasos, il bocomos impraclicaI lo uso vaIIing for llo
convoyanco of passongors. Tlo oconomic appoaI of llis mollod is
ovorcomo by llo nood lo prolocl llo passongors from llo oIomonls
and from llo lazards of vaIIing on llo apron.
Tlo socond mollod can bo ompIoyod for aII sysloms ollor llan
vloro opon apron parIing is usod. A varioly of fixod and movabIo
Ioading sysloms lavo boon dovoIopod for passongor convoyanco.

-
Mosl common among lloso aro llo noso bridgos, vlicl aro slorl con-
noclors suilabIo for uso vlon llo aircrafl door comos cIoso lo llo
buiIding sucl as vill noso-in parIing. Anollor common syslom is
llo loIoscoping Ioading bridgo. Tloso lavo llo fIoxibiIily of oxlond-
ing from llo buiIding lo roacl llo aircrafl door and of svinging lo
accommodalo difforonl lypos of aircrafl. A lypicaI boarding bridgo is
slovn in Iig. 10-36.
-
Aircrafl nood lo bo sorvicod al lloir rospoclivo galos. Tlus corlain fixod
inslaIIalions may bo roquirod on llo apron. Apron congoslion is aIvays
a probIom and, lonco, lloro is a dofinilo lrond al Iargor airporls lovard
ropIacing mobiIo sorvicing oquipmonl vill fixod faciIilios.

Aircrafl aro fuoIod al llo apron by fuoI lrucIs, fuoIing pils, and
lydranl sysloms. Al llo smaIIor and ovon llo Iargor airporls llo uso
of fuoI lrucIs is provaIonl, bul llo pallorn is clanging in favor of llo
lydranl syslom al airporls roquiring Iargo amounls of fuoI.
Tlo principaI advanlago of fuoI lrucIs is lloir fIoxibiIily. Air-
crafl can bo fuoIod anyvloro on llo apron, llo unils can bo addod
or laIon avay according lo nood, and llo syslom is roIalivoIy oco-
nomicaI insofar as airporl managomonl and airIino oporalions aro
concornod. Tloro aro, lovovor, disadvanlagos associalod vill llo
uso of fuoI lrucIs. Iargo jol lransporls roquiro a considorabIo amounl
of fuoI, from noarIy 8000 gaI (U.S.) for llo McDonnoII DougIas MD-88
lo aImosl 50,000 gaI (U.S.) for llo Booing 747-100. Tvo rofuoIor unils
aro normaIIy roquirod, ono undor oacl ving. Ior llo Iargo jols,
slandby unils aro somolimos roquirod if llo fuoI roquiromonls aro in
oxcoss of lvo unils. Tlis moans llal lloro aro a Iargo numbor of voli-
cIos on llo apron during poaI poriods, croaling a polonliaI lazard
of coIIision vill porsonnoI, ollor volicIos, and aircrafl. Sinco oacl
lrucI carrios a considorabIo quanlily of fuoI, il aIso conslilulos a
polonliaI firo lazard vlon moving around on an apron vloro a

Apron
Aircraft
door
Terminal
building
-

numbor of ollor aclivilios aro laIing pIaco. TrucIs aro Iargo and
avIvard and laIo up vaIuabIo spaco in llo oporalions aroa. Wlon
a lrucI is omply, il musl rolurn lo llo slorago aroa for rofuoIing
boforo il can bo usod again. Tlus oxlra lrucIs musl bo providod for
uso during llo limo vlon ollor lrucIs aro boing roIoadod. Wlon
rofuoIing lrucIs aro nol in uso, parIing spaco musl bo providod for
lloso volicIos. Modorn rofuoIors aro approximaloIy 40 fl in Iongll
and voigl as mucl as 83,000 Ib. Tlo capacily of llo Iargor lrucIs is
approximaloIy 8000 gaI. Ior llo Iargor rofuoIors axIo Ioads aro in
oxcoss of llo IogaI Iimils on liglvays, and, consoquonlIy, llo air-
porl dosignor musl provido adoqualo pavomonl slronglls lo sup-
porl lloso volicIos.
Tlo lydranl syslom is usod al mosl Iargo airporls. In llis syslom, a
Iargo fuoI slorago aroa, oflon caIIod a , is Iocalod on llo airporl
proporly. IuoI is lransforrod from llo fuoI slorago aroa lo aircrafl galo
posilions llrougl a syslom of pipos Iocalod boIov llo pavomonl surfaco.
A spociaI vaIvo is mounlod in a box in llo pavomonl fIusl vill llo pavo-
monl surfaco al oacl galo posilion. A spociaI volicIo, a lydranl dis-
ponsor, vill a loso, molor, fiIlor, and air oIiminalor is usod lo connocl
llo fuoI suppIy lo llo aircrafl. Ono ond of llo loso las a spociaIIy
dosignod vaIvo vlicl is coupIod lo llo vaIvo inslaIIod in llo pavo-
monl. Tlis loso foods inlo llo molor, fiIlor, and air oIiminalor, from
vlicl anollor loso, usuaIIy on a rooI, is Iod lo llo fuoI inlaIos on llo
aircrafl.
Tlo principaI advanlagos of llo lydranl syslom aro llal a con-
linuous suppIy of fuoI is avaiIabIo al llo galos, il is safoIy carriod
undorground, and fuoI lrucIs aro oIiminalod from llo apron. Tlo
principaI disadvanlago is llal volicIos aro nol onliroIy romovod from
llo apron. Hovovor, bocauso of lloir smaII sizo, lydranl disponsors
roduco possibIo coIIision damago lo a minimum.
Tlo amounls of fuoI roquirod al many airporls aro so Iargo llal,
rogardIoss of llo lypo of fuoIing syslom usod, a conlraI fuoI slorago
aroa in llo vicinily of llo Ianding aroa is roquirod. If llo lydranl sys-
lom is usod, provision musl bo mado for inslaIIing pipos from llo
slorago aroa lo llo apron.
Tlo Iocalion of llo lydranl vaIvos al an individuaI galo viII dopond
upon llo Iocalion of llo fuoIing connoclions in llo vings of llo aircrafl
occupying llo galos. Il is dosirabIo llal llo loso Iino from llo lydranl
disponsor lo llo inlaIos in llo vings nol oxcood 20 lo 30 fl. If a vido
varioly of aircrafl aro lo bo sorvicod al a galo posilion, llo prociso spac-
ing of llo lydranl vaIvos slouId bo oslabIislod in consuIlalion vill
llo airIinos. Tlo numbor of lydranls roquirod por galo posilion doponds
nol onIy on llo lypo of aircrafl bul aIso on llo numbor of grados of fuoI
roquirod. Iacl grado of fuoI roquiros a soparalo Iayoul.
Al a numbor of airporls, lydranl sysloms aro inslaIIod by oiI com-
panios vlicl conlracl for fuoI vill a parlicuIar airIino or airIinos. Il is
nol uncommon lo lavo llo lydranl syslom and fuoI lrucIs oporalo

-
simuIlanoousIy al llo samo airporl. Tlo lrond al llo Iargo airporls is
dofiniloIy lovard llo lydranl syslom.

IIoclricaI povor is roquirod on llo apron for llo sorvicing of aircrafl
prior lo ongino slarling. IxlornaI oIoclricaI povor is aIso oflon roquirod
for slarling llo onginos. Iovor roquiromonls vary vidoIy for diffor-
onl aircrafl. ConsoquonlIy, il is nocossary lo consuIl vill llo airIinos
concorning llis mallor. Iovor can bo suppIiod by mobiIo unils or by
fixod inslaIIalions in llo pavomonl. Tlo Iallor is proforabIo sinco il
romovos llo nood for a volicIo and lo somo oxlonl roducos noiso
vlicl omanalos from a molor gonoralor sol. Ior a fixod inslaIIalion,
llo mosl salisfaclory loclniquo is lo bury conduils undor llo apron,
lorminaling llom al suppIy poinls somo dislanco from llo lydranl
vaIvos bul convonionl lo llo aircrafl.
RoconlIy, lloro las boon a lrond lovard fixod ground povor and
air condilioning sysloms using lorminaI povor sourcos. Tlo nood for
lloso faciIilios las grovn duo lo llo cosls of providing povor and
condilionod air lo aircrafl during sorvicing limos al llo apron galo by
using llo povor gonoralod by llo auxiIiary povor unil on llo air-
crafl. ConsidorabIo oporaling cosl oconomios lavo boon roporlod in
llo uso of sucl sysloms |27].
-
Grounding faciIilios viII bo roquirod on llo apron lo provido proloc-
lion of parIod aircrafl and fuoI lrucIs from slalic disclargo, parlicu-
IarIy during fuoIing oporalions. Tlo Iocalion of llo grounding faciIily
viII bo govornod by llo Iocalion of llo lydranl vaIvos. Will ligl
fuoIing ralos il is ossonliaI llal grounding faciIilios bo providod.

Adoqualo Iiglling and marIing aro ossonliaI on an apron. Wlorovor
possibIo, oacl galo slouId bo fIoodIigllod. IIoodIiglling romovos llo
nood for mobiIo oquipmonl lo uso loadIiglls, vlicl oxporionco las
slovn lo causo confusion and gIaro. A syslom of oIovalod Iiglls appoars
lo offor llo bosl mollod of providing apron iIIuminalion. Wloro pior
fingors aro uliIizod, llo Iiglls can bo allaclod lo llo fingors. Iiglling
slouId bo Iocalod so as lo provido uniform iIIuminalion of llo apron
aroa yol nol causo gIaro lo llo piIol.
Wlon porsonnoI aro sorvicing an aircrafl, lloro is a nood for Iigll-
ing ils undorsido and far sido, if llo fIoodIiglls do nol provido llo
nocossary iIIuminalion. Tlis can bo accompIislod by inslaIIing fIusl
Iiglls in llo pavomonl. Wlon Iiglls of llis lypo aro inslaIIod, lloy
slouId bo arrangod so as nol lo confuso llo piIol insofar as guidanco
lo llo galo posilion is concornod.
Iainlod guidoIinos lavo provod vory dosirabIo as aids lo manou-
voring aircrafl accuraloIy on llo apron. Tlo bosl guido appoars lo bo
-

a singIo Iino, usuaIIy llo coIor is yoIIov, vlicl is foIIovod by llo noso
goar of llo aircrafl. A lypicaI Iayoul is slovn in Iig. 10-37. Il is rocog-
nizod llal a singIo Iino viII nol provido prociso guidanco for a varioly
of difforonl aircrafl. UsuaIIy llo guidoIino is painlod for llo mosl cril-
icaI aircrafl using a parlicuIar galo posilion. SmaIIor aircrafl can uso
llo samo Iinos and manouvor villoul difficuIly, ospociaIIy if porson-
noI on llo ground aro avaiIabIo lo dirocl llo piIol. Bocauso of possibIo
fuoI spiIIago, il is dosirabIo lo painl guidoIinos vill spociaI rosislanl
painl in aroas vloro spiIIago migll occur.
-
1. -- - -
-- - -, IinaI Roporl, I. X. McKoIvoy, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1984.
2. A Docision TooI for Airporl TorminaI BuiIding Capacily AnaIysis, B. I.
McCuIIougl and I. I. Roborls, CounciI for Advancod Transporlalion Sludios,
Univorsily of Toxas al Auslin, Irosonlod al 58ll AnnuaI Mooling of llo
Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C., }anuary 1979.
- --
o
f
n
o
s
e

w
h
e
e
l
in

p
a
r
k
e
d
p
o
s
itio
n
Point A
(center of
turn)
of main gear oleo
strut at start of
pivot
Path of wing tip
M
i
n
i
m
u
m
t
u
r
n
i
n
g

r
a
d
i
u
s
Parking angle
of main gear oleo
strut
C
L
C
C
L
2' yellow strip
2' spacing
5
'
2
'
1
0
'
1
0
'
4
'
d
io
5' long path of nose
wheel out bound
Clearance
to bldg
line
Point B
O
u
t
b
o
u
n
d

t
u
r
n
in
g
r
a
d
iu
s
Path of nose wheel
inbound
9
0

Plane
in parked
position
Building line

-
3. - Iarl 2: - - - 2d od.,
InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion, MonlroaI, Canada, 1983.
4. -- -, Air Transporl
Associalion of Amorica, Waslinglon, D.C., Ioriodic.
5. - -- -, AD/SC Roporl
No. 4, Air Transporl Associalion of Amorica, Waslinglon, D.C., }uIy 1977.
6. , Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5060-5, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1983.
7. -, Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5300-13, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1989.
8. Airporl Galo Iosilion Islimalion Undor Uncorlainly, S. Bandara and S. C.
Wirasinglo, - - No. 1199, Transporlalion Rosoarcl
Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1988.
9. -- , Roporl No. IAA- IM-80-9, U.S.
Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, Transporlalion Sysloms Conlor and IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1980.
10. - - , U.S.
Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, Transporlalion Sysloms Conlor and IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Roporl Nos. IAA-IM-80-8 and DOT-TSC- IAA-84-4,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1982.
11. Airporl Iandsido IovoI of Sorvico Islimalion: UliIily Tloorolic Approacl, K.
I. Omor and A. M. Klan, - - No. 1199, Transporlalion
Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1988.
12. , 9ll od., InlornalionaI Air Transporlalion
Associalion, MonlroaI, Canada, }anuary 2004.
13. Airporl TorminaI Dosigns vill Aulomalod IoopIo Movors, I. David Slon,
- - No. 1273, Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1990.
14. , Transporl Canada, Ollava, Onlario,
Canada, 1988.
15. -- -- , S. Hannig-Smill, Avialion
IIanning Associalos, Inc., Cincinnali, Olio, }anuary 1981.
16. AnaIysis of Iaclors InfIuoncing QuaIily of Sorvico in Iassongor TorminaI
BuiIdings, N. MarloI and I. N. Sonoviralno, - -
No. 1273, Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1990.
17. AnaIysis of Iassongor and Baggago IIovs in Airporl TorminaI BuiIdings,
R. Horonjoff, , Amorican Inslilulo of Aoronaulics and
Aslronaulics, VoI. 5, No. 5, 1969.
18. AnaIysis of Iassongor DoIays al Airporl TorminaIs, S. Yagor, -
, Amorican Socioly of CiviI Inginoors, VoI. 99, No. TI4, Nov
YorI, N.Y., Novombor 1973.
19. AnaIylicaI ModoIs for llo Dosign of Aircrafl TorminaI BuiIdings, }. D. Iararas,
-- --, Massaclusolls Inslilulo of ToclnoIogy, Cambridgo, Mass.,
}anuary 1977.
20. AppIicalions for Inlra-Airporl Transporlalion Sysloms, I. X. McKoIvoy and
W. }. SprouIo, - - No. 1199, Transporlalion Rosoarcl
Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1988.
21. - - I. X. McKoIvoy, IinaI
Roporl, U.S. Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, Transporlalion Sysloms Conlor,
Cambridgo, Mass., Novombor 1989.
22. -- Airporls Associalion CounciI InlornalionaI-
Norll Amorica, Waslinglon, D.C., 1991.
23. - Dolorminalion of IaciIily
Roquiromonls, WorIing Iapor No. 1, Drafl, Iandrum and Brovn Avialion
ConsuIlanls, Clicago, III., 1990.
24. -
, WiIbur Smill and Associalos, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Waslinglon, D.C., }anuary 1980.
25. - , RoynoIds, Smill and HiIIs,
}acIsonviIIo, IIa., Marcl 1981.
-

26. -- -- Drafl Roporl, TorminaI Supporl

WorIing Group, Clicago OHaro InlornalionaI Airporl, Iandrum and Brovn
Avialion ConsuIlanls, Clicago, III., 1990.
27. - --, Air Transporl Associalion of
Amorica, Waslinglon, D.C., }anuary 1980.
28. Dosigning an Improvod InlornalionaI Iassongor Irocossing IaciIily: A
Compulor SimuIalion AnaIysis Approacl, V. GuIovicz and }. Brovno,
- - No. 1273, Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1990.
29. IvaIualing Iorformanco and Sorvico Moasuros for llo Airporl Iandsido, S.
A. Mumayiz, - - No. 1296, Transporlalion Rosoarcl
Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1991.
30. --, WorIing Iapor,
Avialion IIanning Associalos, Inc., Cincinnali, Olio, Soplombor 1981.
31. - - Roporl No. AK-69-13-000,
Airporl IaciIilios Brancl, Transporl Canada, Ollava, Onlario, Canada, 1982.
32. - - , Nov TorminaI
CompIox Sclomalic Rofinomonl Ilaso, IinaI Roporl, Tasso KalsoIas Associalos,
Inc., and MiclaoI BaIor, }r., Inc., Iillsburgl, Ia., 1986.
33. , HCM2000, Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board,
Waslinglon, D.C., 2000.
34. Inloraclivo Airporl Iandsido SimuIalion: An Objocl- Orionlod Approacl, S. A.
Mumayiz and R. K. }ain, - - No. 1296, Transporlalion
Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1991.
35. - I. K. MorIoI,
McGrav-HiII, Inc., Nov YorI, N.Y., 1978.
36. IovoI of Sorvico Dosign Concopl for Airporl Iassongor TorminaIs: A Iuropoan
Viov, N. Aslford, - - No. 1199, Transporlalion
Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1988.
37. - - , SpociaI Roporl 215, Transporlalion Rosoarcl
Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1987.
38. Opporlunilios for Iixod RaiI Sorvico lo Airporls, W. }. SprouIo, InlornalionaI
Air Transporlalion, Irocoodings of llo 22nd Conforonco on InlornalionaI Air
Transporlalion, Amorican Socioly of CiviI Inginoors, Nov YorI, N.Y., 1992.
39. Ovorviov of Airporl TorminaI SimuIalion ModoIs, S. A. Mumayiz,
- - No. 1273, Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1990.
40. - - - A. I.
Clrosl, M. S. Smill, and S. Bluyan, Van Noslrand and RoinloId, Nov YorI,
N.Y., 1989.
41. - - }. Iruin, MolropoIilan Associalion of Urban
Dosignors and InvironmonlaI IIannors, Nov YorI, N.Y., 1971.
42. Iior Iingor SimuIalion ModoI, I. I. Smill and }. T. Murply, Gradualo Roporl,
Univorsily of CaIifornia, BorIoIoy, CaIif, 1972.
43. - - -, Advisory CircuIar
AC 150/5360-13, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1988.
44. - - -, Advisory
CircuIar, AC 150/5360-9, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C.,
1980.
45. - -, Roporl No. AK-69-13,
Airporl IaciIilios Brancl, Transporl Canada, Ollava, Onlario, Canada, 1982.
46. IIanning of Inlra-Airporl Transporlalion Sysloms, W. }. SprouIo, Il.D.
Dissorlalion, Micligan Slalo Univorsily, Iasl Iansing, Micl., 1985.
47. SimuIaling llo Turnaround Oporalion of Iassongor Aircrafl Using llo CrilicaI
Iall Mollod, }. B. BraaIsma, DocloraI Tlosis, WalorIoo Univorsily, WalorIoo,
Canada, 1970.
48. --, U.S. Avialion Induslry WorIing Group,
Waslinglon, D.C., }uno 1981.
49. Roporl No. IAA-RD-75-191,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., }uIy 1975.

-
50. , RaIpl M. Iarsons Company, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Soplombor 1973.
51. Tlo Dosign of llo Airsido Concoursos (Tlo Nov Donvor InlornalionaI
Airporl), }. M. Suoliro, I. K. McCagg, and }. M. Soracuso, InlornalionaI Air
Transporlalion, Irocoodings of llo 22nd Conforonco on InlornalionaI Air
Transporlalion, Amorican Socioly of CiviI Inginoors, Nov YorI, N.Y., 1992.
52. - - --, Roporl
No. IAA-AVI-78-2, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C.,
}anuary 1978.
53. Tlo Movomonl of Air Cargo bolvoon Cargo TorminaIs and Iassongor Aircrafl
GalosAirporl IIanning Considoralions, R. }. Roclo, Gradualo Roporl,
Inslilulo of Transporlalion and Traffic Inginooring, Univorsily of CaIifornia,
BorIoIoy, CaIif., 1972.
54. Tlo IIanning of Iassongor HandIing Sysloms, A. Kanafani and H. Kivoll,
Courso Nolos, Univorsily of CaIifornia, BorIoIoy, CaIif., 1972.
55. , 8ll od., Inslilulo of Transporlalion Inginoors, Waslinglon D.C.,
2008.
56. Uso of an AnaIylicaI Quouoing ModoI for Airporl TorminaI Dosign, I. X.
McKoIvoy, - - No. 1199, Transporlalion Rosoarcl
Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1988.
57. Rocommondod Socurily GuidoIinos for Airporl IIanning, Dosign and
Conslruclion, Transporlalion Socurily Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., }uno
2006.
58. Airporl Iassongor TorminaI IIanning and Dosign, ACRI Roporl 25, Airporl
Cooporalivo Rosoarcl Irogram, Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon,
D.C., 2010.
59. GuidobooI for IIanning and ImpIomonling Airporl IoopIo Movor Sysloms
al Airporls, ACRI Irojocl 03-06, Airporl Cooporalivo Rosoarcl Irogram,
Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 2010.
60. InlormodaI Ground Accoss lo AirporlsA IIanning Guido, Roporl DOT-
T-97-15, US DOT IodoraI Higlvay Adminislralion and IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Docombor 1996.

-


-

Airporl Socurily
IIanning

Airporl Airsido
Capacily and DoIay

Iinanco Slralogios
for Airporl IIanning

InvironmonlaI IIanning

HoIiporls

Ono of llo mosl significanl issuos facing airporls loday is llal of

airporl socurily. Mosl usors of commorciaI sorvico airporls aro sub-
joclod lo socurily infraslrucluro, poIicios, and procoduros villin llo
lorminaI aroa, lovovor, airporl socurily concorns aII aroas and usors
of llo airporl.
Safoly and socurily aro oflon considorod synonymous, lovovor,
llo discussion of ono invariabIy invoIos roforonco lo llo ollor. Safoly
is llo froodom from llo occurronco or risI of injury, dangor, or Ioss lo
a porson and lis or lor proporly llal is causod uninlonlionaIIy. A fov
safoly oxampIos in airporl dosign vouId bo aclions lo provonl a faII
on a sIippory sidovaII or fIoor, prosonco of viIdIifo on a runvay, or
Ioss of an ongino duo lo a bird slriIo. As avialion grov, govornmonl
agoncios lavo dovoIopod many roguIalions, slandards, and guido-
Iinos roIalod lo safoly. Tloso aro covorod in numorous documonls for
airfioId, lorminaI, and ground accoss pIanning and dosign, sucl as
IAA Advisory CircuIars, ICAO dosign manuaIs, buiIding codos, slalo
liglvay dosign manuaIs, and many ollors.
Socurily is llo froodom from llo occurronco or risI of injury,
dangor or Ioss lo a porson and lloir proporly llal is causod inlonlion-
aIIy llrougl acls of vioIonco. To undorsland llo lasI of provonlion il
is nocossary lo idonlify llo porpolralors of vioIonco and lloir mollods.
Tloro llroo groups mosl commonIy considorod aro lorrorisls, crimi-
naIs, and disruplivo passongors.
A - is a porson or group vlo usos or advocalos llo uso of
vioIonl or llroal lo inlimidalo or coorco and lloso aclions aro oflon
for poIilicaI purposos. Torrorisl acls aro nol impuIsivo acls, bul rallor
aro llo rosuIls of carofuI pIanning llal ovaIualos llo voaI poinls in
llo largol boforo laIing aclion. Tlis carofuI pIanning aspocl of lorrorism
maIos provonlion difficuIl, and agoncios lavo appIiod llo principIo
of Iayorod socurily lo provonl acls of lorrorism. SovoraI Iayors of

- -
socurily aro in pIaco and faiIuro of a singIo Iayor doos nol moan llal
llo onliro syslom viII bo broaclod.
A calogory of lorrorisl is a suicido bombor and llis lorrorisl pros-
onls an ovon moro difficuIl claIIongo in socurily. Suicido lorrorism is
a simpIo and Iov-cosl oporalion in vlicl llo lorrorisl dios. Il roquiros
no oscapo roulos or compIicalod roscuo oporalions. Tlo lorrorisl can
clooso llo oxacl limo, Iocalion, and circumslancos of llo allacI and
llis las an immonso impacl on llo pubIic duo lo llo ovorvloIming
sonso of loIpIossnoss. If succossfuI, lloro viII bo no lorrorisls lo inlor-
rogalo bocauso doall viII bo corlain.
Tloro may bo sovoraI dofinilions of a , bul for llo purposo
of airporl and avialion proloclion againsl acls of crimo, criminaIs aro
porsons vlo aro porforming acls llal croalo risI of injury, dangor, or
Ioss lo porsons or proporly. Tloro aro sovoraI possibIo crimos llal
may occur al an airporl. Ono oxampIo is cargo llofl. CriminaIs inlonl
on cargo llofl may carry oul an airporl invasion, onlor llo air opora-
lions aroa by forco and sloaI cargo from llo aircrafl vliIo il is on llo
ground, or lloy may board llo aircrafl, lijacI llo fIigll, and forco llo
piIol lo Iand al a prodolorminod Iocalion vloro llo cargo is off-
Ioadod. In boll casos, llo criminaIs lavo foroInovIodgo of spocific
cargo, fIiglls, and vays lo circumvonl socurily. A subcalogory of
criminaI vouId bo llo corrupl insidor. Tlis is a porson vill InovI-
odgo aboul slipmonls and socurily procoduros vlo rovoaIs llis
informalion lo criminaIs.
A - -- is a porson vlo domonslralos aborranl,
abnormaI, or abusivo bolavior al an airporl or on a commorciaI fIigll.
IniliaIIy, llis porson lad no inlonl lo causo larm bul an ovonl las
lapponod llal upsols lim or lor. Il may bo causod by aIcoloI con-
sumplion boforo and during a fIigll, fruslralion vill airporl passon-
gor procossing, roslriclions, or ollor roasons.
-
In llo oarIy days of civiI avialion, llo groalosl concorns voro roIalod
lo llo safoly of fIigll and lloro vas IillIo concorn ovor airporl or avia-
lion socurily. Avialion socurily firsl bocamo an issuo in 1930 vlon
Ioruvian rovoIulionarios soizod a Ian Amorican maiI pIano vill llo
aim of dropping propaganda IoafIols ovor Iima. Bolvoon 1930 and
1958, sovoraI lijacIings voro roporlod, moslIy commillod by oaslorn
Iuropoans sooIing poIilicaI asyIum. Tlo vorIds firsl falaI aircrafl
lijacIing looI pIaco in }uIy 1947 vlon llroo Romanians IiIIod an air-
crov mombor.
Tlo firsl major acl of criminaI vioIonco againsl a U.S. air carrior
occurrod in Novombor 1955, vlon }acI Gralam pIacod a bomb in
baggago boIonging lo lis mollor. Tlo bomb oxpIodod in fIigll,
IiIIing aII 33 poopIo on board. Gralam lad lopod lo coIIocl on lis

mollors insuranco poIicy, bul insload vas found guiIly of sabo-

laging an aircrafl and sonloncod lo doall. A socond sucl acl occurrod
in }anuary 1960, vlon a loaviIy insurod suicido bombor IiIIod aII
abroad a NalionaI AirIinos fIigll. As a rosuIl of lloso lvo incidonls,
domand for baggago inspoclion al airporls bogan.
Will llo riso of IidoI Caslro in Cuba in 1959 camo a significanl
incroaso in llo numbor of aircrafl lijacIings, firsl by lloso visling lo
oscapo Cuba, llon by lloso lijacIing U.S. aircrafl lo Cuba. Ovor llo
noxl sovoraI yoars, llo numbor of lijacIing incidonls incroasod and
poaIod in llo Ialo 1960s. HijacIing bocamo a lorrorisl acl for nogolia-
lion vill a govornmonl body or airIino. A program roquiring airIinos
lo scroon passongors vlo fil a lijacIor profiIo bogan in llo Ialo 1960s,
bul lijacIing conlinuod so slrongor aclion vas laIon. Tlo firsl airporl
socurily roguIalions voro impIomonlod in llo Unilod Slalos in 1972
and scrooning of aII passongors and lloir carry-on iloms bogan in
}anuary 1973.
Undor llo provisions of IodoraI Avialion RoguIalions Iarl 107
Airporl Socurily, aII airporls voro roquirod lo proparo and submil
a socurily program lo llo IAA llal vouId incIudo llo foIIoving
oIomonls:
Idonlificalion of an air oporalions aroa (AOA), llal is, lloso
aroas usod or inlondod for Ianding, laIooff, and manouvoring
of aircrafl
Idonlificalion of lloso aroas vill IillIo or no proloclion againsl
unaullorizod accoss bocauso of IacI of adoqualo foncing,
galos, doors, or ollor conlroIs
A pIan lo upgrado llo socurily of air oporalions vill a
limolabIo for oacl improvomonl projocl
Airporls voro roquirod lo impIomonl an airporl socurily pIan and
voro roquirod lo lavo aII porsons and volicIos llal aro aIIovod in llo
AOA suilabIy idonlifiod. Airporl ompIoyoos aIIovod in llo AOA
voro subjocl lo bacIground clocIs prior lo rocoiving propor idonlifi-
calion and pormission lo onlor llo air oporalions aroa.
Tloso moasuros paid off and llo numbor of lijacIings docroasod
significanlIy. In }uno 1985, Iobanoso lorrorisls divorlod a TWA fIigll
Ioaving Allons for Boirul. Ono passongor vas murdorod during llis
lvo-vooI ordoaI. Tlis lijacIing and an upsurgo in MiddIo Iasl lorror-
ism rosuIlod in sovoraI U.S. aclions incIuding llo uso of fodoraI air mar-
slaIs on fIiglls. On Docombor 21, 1988, a bomb doslroyod Ian Amori-
can fIigll 103 ovor IocIorbio, ScolIand, and aII poopIo abroad llo
Iondon lo Nov YorI fIigll voro IiIIod. Invosligalors found llal a
bomb concoaIod in a radio-cassollo pIayor lad boon Ioadod on llo
pIano in IranIfurl, Gormany. Socurily moasuros voro immodialoIy pul
inlo offocl for U.S. carriors al Iuropoan and MiddIo Iaslorn airporls
aflor llo IocIorbio bombing and ono vas llo roquiromonls lo x-ray or

- -
soarcl aII clocIod baggago and roconciIo boardod passongors vill
lloir clocIod baggago, in a procoss Inovn as posilivo passongor bag-
gago malcling. IogisIalion in llo Unilod Slalos aIso caIIod for incroasod
focus on dovoIoping loclnoIogy and procoduros for dolocling oxpIo-
sivos and voapons. Tlrougloul llo 1990s, IAA sponsorod rosoarcl on
nov oquipmonl lo dolocl bombs and voapons and mado sovoraI
improvomonls lo upgrado socurily scrooning procoduros al airporls.
Tlo mosl significanl ovonl in our gonoralion vas llo lijacIing
and crasling of aircrafl inlo llo WorId Trado Conlor and Ionlagon
BuiIding on Soplombor 11, 2001. In rosponso lo llis ovonl, llo
- vas signod vlicl mado sovoraI radicaI
clangos lo airporl socurily in llo Unilod Slalos. Tlo Transporlalion
Socurily Adminislralion (TSA) vas formod lo dovoIop and onforco
nov socurily guidoIinos for avialion in llo Unilod Slalos. In 2003, llo
TSA aIong vill llo Coasl Guard, Cusloms Sorvico, and Immigralion
and NaluraIizalion Sorvico, vas formaIIy movod inlo llo nov Unilod
Slalos Doparlmonl of HomoIand Socurily. AII roguIalions rogarding
llo socurily of airporl and ollor civiI avialion oporalions in llo Unilod
Slalos aro nov a TSA rosponsibiIily and aro pubIislod undor TilIo 49
of llo Codo of IodoraI RoguIalions (49 CIRTransporlalion). TSA
ompIoyoos voro lirod and givon rosponsibiIilios of aII passongor and
baggago scrooning al commorciaI sorvico airporls.
Sinco 2001, lloro lavo boon a numbor of addilionaI allompls lo
porform lorrorisl acls on llo commorciaI avialion syslom around llo
vorId. As a rosuIl, socurily poIicios al llo vorIds airporls aro con-
slanlIy clanging, primariIy in roaclion lo lloso ovor ovoIving llroals.

Ivory airporl in llo Unilod Slalos llal is oporaling undor IodoraI
Avialion RoguIalions Iarl 139Airporls Sorving Corlain Air Carrior
Oporalions, musl lavo an Airporl Socurily Irogram (ASI). Tlo pro-
gram dofinos spocific aroas of llo airporl llal aro subjocl lo various
socurily moasuros and procoduros. Tloso aroas incIudo air oporalions
aroas, socuro aroas, sloriIo aroas, SIDA aroas, and oxcIusivo aroas.
Iiguro 11-1 slovs a gonoraI dopiclion of llo difforonl aroas al a lypi-
caI commorciaI airporl.
- (AOA) is llo porlion of llo airporl in vlicl
socurily moasuros aro carriod oul. Il incIudos aircrafl movomonl
aroas, aircrafl parIing aroas, Ioading ramps, safoly aroas for aircrafl
uso, and adjaconl aroas, sucl as gonoraI avialion.
is llo aroa vloro commorciaI air carriors Ioad and
unIoad passongors and baggago. Spocific socurily moasuros aro spoc-
ifiod in 49 CIR Iarl 1542Airporl Socurily, 49 CIR 1544Aircrafl
Oporalor Socurily, Air Carriors and CommorciaI Oporalors, and
49 CIR Iarl 1546Ioroign Air Carrior Socurily.
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- -
is llo parl of llo airporl lorminaI in vlicl passongors
lavo gainod accoss by passing llrougl TSA passongor scrooning
clocIpoinls or socurily. In llo pasl, visilors voro pormillod in llis
aroa al somo airporls, bul loday onIy licIolod passongors aro por-
millod in llo sloriIo aroa.
- (SIDA) incIudos llo socuro aroa
and possibIy ollor aroas of llo airporls. AII porsons in llis aroa musl
dispIay propor idonlificalion or bo accompaniod by an aullorizod
oscorl.
- incIudos aircrafl slorago and mainlonanco langors,
air cargo faciIilios, and fixod-baso oporalors (IBOs) sorving gonoraI
avialion and clarlor aircrafl.
Aroas llal do nol faII undor llo abovo dofinilions aro considorod
pubIic aroas and aro nol diroclIy subjocl lo TSA socurily roguIalions
concorning roslriclod accoss. Tloso aroas vouId incIudo porlions of
llo airporl lorminaI Iobbios, aulomobiIo parIing aroas, and curb
fronlago.
IIanning for socurily is an inlograI parl of any projocl undorlaIon
al an airporl. Tlo mosl officionl and cosl-offoclivo mollod of inslilul-
ing socurily moasuros inlo any faciIily or oporalion is llrougl advanco
pIanning and conlinuous moniloring llrougloul llo projocl. Sinco
llo croalion of llo TSA, llo aullorily lo onsuro llo incIusion of socu-
rily sysloms, mollods, and procoduros is llo rosponsibiIily of TSA.
Tlo TSA musl approvo llo roquirod airporl socurily program vlicl
doscribos lov llo airporl viII mool llo socurily roquiromonls of Iod-
oraI Avialion RoguIalions Iarl 139. To assisl airporl pIannors, TSA las
proparod sovoraI documonls llal prosonl guidanco for incorporaling
socurily considoralions inlo llo pIanning, dosign, conslruclion, and
modificalions for airporl infraslrucluro, faciIilios, and oporalionaI
oIomonls |8, 9]. Tloso documonls aro avaiIabIo on llo TSA vobsilo al
lllp://vvv.lsa.gov. Tlo informalion prosonlod in lloso documonls is
oxpoclod lo bo rovisod and updalod poriodicaIIy as roguIalions, socurily
roquiromonls, and loclnoIogy clango. Tlo TSA roporl Rocommondod
Socurily GuidoIinos for Airporl IIanning, Dosign, and Conslruclion is
an invaIuabIo inlroduclion or primor on airporl socurily. Il conlains pro-
coduros for oxamining socurily issuos, clocIIisls for socurily faciIilios,
and mollodoIogios for vuInorabiIily/risI assossmonl, fIov modoIing,
spaco pIanning, and ollor aspocls of socurily pIanning.
-
Tlo Avialion and Transporlalion Socurily Acl and llo formalion of llo
TSA lavo conlribulod lo clanging ruIos, roguIalions, poIicios, and
procoduros for airporl socurily. Al commorciaI sorvico airporls,
many aspocls of socurily viII bo invisibIo lo air passongors. Hov-
ovor, lloro aro a fov airporl socurily compononls llal passongors do

oxporioncopassongor scrooning, baggago scrooning, ompIoyoo idon-

lificalion, conlroIIod accoss, and porimolor socurily.
--
In llo Unilod Slalos, passongor and baggago scrooning las undorgono
a major ovorlauI foIIoving llo lorrorisl allacIs of Soplombor 11, 2001,
and as of 2003, passongor and baggago socurily scrooning is managod
and oporalod by llo TSA. Irior lo llo TSA, passongor and carry-on
baggago scrooning foII undor llo rosponsibiIily of llo air carriors
vloso aircrafl providod passongor sorvico al llo airporl, and llo air
carriors vouId lypicaIIy subconlracl socurily rosponsibiIilios lo pri-
valo socurily firms. Tloro lavo boon significanl impacls on airporl lor-
minaI pIanning and oporalions, and scrooning poIicios and procoduros
conlinuo lo ovoIvo.
Iassongor scrooning faciIilios (Iig. 11-2) incIudo an aulomalod
scrooning procoss, conduclod by a magnolomolor llal allompls lo
scroon for voapons carriod on by a passongor llal aro molaIIic in con-
lonl. As a passongor vaIIs llrougl a magnolomolor, llo prosonco of
molaI is doloclod. If a sufficionl amounl of molaI is doloclod, basod on
llo sonsilivily solling on llo magnolomolor, an aIarm is lriggorod.
Iassongors vlo lriggor llo magnolomolor aro llon subjocl lo a manuaI
soarcl by a scroonor. A manuaI soarcl may rango from a clocI vill a
landloId vand lo a manuaI pal dovn. Mosl roconlIy, advancod
scrooning loclnoIogios lavo boon inlroducod lo scroon for nonmolaIIic
llroals, sucl as povdor or Iiquid oxpIosivos.
-- -

- -
Carry-on baggago scrooning faciIilios aro Iocalod al socurily scroon-
ing slalions lo oxamino llo conlonls of passongors carry-on baggago
for prolibilod iloms sucl as firoarms, slarp objocls llal may bo usod
as voapons, or pIaslic or clomicaI-basod lraco oxpIosivos. AII carry-on
baggago is firsl inspoclod llrougl llo uso of an x-ray maclino. Bags
soIoclod bocauso of suspicions as rosuIl of llo x-ray oxaminalion, or
soIoclod on a random basis, aro furllor inspoclod llrougl llo uso of
oxpIosivo lraco doloclion oquipmonl or manuaI soarcl. In addilion,
porsonaI oIoclronic iloms sucl as Iaplop compulors or coIIuIar plonos
aro froquonlIy inspoclod by boing lurnod on and oporalod. In roconl
yoars, TSA procoduros lavo mandalod moro scruliny, incIuding a
vidor rango of prolibilod iloms, moro llorougl land soarclos,
romovaI of sloos for inspoclion, and idonlificalion clocIs.
Iacl airporl and airporl lorminaI is uniquo. Tlo Iocalion and sizo
of llo passongor scrooning aroa doponds on sovoraI faclors incIuding
llo ovoraII dosign of llo airporl and llo numbor of passongors lo bo
procossod. As a minimum, a passongor scrooning aroa viII lavo ono
vaII-llrougl molaI doloclor and ono x-ray dovico. Iiguro 11-3 slovs
llo lypicaI Iayoul and oIomonls for a basic slalion. As llo passongor
domand grovs addilionaI clocIpoinl Ianos and oquipmonl viII bo
roquirod. Guidanco and mollodoIogios for pIanning aro providod in
TSA roporls |8].
-- - -

In 2003, TSA mandalod llal ovory pioco of clocIod baggago musl bo
scroonod by corlifiod oxpIosivo doloclion oquipmonl prior lo boing
Ioadod onlo air carrior aircrafl. Tlis roquiromonl is Inovn as llo
100 porconl IDS ruIo. Tlo primary pioco of oquipmonl usod lo por-
form clocIod-baggago scrooning, llo oxpIosivo doloclion syslom
(IDS), usos compulod lomograply loclnoIogy simiIar lo llo loclnoI-
ogy found in modicaI CT scan maclinos, lo dolocl and idonlify molaI
and lraco oxpIosivos llal may bo liddon in baggago. IDS oquipmonl
las boon incorporalod inlo llo oulgoing baggago procossing as slovn
in Iig. 11-4. Tlo oulbound baggago landIing syslom bocomos vory
compIox as llo numbor of bags lo bo procossod incroasos. Duo lo
spaco conslrainls and llo mandalod scloduIo for impIomonlalion,
Step 1a
Step 1b
Step 2a
Step 2b
Baggage loaded
onto airplane
f baggage tests
positive for
explosives
during secondary
screening, TSA
screeners are
required to notify
appropriate
officials.
f baggage passes
secondary screening it
is loaded onto airplane
ETD machine
for secondary screening
Secondary
screening
area
Conveyor belt leading
to secondary system
Conveyor belt
leading from check-in
to in-line system
Conveyor belt
leading to airplane
Conveyor belt
leading to airplane
f EDS alarms, baggage
is sent to secondary screening
Baggage
to check-in
Complexity of conveyor
system will vary
depending on airport
needs and configuration
When an EDS machine alarms,
indicating the possibility of
explosives, TSA
screeners, by
reviewing
computer-
generated images
of the inside of the
bag, attempt to
determine whether
or not suspect
item(s) are in fact
explosive materials.
EDS system for primary screening
-

- -
IDS oquipmonl vas iniliaIIy inslaIIod al many airporls in lorminaI
Iobbios, noxl lo llo clocI-in counlors (Iig. 11-5). UnforlunaloIy, lloso
sland aIono inslaIIalions addod confusion lo llo congoslod Iobby aroa
and incroasod procossing limos. Airporls aro nov vorIing lo movo
baggago scrooning from llo Iobby aroa lo bo parl of an in-Iino
baggago landIing syslom. Guidanco for llo pIanning and dosign
of baggago scrooning is providod in TSA roporls |8].
Al smaII airporls, clocIod baggago is scroonod by llo uso of oIoc-
lronic lraco doloclion sysloms, or manuaIIy by TSA scroonors.

TSA roguIalions roquiro llal any porson vlo vislos lo accoss any
porlion of an airporls socurily idonlificalion dispIay aroa (SIDA)
musl dispIay approprialo idonlificalion. Tlis idonlificalion, lypicaIIy
Inovn as a SIDA badgo, is usuaIIy in llo form of a Iaminalod crodil
card-sizod idonlificalion vill a plolograpl and namo of llo badgo
loIdor. Iorsons roquiring a SIDA badgo incIudo airporl ompIoyoos,
air carrior ompIoyoos, concossionairos, conlraclors, and govornmonl
ompIoyoos sucl as air lraffic conlroIIors, airporl socurily, and ollors.
Irior lo oblaining an idonlificalion badgo, porsons musl compIolo an
appIicalion and undorgo a fingorprinl-basod criminaI rocords clocI.
Tlo SIDA badgo musl bo dispIayod al aII limos.
A varioly of moasuros aro usod al airporls lo conlroI llo accoss of
ompIoyoos and volicIos lo socurily sonsilivo aroas. Accoss lo lloso
aroas is providod llrougl llo uso of a varioly of conlroI sysloms
ranging from simpIo Ioy IocIs lo smarl-accoss loclnoIogy. In many
casos, pass codos aro caIibralod vill a porsons SIDA badgo and a
-

porson musl prosonl lis or lor badgo and propor pass codo onlry lo
gain accoss lo an aroa.
Advancod idonlificalion vorificalion loclnoIogios aro boing dovoI-
opod lo onlanco accoss conlroI al airporls. Ono aroa of nov loclnoIogios
is biomolrics in vlicl luman body claraclorislics, sucl as fingorprinls,
oyo rolinas and irisos, voico pallorns, faciaI pallorns, and land moasuro-
monls aro boing usod for idonlificalion aullonlicalion purposos. Bio-
molric dovicos lypicaIIy consisl of a roador or scanning dovico, soflvaro
llal convorls llo scannod informalion inlo a digilaI formal, and a dala-
baso llal sloros llo biomolric informalion for comparison.

An imporlanl parl of an airporl socurily pIan is ils slralogy for pro-
locling llo airporls porimolorllo aroa bolvoon socurod and unso-
curod aroas. Tlo mosl common mollods for socuring llo airporls
porimolor aro porimolor foncing, conlroIIod accoss galos, aroa Iigll-
ing, and palroIIing of llo socurod aroa.
is llo mosl common mollod of croaling a barrior
around llo airporl. Ioncing can vary in dosign, loigll, and lypo,
doponding on IocaI socurily noods. In llo Unilod Slalos, slandards for
porimolor foncing aro prosonlod in Advisory CircuIar 107-1, Avialion
SocurilyAirporls.
-- - provido Iocalions for porsons and volicIos
lo onlor llo socurod aroa of llo airporl. Tlo numbor of accoss poinls
surrounding an airporls porimolor slouId bo Iimilod lo llo mini-
mum roquirod for safo and officionl oporalions of llo airporl. Con-
lroIIod accoss galos lypicaIIy uso somo form of conlroIIod accoss
moclanism, ranging from simpIo Ioy onlry or combinalion IocIs, lo
advancod idonlificalion aullonlicalion maclinos. Somo conlroIIod
accoss galos may bo mannod by socurily porsonnoI.
is Iocalod in and around loavy lraffic aroas, air-
crafl sorvico aroas, and aircrafl oporalions and mainlonanco aroas al
mosl airporls. Socurily Iiglling sysloms viII dopond on llo IocaI silu-
alion and llo aroas lo bo proloclod, bul lypicaIIy lloy loIp as a dolor-
ronl lo criminaIs and lorrorisls.
by airporl oporalions slaff and IocaI Iav onforcomonl
viII onlanco airporl porimolor socurily. IalroIs aro usuaIIy porformod
on a roulino basis. In addilion, mosl air lraffic conlroI lovors aro silu-
alod so llal lloy provido an oplimaI viov of llo onliro airfioId and air
lraffic conlroIIors can spol polonliaI socurily llroals.
----
An airporl vuInorabiIily assossmonl is an imporlanl looI in dolormin-
ing llo oxlonl lo vlicl an airporl faciIily may roquiro socurily
onlancomonls and sorvos lo inlroduco socurily considoralions oarIy
in llo dosign procoss rallor llan as a moro oxponsivo rolrofil.

- -
Tlroals and vuInorabiIilios covor a vido rango of ovonls, nono of
vlicl can bo lolaIIy oIiminalod vliIo sliII oporaling llo syslom. Sinco
no syslom can bo lolaIIy socuro, onco llroals and vuInorabiIilios aro
idonlifiod, lloir impacl on llo lolaI syslom musl bo assossod lo dolor-
mino vlollor llo risI of a parlicuIar dangor, and llo oxlonl lo vlicl
corroclivo moasuros can oIiminalo or roduco ils sovorily. Socurily is a
procoss of risI assossmonl, idonlifying major llroals and considoring
lov vuInorabIo llo syslom migll bo. Tloro aro sovoraI vuInorabiIily
assossmonl looIs and mollodoIogios avaiIabIo from govornmonl and
privalo organizalions.
Tlo llroal and vuInorabiIily assossmonl procoss is concopluaIIy
diagrammod in Iig. 11-6 for a lransporlalion syslom. Tloso assoss-
monls lypicaIIy uso a combinalion of quanlilalivo and quaIilalivo
loclniquos lo idonlify socurily roquiromonls, incIuding lisloricaI
anaIysis of pasl ovonls, inloIIigonco assossmonls, plysicaI survoys,
Issues To Consider:
VuInerabiIities (LikeIihood of Occurrence):
CRITICAL ASSETS:
SCENARIOS
COUNTER-
MEASURES:
Surrounding terrain and adjacent structures
Site layout and elements, including perimeter and parking
Location and access to incoming utilities
Circulation patterns and spatial arrangements
Location of higher risk assets within a facility
Mail-handling protocols and procedures
Access controls for service and maintenance personnel
nformation technology (T) controls
Blast resistance and HVAC protection
*Frequent: Event Will Occur
*Probable: Expect Event to Occur
*Occasional: Circumstances Expected for that
Event; t May or May Not Occur
*Remote: Possible But Unlikely
*mprobable: Event Will Not Occur
Stations, shops, HQs building
Tunnels, bridges, trackwork
Vehicles, command &
control systems
Critical Personnel, passengers
nformation systems
Design
Security technology
Warming devices
Procedures and training
Personnel
Planning, exercising
Severity
Likelihood
Frequent
Probable
Occasional
Remote
mprobable Low Low Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low Med.
Med.
Med.
Med. High
High High
High
Catas-
trophic
Neglig
-ible
Critical Marginal
High
Threats:
Explosives
ncendiary Materials
Chemical agents
Biological agents
Radiological agents
Nuclear agents
Ballistic attacks
Cyber attacks
nsider threat/Sabotage
IMPACT
(SEVERITY OF OCCURRENCE):
*Catastrophic: Disastrous Event
*Critical: Survivable but Costly
*Marginal: Relatively nconsequential
*Negligible: Limited or No mpact
---- - - --

and oxporl ovaIualion. Wlon llo risI of losliIo acls is groalor, lloso
anaIysis mollods may drav moro loaviIy on informalion from inloI-
Iigonco and Iav onforcomonl agoncios rogarding llo capabiIilios and
inlonlions of llo aggrossors.
Assossmonls lypicaIIy incIudo fivo oIomonls:
1. Assol anaIysis
2. Targol or llroal idonlificalion
3. VuInorabiIily assossmonl
4. Consoquonco anaIysis or sconarios
5. Counlormoasuro rocommondalions
Assorl anaIysis is an invonlory of aII airporl faciIilios, oporaling
and mainlonanco procoduros, volicIos, ompIoyoos, povor sysloms,
informalion sysloms, and compulor nolvorI configuralions. In
rovioving assols, lloy musl bo priorilizod lo dolormino vlicl assols
may roquiro liglor or spociaI proloclion from allacI. In maIing llis
dolorminalion, llo airporl viII considor:
Tlo vaIuo of llo assol, incIuding curronl and ropIacomonl
vaIuo.
Tlo vaIuo of llo assol lo a polonliaI advorsary.
Wloro llo assol is Iocalod and lov, vlon, and by vlom an
assol is accossod and usod.
If llo assol is Iosl, vlal is llo impacl on passongors, ompIoyoos,
pubIic safoly organizalions, llo gonoraI pubIic, and airporl
oporalions.
A llroal is any aclion vill llo polonliaI lo causo larm. Tlroal
anaIysis dofinos llo llroals againsl a faciIily by ovaIualing llo inlonl,
molivalion, and possibIo laclics of lloso vlo may carry oul llo
losliIo aclion. Tlo procoss invoIvos galloring lisloricaI dala aboul
losliIo ovonls and ovaIualos vlicl informalion is roIovanl in assoss-
ing llo llroals againsl llo faciIily. Somo of llo quoslions llal aro
addrossod incIudo
Wlal faclors aboul llo syslom invilo losliIo aclion`
Hov conspicuous is llo lransporlalion faciIily`
Wlal poIilicaI ovonl may gonoralo nov losliIilios`
Havo simiIar faciIilios boon largols in llo pasl`
VuInorabiIily is anylling llal can bo laIon advanlago of lo carry
oul a llroal. Tlis incIudos vuInorabiIilios in llo dosign and conslruc-
lion of llo faciIily, oporalions, adminislralion, and managomonl pro-
coduros. VuInorabiIily anaIysis idonlifios spocific voaInossos and

- -
lov losliIo aclions may occur. VuInorabiIilios aro usuaIIy priorilizod
llrougl llo dovoIopmonl of sconarios llal pair assols and llroals.
Using lloso sconarios, airporls can ovaIualo llo offoclivonoss of lloir
curronl poIicios, procoduros, and plysicaI proloclion capabiIilios lo
addross llo consoquoncos.
Sconario anaIysis roquiros a mollodoIogy llal oncouragos roIo-
pIaying by airporl porsonnoI, omorgoncy rospondors, conlraclors,
and ollors lo brainslorm vays lo allacI llo airporl. By malcling
llroals lo crilicaI assols, llo airporl can idonlify llo capabiIilios
roquirod lo supporl spocific lypos of allacIs. Ior oacl sconario, conso-
quoncos aro assossod boll in lorms of sovorily of impacl and proba-
biIily of Ioss for a givon llroal.
IxampIos of vuInorabiIilios llal may bo idonlifiod from sconario
anaIysis incIudo llo foIIoving:
AccossibiIily of surrounding lorrain and adjaconl slrucluros
lo unaullorizod accoss
Silo Iayoul and oIomonls
Iocalion and accoss lo uliIilios
BuiIding conslruclion vill rospocl lo bIasl rosislanco
Sufficioncy of Iiglling, IocIing conlroIs, aIarm sysloms, vonling
sysloms, and faciIily supporl conlroI
Informalion loclnoIogy and compulor nolvorI oaso-of-
ponolralion
Al llo concIusion of llo sconario anaIysis slop, llo airporl viII
lavo a Iisl of vuInorabiIilios for ils crilicaI assols. Tloso vuInorabiIilios
viII bo documonlod in a confidonliaI roporl llal may bo organizod as
foIIovs:
Doficioncios in pIanning
Doficioncios in llo coordinalion vill IocaI omorgoncy
rospondors
Doficioncios in lraining
Doficioncios in plysicaI socurilyaccoss conlroI, survoiIIanco,
bIasl miligalion, clomicaI, bioIogicaI, or radioaclivo agonl
proloclion
Basod on llo rosuIls of llo sconario anaIysis, llo airporl viII idon-
lify counlormoasuros lo roduco llo vuInorabiIilios. Tloso aclions may
bo groupod inlo lvo gonoraI calogorios:
1. IlysicaI proloclivo moasuros dosignod lo roduco syslom assol
vuInorabiIily lo oxpIosivos, baIIislics allacIs, cybor allacIs,
and llo roIoaso of clomicaI, bioIogicaI, radioIogicaI, or nucIoar
agonls

2. IrocoduraI socurily moasuros incIuding procoduros lo dolocl,

miligalo, and rospond lo an acl of lorrorism or oxlromo
vioIonco
-
Airporl socurily las undorgono significanl clangos ovor llo pasl 5
yoars. RoguIalions, procoduros, and llo appIicalion of nov loclnoIo-
gios lavo focusod on commorciaI sorvico airporls. Hovovor, llo TSA
mandalo is lo oxamino socurily roquiromonls for aII aspocls of llo
lransporlalion syslom, bul lo dalo lloy lavo nol roquirod gonoraI
avialion (GA) airporls lo impIomonl socurily moasuros oxcopl for
llroo gonoraI avialion airporls in llo Waslinglon, D.C. aroa. IoIIov-
ing llo ovonls of Soplombor 11, 2001, sovoraI avialion groups bogan
vorI lo dovoIop socurily guidoIinos for gonoraI avialion airporls. Tlo
Aircrafl Ovnors and IiIols Associalion (AOIA), slalo govornmonls,
and ollors proparod guidoIinos lo assisl airporl managors and llo
TSA pubIislod - - |11] in
2004. Tlo purposo of llo TSA documonl is lo provido ovnors, opora-
lors, sponsors, and ollor onlilios clargod vill ovorsigll of gonoraI
avialion airporls vill a sol of fodoraIIy ondorsod socurily bosl prac-
licos and mollods for dolormining vlon and vloro lloso moasuros
may bo approprialo. Rocognizing llo ovory gonoraI avialion airporl is
uniquo, TSA las nol yol impIomonlod nalionaI roguIalions for GA
airporl socurily. Tlo GA induslry las dovoIopod sovoraI socurily ini-
lialivos incIuding avaronoss programs, roporling mollods, and odu-
calionaI coursos, and many airporls lavo proparod socurily pIans
using principIos dovoIopod for commorciaI sorvico airporls. Among
llo socurily moasuros laIon al gonoraI avialion airporls incIudo
IorsonnoI, visilor, aircrafl, and volicIo idonlificalion
procoduros
Iorimolor foncing
ConlroIIod accoss galos
Socurily Iiglling
IocIs and Ioy conlroI
IalroIIing

Irolocling airporls and avialion againsl fuluro llroals is an imporfocl
scionco and, as a rosuIl, fuluro airporl socurily viII aIvays bo an
unInovn. Concorns for llo safo, socuro, and officionl lravoI of pas-
songors and cargo viII aIvays bo a lop priorily in civiI avialion, and
ovory offorl viII bo laIon lo maIo llo syslom as socuro as possibIo for

- -
llo forosooabIo fuluro, and ono musl anlicipalo clangos in roguIa-
lions, socurily roquiromonls, and loclnoIogios. Socurily pIanning and
assossmonl is a conlinuing procoss al ovory airporl.
-
1. , 9ll od., InlornalionaI Air Transporl
Associalion, MonlroaI, Canada, 2004.
2. - 2d od., Norman Aslford, H. I. Marlin Slanlon, and CIiflon
A. Mooro, McGrav-HiII, Nov YorI, 1997.
3. , 5ll od., AIoxandor T. WoIIs and Soll B. Young,
McGrav-HiII, Nov YorI, 2004.
4. -, U.S. DOT IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Advisory CircuIar 107-1, Waslinglon, D.C., 1972.
5. - 2d od., InlornalionaI
CiviI Avialion Organizalion, MonlroaI, Canada, 1991.
6. -, Craig WiIIiams, Airporl
Cooporalivo Rosoarcl Irogram (ACRI) Synllosis 3, Transporlalion Rosoarcl
Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 2007.
7. A Nov Approacl lo Airporl Socurily, SaI DoIasquaIo, Irocoodings of llo 24ll
InlornalionaI Air Transporlalion Conforonco, IouisviIIo, Ky., Amorican Socioly
of CiviI Inginoors, 1996.
8. - - - - --,
Transporlalion Socurily Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 2007.
9. - - -,
Transporlalion Socurily Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 2006.
10. 8ll od., Annox 17, InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion, MonlroaI,
Canada, 2006.
11. - -, Transporlalion Socurily
Adminislralion, Roporl A-001, Waslinglon, D.C., 2004.

-

In air lransporlalion, parlicuIar concorn is focusod upon llo movo-

monl of aircrafl, passongors, ground accoss volicIos, and cargo
llrougl boll llo airporl and avialion syslom. Tlo oxporioncod air
lravoIor las grovn accuslomod lo doIayod fIiglls, ovorbooIing,
missod connoclions, ground congoslion, parIing slorlagos, and Iong
Iinos in llo lorminaI buiIding during poaI lravoI poriods. Ior many
air lransporlalion lrips, llo roIalivo advanlago of llo spood claraclor-
islics of aircrafl is considorabIy diminislod by ground accoss, lormi-
naI syslom, and airsido doIays.
In a moro gonoraI sonso, llo unprocodonlod grovll in llo domand
for air lransporlalion sorvicos ovor llo pasl 30 yoars las, in many
silualions, oulpacod llo abiIily lo provido faciIilios lo adoqualoIy
accommodalo llis grovll. To a groalor oxlonl, oIomonls of llo air
lransporl syslom aro boing slrossod boyond lloir dosign capabiIilios,
rosuIling in significanl sorvico dolorioralion al major airporls in llis
counlry |5, 6, 9, 10, 18, 21, 27]. Il is undorslandabIo llon llal considor-
abIo omplasis las boon pIacod upon rosoarcl lo anaIyzo llo IovoI and
causos of capacily doficioncios. Will llo maluralion of compIox com-
pulor-basod simuIalion modoIs basod on fundamonlaI lloorios of
oporalions rosoarcl and quouing lloory, il is possibIo, nov moro llan
ovor in llo lislory of airporl pIanning and dosign, lo accuraloIy osli-
malo llo capabiIily of airporl and avialion syslom compononls lo
procoss domand and lo pinpoinl llo causos of doficioncios in lloso
sysloms. Tlis InovIodgo aIIovs ono lo proposo soIulions lo llo prob-
Ioms idonlifiod.
Informalion on airporl capacily and doIay is imporlanl lo llo air-
porl pIannor. Tloro is a slrong boIiof villin llo avialion communily
llal significanl gains in air lransporlalion officioncy can bo roaIizod
llrougl an undorslanding of llo faclors causing doIays and by llo
appIicalion of loclnoIogicaI innovalions and oporalionaI poIicios lo
aIIovialo doIay.

- -
IIannors can comparo capacily of an airporl syslom, or any of ils
compononls, vill llo oxisling and forocasl domand and ascorlain
vlollor improvomonls lo incroaso capacily viII bo noodod. Comparing
llo capacily of difforonl configuralions al airfioIds loIps dolormino
vlicl aro llo mosl officionl. Inadoqualo capacily Ioads lo incroasing
doIays al airporls. DoIay is an imporlanl faclor in a bonofil-cosl anaIy-
sis and if an oconomic vaIuo can bo pIacod on doIay, llo doIay roduc-
lion savings rosuIling from an improvomonl bocomo bonofils vlicl
can bo usod lo juslify llo cosl of llal improvomonl |19].

Tlo lorm capacily is usod lo dosignalo llo procossing capabiIily of a
sorvico faciIily ovor somo poriod of limo, lypicaIIy dofinod as llo
maximum numbor of oporalions llal a sorvico faciIily can accommo-
dalo ovor a dofinod poriod of limo. Ior a sorvico faciIily lo roaIizo ils
maximum or uIlimalo capacily lloro musl bo a conlinuous domand
for sorvico. In llo fioId of avialion, IovoIs of domand llal oxcood llo
capacily al a givon compononl of an airporl or airspaco rosuIl in
syslom doIays, vloro doIay may bo dofinod as llo incroaso in limo
roquirod lo porform an oporalion from normaI nondoIayod opor-
alions. AddilionaI limo roquirod may como in llo form of quouing,
or vailing, lo porform an oporalion, or a roduclion in spood duo lo
congoslion. An oporalion on llo airfioId is oflon dofinod as a laIooff
or a Ianding, vliIo in llo lorminaI an oporalion may bo llo procoss-
ing of a passongor llrougl llo lorminaI. In llo airspaco, an opora-
lion may bo considorod an aircrafl lravoIing llrougl a corlain soclor
of airspaco.
Hovovor, llo poriods of limo llal domand IovoIs oxisl lo croalo
doIays las sloadiIy incroasod, parlicuIarIy sinco llo boginning of llo
lvonly-firsl conlury. Il is llis incroaso in domand lo IovoIs llal noar or
oxcood capacily ovor Iongor poriods of limo llal rosuIl in syslom
doIays llal causo a dolorioralion in sorvico quaIily rondoring llo por-
formanco of llo avialion syslom incroasingIy undosirabIo. Tloroforo,
airporl pIannors and dosignors aro facod vill llo probIom of provid-
ing sufficionl capacily lo accommodalo fIuclualing domand vill an
accoplabIo IovoI or quaIily of sorvico. TypicaIIy, llo dosign spocifica-
lions al an airporl roquiro llal sufficionl capacily bo providod so llal
a roIalivoIy ligl porconlago of llo domand viII bo subjoclod lo somo
minimaI amounl of doIay.
To provido sufficionl capacily lo sorvico a varying domand vill-
oul doIay viII normaIIy roquiro faciIilios vlicl aro difficuIl lo oco-
nomicaIIy juslify. Tloroforo, in dosign, a IovoI of doIay accoplabIo
from llo porspoclivos of boll llo usor and llo oporalor is usuaIIy
oslabIislod and syslom compononls of sufficionl capacily aro closon
lo onsuro llal lloso doIay criloria aro mol.
-

In airfioId pIanning, capacily and doIay sludios aro porformod lo
ovaIualo llo abiIily for an airfioId in ils curronl configuralion lo
accommodalo curronl and fuluro IovoIs of domand. As domand is
forocasl lo oxcood llo curronl airfioIds capacily, airfioId pIannors
considor aIlornalivo airfioId configuralions, dosignod for addilionaI
capacily, lo moasuro lloir offocl on miligaling polonliaI fuluro
doIays.
As llo primary objoclivo of capacily and doIay sludios is lo dolor-
mino offoclivo and officionl moans lo incroaso capacily and roduco
doIay al airporls, anaIysos aro conduclod lo oxamino llo impIicalions
of llo clangos in llo naluro of llo domand, llo oporaling configura-
lions of llo airfioId and llo impacl of faciIily modificalions on llo
quaIily of sorvico affordod llis domand. Somo of llo lypicaI appIica-
lions of lloso anaIysos migll incIudo
1. Tlo offocl of aIlornalivo runvay oxil Iocalions and goomolry
on runvay syslom capacily
2. Tlo impacl of airfioId roslriclions duo lo noiso abalomonl
procoduros, Iimilod runvay capacily, or inadoqualo airporl
navigalionaI aids on aircrafl procossing ralos
3. Tlo consoquoncos of inlroducing nov aircrafl inlo llo fIool
mix al an airporl, and an oxaminalion of aIlornalivo mocla-
nisms for sorvicing llo mix
4. Tlo invosligalion of aIlornalivo runvay-uso configuralions
on llo abiIily lo procoss aircrafl
5. Tlo gonoralion of aIlornalivos for nov runvay or laxivay
conslruclion lo faciIilalo aircrafl procossing
6. Tlo gains vlicl migll bo roaIizod in syslom capacily or doIay
roduclion by llo divorsion of gonoraI avialion aircrafl lo
roIiovor faciIilios in Iargo air lraffic lub aroas
According lo llo Unilod Slalos Govornmonl AccounlabiIily
Offico, bolvoon 1998 and 2007, doIays and cancoIIalions for Unilod
Slalos commorciaI avialion incroasod by 62 porconl, vliIo llo numbor
of oporalions incroasod by onIy 38 porconl. In 2007 aIono, moro llan
2 miIIion of llo nalions 7.5 miIIion annuaI oporalions sufforod doIays
or cancoIIalions. In llo busiosl of rogions, sucl as llo Nov YorI molro-
poIilan aroa, doIays and cancoIIalions lavo incroasod by moro llan
110 porconl, vliIo llo numbor of oporalions incroasod by Ioss llan
60 porconl |31]. Iiguro 12-1 iIIuslralos llo incroasing lrond of doIayod
and cancoIIod oporalions syslom vido sinco 1998.
DoIays lavo aIso gollon moro sovoro. In 2007, llo avorago Iongll
of a fIigll doIay vas 56 min, comparod lo 49 min in 1998. Moro llan
64,000 oporalions voro doIayod by moro llan 3 l in 2007.

- -
Tlo dislribulion of llo causos of doIays groalor llan 15 min aro
givon in Iig. 12-2 for llo yoar 2007, as roporlod by llo U.S. Doparl-
monl of Transporlalion (DOT).
Tlo oporalionaI and oconomic impIicalions of doIay lo aircrafl
incroasingIy diclalo llal doIay anaIysos bo incIudod in airfioId pIan-
ning sludios and llal lloso anaIysos bo conduclod voII boforo domand
is oxpoclod lo roacl capacily IovoIs.
- --
In llis claplor, anaIysis of capacily and doIay is confinod lo llo air-
fioId, or aircrafl oporalions aroa, vlicl is composod of llo runvays,
laxivays, and apron aroas. Il slouId bo nolod llal llo varialions of
llo principIos and looIs doscribod in llis claplor may aIso bo
appIiod lo dolormining capacily and doIay in llo airporl lorminaI,
as voII.
WliIo sludios of capacily and doIay aro mosl oflon ovaIualod by
llo uso of anaIylicaI and compulor simuIalion modoIs, llo focus of
llis claplor firsl is on anaIylicaI modoIs, oflon roforrod lo as mallo-
malicaI modoIs, vlicl form llo basis for moro compIox compulor
simuIalion modoIs.
- -
--
Canceled flights
Source: DOT.
1998
0
5
10
15
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

f
l
i
g
h
t
s
20
25
30
1999 2000 2001 2002
Year
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Late arrivals
-

MallomalicaI modoIs of airporl oporalions aro looIs for undor-

slanding llo imporlanl paramolors llal infIuonco llo oporalion of
sysloms and invosligaling spocific inloraclions in sysloms llal aro of
parlicuIar inlorosl. Doponding upon llo compIoxily of llo syslom,
sovoraI condilions may bo sludiod, porlaps moro cloapIy and quicIIy
llan by ollor mollods. To maIo llo mallomalics lraclabIo for a com-
pIox syslom, many simpIifying assumplions musl oflon bo mado
vlicl may rosuIl in unroaIislic rosuIls. In sucl a caso, ono can rosorl
lo a compulor simuIalion modoI or somo ollor loclniquo. Tlus il is
nocossary, vlon conlompIaling llo formuIalion and appIicalion of a
mallomalicaI modoI, lo oxamino crilicaIIy llo corrospondonco
bolvoon llo roaI vorId boing sludiod and llo abslracl vorId of llo
modoI and lo dolormino llo offocl of lloir difforoncos on llo docisions
lo bo mado.
Ior airporl pIanning, airfioId capacily las boon dofinod in lvo
vays. Ono dofinilion vlicl las boon usod oxlonsivoIy in llo Unilod
Slalos in llo pasl is llal capacily is llo numbor of aircrafl opora-
lions during a spocifiod inlorvaI of limo corrosponding lo a loIorabIo
IovoI of avorago doIay. Tlis is slovn in Iig. 12-3 and is roforrod lo as
praclicaI capacily. Tlis dofinilion las lradilionaIIy boon suggoslod
by llo IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion lo givo rudimonlary osli-
malos of doIay as a funclion of uIlimalo, or llrouglpul capacily,
vlicl is dofinod as llo maximum numbor of oporalions llal a sorvico
National Aviation System
Extreme weather
0.2%
Security
6%
28% 38%
29% Airline
Late arriving aircraft
Note: Total may not add up to 100 percent due to rounding.
Source: DOT.
-- -

- -
faciIily can accommodalo ovor a dofinod poriod of limo and is aIso
iIIuslralod in Iig. 12-3.
An imporlanl difforonco in lloso lvo moasuros of capacily is llal
ono is dofinod in lorms of doIay and llo ollor is nol. Tloro aro sovoraI
roasons for considoring lvo dofinilions of capacily. Tloro las boon a
gonoraI IacI of agroomonl on llo spocificalion of accoplabIo IovoIs of
doIay appIicabIo lo aII airporls and lloir airfioId compononls. Bocauso
poIicios, oxpoclalions, and conslrainls diffor from airporl lo airporl,
llo amounl of accoplabIo doIay diffors from airporl lo airporl. Tlo
dofinilion of uIlimalo capacily doos nol incIudo doIay and rofIocls llo
capabiIily of llo airfioId lo accommodalo aircrafl during poaI pori-
ods of aclivily. Hovovor, for llis dofinilion ono doos nol lavo an
oxpIicil moasuro of llo magniludo of congoslion and doIay. Tlo mag-
niludo of doIay is groalIy infIuoncod by llo pallorn of domand. As an
oxampIo, vlon sovoraI aircrafl visl lo uso llo airfioId al llo samo
limo, llo doIay viII naluraIIy bo Iargor llan if lloso aircrafl voro
spacod al somo inlorvaI of limo aparl. Sinco llo fIuclualion of domand
villin any lour can vary vidoIy, lloro may bo Iargo varialions in
avorago doIay for llo samo IovoI of lourIy aircrafl domand. Tlo slapo
of llo curvo in Iig. 12-3 is lloroforo infIuoncod by llo pallorn of
domand.
Ixporionco las slovn llal llo dofinilion roIalod lo uIlimalo
capacily yioIds vaIuos llal aro sIigllIy Iargor llan llo dofinilion
vlicl incIudos doIay bul llo difforonco is nol Iargo. MallomalicaIIy,
llo anaIysis of uIlimalo capacily is Ioss compIox llan llal for praclicaI
capacily, sinco llo dolorminalion of praclicaI capacily impIios a dofi-
nilion of llo accoplabIo IovoI of doIay.
Throughout
Capacity
ncrease
Practical
Capacity
Congestive Delay
(Typical 9 minutes)
0
Maximum Acceptable Delay
(Typical 4 minutes)
DEMAND (Number of Operations)
AVERAGE
DELAY
(minutes)
ncrease
-
-

-
Tloro aro many faclors llal infIuonco llo capacily of an airfioId. In
gonoraI, capacily doponds on llo configuralion of llo airfioId, llo
onvironmonl in vlicl aircrafl oporalo, llo lypo and porformanco
claraclorislics of llo aircrafl oporaling on llo airfioId, llo avaiIabiIily
and soplislicalion of aids lo navigalion, and air lraffic conlroI faciIi-
lios and procoduros. A Iisling of llo mosl imporlanl faclors incIudos
1. Tlo configuralion, numbor, spacing, and orionlalion of llo
runvay syslom
2. Tlo configuralion, numbor, and Iocalion of laxivays and run-
vay oxils
3. Tlo arrangomonl, sizo, and numbor of galos in llo apron
aroa
4. Tlo runvay occupancy limo for arriving and doparling
aircrafl
5. Tlo sizo and mix of aircrafl using llo faciIilios
6. Woallor, parlicuIarIy visibiIily and coiIing, sinco air lraffic
ruIos in good voallor aro difforonl llan in poor voallor
7. Wind condilions vlicl may procIudo llo uso of aII avaiIabIo
runvays by aII aircrafl
8. Noiso abalomonl procoduros vlicl may Iimil llo lypo and
liming of oporalions on llo avaiIabIo runvays
9. Willin llo conslrainls of vind and noiso abalomonl, llo
slralogy vlicl air lraffic conlroIIors clooso lo oporalo llo
runvay syslom
10. Tlo numbor of arrivaIs roIalivo lo llo numbor of doparluros
11. Tlo numbor and froquoncy of loucl and go oporalions by
gonoraI avialion aircrafl
12. Tlo oxislonco and froquoncy of occurronco of vaIo vorlicos
vlicl roquiro groalor soparalions vlon a Iigll aircrafl foI-
Iovs a loavy aircrafl llan vlon a loavy foIIovs a Iigll
aircrafl
13. Tlo oxislonco and naluro of navigalionaI aids
14. Tlo avaiIabiIily and slrucluro of airspaco for oslabIisling
arrivaI and doparluro roulos
15. Tlo naluro and oxlonl of llo air lraffic conlroI faciIilios
Tlo mosl significanl faclor vlicl affocls runvay capacily is llo
spacing bolvoon succossivo aircrafl. Tlis spacing is dopondonl on llo
approprialo air lraffic ruIos, vlicl aro, lo a Iargo oxlonl, funclions of
voallor condilions and aircrafl sizo and mix.

- -


In I960, llo IAA conlraclod vill Airborno Inslrumonls Iaboralory lo
dovoIop mallomalicaI modoIs for oslimaling runvay capacily |3].
Tloso modoIs roIiod on sloady-slalo quouing lloory. IssonliaIIy lloro
voro lvo modoIs, ono for runvays sorving oillor arrivaIs or dopar-
luros and llo ollor for runvays sorving mixod oporalions. Ior run-
vays usod oxcIusivoIy for arrivaIs or doparluros llo modoI vas llal
of a simpIo Ioisson lypo quouo vill a firsl como, firsl sorvod sorvico
discipIino. Tlo domand procoss for arrivaIs or doparluros vas clar-
aclorizod as a Ioisson dislribulion vill a spocifiod moan arrivaI or
doparluro ralo. Tlo runvay sorvico procoss vas a gonoraI sorvico dis-
lribulion spocifiod by llo moan sorvico limo and llo slandard dovia-
lion of llo moan sorvico limo. Ior mixod oporalions, vlon runvays
aro usod for boll laIooffs and Iandings, llo procoss is moro compIi-
calod, and a proomplivo spacod arrivaIs modoI vas dovoIopod. In
llis modoI, arrivaIs lavo priorily ovor doparluros for llo uso of llo
runvays. Tlo laIooff domand procoss vas assumod lo foIIov a Iois-
son dislribulion, lovovor, llo Ianding procoss oncounlorod al llo
ond of llo runvay is nol Ioisson bul moro IiIo llo oulpul of an air-
borno quouing syslom.
Il vas rocognizod llal sloady-slalo condilions aro raroIy acliovod
al airporls, lovovor, il vas arguod llal limo-dopondonl soIulions,
aIllougl possibIo, voro quilo compIox and voro oul of llo quoslion
for llo Iargo numbor of silualions roquirod for llo proparalion of a
runvay capacily landbooI lo bo usod by airporl pIanning and dosign
profossionaIs. AddilionaI supporl for llo uso of sloady-slalo soIulions
camo from obsorvalions vlicl slovod llal avorago doIay limos
yioIdod by llo modoIs voro in gonoraI agroomonl vill moasurod
doIays undor a vido varioly of oporaling condilions.

Tlo caIcuIalion of doIay for runvays usod oxcIusivoIy by arrivaIs vas
compulod from Iq. (12-1):

2 2
1
2 1
/
/ ( )

(12-1)
vloro

moan doIay lo arriving aircrafl

moan arrivaI ralo of aircrafl
k

moan sorvico ralo for arrivaIs or llo rociprocaI of llo moan

sorvico limo


slandard dovialion of llo moan sorvico limo of llo arriving
aircrafl
-

Tlo moan sorvico limo may bo llo runvay occupancy limo or llo
limo soparalion in llo air immodialoIy adjaconl lo llo runvay llrosl-
oId, vliclovor vaIuo is llo Iargor.
Tlo modoI for doparluros is idonlicaI lo arrivaIs oxcopl for a
clango in subscripls. Iqualion (12-2) is lloroforo usod for llo dopar-
luro doIay:

2 2
1
2 1
/
/ ( )
(12-2)
vloro

moan doIay lo doparling aircrafl

moan doparluro ralo of aircrafl

k

moan sorvico ralo for doparluros, or llo rociprocaI of llo

moan sorvico limo for doparluros

slandard dovialion of llo moan sorvico limo of llo doparl-

ing aircrafl
Ior mixod oporalions, arriving aircrafl aro normaIIy givon priorily
and llo doIay lo lloso aircrafl is givon by llo arrivaIs of Iq. (12-2).
Hovovor, llo avorago doIay lo doparluros in llis silualion can bo
found from Iq. (12-3):

2 2 2 2
2 1
2 1
(12-3)
vloro

moan doIay lo doparling aircrafl

moan arrivaI ralo of aircrafl

moan doparluro ralo of aircrafl
moan inlorvaI of limo bolvoon lvo succossivo doparluros

slandard dovialion of llo moan inlorvaI of limo bolvoon

succossivo doparluros
moan ralo al vlicl gaps bolvoon succossivo arrivaIs
occur
moan vaIuo of llo inlorvaI of limo villin vlicl no
doparluro can bo roIoasod

slandard dovialion of llo inlorvaI of limo in vlicl no

doparluro may bo roIoasod
During busy poriods llo socond lorm in Iq. (12-3) vouId bo
oxpoclod lo bo zoro if il is assumod llal aircrafl aro in a quouo al llo
ond of llo runvay and aro aIvays roady lo go vlon pormission is
granlod. Il musl bo omplasizod llal llo abovo oqualions aro onIy
vaIid vlon llo moan arrivaI or doparluro ralo is Ioss llan llo moan
sorvico ralo vlicl is llo condilion for vlicl llo oqualions lavo boon
dorivod. Tlo uso of llo modoI for llo arrivaIs-onIy caso is iIIuslralod
in IxampIo IrobIom 12-1.

- -
Il is nocossary lo compulo llo avorago doIay lo arriving
aircrafl on a runvay syslom vlicl sorvicos onIy arrivaIs if llo moan sorvico limo
is 60 s por aircrafl vill a slandard dovialion in llo moan sorvico limo of 12 s and
llo avorago ralo of arrivaIs is 45 aircrafl por lour.
Tlo moan sorvico ralo for arrivaIs k

is llo rociprocaI of llo moan sorvico

limo yioIding 1 aircrafl por minulo of 60 aircrafl por lour. Subslilulion inlo
Iq. (12-1) yioIds

45 1 60
2 1
0 026 1
12
3600
2
2
45
60
/
. . l 66 min
Tloroforo, llo avorago aircrafl doIay is aboul 1.6 min por arrivaI.
Tlo roIalionslip bolvoon doIay and capacily can bo slovn by dolormining
llo runvay sorvico ralo vlicl corrosponds lo a doIay of 4 min using llo abovo
oqualion. Assuming llal llo slandard dovialion of llo moan sorvico limo is llo
samo, vo lavo
4
60
45 1
2 1 45
12
3600
2
2

/
( / )
k
k

or k

is oquaI lo 52 arrivaIs por lour. If llo doIay crilorion vas llal arrivaI doIays
couId nol oxcood 4 min llon llo runvay capacily roIalod lo doIay vouId bo
52 arrivaIs por lour.
Il slouId bo obsorvod llal an incroaso in capacily from 52 lo 60 arrivaIs por
lour, a 15 porconl incroaso in capacily, rosuIls in a doIay roduclion of 2.4 min, a
60 porconl roduclion in doIay. Tlis is lypicaI al airporls noaring saluralion. SmaII
incroasos in capacily can rosuIl in significanl docroasos in doIay.


Tlo various inlorvaIs of limo incIudod in llo abovo modoIs aro slovn
on llo limo-spaco diagram in Iig. 12-4. Tlo limo-spaco diagram is a
vory usofuI dovico for undorslanding llo soquoncing of aircrafl opor-
alions on a runvay syslom and in llo adjaconl airspaco (Iig. 12-4).
Tlroo arrivaIs and llroo doparluros aro sorvicod.
Tlo basic soquoncing ruIos lo sorvico lloso aircrafl aro
1. Tvo aircrafl may nol conducl an oporalion on llo runvay al
llo samo limo.
2. Arriving aircrafl lavo a priorily in llo uso of llo runvay ovor
doparling aircrafl.
3. Doparluros may bo roIoasod if llo runvay is cIoar and llo
subsoquonl arrivaI is al Ioasl a corlain dislanco from llo run-
vay llrosloId.
Ixaminalion of llo limo-spaco diagram in Iig. 12-4 slovs llal
llo moan doparluro inlorvaI is llo avorago of llo inlorvaI of limo
-

l
p q
m n
r
G
lm
G
mn
J
qr
J
pq
F
m
d
F
n
- - - --
bolvoon succossivo doparluros

and

. AIso, llo moan limo inlor-

vaI bolvoon arrivaIs, llo gap bolvoon arrivaIs

during vlicl il may

bo possibIo lo roIoaso doparlurosis llo avorago of llo quanlilios

and

. IinaIIy, llo vaIuo of llo inlorvaI of limo in vlicl dopar-

luros cannol bo roIoasod is oquaI lo llo avorago of llo quanlilios

and

.
SovoraI ollor obsorvalions may bo mado aboul llo soquonco of
oporalions slovn on llis limo-spaco diagram. Tlo iniliaI doparluro
couId lavo boon roIoasod, if il vas avaiIabIo, boforo llo firsl arrivaI
roaclod llo dislanco

from llo runvay llrosloId sinco llo runvay

vas cIoar. Tlo socond doparluro vas roIoasod vlon llo provious
doparluro cIoarod llo runvay, sinco llo noxl arrivaI vas moro
llan dislanco

from llo llrosloId al llal poinl in limo. Hovovor, llo

llird doparluro vas nol roIoasod vlon llal doparluro cIoarod llo run-
vay bocauso llo approacling aircrafl vas cIosor llan dislanco

from llo llrosloId al llal poinl in limo. Ior llo samo roason, llis
doparluro vas nol roIoasod unliI aflor llo Iasl arrivaI cIoarod llo
runvay. In llis figuro, llo doIays vlicl vouId occur lo aircrafl aro
duo lo llo roquirod soparalions bolvoon difforonl lypos of oporalionaI
soquoncos.
Tlo uso of llo air lraffic soparalion ruIos is accommodaling a
sorios of arrivaIs and doparluros may bo bosl undorslood llrougl a
numoricaI oxampIo probIom iIIuslraling llo limo-spaco concopl for
procossing aircrafl on a runvay syslom.

- -
A runvay is lo sorvico arrivaIs and doparluros. Tlo
common approacl pall is 7 mi Iong for aII aircrafl. During a parlicuIar inlor-
vaI of limo llo runvay is sorving onIy lvo lypos of aircrafl, a lypo A vill an
approacl spood of 120 mi/l and a lypo B vill an approacl spood of 90 mi/l.
Iacl arriving aircrafl viII bo on llo runvay for 40 s boforo oxiling llo runvay.
Tlo air lraffic soparalion ruIos in offocl aro givon in TabIo 12-1.
During llo poriod of limo lo bo anaIyzod fivo aircrafl in an ordorod arrivaI
quouo of a B, A, A, B, and A aircrafl approacl llo runvay. An idonlicaI ordorod
doparluro quouo of aircrafl is availing cIoaranco lo laIooff.
A limo-spaco diagram lo sorvico lloso aircrafl viII bo dravn assuming llo firsl
arrivaI is al llo onlry galo al limo 0 and arrivaIs aro givon priorily ovor doparluros.
Tlo limo-spaco diagram for arrivaIs is dravn firsl sinco lloso aircrafl nor-
maIIy lavo priorily ovor doparluros. Tlis is slovn on Iig. 12-5. Tlo daslod Iinos
indicalo poinls vloro llo inlorarrivaI soparalion ruIos aro onforcod lo onsuro
llo minimum inlorarrivaI spacing is mainlainod. Tlo numbors in paronllosos
indicalo llo limo oacl aircrafl is al llo poinl indicalod.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
100 200 300 400 500
(430)
(430)
B A A A
(590) (280) (160)
(490) (710) (800) (370) (280)
Time
(seconds)
Exit
Threshold
Entry
Gate
Distance
(miles)
600 700 800 900 1000
3 miles
3 miles
4 miles
5 miles
B
- - -
-
-

- -
-

Sinco llo firsl aircrafl, a lypo B aircrafl, is al llo onlry galo al limo 0 and
il laIos 280 s lo lravoI llo common approacl pall from llo onlry galo lo llo
runvay llrosloId, llis aircrafl passos ovor llo runvay llrosloId al limo 280 s.
ImmodialoIy bolind llis aircrafl is a lypo A aircrafl vlicl is approacling llo
runvay al a spood of 120 mi/l. In llis caso, llo lraiIing aircrafl A is fIying
faslor llan llo Ioading aircrafl B and, lloroforo, il is cIosing in on llo Ioading
aircrafl. Tloso lvo aircrafl aro cIososl logollor vlon llo Ioading aircrafl passos
ovor llo arrivaI llrosloId or al limo 280 s. Al llis limo llo lraiIing aircrafl can
bo scloduIod no cIosor llan 3 mi bolind llo Ioading aircrafl or llo lraiIing
aircrafl is scloduIod lo pass ovor llo 3-mi poinl al limo 280 s. Sinco llis aircrafl
is approacling llo runvay al a ralo of 30 s/mi, il passos ovor llo runvay
llrosloId 90 s Ialor or al limo 370 s. Il passos ovor llo onlry galo 210 s oarIior
or al limo 160 s.
Tlis procoss is conlinuod unliI aII aircrafl lavo boon scloduIod. Il slouId bo
obsorvod llal vlon a lypo B aircrafl is lraiIing a lypo A aircrafl, sinco llo lypo B
is lravoIing al a spood Ioss llan llo lypo A, lloso lvo aircrafl aro cIososl logollor
vlon llo lraiIing aircrafl passos ovor llo onlry galo and llo roquirod soparalion
is mainlainod al llal poinl.
Onco aII llo aircrafl aro scloduIod as slovn in Iig. 12-5, il is dolorminod
llal il viII laIo 800 s lo sorvico lloso fivo arriving aircrafl. Tlo limo span al llo
runvay llrosloId for sorving lloso fivo arrivaIs is 800 280 520 s. In llis limo
span lloro aro four pairs of arrivaIs. Tloroforo, llo avorago limo bolvoon arrivaIs,
llo inlorarrivaI limo, is 520 dividod by 4 or 130 s por arrivaI. Tlo capacily of llo
runvay lo sorvico arrivaIs viII bo slovn Ialor lo bo

3600
130
28 aircrafl por lour
Tlo limo-spaco diagram in Iig. 12-6 is llon conslruclod from llal in Iig. 12-5
and is usod lo dolormino if a doparluro may bo roIoasod in llo limo gaps
bolvoon arrivaIs. Iacl arrivaI sponds 40 s on llo runvay prior lo oxiling llo
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
100 200 300 400 500
(430) (310) (200)
(120) (240)
(630) (740)
(320) (410)
(530)
(530) (750)
(650)
(840)
Time
(seconds)
Exit
Threshold
Two Mile
Point For
Departure
Clearance
Entry
Gate
Distance
(miles)
600 700 800 900 1000
- - -

- -
runvay. Tloroforo, llo limo vlon oacl arriving aircrafl oxils llo runvay is
dolorminod firsl. Tlo rosuIls aro slovn in Iig. 12-6. Al any limo, if llo runvay
is cIoar, a doparluro may bo cIoarod for laIooff if llo incoming arrivaI is al Ioasl
2 mi from llo arrivaI llrosloId and il las boon al Ioasl 120 s sinco llo Iasl dopar-
luro vas cIoarod for laIooff.
Again, in Iig. 12-7, llo daslod Iinos indicalo poinls vloro llo soparalion
ruIos aro onforcod and llo numbors in paronllosos indicalo llo limo oacl aircrafl
is al llo poinl indicalod. Hovovor, lloso comparisons aro nov mado lo onsuro
llal llo doparluro-doparluro, arrivaI-doparluro, and doparluro-arrivaI spacings
aro oacl mainlainod.
Il is soon llal il viII laIo 840 s, moasurod al llo runvay llrosloId, lo
sorvico aII of llo arrivaIs and aII of llo doparluros. Il is aIso obsorvod llal
doparluros can onIy bo insorlod bolvoon a pair of arrivaIs on lvo occasions.
Tloroforo, llo probabiIily of insorling a doparluro bolvoon llo 4 pairs of
arrivaIs is 2 oul of 4, or 0.50. Tlo capacily lo sorvico mixod oporalions viII bo
slovn Ialor lo bo

3600
130
1 0 0 50 42 ( . . ) aircrafl por lour
Entry
gate
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vloro 1.0 roprosonls llo probabiIily of an arrivaI al llo llrosloId ovory 130 s
and 0.50 roprosonls llo probabiIily of insorling a doparluro in an inlorarrivaI
limo of 130 s.
Tlo capacily of llo runvay lo sorvico doparluros onIy viII bo slovn
Ialor lo bo

3600
120
30 aircrafl por lour

Capacily as dofinod loro oxprossos llo maximum plysicaI capabiIily
of a runvay syslom lo procoss aircrafl. Il is llo or
maximum aircrafl oporalions ralo for a sol of spocifiod condilions and
il is indopondonl of llo IovoI of avorago aircrafl doIay. In facl, il las
boon slovn llal vlon lraffic voIumos roacl lourIy capacily IovoIs
avorago aircrafl doIays may rango from 2 lo 10 min.
DoIay is dopondonl on llo capacily as voII as llo magniludo,
naluro, and pallorn of domand. DoIays can occur ovon vlon llo
domand avoragod ovor 1 l is Ioss llan llo lourIy capacily. Sucl
doIays occur bocauso domand fIuclualos villin an lour so llal,
during somo smaIIor inlorvaIs of limo, domand is groalor llan llo
capacily.
If llo magniludo, naluro, and pallorn of domand aro fixod, llon
doIay can bo roducod onIy by incroasing capacily. On llo ollor land,
if domand can bo manipuIalod lo produco moro uniform pallorns of
domand, llon doIay can bo roducod villoul incroasing capacily.
Tlus, oslimaling capacily is an inlograI slop in dolormining doIay
lo aircrafl.

Tloso lypos of modoIs dolormino llo maximum numbor of aircrafl
oporalions llal a runvay syslom can accommodalo in a spocifiod
inlorvaI of limo vlon lloro is conlinuous domand for sorvico |26].
In lloso modoIs capacily is oquaI lo llo invorso of a voigllod avorago
sorvico limo of aII aircrafl boing sorvod. Ior oxampIo, if llo voigllod
avorago sorvico limo is 90 s, llo capacily of llo runvay is 1 opora-
lion ovory 90 s or 40 oporalions por lour. ModoIs lroal llo common
approacl pall lo llo runvay logollor vill llo runvay as llo run-
vay syslom. Tlo runvay sorvico limo is dofinod as oillor llo sopa-
ralion in llo air bolvoon arrivaIs in lorms of limo, llo
, or llo , vliclovor is llo Iargosl. Tlo
maloriaI prosonlod in llis soclion is laIon IargoIy from sovoraI
roforoncos |16, 25, 26].

- -
- -
Tlo capacily of a runvay syslom usod onIy for arriving aircrafl is
infIuoncod by llo foIIoving faclors:
1. Tlo aircrafl mix vlicl is usuaIIy claraclorizod by sogrogal-
ing aircrafl inlo sovoraI cIassos according lo lloir approacl
spoods
2. Tlo approacl spoods of llo various cIassos of aircrafl
3. Tlo Iongll of llo common approacl pall from llo onlry galo
lo llo runvay llrosloId
4. Tlo minimum air lraffic soparalion ruIos or llo praclicaI
obsorvod soparalions if no ruIos appIy
5. Tlo magniludo of orrors in arrivaI limo al llo onlry poinl lo
llo common approacl pall, llo onlry galo, and spood varia-
lion of aircrafl on llo common approacl pall
6. Tlo spocifiod probabiIily of vioIalion of llo minimum air
lraffic soparalions considorod accoplabIo or allainabIo
7. Tlo moan runvay occupancy limos of llo various cIassos of
aircrafl in llo mix and llo magniludo of llo varialion in lloso
limos
-
Will IillIo Ioss in accuracy and lo maIo llo compulalions simpIor,
aircrafl aro groupod inlo sovoraI discrolo spood cIassos

. To oblain
llo voigllod sorvico limo for arrivaIs, il is nocossary lo formuIalo a
malrix of llo inlorvaIs of limo bolvoon aircrafl arrivaIs al llo runvay
llrosloId. Having llis malrix and llo porconlago of llo various
cIassos in llo aircrafl mix, llo voigllod sorvico limo can bo compulod.
Tlo invorso of llo voigllod sorvico limo is llo capacily of llo
runvay.
Iol llo orror-froo malrix bo dosignalod as |

], vlicl is mado up
of llo oIomonls

, llo minimum orror-froo limo inlorvaI al llo run-

vay llrosloId for aircrafl of spood cIass foIIovod by aircrafl of cIass ,
llo porconlago of aircrafl of cIass in llo mix

, and llo porconlago of

aircrafl of cIass in llo mix

. Tlon

(12-4)
vloro

acluaI limo soparalion al llo runvay llrosloId for lvo

succossivo arrivaIs, an aircrafl of spood cIass foIIovod
by an aircrafl of spood cIass

limo llal llo Ioading aircrafl passos ovor llo runvay

llrosloId
-

limo llal llo lraiIing aircrafl passos ovor llo runvay

llrosloId

minimum orror-froo inlorarrivaI soparalion al llo run-

vay llrosloId vlicl is llo samo as

in llo orror-
froo caso
(

]|

] (12-5)
vloro (

) oxpoclod vaIuo of llo sorvico limo, or inlorarrivaI

limo, al llo runvay llrosloId for llo arrivaI aircrafl
mix

probabiIily llal llo Ioading arriving aircrafl viII bo

foIIovod by llo lraiIing arriving aircrafl
|

] malrix of lloso probabiIilios

|

] malrix of llo minimum inlorarrivaI soparalions

Tlo capacily for arrivaIs is givon by

1
( )
(12-6)
vloro

is llo capacily of llo runvay lo procoss llis mix of arrivaIs.

To oblain llo inlorarrivaI limo al llo runvay llrosloId, il is noc-
ossary lo Inov vlollor llo spood of llo Ioading aircrafl

is groalor
or Ioss llan llal of llo lraiIing aircrafl

, sinco llo soparalion al llo

runvay llrosloId viII diffor in oacl caso. Tlis can bo iIIuslralod by
draving limo-spaco diagrams roprosonlalivo of lloso condilions as
slovn in Iigs. 12-8 and 12-9. In lloso diagrams llo foIIoving nola-
lion is usod:
Iongll of llo common approacl pall

minimum pormissibIo dislanco soparalion bolvoon lvo arriving

aircrafl, a Ioading aircrafl and a lraiIing aircrafl , anyvloro
aIong llo common approacl pall

approacl spood of llo Ioading aircrafl of cIass

approacl spood of llo lraiIing aircrafl of cIass

runvay occupancy limo of llo Ioading aircrafl

- -

Iirsl Iol us considor llo caso vloro llo Ioading aircrafls approacl
spood is Ioss llan llal of llo lraiIing aircrafl, as slovn in Iig. 12-8.
Tlo minimum limo soparalion al llo llrosloId may bo vrillon in
lorms of llo minimum dislanco soparalion

and llo spood of llo

lraiIing aircrafl

. Hovovor, if llo runvay occupancy limo of llo

- -
Entry gate
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-

-
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Entry
gate
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-

-
-

arrivaI

is groalor llan llo airborno soparalion, llon il vouId bo

llo minimum soparalion al llo llrosloId. Tlo oqualion for llis
caso is

(12-7)
-

Noxl Iol us considor llo caso vloro llo Ioading aircrafls approacl
spood

is groalor llan llal of llo lraiIing aircrafl

as slovn in
Iigs. 12-8 and 12-9, llo minimum limo soparalion al llo llrosloId is
vrillon in lorms of llo dislanco

llo Iongll of llo common

approacl pall and llo approacl spoods of llo Ioading and lraiIing
aircrafl

and

. Tlis corrosponds lo llo minimum dislanco sopa-

ralion

aIong llo common approacl pall vlicl nov occurs al llo

onlry galo insload of llo llrosloId. Tlo oqualion for llo caso slovn
in Iig. 12-8, vlon conlroI is oxorcisod onIy from llo onlry galo lo llo
arrivaI llrosloId is

1 1
(12-8)
Wlon conlroI is oxorcisod lo mainlain llo soparalions bolvoon boll
aircrafl as llo Ioading aircrafl passos ovor llo onlry galo, as slovn in
Iig. 12-10, llo oqualion is

1 1
(12-9)
Il slouId bo carofuIIy nolod llal llo onIy difforonco bolvoon Iqs. (12-8)
and (12-9) is in llo firsl lorm of llo oqualion, vloro

and

aro
inlorclangod.
Tlis probIom viII soIvo IxampIo IrobIom 12-2 using llo
orror-froo anaIylicaI oqualions dovoIopod abovo. Il is nocossary lo dolormino llo
arrivaI capacily of llo runvay in an orror-froo conloxl vloro aircrafl soparalions
aro mainlainod in llo airspaco aIong llo common approacl pall bolvoon llo
onlry galo and llo arrivaI llrosloId.
Tloro aro four possibIo inlorarrivaI casos, a Ioading A and a lraiIing A, a
Ioading B and a lraiIing B, a Ioading A and a lraiIing B, and a Ioading B and a
lraiIing A. Tloso casos aro govornod by Iqs. (12-7) and (12-8). Iqualion (12-7)
givos llo minimum limo bolvoon arrivaIs al llo runvay llrosloId vlon llo
Ioading aircrafl is approacling llo runvay al an approacl spood Ioss llan or
oquaI lo llo approacl spood of llo lraiIing aircrafl.

- -
If vo lavo a Ioading A and a lraiIing A, or a Ioading B and a lraiIing B, boll
aircrafl aro lravoIing al llo samo spood. Tloroforo, Iq. (12-7) appIios and vo lavo
for a lypo A foIIoving a lypo A

4 3600
120
120
( )
s
and for a lypo B foIIoving a lypo B

3 3600
90
120
( )
s
Wlon llo Ioading aircrafl is lypo B and llo lraiIing aircrafl is lypo A,
Iq. (12-7) aIso appIios and vo lavo

3 3600
120
90
( )
s
Wlon llo Ioading aircrafl is approacling llo runvay al an approacl spood
groalor llan llo approacl spood of llo lraiIing aircrafl, llo minimum limo
bolvoon arrivaIs al llo runvay llrosloId is givon by Iq. (12-8). Tlis is llo caso
vlon a lypo B foIIovs a lypo A aircrafl. Tloroforo, vo lavo

5 3600
120
7
1
90
1
120
3600 220
( )
( ) s
Tlo ordorod quouo consisls of llo pairs of arrivaIs B-A, A-A, A-B, and B-A.
Tloroforo, vo lavo llo foIIoving inlorarrivaI malrix and probabiIily malrix
basod upon llo acluaI quouo of arriving aircrafl givon:
| ] :

Ioading
A B
TraiIing
A 120 90
220 120 B B
| ] :
. .
. .

Ioading
A B
TraiIing
A 0 25 0 50
0 25 0 00 B
Irom Iq. (12-5), sinco in llo orror-froo caso |] is oquaI lo |], vo lavo llal
llo oxpoclod vaIuo of llo inlorarrivaI limo is
(

) 0.25(120) + 0.50(90) + 0.25(220) + 0.00(120) 130 s

Irom Iq. (12-6) for llo arrivaI capacily of llo runvay vo llon lavo

3600
130
28 oporalions por lour
Tlis agroos oxaclIy vill llo rosuIls of llis probIom dono by llo limo-spaco
diagram mollod in IxampIo IrobIom 12-2.
-

- -
Tlo abovo modoIs roprosonl llo silualion of a porfocl syslom vill no
orrors. To laIo caro of posilion orrors, a is addod lo llo
minimum soparalion limo lo onsuro llal llo minimum inlorarrivaI
soparalions aro mainlainod. Tlo sizo of llo buffor doponds upon llo
probabiIily of vioIalion of llo minimum soparalion ruIos vlicl is
accoplabIo. Iiguro 12-10 slovs llo posilion of llo lraiIing aircrafl as
il approaclos llo runvay llrosloId. In llo lop porlion of llis iIIuslra-
lion, llo lraiIing aircrafl is soquoncod so as ils moan posilion is oxaclIy
dolorminod by llo minimum soparalion bolvoon llo Ioading and
lraiIing aircrafl. Hovovor, if llo aircrafl posilion is a random variabIo
lloro is an oquaI probabiIily llal il can bo oillor aload or bolind
scloduIo.
NaluraIIy if il is aload of scloduIo llo minimum soparalion crilo-
rion viII bo vioIalod. If llo posilion orror is normaIIy dislribulod,
llon llo sladod aroa of llo boII-slapod curvo vouId corrospond lo a
probabiIily of vioIalion of llo minimum soparalion ruIo of 50 porconl.
Tloroforo, in ordor lo Iovor llis probabiIily of vioIalion, llo aircrafl
may bo scloduIod lo arrivo al llis posilion Ialor by buiIding in a buffor
lo llo minimum soparalion crilorion as slovn in llo bollom porlion
of llo iIIuslralion. In llis caso, onIy vlon llo aircrafl is so far aload
Actual position of
lead aircraft
Scheduled position of
trail aircraft
Mean position of
trail aircraft
Runway
threshold
Runway
threshold
Buffer
Minimum spacing
Actual separation
- - -
- - -

- -
of scloduIo as lo oncroacl upon llo smaIIor sladod aroa of llo boII-
slapod curvo vouId a soparalion vioIalion occur. Tloro is of courso
Ioss of a probabiIily of llis occurring. In praclico, air lraffic conlroIIors
scloduIo aircrafl vill a buffor, as voII as lo inslrucl piIols lo vary
aircrafl spoods, so llal llo probabiIily of vioIalion of llo minimum
soparalion ruIos is al an accoplabIo IovoI.
As viII bo slovn, in llo cIosing caso llo buffor is a conslanl vaIuo.
Hovovor, in llo oponing caso llo buffor nood nol bo a conslanl vaIuo
and viII normaIIy bo Ioss llan llo buffor for llo cIosing caso. Having
llo modoIs for llo buffor, a malrix of buffor limos |

] for aircrafl of
spood cIass foIIovod by aircrafl of spood cIass is dovoIopod. Tlis
malrix is addod lo llo orror-froo malrix lo dolormino llo acluaI inlor-
arrivaI limo malrix from vlicl llo capacily may bo found. Tlo roIa-
lionslip is givon in Iq. (12-10).
(

) |

]|

] (12-10)
- -
In llis caso llo Ioading aircrafls approacl spood is Ioss llan llal of
llo lraiIing aircrafl and llo soparalions aro slovn in Iig. 12-7. Iol us
caII

llo acluaI minimum inlorvaI of limo bolvoon aircrafl of cIass

and cIass , and assumo llal runvay occupancy is Ioss llan

.
Dosignalo llo moan or oxpoclod vaIuo of

as (

) and
0
as a
zoro-moan normaIIy dislribulod random orror vill a slandard dovia-
lion of
0
. Tlon for oacl pair of arrivaIs

) +
0
. In ordor lo
nol vioIalo llo minimum soparalion ruIo criloria, llo vaIuo of

musl bo incroasod by a buffor amounl

. Tloroforo, vo lavo

and aIso

+
0
Ior llis caso llo minimum soparalion al llo runvay llrosloId is
givon by Iq. (12-7). Tlo objoclivo is lo find for a spocifiod probabiIily
of vioIalion

, llo roquirod amounl of buffor. Tlus

Irob
or

Irob
0
-

vlicl simpIifios lo llo roIalionslip

Irob(

<
0
)
Using llo assumplion llal orrors aro normaIIy dislribulod vill slan-
dard dovialion
0
, llo vaIuo of llo buffor can bo dorivod as |16]

0
(12-11)
vloro

is llo vaIuo for vlicl llo cumuIalivo slandard normaI dis-

lribulion las llo vaIuo (1

). Slalod difforonlIy, llis simpIy moans

llo numbor of slandard dovialions from llo moan in vlicl a corlain
porconlago of llo aroa undor llo normaI curvo vouId bo found. Ior
oxampIo, if

0.05, llon

is llo 95ll porconliIo of llo dislribulion

and oquaIs 1.65. Tloroforo, in llo cIosing caso llo buffor limo is a
conslanl llal doponds on llo magniludo of llo disporsion of llo posi-
lion orror and llo accoplabIo probabiIily of vioIalion

.
-
Noxl considor llo caso vlon llo Ioading aircrafl is approacling llo
runvay llrosloId al a spood groalor llan llo lraiIing aircrafl. In llis
caso, llo soparalion bolvoon aircrafl incroasos from llo onlry galo.
Tlo modoI is promisod on llo supposilion llal llo lraiIing aircrafl
slouId bo scloduIod nol Ioss llan a dislanco

bolind llo Ioading

aircrafl vlon llo Iallor is al llo onlry galo, bul il is assumod llal slricl
soparalion is onforcod by air lraffic conlroI onIy vlon llo lraiIing air-
crafl roaclos llo onlry galo. Tlis assumplion vas slovn in Iig. 12-8.
Ior llis caso, llo probabiIily of vioIalion is simpIy llo probabiIily
llal llo lraiIing aircrafl viII arrivo al llo onlry galo boforo llo Ioading
aircrafl is al a spocifiod dislanco insido llo onlry galo. Tlis may bo
oxprossod mallomalicaIIy as foIIovs:

Irob
or

Irob
Using Iq. (12-9) vill llis oqualion lo compulo llo acluaI spacing al
llo arrivaI llrosloId, and simpIifying






0
1 1
(12-12)

- -
Tloroforo, for llo oponing caso llo amounl of buffor is roducod
from llal roquirod in llo cIosing caso, as slovn in Iq. (12-12). Noga-
livo vaIuos of buffor aro nol aIIovod and, lloroforo, llo buffor is somo
finilo posilivo numbor vill a minimum of zoro. Tlo malrix of llo
buffor |

] for oacl pair of aircrafl vill an inlorarrivaI buffor of

can
llon bo found. Tlo appIicalion of posilion orror lo llo arrivaIs onIy
runvay capacily probIom is iIIuslralod in IxampIo IrobIom 12-4.
Assumo llal llo aircrafl approacling llo runvay in
IxampIo IrobIom 12-3 lavo a posilion orror of 20 s vlicl is normaIIy dislrib-
ulod. In llis onvironmonl llo probabiIily of vioIaling llo minimum soparalion
ruIo for arrivaI spacing is aIIovod lo bo 5 porconl.
Il is nocossary lo dolormino llo lourIy capacily of llo runvay lo sorvico
arrivaIs.
Tlo orror-froo inlorarrivaI malrix |

] vas found oarIior and il is onIy nocos-

sary lo nov find llo buffor malrix |

] and soIvo Iq. (12-10) for llo oxpoclod

vaIuo of llo inlorarrivaI limo.
In llo cIosing caso vloro llo Ioading aircrafl is sIovor llan llo lraiIing aircrafl,
Iq. (12-11) givos llo buffor. Ior a 5 porconl probabiIily of vioIalion,

can bo found
from slalislics labIos as 1.65. Ior oacl of lloso casos, llo buffor is indopondonl of
spood and lloroforo

20(1.65) 33 s
In llo oponing caso vloro llo Ioading aircrafl is faslor llan llo lraiIing air-
crafl, Iq. (12-12) givos llo buffor. Tloroforo, for

120 and

90, vo lavo

20 1 65 5 3600 17
1
90
1
120
( . ) s
Hovovor, llo minimum vaIuo of llo buffor is aIvays 0. Summarizing llo
vaIuos of

found for llo buffor in a malrix and rocaIIing llo |

] malrix for llo

orror-froo caso, vo lavo
| ] :

Ioading
A B
TraiIing
B
A 120 90
220 120
| ] :

Ioading
A B
TraiIing
B
A 33 33
0 33
Subslilulion inlo Iq. (12-10) llon givos llo oxpoclod vaIuo of llo inlor-
arrivaI limo.
(

) 0.25(153) + 0.50(123) + 0.25(220) 155 s

and from Iq. (12-6), vo lavo

=
3600
155
= 23 oporalions por lour
-

vlicl is a roduclion from llo arrivaI capacily found in IxampIo IrobIom 12-3.
Tloroforo, ono may concIudo llal llo oxislonco of posilion orror roducos llo arrivaI
capacily of a runvay.
-
Sinco doparluros aro normaIIy cIoarod for laIooff basod upon main-
laining a minimum limo inlorvaI bolvoon succossivo doparluros, llo
inlordoparluro limo

, llo doparluro-onIy capacily of a runvay

, is
givon by

3600
( )
(12-13)
and
(

) |

]|

] (12-14)
vloro (

) oxpoclod vaIuo of llo sorvico limo, or inlordoparluro

limo, al llo runvay llrosloId for llo doparluro aircrafl
mix
|

] malrix of llo probabiIilios llal llo Ioading doparling

aircrafl viII bo foIIovod by llo lraiIing doparling air-
crafl
|

] malrix of llo inlordoparluro limos

- -
Tlis modoI is basod on llo samo four oporaling ruIos as llo modoI
dovoIopod by Airborno Inslrumonls Iaboralory |3]. Tloso may bo
Iislod as foIIovs:
ArrivaIs lavo priorily ovor doparluros.
OnIy ono aircrafl can occupy llo runvay al any inslanl of limo.
A doparluro may nol bo roIoasod if llo subsoquonl arrivaI is Ioss
llan a spociod dislanco from llo runvay llrosloId, usuaIIy 2 nmi
in IIR condilions.
Succossivo doparluros aro spacod al a minimum limo soparalion
oquaI lo llo doparluro sorvico limo.
A limo-spaco diagram may bo dravn lo slov llo soquoncing of
mixod oporalions undor llo ruIos slalod abovo and llis is dono in
Iig. 12-11. In llis figuro,

and

aro llo limos llal llo Ioading air-

crafl and llo lraiIing aircrafl , rospoclivoIy, pass ovor llo arrivaI
llrosloId,

is llo minimum soparalion bolvoon arrivaIs,

1
is llo
limo vlon llo arriving aircrafl cIoars llo runvay,

is llo limo vlon

llo doparling aircrafl bogins ils laIooff roII,

is llo minimum dis-

lanco llal an arriving aircrafl musl bo from llo llrosloId lo roIoaso a
doparluro,
2
is llo limo vlicl corrosponds lo llo Iasl inslanl vlon a
doparluro can bo roIoasod,

is llo runvay occupancy limo for an

- -
arrivaI, is llo limo gap in vlicl a doparluro may bo roIoasod, and

is llo roquirod sorvico limo for a doparluro.

Sinco arrivaIs aro givon priorily ovor doparluros, llo arriving air-
crafl aro soquoncod al llo minimum inlorarrivaI soparalion and a
doparluro cannol bo roIoasod unIoss lloro is a gap bolvoon arrivaIs .
Tloroforo, vo may vrilo

2

1
0
bul vo Inov llal

and

2

Tloroforo, vo may vrilo

2 1
0 ( )
V
j
V
j
T
1
T
j
T
i
T
d
T
2
R
i
t
d
G
V
i
d
ij
d
- -
- --
-

or lo roIoaso ono doparluro bolvoon a pair of arrivaIs vo lavo

Tlrougl a simpIo oxlonsion of llis oqualion il is apparonl llal llo

roquirod moan inlorarrivaI limo (

) lo roIoaso

doparluros
bolvoon a pair of arrivaIs is givon by

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1
(12-15)
Il slouId bo nolod llal llo Iasl lorm of llis oqualion is oquaI lo
zoro vlon onIy ono doparluro is lo bo insorlod bolvoon a pair of
arrivaIs. An orror lorm may bo addod on lo llo abovo oqualion,

,
lo accounl for llo vioIalion of llo gap spacing. Tlo uso of Iq. (12-15)
vill gap orror viII bo iIIuslralod in IxampIo IrobIom 12-5.
Tlo capacily for mixod oporalions is givon by llo oqualion

1
1
( )
(12-16)
vloro

capacily of llo runvay lo procoss mixod oporalions

(

) oxpoclod vaIuo of llo inlorarrivaI limo

numbor of doparluros vlicl can bo roIoasod oacl gap

bolvoon arrivaIs

probabiIily of roIoasing

doparluros in oacl gap

Tlo appIicalion of llo oqualions for mixod oporalions on a runvay is
slovn in IxampIo IrobIom 12-6.
Assumo llal llo aircrafl approacling llo runvay in
IxampIo IrobIom 12-4 lavo an orror in llo gap bolvoon arrivaIs of 30 s vlicl
is normaIIy dislribulod. In llis onvironmonl, llo probabiIily of vioIaling llo
minimum gap in vlicl doparluros can bo roIoasod is 10 porconl. Tlo runvay
occupancy limo for a lypo A aircrafl is 50 s and for a lypo B aircrafl is 40 s. A
doparluro can bo roIoasod if llo arriving aircrafl is al Ioasl 2 mi from llo arrivaI
llrosloId. Tlo minimum limo bolvoon succossivo doparluros is 60 s. Tlo arrivaI
mix and llo doparluro mix aro idonlicaI.
Il is nocossary lo dolormino llo minimum soparalion bolvoon arrivaIs in ordor
lo onsuro llal ono doparluro can bo roIoasod bolvoon oacl pair of arrivaIs.
Tlo roquirod inlorarrivaI limo lo roIoaso a doparluro bolvoon ovory pair of
arrivaIs is givon by Iq. (12-15).
Tloro aro llroo lypo A aircrafl and lvo lypo B aircrafl in boll llo arrivaI
and doparluro quouo. Tloroforo, lloro is a 60 porconl clanco of a lypo A air-
crafl and a 40 porconl clanco of a lypo B aircrafl. Subslilulion inlo Iq. (12-15)
yioIds

( ) . ( ) . ( ) 0 6 50 0 4 40
1
120
1
90
3600 ( ( )( ) 1 1 60 114 s

- -
Tloroforo, lo roIoaso a doparluro bolvoon a pair of arrivaIs in an orror-froo
conloxl lloro musl bo a gap bolvoon succossivo arrivaIs of 114 s. In a posilion
orror conloxl, llo orror lorm musl bo compulod and addod lo llis vaIuo. Ior a
probabiIily of vioIalion of 10 porconl llo vaIuo of

is found lo bo 1.28. Tlo orror

in llo gap bolvoon arrivaIs is found lo bo

30(1.28) 38 s. Tloroforo, in a
posilion orror conloxl lloro musl bo a gap bolvoon arrivaIs of 114 + 38 152 s lo
roIoaso a doparluro bolvoon ovory pair of arrivaIs.
If llo acluaI inlorarrivaI limo malrix in IxampIo IrobIom 12-4 is oxaminod,
il can bo soon llal a doparluro can bo roIoasod onIy vlon an arrivaI of a lypo A
aircrafl is foIIovod by an arrivaI of a lypo B aircrafl sinco llis is llo onIy caso
vloro llo roquirod inlorarrivaI limo of 152 s is allainod. Tlis occurs 25 porconl
of llo limo. Tloroforo, llo capacily of llo runvay lo sorvico mixod oporalions
in a posilion orror conloxl is

3600
155
1 0 1 0 25 30 | . ( . )] oporalions por lour
A comprolonsivo oxampIo probIom using llo anaIylicaI oqualions dovoIopod
for dolormining llo lourIy capacily of a runvay is prosonlod lo summarizo llis
soclion.
A runvay is lo sorvico arrivaIs and doparluros. Tlo
common approacl pall is 6 mi Iong for aII aircrafl. During a parlicuIar inlorvaI
of limo llo runvay is sorving llroo lypos of aircrafl vill llo mix and oporaling
claraclorislics slovn in TabIo 12-2. Tlo air lraffic soparalion ruIos in offocl aro
givon in TabIo 12-3.
Assumo llal llo slandard dovialion of llo posilion of airborno aircrafl and
llo orror in llo gaps bolvoon arrivaIs aro Inovn lo bo 20 s and llal llo minimum
soparalion ruIos may bo vioIalod 10 porconl of llo limo.
Iirsl Iol us find llo capacily of llo runvay syslom lo sorvico arrivaIs onIy.
Tlo orror-froo inlorarrivaI limo oqualions aro givon in Iqs. (12-7) and (12-8).
Using lloso orror-froo inlorarrivaI limo oqualions llo inlorarrivaI malrix can bo
compulod. Ior oxampIo, for a Ioading B foIIovod by a lraiIing A, vo lavo

3 3600
135
80
( )
s
and for a Ioading A foIIovod by a lraiIing B, vo lavo

5 3600
135
6
1
110
1
135
3600 170
( )
s
--

-





-

Conlinuing lloso compulalions for aII combinalions of Ioading and lraiIing air-
crafl and compuling llo arrivaI mix probabiIilios rosuIls in llo malricos boIov.
| :

] Ioading
TraiIing
A
B
107 80 80
170 131 98
240 1755 120
0 04
C
] Ioading
TraiIing
A
B
| :
.

00 09 0 07
0 09 0 20 0 16
0 07 0 16 0 12
. .
. . .
. . . CC
Tlo inlorarrivaI buffor limo vlicl musl bo addod lo llo orror-froo caso vlon
posilion orror is prosonl is givon by Iqs. (12-11) and (12-12).
If llo probabiIily of vioIalion is 10 porconl, llon

1.28. Using Iqs. (12-11)

and (12-12) lo soIvo for llo buffor, vo lavo for a Ioading aircrafl B and a lraiIing
aircrafl A

20(1.28) 26 s
and for a Ioading aircrafl A foIIovod by a lraiIing aircrafl B

20 1 28 5 3600 5
1
110
1
135
( . ) s
Bul llo minimum vaIuo of llo buffor is aIvays 0.
-
-

- -
Conlinuing llis for aII combinalions of Ioading and lraiIing aircrafl givos llo
buffor and inlorarrivaI limo malricos:
| :

] Ioading
A B C
TraiIing
A
B
26 26 26
0 26 26
0 0 26
C
+ ] Ioading
A B C
TraiIing
A
B
| :

133 106 106
1770 157 124
240 175 146 C
Tlo oxpoclod vaIuo of llo inlorarrivaI limo bocomos from Iq. (12-10)
(

) 0.04(133) + 0.09(106) +
. . .
+ 0.12(146) 151 s
Tlo arrivaI capacily is llon from Iq. (12-6)

3600
151
24 oporalions por lour
Noxl Iol us find capacily of llo runvay syslom lo sorvico doparluros onIy.
Tlo oxpoclod vaIuo of llo doparluro limo is compulod from Iq. (12-14) using
llo doparluro-doparluro limo malrix givon and llo doparluro mix probabiIily
malrix boIov. Tlis malrix is basod on acluaI doparluro-doparluro limos and
aIvays considors orror.
| :
. . .

] Ioading
A B C
TraiIing
A
B
0 0225 0 0825 0 04500
0 0825 0 3025 0 1650
0 0450 0 1650 0 0900
. . .
. . . C
Tlo oxpoclod vaIuo of llo doparluro limo is llon
(

) 0.0225(90) + 0.0825(90) +
. . .
+ 0.0900(60) 77 s
Tlo doparluro capacily of llo runvay is givon by Iq. (12-13)

3600
77
47 oporalions por lour
Noxl Iol us find llo probabiIily of roIoasing a doparluro aflor oacl arrivaI and
llo capacily of llo runvay syslom lo sorvico mixod oporalions in llo caso vloro
arrivaIs aro givon priorily ovor doparluros.
-

To roIoaso

doparluros llo roquirod inlorarrivaI limo is givon by Iq. (12-15)

vill a buffor lorm addod. SoIving for oacl lorm in llis oqualion, vo lavo
(

) 0.20(50) + 0.45(40) + 0.35(30) 38 s

0 20
2
135
0 45
2
110
0 . . ..35
2
90
3600 68 s
(

) 77 s
(

) 26(0.68) + 0(0.32) 18 s
and lloroforo
(

) 38 + 68 + 18 + 77 (

1)
(

) 124 + 77 (

1)
Ior ono doparluro vo llon lavo a roquirod inlorarrivaI limo of 124 s, for lvo
succossivo doparluros vo lavo a roquirod inlorarrivaI limo of 201 s, and for llroo
succossivo doparluros vo lavo a roquirod inlorarrivaI limo of 278 s.
Tloroforo, anylimo llo inlorarrivaI limo is groalor llan or oquaI lo 124 and Ioss
llan 201 s, ono doparluro may bo roIoasod bolvoon a pair of arrivaIs. Anylimo
llo inlorarrivaI limo is groalor llan or oquaI lo 201 and Ioss llan 278 s, lvo
doparluros may bo roIoasod bolvoon a pair of arrivaIs. Anylimo llo inlorarrivaI
limo is groalor llan or oquaI lo 278 s, llroo or moro doparluros may bo roIoasod
bolvoon a pair of arrivaIs.
Ixaminalion of llo inlorarrivaI limo malrix, givos llo probabiIily of roIoas-
ing doparluros bolvoon arrivaIs. Tloroforo, for ono doparluro llo probabiIily is
61 porconl, for lvo succossivo doparluros llo probabiIily is 7 porconl, and vo
cannol roIoaso moro llan lvo succossivo doparluros bolvoon a pair of arrivaIs
vliIo mainlaining minimum inlorarrivaI soparalions.
Tlo mixod oporalion lourIy capacily is llon from Iq. (12-16)

3600
151
1 0 61 1 0 07 2 42 | . ( ) . ( )] oporalions
Nov Iol us find roquirod inlorarrivaI limo if al Ioasl ono doparluro is lo bo
roIoasod aflor oacl arrivaI and llo rosuIling capacily of llo runvay syslom lo
sorvico mixod oporalions undor llis condilion. Ior llis lo occur, aII vaIuos of llo
inlorarrivaI malrix musl bo al Ioasl 124 s. Tloroforo, aII vaIuos of llo inlorarrivaI
limo Ioss llan 124 s musl bo incroasod lo 124 s lo roIoaso al Ioasl ono doparluro
bolvoon ovory pair of arrivaIs. Tloroforo, llo nov roquirod inlorarrivaI limo
malrix bocomos
| ] :

Ioading
A B C
TraiIing
A 133 124 124
170 157 124
2240 175 146
B
C
vlicl rosuIls in
(

) 154 sand llo lourIy capacily for mixod oporalions bocomos

3600
154
1 0 93 1 0 07 2 48 | . ( ) . ( )] oporalions

- -
Tloroforo, by incroasing llo inlorarrivaI soparalions anylimo llal a lypo A
aircrafl foIIovs a lypo B or lypo C aircrafl, or anylimo lypo B aircrafl foIIovs a
lypo C aircrafl, llo runvay capacily can bo incroasod from 42 lo 48 oporalions por
lour. SmaII incroasos in capacily can rosuIl in significanl docroasos in doIay.
-

Tlo lourIy capacily of llo runvay syslom is dofinod as llo maximum
numbor of aircrafl oporalions llal can laIo pIaco on llo runvay syslom
in an lour. Tlo maximum numbor of aircrafl oporalions doponds on a
numbor of condilions incIuding, bul nol Iimilod lo, llo foIIoving:
1. Tlo coiIing and visibiIily condilions
2. Tlo plysicaI configuralion of llo runvay syslom
3. Tlo air lraffic conlroI syslom soparalion ruIos
4. Tlo runvay-uso slralogy
5. Tlo mix of aircrafl using llo runvay syslom
6. Tlo ralio of arrivaIs lo doparluros
7. Tlo numbor of loucl and go oporalions by gonoraI avialion
aircrafl
8. Tlo numbor and Iocalion of oxils from llo runvay syslom
Il is imporlanl lo poinl oul llal llo dofinilion of lourIy capacily
of runvays in llis soclion diffors from llal vlicl is doIay roIalod,
sinco llo dofinilion of capacily loroin conlains no assumplions
rogarding accoplabIo IovoIs of doIay.
Tlo dolorminalion of runvay syslom lourIy capacily is normaIIy
mado llrougl llo uso of compulor programs dovoIopod for llal pur-
poso |16, 17, 20, 28, 29]. Tloso programs aro capabIo of accommodal-
ing virluaIIy any runvay-uso configuralion al an airporl and aIIov
for llo varialion in aII llo paramolors vlicl migll affocl runvay
capacily. Basod upon llo uso of lloso programs and conslraining
many of llo variabIos lo conform lo prosonl oporaling sconarios, an
airporl capacily landbooI las boon dovoIopod vlicl viII aIIov for
llo compulalion of roaIislic oslimalos of runvay capacily |4, 26]. Tlo
maloriaI vlicl foIIovs is basod upon llo IAAs Advisory CircuIar on
oslimaling airporl capacily and doIay (AC 150/5360-5) and ils
incIudod loclniquos for dolormining runvay lourIy capacily |4, 26]
-
As nolod abovo, lo dolormino llo lourIy capacily of llo runvay syslom
il is nocossary lo ascorlain llo paramolors vlicl viII affocl capacily.
Duo lo llo facl llal aircrafl soparalion ruIos diffor in VMC and IMC
voallor, il is firsl nocossary lo dolormino llo coiIing and visibiIily
condilions, or moro approprialoIy, llo soparalion ruIos appIicabIo lo
-

fIying condilions vlon coiIing al llo airporl is al Ioasl 1000 fl and vis-
ibiIily is al Ioasl 3 mi. Tlis condilion rosuIls in VIR fIying ruIos for
arriving and doparling aircrafl. If oillor or boll of lloso criloria aro
nol mol, llon IIR fIying ruIos aro in offocl. Of courso, aII airporls lavo
a poriod of limo vlon condilions aro sucl llal IIR ruIos appIy. Tloro-
foro, llo lourIy capacily of runvays is normaIIy spocifiod for oacl of
lloso condilions.
Tlo plysicaI runvay surfacos al an airporl can bo usod in sovoraI
vays. Ior oxampIo, lvo paraIIoI runvays can bo usod vill arrivaIs
on ono runvay and doparluros on llo ollor runvay al somo poinl in
limo. Tloy couId aIso bo usod vill arrivaIs and doparluros on ono
surfaco and arrivaIs onIy on llo ollor surfaco. Tloso runvay-uso con-
figuralions aro caIIod llo - -- vlicl aro dopondonl
on voallor condilions, aircrafl lypos, and llo spacing bolvoon run-
vays. Il is nocossary lo spocify llo runvay uso slralogios and llo por-
conlago of limo oacl slralogy is usod.
Il is aIso nocossary lo spocify llo lypos of aircrafl vlicl can uso a
givon runvay as quilo oflon slorlor runvays aro conslruclod for uso
by gonoraI avialion aircrafl onIy. Tlo aircrafl vlicl can uso a runvay
aro dofinod in lorms of a . Tlis indox is simpIy an indicalion
of llo IovoI of oporalions on llo runvay by Iargo and loavy aircrafl.
Tlo mix indox is givon by Iq. (12-17).
MI + 3 (12-17)
vloro MI mix indox
porconlago of aircrafl voigling moro llan 12,500 Ib bul
Ioss llan 300,000 Ib on llo runvay
porconlago of aircrafl vill maximum gross voigll of
300,000 Ib or groalor in llo mix of aircrafl using llo
runvay
Tlo porconlago of arrivaI oporalions vlicl occur on llo runvay
is aIso nocossary. Tlis is bocauso llo spacing ruIos for arrivaIs and
doparluros diffor. Tloro aro llroo lypos of oporalions vlicl can
occur, namoIy, arrivaIs, doparluros, and oporalions. A
loucl-and-go oporalion is mosl commonIy usod by gonoraI avialion
piIols praclicing approaclos, Iandings, and laIooffs. Tloso opora-
lions aro soIdom conduclod in poor voallor. Ior llo purposo of
dolormining capacily, llo paramolor caIIod porconl arrivaIs is usod
lo dofino llo proporlion of oacl lypo of oporalion vlicl occurs on
llo runvay. In VIR condilions il is aIso nocossary lo find llo por-
conlago of loucl-and-go oporalions. Al limos smaII gonoraI avialion
airporls may lavo loucl-and-go oporalions vlicl can approacl
30 porconl of aII oporalions.
Tlo Iocalion of runvay oxils for arriving aircrafl musl aIso bo
Inovn sinco llis affocls runvay occupancy limo. Doponding upon
llo naluro of llo aircrafl using a runvay oxils slouId bo Iocalod al
posilions vlicl viII aIIov minimum runvay occupancy limos. If llis

- -
is nol llo caso, llo capacily viII bo roducod bocauso of oxcossivo run-
vay occupancy limos.
As a rosuIl of oxlonsivo rosoarcl conduclod lo dolormino llo
capacily of runvay sysloms, llo IAA las pubIislod a sorios of clarls
lo dolormino runvay capacily |4, 26]. Tloso clarls aro usod lo dolor-
mino llo runvay capacily llrougl Iq. (12-18).

(12-18)
vloro lourIy capacily of llo runvay-uso configuralion in opora-
lions por lour

idoaI or baso capacily of llo runvay-uso configuralion

oxil adjuslmonl faclor for llo numbor and Iocalion of run-
vay oxils
loucl-and-go adjuslmonl faclor
Tlo uso of llis oqualion and llo clarls aro iIIuslralod by IxampIo
IrobIom 12-7.
Il is roquirod lo find llo VIR and IIR lourIy capacily of
llo runvay syslom slovn in Iig. 12-12. Tlo runvay-uso slralogy is as slovn.
In VIR voallor, llo lraffic consisls of 3 singIo-ongino, 20 Iigll lvin-ongino,
25 Iargo lransporl-lypo, and 2 vido-bodiod aircrafl. ArrivaIs conslilulo 40 porconl
of llo oporalions and lloro aro approximaloIy llroo loucland-go oporalions.
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 ft
T
e
r
m
i
n
a
l

-

In IIR, llo smaII aircrafl popuIalion counl drops lo lvo singIo-ongino and fivo
Iigll lvin-ongino aircrafl. Tlo arrivaI ralo incroasos lo 50 porconl and lloro aro
no loucl-and-go oporalions.
Tlo capacily of inlorsocling runvays is a funclion of llo Iocalion of llo inlor-
soclion from boll llo arrivaI and doparluro llrosloId. Tlo cIosor llal llo inlor-
soclion is lo lloso llrosloIds, llo groalor llo capacily. Tlo aircrafl aro groupod
inlo various cIassos in VIR and IIR condilions in TabIo 12-4. Tlo clarls usod
for llis configuralion in VIR and IIR aro laIon from roforoncos |4, 26] and aro
givon in Iigs. 12-13 and 12-14.
Irom llo llis labuIar dala, llo mix indox can bo found for VIR from
Iq. (12-17) as
MI + 3 50.0 + 3(4.0) 62.0
and for IIR
MI + 3 73.5 + 3(5.9) 91.2
Using llo VIR mix indox of 62.0 and llo porconl arrivaIs (IA) oquaI lo
40, llo baso capacily

is found from llo Iofl sido of Iig. 12-13 as aboul

95 oporalions por lour. Tlis baso vaIuo is llon adjuslod for loucl-and-go
oporalions and llo Iocalion of oxils using llo rigll sido of llis figuro. Irom
llo givon dala, llo porconlago of loucl-and-go oporalions in VIR is oquaI lo
6 porconl. Tloroforo, llo loucl-and-go adjuslmonl faclor is oquaI lo 1.03. Ior
llo mix indox of 62.0, onIy lloso oxils Iocalod bolvoon 3500 and 6500 fl from
llo arrivaI llrosloId can bo counlod. Tloro aro lvo sucl oxils, ono al 4500 fl
and llo ollor al 6000 fl. Tloroforo, llo labIo llon givos an oxil faclor of 0.97
for 40 porconl arrivaIs.
Tloroforo, llo lourIy capacily of llo runvay syslom in VIR is from
Iq. (12-18)
95(1.03)(0.97) 95 oporalions por lour
Tlo IIR capacily is dolorminod simiIarIy from Iig. 12-14. Tlis viII yioId,
for an IIR mix indox of 91.2 and a porconl arrivaIs (IA) of 50 porconl, llo baso
capacily, loucl-and-go faclor, and oxil faclor as
58(1.00)(0.97) 56 oporalions por lour
--




--



0
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H O U R L Y C A P A C T Y B A S E ( C * ) ( O P E R A T O N S P E R H O U R )
9
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H
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H O U R L Y C A P A C T Y B A S E ( C * ) ( O P E R A T O N S P E R H O U R )
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V
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S

- -
--
DoIay lo aircrafl is dofinod as llo difforonco bolvoon llo acluaI limo
il laIos an aircrafl lo manouvor on llo runvay and llo limo il vouId
laIo llo aircrafl lo manouvor villoul inlorforonco from ollor aircrafl.
Tlo runvay is dofinod as llo onliro runvay syslom incIuding approacl
and doparluro airspaco |26]. To compulo runvay syslom doIay, il is
nocossary lo anaIyzo oacl runvay-uso configuralion for llo domand
pIacod upon il. To compulo annuaI runvay doIay, il is nocossary lo
dolormino llo porconlago of limo oacl runvay-uso configuralion is
usod llrougloul llo yoar. NormaIIy llis viII roquiro InovIodgo of llo
foIIoving faclors:
1. Tlo lourIy capacily of llo runvay-uso slralogy in VIR and IIR
2. Tlo pallorn of lourIy, daiIy, and monllIy aircrafl domand
during llo dosign yoar
3. Tlo poaIing of domand during llo dosign lour
4. Tlo froquoncy of occurronco of runvay slralogios, coiIing,
and visibiIily condilions
Tlo loclniquos aro oulIinod in dolaiI in roforoncos |4, 26] bul il is
sufficionl lo nolo llal llo compulalion of annuaI doIay is a vory
lodious and limo-consuming procoss, and nov is gonoraIIy porformod
on compulors |17, 28, 29]. Tlo oIomonls of llo procoss aro slovn in
IxampIo IrobIom 12-8, vlicl usos clarls from llo IAA Airporl
Capacily and DoIay Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5360-5.
Tlo lourIy doIay lo aircrafl oporaling on llo runvay
syslom in IxampIo IrobIom 12-7 is lo bo found for boll VIR and IIR condilions.
Il is Inovn llal llo poaI 15-min domand in llo poaI lour is 20 oporalions in
VIR and 10 oporalions in IIR.
Tlo lourIy capacily of llo runvay syslom vas found oarIior and yioIdod
95 oporalions por lour in VIR and 56 oporalions por lour in IIR. Tlo lourIy
domand vas 50 oporalions por lour in VIR and 34 oporalions por lour in
IIR. Tloroforo, llo ralio of lourIy domand lo lourIy capacily is compulod
as for VIR

50
95
0 53 .
and for IIR

34
56
0 61 .
Iiguro 12-15, vlicl is laIon from roforoncos for llis runvay-uso slralogy
|4, 26], llo IAA Airporl Capacily Advisory CircuIar, givos llo varialion of llo
(ADI) and llo (DDI) for VIR and IIR
condilions for llis runvay uso for 50 porconl arrivaIs.
-

Basod upon llo rospoclivo mix indicos for VIR and IIR condilions, llis clarl
givos for VIR
ADI 1.00 and DDI 0.65
and for IIR
ADI 1.00 and DDI 0.57
Tloso indicos aro combinod vill llo rospoclivo ralios of domand lo capacily
lo arrivo al llo (ADI) and llo (DDI) as
foIIovs:
ADI ADI ( )

and
DDI DDI ( )

Tloroforo, for arrivaIs vo lavo in VIR

ADI (1.00)(0.53) 0.53
DDI (0.65)(0.53) 0.34
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
20 40
1.2
D/C RATO
1.0 OR LESS
FOR D/C RATO OF 1.0
OR MORE
DD = 1.0
FOR D/C RATO OF 0 TO 1.5
AD = 1.0
FOR D/C RATO OF 0 TO 1.5
AD = 1.0
60 80 100
MX NDEXPERCENT (C+3D)
A
R
R

V
A
L

D
E
L
A
Y

N
D
E
X

(
A
D

)
120140160180 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
20 40 60 80 100
MX NDEXPERCENT (C+3D)
A
R
R

V
A
L

D
E
L
A
Y

N
D
E
X

(
A
D

)
120140160180 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
20 40 60 80 100
MX NDEXPERCENT (C+3D)
40% ARRVALS
VFR Conditions
FR Conditions
50% ARRVALS 60% ARRVALS
A
R
R

V
A
L

D
E
L
A
Y

N
D
E
X

(
A
D

)
120140160180
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
20 40 60
D/C RATO
D/C RATO
0 TO 1.5
D/C RATO
0 TO 1.5
D/C RATO
0 TO 1.5
D/C RATO
0.8
0.6
0.4 OR LESS
1.0 OR MORE
0.4 OR LESS
0.8
D/C RATO
1.0 OR MORE
0.8
0.6
0.4 OR LESS
0.6
80 100
MX NDEXPERCENT (C+3D)
D
E
P
A
R
T
U
R
E

D
E
L
A
Y

N
D
E
X

(
D
D

)
120140160180 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
20 40 60 80 100
MX NDEXPERCENT (C+3D)
D
E
P
A
R
T
U
R
E

D
E
L
A
Y

N
D
E
X

(
D
D

)
120140160180 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
20 40 60 80 100
MX NDEXPERCENT (C+3D)
40% ARRVALS 50% ARRVALS
DEPARTURE DELAY NDEX
DEPARTURE DELAY NDEX
ARRVAL DELAY NDEX
ARRVAL DELAY NDEX = 1.00
60% ARRVALS
D
E
P
A
R
T
U
R
E

D
E
L
A
Y

N
D
E
X

(
D
D

)
120140160180
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
20 40 60 80 100
MX NDEXPERCENT (C+3D)
D
E
P
A
R
T
U
R
E

D
E
L
A
Y

N
D
E
X

(
D
D

)
120140160180 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
20 40 60 80 100
MX NDEXPERCENT (C+3D)
D
E
P
A
R
T
U
R
E

D
E
L
A
Y

N
D
E
X

(
D
D

)
120140160180 0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
20 40 60 80 100
MX NDEXPERCENT (C+3D)
40% ARRVALS 50% ARRVALS 60% ARRVALS
D
E
P
A
R
T
U
R
E

D
E
L
A
Y

N
D
E
X

(
D
D

)
120140160180
FOR D/C RATO OF 1.4
OR MORE
AD = 1.0
-

- -
and in IIR vo lavo
ADI (1.00)(0.61) 0.61
DDI (0.57)(0.61) 0.35
Tlo avorago doIay for oacl aircrafl is llon found from Iig. 12-16 by using llo
abovo doIay faclors and llo .
Tlo domand profiIo faclor is simpIy a moasuro of llo poaIing of domand
in llo lour and is dofinod as llo poaI 15-min domand dividod by llo lourIy
domand. Tloroforo, llo domand profiIo faclors (DII) aro in VIR
DII
20
50
100 40 ( )
and in IIR
DII
10
34
100 34 ( )
Irom Iig. 12-16, llo avorago doIays aro found in VIR as
ArrivaI doIay 1.4 min por aircrafl
Doparluro doIay 0.7 min por aircrafl
and in IIR
ArrivaI doIay 1.0 min por aircrafl
Doparluro doIay 0.3 min por aircrafl
45
40
35
30
25
50 Demand profile factor
0
0
2
4
6
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

d
e
l
a
y

p
e
r

a
i
r
c
r
a
f
t
,

m
i
n
8
10
12
0.2 0.4 0.6
Delay factor
0.8 1.0

-
-

Sinco, lloro aro oquaI arrivaIs and doparluros, llo lolaI doIay lo aII aircrafl in
llis lour in boll VIR and IIR can bo found.
TolaI doIay VIR 50|1.4(0.5) + 0.7(0.5)] 52.5 min
TolaI doIay IIR 34|1.0(0.5) + 0.3(0.5)] 22.1 min
Tlo compulalion of doIay al an airporl ovor various poriods of
limo roquiros llal llis procoduro bo ropoalod for oacl lour, day,
and monll for oacl runvay-uso slralogy and voallor condilion
and summod ovor llo poriod of inlorosl. Tlo procoss is slovn in
IxampIo IrobIom 12-9 for llo compulalion of doIay on a daiIy
basis.
To iIIuslralo llo airporl capacily landbooI mollod |4, 26]
of compuling llo doIay llrougloul a lypicaI day, Iol us dolormino llo daiIy doIay
lo aircrafl if llo runvay-uso slralogy slovn in Iig. 12-12 is usod llrougloul llo
day. Tlo lourIy capacily of llo runvay-uso slralogy is 80 oporalions por lour
and llo numbor of arrivaIs oquaIs llo numbor of doparluros in oacl lour. Tlo
lourIy domand llrougloul llo day is givon in TabIo 12-5.
Iol us assumo llal llo mix indox is oquaI lo 70 and domand profiIo faclor is
oquaI lo 25. Boll llo mix indox and llo domand profiIo faclor aro llo samo in
oacl lour. Iol us aIso assumo llal VIR condilions oxisl llrougloul llo day.
To soIvo llis probIom, il is nocossary lo compulo llo arrivaI doIay indox, llo
doparluro doIay indox, llo arrivaI doIay faclor, and llo doparluro doIay faclor for
oacl lour during llo day. Tlo compulalionaI procoduro diffors doponding upon
vlollor vlon llo lourIy domand is Ioss llan or oquaI lo llo lourIy capacily or
llo lourIy domand is groalor llan llo lourIy capacily.
Ior llo condilion vlon lourIy domand is Ioss llan or oquaI lo llo lourIy
capacily llo procoduro is llo samo as llal slovn in IxampIo IrobIom 12-8.
Ior oxampIo, in lour 1000 llo aircrafl domand is 60 oporalions por lour and
llo runvay capacily is 80 oporalions por lour. Tloroforo, llo ralio of lourIy
domand lo lourIy capacily is 60 ) 80 0.75.
Irom Iig. 12-15, llo arrivaI doIay indox (ADI) is 1.0 and llo doparluro doIay
indox (DDI) is 0.70. Tlo arrivaI doIay faclor is llon
ADI ADI

1 0 0 75 0 75 . ( . ) .

- -
and llo doparluro doIay faclor is
DDI DDI

0 70 0 75 0 53 . ( . ) .
Irom Iig. 12-16, using lloso doIay faclors and a domand profiIo faclor of 25,
an avorago arrivaI doIay of 1.2 min and an avorago doparluro doIay of 0.2 min
aro found.
Sinco llo numbor of arrivaIs is oquaI lo llo numbor of doparluros llo lolaI
doIay in lour 1000 is llon oquaI lo
DoIay 1.2(0.5)(60) + 0.2(0.5)(60) 42 aircrafl-minulos
Tlo procoduro is llo samo for lours 0000 llrougl lour 1500.
Hovovor, boginning al lour 1600 llo lourIy domand oxcoods llo lourIy
capacily for 3 l. Tloso aro caIIod -. Tlo cumuIalivo domand for
lloso 3 l, 330 oporalions, oxcoods llo cumuIalivo capacily avaiIabIo for lloso
3 l, 240 oporalions. Tloroforo, somo of lloso aircrafl aro nol sorvicod in lloso
3 l and spiII ovor inlo Ialor lours. Tlo Ialor lours sorvo llis bacIIog of domand
unliI llo bacIIog is cIoarod up. Tlis is slovn in TabIo 12-6. Tlo limo from lour
1600 lo lour 2000 is caIIod llo - .
Ior llo ovorIoadod poriod, lours 1600 llrougl 1800, llo lolaI domand is
dividod by llo lolaI capacily lo arrivo al llo avorago domand lo capacily ralio
during llo ovorIoadod lours. Tloroforo,

110 120 100

80 80 80
1 38 .
Irom Iig. 12-15, llo arrivaI doIay indox is 1.00 and llo doparluro doIay
indox is 0.75 during llo ovorIoadod lours. Tlis rosuIls in an arrivaI doIay faclor
of 1.00 1.38 1.38 and a doparluro doIay faclor of 0.75 1.38 1.04.
Iiguro 12-17, vlicl is laIon from llo IAA airporl capacily advisory circuIar,
givos llo aircrafl doIay in llo saluralod poriod vlon llo poriod of ovorIoad
is 3 l. Irom llis figuro, using a domand profiIo faclor of 25, an avorago arrivaI
doIay ovor llis poriod is found lo bo 35 min por arrivaI and an avorago doparluro
doIay ovor llis poriod is found lo bo 4 min por doparluro.
Tlo doIay in llo saluralod poriod is found by adding llo lolaI domand in llo
saluralod poriod and muIlipIying by llo avorago doIay por oporalion. Tlo lolaI
domand is llon llo domand from lours 1600 llrougl 2000, or 440 oporalions.

-
-

Sinco llo numbor of arrivaIs is oquaI lo llo numbor of doparluros in oacl

lour, llis yioIds a lolaI doIay in llo saluralod poriod of
DoIay 440(0.5)(35) + 440(0.5)(4) 8580 aircrafl-minulos
In llo lours 2100 llrougl 2300 llo domand is onco again Ioss llan llo capac-
ily, and llo bacIIog las boon cIoarod up. Tloroforo, llo procoduro is llo samo as
usod for lours 0000 llrougl 1500.
Tlo rosuIls aro dispIayod in labuIar formal in TabIo 12-7. Tlo rosuIl is llal
llo lolaI doIay on llis day is oquaI lo 8799 aircrafl-lours. Tlo avorago doIay lo
aircrafl on llis day is 8799/1050 8.4 min.
-
A roIalivoIy simpIo loclniquo for oslimaling doIays vlon domand
oxcoods capacily las boon usod in avialion sludios |19]. Tlis mollod is
caIIod a dolorminislic quouing modoI. In llis mollod, a limo scaIo is
oslabIislod on llo axis lo roprosonl llo limo poriod boing anaIyzod. On
llo axis, a scaIo is oslabIislod for llo cumuIalivo numbor of aircrafl
vlicl lavo arrivod by somo poinl in limo. Tloroforo, a poinl on llo pIol
roprosonls llo lolaI numbor of aircrafl vlicl lavo arrivod al llal poinl
1.0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1.1
DEMAND PROFLE FACTOR
1.2 1.3
DELAY FACTOR DURNG OVERLOAD PHASE
DURATON OF OVERLOAD PHASE
THREE HOURS
A
V
E
R
A
G
E

D
E
L
A
Y

P
E
R

A

R
C
R
A
F
T
D
U
R

N
G

S
A
T
U
R
A
T
E
D

C
O
N
D

O
N
S

(
M

N
U
T
E
S
)
1.4 1.5
2
5
3
0
3
5
4
0
4
5
5
0
- -
-

- -
in limo. Tlo curvo vlicl rosuIls from pIolling llo succossion of poinls is
acluaIIy a roprosonlalion of llo domand (). A Iino of conslanl, or for
llal mallor variabIo sIopo, can bo dravn on llo samo grapl lo slov llo
sorvico capabiIilios, or capacily, of a faciIily. Tlis is llo sorvico funclion
(). An iIIuslralion of sucl a grapl is givon in Iig. 12-18.
In llis figuro, poinl A roprosonls llo limo vlon llo domand ralo
bogins lo oxcood llo sorvico ralo or capacily. Tloroforo, doIays and
quouos bogin lo dovoIop. Al poinl B, llo doIays and quouos vlicl
lavo buiIl sinco limo
1
viII lavo dissipalod, and llo domand ralo is
nov Ioss llan llo sorvico ralo. A roviov of llo rosuIls dispIayod on
llis figuro slovs llal
1. DoIays occur from limo
1
lo limo
4
.
2. Tlo lolaI numbor of aircrafl doIayod is llo difforonco bolvoon

4
and
1.
3. Irom limo
1
lo limo
3
llo domand ralo oxcoods llo sorvico
ralo, and doIays and quouos incroaso during llis limo poriod.
4. Tlo maximum doIay and maximum quouo Iongll occur al
limo
3
sinco llo domand ralo bocomos Ioss llan llo sorvico
ralo al llis limo.
5. Tlo doIay lo any aircrafl is givon by llo magniludo of a lori-
zonlaI Iino dravn bolvoon llo lvo curvos.
P
1
A
B
Delay
Queue
length
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

a
i
r
c
r
a
f
t

a
r
r
i
v
a
l
s

s
i
n
c
e

t
0
Service
rate
time
t
0
t
1
P
2
P
3
P
4
t
2
t
3
t
4
Time
-
-

6. Tlo Iongll of a quouo al any poinl in limo is givon by llo

magniludo of a vorlicaI Iino dravn bolvoon llo lvo curvos al
llal poinl in limo.
7. Tlo aroa bolvoon llo lvo curvos roprosonls llo lolaI doIay lo
aII aircrafl vlicl aro doIayod from limo
1
lo limo
4
.
Tlis lypo of anaIysis is usofuI in airporl pIanning lo oslimalo llo
magniludo of doIays, numbor of aircrafl doIayod, and llo cosl of
doIay undor assumod oporaling condilions. Il doos nol, lovovor,
givo an indicalion of llo doIays vlicl occur vlon avorago domand
is Ioss llan llo capacily. Tloso aro normaIIy caIcuIalod by llo oqua-
lions or mollods discussod oarIior.
IxampIo IrobIom 12-10 iIIuslralos llo appIicalion of llis locl-
niquo lo a runvay syslom.
Tlo lourIy aircrafl domand during a lypicaI day al an
airporl is givon in TabIo 12-5. Tlo runvay syslom las a capacily lo sorvico
80 aircrafl por lour villoul doIay.
An anaIysis of llo doIay vlon domand oxcoods capacily is lo bo conduclod.
Ior discussion purposos llo lourIy pallorn of domand and llo capacily aro
pIollod in Iig. 12-19. Tlo dolorminislic modoI maIos llo assumplion llal doIay
occurs onIy vlon domand oxcoods capacily. Tlis figuro slovs llal up unliI lour
1600 llo aircrafl domand in any lour is Ioss llan llo runvay capacily and lloro-
foro doIays do nol occur. Hovovor, boginning al lour 1600 llo aircrafl domand
bogins lo oxcood llo runvay capacily and lloroforo doIays bogin lo accruo from
llis poinl in limo.
Delay Begins
Runway Capacity
20
0 200 400 600 800
Time
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
40
60
80
A
i
r
c
r
a
f
t

D
e
m
a
n
d
100
120
140
160

- -
Tlo dala in TabIo 12-5 aro pIollod in Iig. 12-20, vloro llo cumuIalivo lourIy
domand () and cumuIalivo sorvico ralo () aro pIollod vorsus limo. Tlis figuro
again slovs llal al lour 1600 llo domand ralo bogins lo oxcood llo capacily and
lloroforo doIay viII bogin in lour 1600.
Tlo sladod aroa bolvoon llo curvos roprosonls llo poriod vlon aircrafl
doIays occur. Hovovor, duo lo llo scaIo on llis figuro, il is difficuIl lo dolormino
llo vaIuos of llo groalosl doIay lo any aircrafl, llo groalosl vaIuo villin
llo sladod aroa, llo groalosl numbor (quouo) of aircrafl doIayod, llo Iargosl
vaIuo villin llo sladod aroa, or llo lolaI aircrafl-lours of doIay, llo sladod
aroa. Sinco onIy llo poriod aflor lour 1600 conlains doIay and llo vaIuo
villin llo sladod aroa roprosonls llo difforonco bolvoon domand and capac-
ily, a pIol of llo cumuIalivo difforonco bolvoon domand and capacily vorsus
limo from lour 1600, labuIalod in TabIo 12-8, is slovn in Iig. 12-21. Tlis
figuro offoclivoIy oxpands llo scaIo of llo sladod aroa in Iig. 12-20 and is
mucl oasior lo uso lo dolormino llo vaIuos of llo abovo doIay and quouo
Iongll paramolors.
Tlo groalosl vaIuo on Iig. 12-21 roprosonls llo groalosl numbor of aircrafl
doIayod al any poinl in limo, llo limo poriod vlon llo curvo is abovo llo axis
is llo limo poriod during vlicl doIay occurs, and llo aroa of llo curvo abovo
llo axis is llo lolaI aircrafl-lours of doIay.
Greatest Delay
= 67.5 minutes
0 400 800 1200
Time
1600 2000
1
80
Runway
Capacity
Greatest Queue
= 90 aircraft
D(t)
S(t)
Delay Period
1600 to 2148
h
Total
Delayed
Aircraft
= 464
2400
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e

A
i
r
c
r
a
f
t
800
900
1000
1100
1200
- --

-

Tlo Iargosl numbor of aircrafl doIayod al any poinl in limo is found lo bo 90.
Tlo sorvico limo for an aircrafl is llo rociprocaI of llo runvay capacily, or llo
runvay viII sorvico ono aircrafl in 0.75 min. Tlo doIay limo for llo aircrafl vlicl
is doIayod llo Iongosl is lloroforo 90(0.75) 67.5 min. Tlo lolaI numbor of aircrafl
lours of doIay is llo aroa undor llis curvo or 306 aircrafl-lours.
AII of llo aircrafl in lours 1600 lo 2000 and 80 porconl of llo aircrafl in lour
2100 aro doIayod. Tlis amounls lo 464 aircrafl. Tloroforo, llo avorago doIay lo
doIayod aircrafl on llis day is 306/464 0.66 l 40 min. Tlo avorago doIay lo
aII aircrafl using llo runvay on llis day is 306/1050 0.29 l 17 min.

-

1600
80
60
40
20
D
e
m
a
n
d

C
a
p
a
c
i
t
y
+20
+40
+60
+80
+100
1700 1800 1900 2000
Time
2100
0.8
h
2200 2300
70
10
40
80
90
70
30
-

- -
-
- is a IovoI of annuaI aircrafl oporalions llal may
bo usod as a roforonco in proIiminary pIanning. As annuaI aircrafl
oporalions approacl annuaI sorvico voIumo, llo avorago doIay lo
oacl aircrafl llrougloul llo yoar may incroaso rapidIy vill roIalivoIy
smaII incroasos in aircrafl oporalions, lloroby causing IovoIs of sor-
vico on llo airfioId lo dolorioralo.
Wlon annuaI aircrafl oporalions on llo airfioId aro oquaI lo
annuaI sorvico voIumo, avorago doIay lo oacl aircrafl llrougloul llo
yoar is on llo ordor of 1 lo 4 min. A moro prociso oslimalo of acluaI
avorago doIay lo aircrafl al a parlicuIar airporl can bo oblainod using
lloso procoduros if llis is roquirod in llo pIanning appIicalion.
SimpIifiod oslimaling procoduros aro avaiIabIo for airporl pIan-
ning purposos lo dolormino llo annuaI sorvico voIumo and avorago
aircrafl doIay for runvay configuralions oxisling al airporls. Tloso
procoduros slouId onIy bo usod for proIiminary oslimaling purposos.
Tloso procoduros aIIov for approximalions of
Tlo lourIy capacily of runvays in VIR and IIR condilions
Tlo annuaI sorvico voIumo of runvays
Tlo avorago annuaI doIay lo aircrafl on runvays
HourIy capacilios and annuaI sorvico voIumos for a numbor of
runvay configuralions aro prosonlod in TabIo 12-9. An approxi-
malo oslimalo of avorago aircrafl doIay por yoar for any runvay
configuralion can bo oblainod from Iig. 12-22. Tlo dala slovn in
TabIo 12-9 and Iig. 12-22 aro basod on a numbor of assumplions
vlicl incIudo
1. A roprosonlalivo rango of mix indicos sufficionl for oslimaling
purposos.
2. Tlo lourIy capacilios aro lloso corrospond lo llo runvay uli-
Iizalion vlicl producos llo Iargosl capacily consislonl vill
curronl air lraffic conlroI procoduros and praclicos, and llis
configuralion is usod 80 porconl of llo limo.
3. Ono-laIf of llo domand for llo uso of llo runvays is by arriv-
ing aircrafl, and llus, llo numbor of arriving and doparling
aircrafl in a spocifiod poriod of limo is oquaI.
4. Tlo porconlago of loucl-and-go oporalions is a funclion of
llo mix indox of llo airporl.
5. Sufficionl laxivays oxisl lo pormil llo capacily of llo run-
vays lo bo fuIIy roaIizod.
6. Tlo impacl on capacily of a laxivay crossing an aclivo run-
vay is assumod lo bo nogIigibIo.
-

-- -
Runway Configuration
A
B 700' to 2,499'
700' to 2,499'
700' to 2,499'
700' to 2,499'
2,500' to 3,499'
4,300' or more C
D
E
F
G
Mix
ndex, %
(C + 3D)
Hourly Capacity,
Operations
per hour
VFR FR
Annual
service
volume,
operations
per year
020 197 59 355,000
2150 145 57 275,000
5180 121 56 260,000
81120 105 59 285,000
121180 94 60 340,000
020 197 119 370,000
2150 149 114 320,000
5180 126 111 305,000
81120 111 105 315,000
121180 103 99 370,000
020 295 62 385,000
2150 219 63 310,000
5180 184 65 290,000
81120 161 70 315,000
121180 146 75 385,000
020 394 119 715,000
2150 290 114 550,000
5180 242 111 515,000
81120 210 117 565,000
121180 189 120 675,000
020 98 59 230,000
2150 77 57 200,000
5180 77 56 215,000
81120 76 59 225,000
121180 72 60 265,000
020 150 59 270,000
2150 108 57 225,000
5180 85 56 220,000
81120 77 59 225,000
121180 73 60 265,000
020 98 59 230,000
2150 74 57 195,000
5180 63 56 205,000
81120 55 53 210,000
121180 51 50 240,000
3,500' or more
H
020 132 59 260,000
2150 99 57 220,000
5180 82 56 215,000
81120 77 59 225,000
121180 73 60 265,000

-

-- -

700' to 2,499'
700' to 2,499'
4,300' or more

J
K
L
M
020 150 59 270,000
2150 108 57 225,000
5180 85 56 220,000
81120 77 59 225,000
121180 73 60 265,000
020 132 59 260,000
2150 99 57 220,000
5180 82 56 215,000
81120 77 59 225,000
121180 73 60 265,000
020 197 59 355,000
2150 145 57 275,000
5180 121 56 260,000
81120 105 59 285,000
121180 94 60 340,000
020 197 119 370,000
2150 149 114 320,000
5180 126 111 305,000
81120 111 105 315,000
121180 103 99 370,000
020 295 59 385,000
2150 210 57 305,000
5180 164 56 275,000
81120 146 59 300,000
121180 129 60 355,000
N
O
020 197 59 355,000
2150 147 57 275,000
5180 145 56 270,000
81120 138 59 295,000
121180 125 60 350,000
020 295 59 385,000
2150 210 57 305,000
5180 164 56 275,000
81120 146 59 300,000
121180 129 60 355,000
700' to 2,499'
Less than 2,500'
Less than 2,500'

7. Tloro is sufficionl airspaco lo accommodalo aII aircrafl visl-

ing lo uso llo runvays and aircrafl oporalions aro conduclod
in a radar onvironmonl vill al Ioasl ono runvay oquippod
vill an inslrumonl Ianding syslom.
8. IIR condilions occur 10 porconl of llo limo.
9. Roprosonlalivo lourIy and daiIy ralios aro a funclion of llo
mix indox.
Tlo ordor-of-magniludo roIalionslip bolvoon avorago annuaI
doIay por aircrafl and annuaI sorvico voIumo dopiclod in Iig. 12-22
vas dorivod from lisloricaI lraffic rocords and a rango of assump-
lions on IiIoIy oporaling condilions, as ilomizod abovo. TypicaIIy, llo
uppor porlion of llo sladod band on Iig. 12-22 is roprosonlalivo of
airporls primariIy sorving air carrior oporalions. Airporls sorving pri-
mariIy gonoraI avialion oporalions may lypicaIIy faII anyvloro
villin llo onliro sladod band. Tlo dollod curvo is llo avorago of llo
uppor and Iovor Iimils of llo band indicalod. IxampIo IrobIom 12-11
slovs llo uso of lloso approximalo procoduros.
0
0
1
2
3
4
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

d
e
l
a
y

p
e
r

y
e
a
r
,

m
i
n
5
6
7
8
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Ratio of annual demand to annual service volume
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1
-
- -

- -
An airporl las a singIo runvay avaiIabIo lo sorvico arriv-
aIs and doparluros. Tlo projoclod annuaI domand in a fuluro yoar is 220,000
oporalions. Tlo aircrafl mix is oslimalod lo consisl of 21 porconl smaII singIo
ongino, 20 porconl smaII muIliongino, 55 porconl Iargo commorciaI aircrafl, and
4 porconl loavy aircrafl. Air carrior oporalions prodominalo al llo airporl and
vory fov loucl-and-go oporalions occur.
Il is nocossary lo dolormino llo annuaI sorvico voIumo and avorago doIay
lo aircrafl for llo singIo runvay and for cIosoIy spacod paraIIoIs vlicl may bo
conslruclod. Tlo mix indox al llo airporl is compulod as
MI 55 + 3(4) 67
Irom TabIo 12-9, llo annuaI sorvico voIumo for oacl runvay is found from
runvay configuralion diagrams A and B vill llo mix indox rango of 51 lo 80
SingIo-runvay ASV 205,000 oporalions
CIoso paraIIoI-runvay ASV 260,000 oporalions
Tlo ralios of annuaI domand lo annuaI sorvico voIumo aro llon compulod
for boll silualions as for a singIo runvay
Domand
ASV

220 000
205 000
1 07
,
,
.
and for cIoso paraIIoI runvays
Domand
ASV

220 000
260 000
0 84
,
,
.
Using llo uppor laIf of llo grapl in Iig. 12-22, sinco llis is an prodominanlIy
air carrior airporl, yioIds llo avorago annuaI doIay por aircrafl. Tloso vaIuos aro
for a singIo runvay bolvoon 4.0 and 6.0 min por oporalion and for cIoso paraIIoI
runvays bolvoon 1.2 and 1.7 min por oporalion.
Il is cIoar llal llo conslruclion of cIoso paraIIoI runvays viII roprosonl a
bonofil in lorms of docroasod doIays. Hovovor, a dolaiIod anaIysis of llis slouId
bo porformod prior lo maIing a docision on conslruclion modificalions sinco llis
procoduro is approximalo and basod upon llo assumplions nolod abovo.
Tlo dolorminalion of roaIislic oslimalos of aircrafl doIay is a
lodious and limo-consuming procoss, as vas slovn in IxampIo Irob-
Iom 12-9. Tlo Airporl Capacily Advisory CircuIar oulIinos in dolaiI
llo procoduros vlicl aro roquirod |4, 26]. BasicaIIy, lo compulo air-
crafl doIay il is nocossary lo lavo oslimalos of llo lourIy domand on
llo runvay syslom, llo lourIy capacily of oacl runvay-uso configu-
ralion, and llo porconlago of limo oacl runvay-uso configuralion is
uliIizod in oacl voallor condilion. Tlo procoss can bo porformod for
a lypicaI day, for sovoraI days, or on a monllIy or annuaI basis.
IorlunaloIy, llo IAA las dovoIopod a compulor program for llo
dolorminalion of annuaI doIay al an airporl |17, 28, 29]. Tlis program
compiIos avorago aircrafl doIay by runvay-uso configuralion, by voallor
condilion, on a daiIy, vooIIy, monllIy, and annuaI basis and il prosonls
an annuaI dislribulion of llo magniludo of doIay al llo airporl.
-

Tlo annuaI sorvico voIumo may bo roIalod lo spocific criloria for

llo IovoI of avorago aircrafl doIay. To do llis, llo annuaI domand on
llo airfioId is variod ovor a rango of vaIuos vlicl roprosonl uppor
and Iovor bounds on llo spocifiod avorago doIay criloria. By pIolling
llo avorago aircrafl doIay vorsus llo annuaI domand a curvo is dovoI-
opod sloving llo varialion in avorago aircrafl doIay as a funclion of
annuaI domand. By finding llo annuaI domand vlicl corrosponds
lo llo doIay criloria llo annuaI sorvico voIumo is dofinod. Il slouId bo
nolod llal llo samo procoss may bo usod on lourIy basis lo find llo
praclicaI lourIy capacily of a runvay-uso configuralion. Tlo com-
pulor modoI cilod abovo is vory usofuI for llis purposo.
-
WliIo mallomalicaI modoIs form llo fundamonlaI basis for oslimal-
ing capacily and doIay of an airporl, sucl modoIs bocomo oxlromoIy
compIox for mosl airporls. Airporls vill muIlipIo runvays and laxi-
vays, varying uso configuralions, fIool mixos, and voallor condilions
rondor slricl anaIylicaI mollods oxlromoIy difficuIl if nol impossibIo
lo accuraloIy oslimalo airfioId capacily and doIay. IorlunaloIy, suporior
compuling povor las bocomo roadiIy avaiIabIo sinco llo Ialo 1990s lo
appIy compulor simuIalion modoIs lo accuraloIy and dynamicaIIy
oslimalo oporaling capacily and doIays for curronl, as voII as proposod
airfioId configuralions.
Tlo lloory and praclico of simuIalion modoIing is a liglIy com-
pIox sludy llal oxcoods llo scopo of llis loxl. Tlo IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion las a loam dodicalod lo dovoIopmonl and appIicalion
of a varioly of soflvaro looIs dosignod lo simuIalo various oIomonls of
llo airporl and airspaco syslom. Tloso looIs simuIalo and anaIyzo
oporalions from capacily, doIay, as voII as oporalionaI foasibiIily por-
spoclivos. Spocific IAA soflvaro modoIs incIudo llo IAAs airporl and
airspaco simuIalion modoI, llo airporl doIay simuIalion modoI
(ADSIM), and llo runvay doIay simuIalion modoI (RDSIM). Iacl of
lloso looIs usos discrolo ovonl-basod simuIalions lo anaIyzo oporalions.
As vill mosl simuIalions, lloso looIs appIy an infraslrucluro of nodos
and IinIs lo dofino llo airfioId and airspaco configuralions, a sol of
ruIos for lov aircrafl aro lo oporalo villin llo infraslrucluro, and a sol
of discrolo ovonls, in parlicuIar llo arrivaI and doparluro of aircrafl
villin llo infraslrucluro, lo simuIalo llo onvironmonl.
Tloso programs gonoralo a sorios of slandard roporls dolaiIing
llo fIiglls simuIalod, aIong vill aggrogalod slalislics, doscribing
llo capacily of llo syslom, doIays oncounlorod by fIiglls, and any
ruIo vioIalions or confIicls llal may lavo occurrod. Tloy aIso pro-
paro oxlondod roporls vlicl compiIo doIay slalislics by lour for llo
various runvay-uso configuralions for arrivaIs, doparluros and
lolaI oporalions. Tloso roporls can bo oulpul in boll labuIar and
graplicaI formal.

- -
Tloro aro various ollor compulor simuIalion modoIs vill vary-
ing dogroos capabiIilios incIuding ATACs , llo Iroslon
Groups lolaI airporl and airspaco modoIor (TAAM) and smaIIor
gonoric simuIalion programs sucl as llal may bo appIiod lo
llo airporl onvironmonl. Tlo roador is oncouragod lo road lloso
producls promolionaI maloriaIs and/or usor guidos lo gain a groalor
approcialion of lloso modoIs.

Galo capacily can bo dofinod as llo maximum numbor of aircrafl llal
a fixod numbor of galos can accommodalo during a spocifiod inlorvaI
of limo vlon lloro is a conlinuous domand for sorvico. Galo capacily
can bo caIcuIalod as llo invorso of a voigllod-avorago galo occu-
pancy limo of aII aircrafl boing sorvod. Ior oxampIo, if an aircrafl
occupios a galo for an avorago of 30 min, llo capacily of llo galo
oquaIs lvo aircrafl por lour.
Tlo faclors llal affocl galo capacily aro as foIIovs:
1. Tlo numbor and lypo of galos avaiIabIo lo aircrafl.
2. Tlo mix of aircrafl domanding apron galos and llo galo occu-
pancy limo for various aircrafl.
3. Tlo porconlago of limo galos may bo usod, vlicl rofIocls llo
facl llal limo is roquirod lo manouvor aircrafl inlo and oul of
galo posilions and llo doIay oflon roslricls llo amounl of limo
acluaIIy avaiIabIo for aircrafl galo occupancy.
4. Roslriclions in llo uso of any or aII galos.
Typo of galo rofors lo ils abiIily lo accommodalo a Iargo, modium,
or smaII aircrafl. NormaIIy galos al an airporl aro dosignalod as vido-
bodiod aircrafl galos, narrov-bodiod aircrafl galos and commulor-
aircrafl galos. Tlo mix of aircrafl rofors primariIy lo sizo bul aIso llo
roquirod galo occupancy limo. Vory Iargo aircrafl roquiro corlain lypos
of galos in ordor lo procoss passongors. Timo is sponl manouvoring al
a galo and lloroforo llo galo uliIizalion may nol bo 100 porconl of llo
limo. If llo galo occupancy limo incIudos llo limo lo manouvor al
galo posilions, as voII as llo normaI procossing limos lo Ioad and
unIoad passongors, lo fuoI and inspocl llo aircrafl, porform cabin
sorvico and ollor roulino sorvico, llon llo uliIizalion viII approacl
100 porconl. Occupancy limos vary doponding on llo sizo of aircrafl
and vlollor il is an originaling, lurnaround, or llrougl fIigll. Tlo
galo occupancy limos oxpoclod by aircrafl manufaclurors aro usuaIIy
givon in pubIicalions, lovovor, llis viII vary vill oacl airIino and
lloir oporaling procoduros al difforonl slalions or airporls. Oflon
scloduIos or Ialonoss of arrivaIs viII rosuIl in mucl groalor occu-
pancy limos llan normaIIy roquirod.
-

-
Tlo basis of galo capacily anaIysis is llal llo galo limo domandod by
aircrafl slouId bo Ioss llan or oquaI lo llo galo limo avaiIabIo for lloso
aircrafl. Tvo anaIylicaI modoIs lavo boon dovoIopod for dolormining
llo capacily of galos al an airporl. Ono modoI assumos llal aII aircrafl
can uso aII llo galos avaiIabIo al an airporl. Tlis is lormod an
- - -. Tlo ollor modoI assumos llal aircrafl of a
corlain sizo or airIino can onIy uso galos llal voro spocificaIIy dosignod
for lloso aircrafl or airIino. Tlis is caIIod a roslriclod galo uso slralogy.
Boll of lloso modoIs aro doscribod and mosl silualions oncounlorod
in praclico may bo approaclod llrougl ono of llo lvo modoIs.
Wlon lloro aro no roslriclions on llo uso of galos, llal is, aII air-
crafl can uso aII llo galos, llo capacily of llo galos

can bo dorivod
as foIIovs:
Galo limo suppIiod galo limo domandod:
k

(12-19)
vloro k

galo uliIizalion faclor, or llo porconlago of limo in an

lour llal llo galos of lypo may bo usod by aircrafl of
lypo

numbor of lypo galos avaiIabIo lo aircrafl of lypo

(

) oxpoclod vaIuo of llo galo occupancy limo domandod

by aircrafl vlicl can uso galo lypo

capacily of llo galos of lypo in aircrafl por lour

Tlo oxpoclod vaIuo of llo galo occupancy limo (

) is found from
llo foIIoving oxprossion:
(

(12-20)
vloro

is llo porconlago of lypo aircrafl in llo fIool mix using llo

galos al airporl, and

is llo galo occupancy limo roquirod for air-

crafl of lypo al llo airporl.
Tlo uso of lloso oqualions is iIIuslralod for unroslriclod galo uso
in IxampIo IrobIom 12-12.
An airporl las four galos avaiIabIo lo aII aircrafl. Tlo air-
crafl mix al llo airporl in llo poaI lour consisls of 30 porconl lypo A, 50 porconl
lypo B, and 20 porconl lypo C aircrafl. Typo A aircrafl roquiro a galo occupancy
limo of 60 min, lypo B roquiro 45 min, and lypo C roquiro 30 min. NormaIIy,
duo lo llo dislribulion of domand, llo maximum galo uliIizalion vlicl can
bo oxpoclod is 70 porconl. Il is roquirod lo find llo capacily of llo galos al llis
airporl lo procoss aircrafl.
Irom Iq. (12-19) vo lavo
0.70(4)(60) |0.3(60) + 0.50(45) + 0.20(30)]

- -
vlicl roducos lo

3.6 aircrafl por lour

Il slouId bo obsorvod llal, sinco ovory aircrafl al a galo onlaiIs lvo opora-
lions, an arrivaI and a doparluro, llo lourIy capacily of llo galos couId aIso bo
oxprossod as 2(3.6) 7.2 oporalions por lour. AIso if llo galo uliIizalion faclor is
oquaI lo 1, llon llo uIlimalo capacily of llo galos bocomos oquaI lo 5.2 aircrafl
por lour.
Ior roslriclod galo uso, llo mix of galos and llo mix of aircrafl
using llo airporl may nol bo llo samo. Tloroforo, il is nocossary lo
find llo galo capacily of oacl lypo of galo and llon dolormino llo
ovoraII capacily of llo airporl basod upon galo capabiIilios as llo
minimum capacily galo, capacily of any lypo galo. MallomalicaIIy,
llis bocomos

min(

) (12-21)
Tlo uso of llo abovo anaIysis for roslriclod galo uso is slovn in
IxampIo IrobIom 12-13.
An airporl las 10 galos avaiIabIo for aircrafl. Tloso galos
aro roslriclod in llo lypos of aircrafl vlicl can bo accommodalod. Tlo fivo
lypo I galos can accommodalo any lypo of aircrafl, llo llroo lypo II galos cannol
accommodalo a lypo A aircrafl, and a lypo III galo can onIy accommodalo a
lypo C aircrafl.
Tlo mix and llo galo occupancy limos of llo aircrafl using llo airporl in llo
poaI lour is llo samo as in IxampIo IrobIom 12-13. Tlo galo uliIizalion faclor
is 1.0.
Dolormino llo capacily of llo galos lo procoss aircrafl al llis airporl.
Tlo roIalionslip slovn in Iq. (12-19) musl bo soIvod for oacl lypo of galo.
Tloro aro 5 galos avaiIabIo lo lypo A, 8 for lypo B, and 10 for lypo C aircrafl.
SoIving Iq. (12-19) for oacl galo lypo yioIds
1.0(5)(60) 0.3(60)
I

I
16.67 aircrafl por lour
1.0(8)(60) |0.3(60) + 0.5(45)]
II

II
11.85 aircrafl por lour
1.0(10)(60) |0.3(60) + 0.5(45) + 0.2(30)]
III

III
12.90 aircrafl por lour
Tloroforo, llo lypo II galos roslricl llo aircrafl capacily of llo airporl from
Iq. (12-21)

min(16.67, 11.85, 12.90) 11.9

Tloroforo, vill llis mix of aircrafl domanding galos al llo airporl, llo galo
mix roslricls llo airporl capacily lo 11.9 aircrafl por lour or 23.8 oporalions por
lour.
-

Il slouId bo nolod llal onIy vill llis capacily is llo galo limo suppIiod
groalor llan or oquaI lo llo galo limo domandod. Tlis is slovn as
Galo limo suppIiod galo limo domandod
1.0(10)(60) |0.3(60) + 0.5(45) + 0.2(30)](11.9)
600 554 as roquirod
As doscribod in llis claplor, airporl pIanning and dosign vill
rospocl lo capacily is a crilicaI and compIox procoss. WliIo llis clap-
lor focusod on llo anaIylicaI fundamonlaIs of oslimaling capacily,
pIannors slouId laIo carofuI considoralion inlo oslimaling capacily
from boll an anaIylicaI and ompiricaI porspoclivo, idoaIIy appIying
somo form of simuIalion modoI. Il is undorslood llal lloro is aIso a
baIanco llal musl bo mainlainod by llo airporl pIannor bolvoon llo
amounl of limo and budgol avaiIabIo lo do capacily sludios. Somo
airporls vill roIalivoIy simpIo airfioId configuralions and roIalivoIy
smaII pIanning budgols may bo sufficionlIy sorvod vill a basic ana-
IylicaI modoI, or moro simpIy roforoncing IAA approximalion clarls.
On llo ollor land, Iargo-scaIo compIox projocls slouId dodicalo suf-
ficionl rosourcos lo proporIy and comprolonsivoIy anaIyzing capacily
and projoclod doIays as parl of llo pIanning procoss. WliIo sucl
invoIvomonl may bo oxponsivo, llo invoslmonl mado in proporIy
dosigning for approprialo capacily may vory voII avoid mucl liglor
cosls associalod vill dovoIoping infraslrucluro llal cannol accom-
modalo lloso vlo uso il.
-
1. A IIoxibIo ModoI for Runvay Capacily AnaIysis, W. I. Woiss, Maslors
Tlosis, Massaclusolls Inslilulo of ToclnoIogy, Cambridgo, Mass., }uno 1980.
2. - -
Roporl No. AOR-89-01, Oporalions Rosoarcl Offico, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Soplombor 1989.
3. , Airborno Inslrumonls Iaboralory, Roporl No. BRD-136, IodoraI
Avialion Agoncy, Offico of ToclnicaI Sorvicos, Doparlmonl of Commorco,
Waslinglon, D.C., }uno 1963.
4. , Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5060-5, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1983.
5. --, Roporl No. IAA-IM-79-4, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Oclobor 1978.
6. - -, SpociaI Roporl, No. 226, Transporlalion
Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1990.
7. , Ordor No. 7110.65G, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Marcl 1992.
8. A MollodoIogy for Airporl Capacily AnaIysis, S. I. M. HocIaday and
A. Kanafani, - - VoI. 8, 1974.
9. - Roporl No. DOT/IAA/ASC-91-1, U.S.
Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon,
D.C., 1991.
10. - , VoI. II ModoI VaIidalion and Ixisling
Airspaco/AirfioId Iorformanco, Iandrum and Brovn Avialion ConsuIlanls,
Clicago, III., ApriI 1991.

- -
11. - - -
, C. T. BaII, Gradualo Roporl No. UCB-ITS-GR-78-1, Inslilulo of
Transporlalion Sludios, Univorsily of CaIifornia, BorIoIoy, CaIif., Augusl 1978.
12. , Roporl No. IAA-IM-74-5, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1974.
13. IroIiminary Roporl and Rocommondod
Sludy IIan, Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1988.
14. - - , SpociaI Roporl, No. 215, Transporlalion
Rosoarcl Board, Waslinglon, D.C., 1987.
15. - - --
, V. Tosic and R. Horonjoff, SpociaI Roporl, NalionaI Aoronaulics and Spaco
Adminislralion, Amos Rosoarcl Conlor, Moffoll IioId, CaIif., Soplombor 1975.
16. - --, R. M. Harris, MITRI Corporalion, Roporl No.
IAA-IM-73-5, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., May 1974.
17. -- -, C. T. BaII, Roporl
No. IAA-RD-76-128, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C.,
Novombor 1976.
18. -- , IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1991.
19. - , Ixoculivo Summary and ToclnicaI Roporl,
Clicago OHaro InlornalionaI Airporl, Roporl No. IAA-AGI-76-1, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., }uIy 1976.
20. - Roporl No. IAA-RD-73-111,
VoIs. 1 and 2, Inlorim Roporl, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon,
D.C., ApriI 1973.
21. - -
- -- - - Subcommilloo on Avialion, Commilloo
on IubIic WorIs and Transporlalion, Houso of Roprosonlalivo Roporl No. 101-37,
US Houso of Roprosonlalivos, Waslinglon, D.C., 1990.
22. - Roforonco ManuaI, RoIoaso 1.1,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Oclobor 1990.
23. H. Truo, S. WoIf, and D. Winor,
Oporalions Rosoarcl Sorvico, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon,
D.C., Iobruary 1991.
24.
-, Roporl No. IAA-RD-76-153, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Waslinglon, D.C., }uno 1976.
25. -, IinaI Roporl, Roporl No.
IAA-RD-76-153, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., }uno 1976.
26. - - , Roporl No. IAA-
RD-74-124, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., }uno 1976.
27. --, IiscaI Yoars 19912005, Roporl No. IAA-AIO-91-5,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., }uIy 1991.
28. , VoI. I: -- , W. }.
Svodisl, Tlo MITRI Corporalion, Roporl No. IAA-IM-81-1, VoI. I, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Iobruary 1981.
29. , VoI. II: -- --,
W. }. Svodisl, Tlo MITRI Corporalion, Roporl No. IAA-IM-81-1, VoI. II,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Iobruary 1981.
30. IinaI Roporl, }. C. BobicI, ATAC Corporalion,
Mounlain Viov, CaIif., Docombor 1988.
31. NalionaI Airspaco Syslom: DOT and IAA Aclions WiII IiIos Havo a Iimilod
Iffocl on Roducing DoIays during Summor 2008 TravoI Soason, US GAO
IubIicalion GAO-012- 934T, Waslinglon, D.C. 2008.

-

Tlis claplor is dosignod lo provido llo airporl pIannor and onginoor

vill somo of llo fundamonlaI slralogios avaiIabIo lo financo Iargo scaIo
pIanning and dosign projocls. Duo lo llo ruIos associalod vill many
IodoraI, slalo, and IocaI programs in llo Unilod Slalos, slralogios for
funding Iargo capilaI programs aro boll difforonl and oxcIusivo from
funding llo day-lo-day oporalions of an airporl. Tlus, llo focus of llis
claplor is on capilaI programs, incIuding granls, bond slralogios, and
privalo invoslmonl, and nol on oporalionaI rovonuo slralogios, moro
gormano lo airporl managomonl.

In llo vory oarIy yoars of avialion, airporl ovnorslip vas voslod

aImosl onliroIy in privalo lands. Slalo and fodoraI financiaI parlicipa-
lion in airporl dovoIopmonl vas virluaIIy nonoxislonl. Tlo Doprossion
of llo 1920s vilnossod a coIIapso in privalo invoslmonls in airporls
and gavo riso lo pubIic ovnorslip. As of 2008, llo vasl majorily of
airporls villin llo Unilod Slalos aro sliII privaloIy ovnod and opor-
alod, aIllougl mosl of llo ovoraII avialion aclivily, and virluaIIy aII
commorciaI airIino aclivily, oporalos al pubIicIy ovnod airporls. Inlor-
nalionaIIy, many airporls aro sliII oporalod by lloir rospoclivo fodoraI
govornmonls, aIllougl, many inlornalionaI airporls lavo bocomo
ovnod and oporalod by for-profil privalo onlilios.
IubIic ovnorslip in airporls is voslod in a numbor of difforonl
lypos of govornmonl IovoIs, incIuding municipaIilios, counlios, and
slalo ovnorslip. Tlo Iargosl porconlago of llo 100 busiosl airporls in
llo Unilod Slalos is oporalod by an aullorily. An aullorily is an indo-
pondonl, poIilicaIIy appoinlod onlily, lypicaIIy comprisod of roproson-
lalivos from llo municipaIilios, counlios, and/or slalos in vlicl llo
airporl is Iocalod.

- -
AIllougl boll llo fodoraI and slalo govornmonls may lavo provi-
sions vlicl affocl llo airporl, il is llo docision of llo airporl ovnor, caIIod
llo airporl sponsor, vlicl uIlimaloIy dolorminos llo dovoIopmonl of llo
airporl.
Airporl improvomonls aro financod in a varioly of vays incIuding
fodoraI granls, slalo granls, airporl bonds, and privalo invoslmonl. In
addilion, capilaI improvomonls of a minor naluro lavo boon financod
from accumuIalod surpIusos from airporl rovonuos.
- -
UnliI I933, airporls for civiI uso voro dovoIopod mainIy llrougl
invoslmonls by municipaIilios and privalo sourcos. Tlo Doprossion
vas IargoIy rosponsibIo for llo firsl subslanliaI fodoraI parlicipalion
in llo dovoIopmonl of civiI airporls. Tlo buII of llo funds providod
from I933 unliI llo boginning of WorId War II voro llrougl vorI-
roIiof programs. Tlo firsl program vas undor llo CiviI WorIs Admin-
islralion (CWA). In llo faII of I933, llo CWA providod moro llan
$15 miIIion for airporl conslruclion, vill mosl of llo monoy going lo
smaIIor communilios.
In I934, llo CWA vas succoodod by llo IodoraI Imorgoncy RoIiof
Adminislralion (IIRA). Tlis agoncy providod ovor $17 miIIion for
llo dovoIopmonl of 943 airporl projocls.
Tlo adminislralion of fodoraI aid for airporls vas laIon ovor in
I935 by llo WorIs Irogross Adminislralion (WIA). Tlo WIA sponl
$323 miIIion for airporl conslruclion in llo Unilod Slalos and il vas
undor llis program llal conlribulions by municipaIilios voro oncour-
agod and a pallorn of cosl slaring omorgod. Tlo IocaI conlribulions
amounlod lo aboul $II0 miIIion.
Anollor fodoraI program conlribuling lo airporl dovoIopmonl
in llo 1930s vas llo IubIic WorIs Adminislralion (IWA) vlicl
mado Ioans or granls amounling lo aImosl $29 miIIion, primariIy lo
municipaIilios.
Irior lo llo slarl of WorId War II llo fodoraI govornmonl sponl a
lolaI of aboul $384 miIIion for airporl dovoIopmonl undor llo four
programs of CWA, IIRA, WIA, and IWA, lovovor, il musl bo rocog-
nizod llal lloso voro primariIy vorI-roIiof programs and providod
no basis for fodoraI supporl in limos of a normaI oconomy.
During WorId War II llo fodoraI govornmonl, llrougl llo CiviI
Aoronaulics Adminislralion, sponl $353 miIIion for llo dovoIopmonl
of Ianding aroas for miIilary uso. WliIo llo priorily in llis program
vas allaclod lo miIilary roquiromonls, llo noods of poslvar civiI avia-
lion voro considorod in llo Iocalion and conslruclion of lloso faciIi-
lios. During llo samo poriod llo fodoraI govornmonl, llrougl llo
CAA, sponl ovor $9 miIIion for llo dovoIopmonl of airporls soIoIy for
civiI uso. Tloso lvo programs aro roforrod lo as dofonso Ianding aroa
(DIA) and dovoIopmonl of civiI Ianding aroas (DCIA). Tlo DIA and
-

DCIA programs voro indopondonl of llo airporls conslruclod by llo

var and navy doparlmonls. Aflor llo var somo 500 miIilary airporls
voro docIarod surpIus and lurnod ovor lo cilios, counlios, and slalos.
Tlis is llo principaI roason llal lodays pubIic ovnorslip is voslod in
IocaI aullorilios.
-
Al llo ond of WorId War II inlorosl vas ronovod in oslabIisling a
fodoraI program for monolary aid for airporl dovoIopmonl. A rosoIu-
lion vas inlroducod in Congross (H.R. 598, 78ll Congross) roquiring
llo CiviI Aoronaulics Adminislralion lo maIo a survoy of airporl
noods and proparo a roporl on llo subjocl. Tloso rocommondalions
formod llo basis of llo IodoraI Aid lo Airporls programs, as vrillon
in llo IodoraI Airporl Acl of I946 (IubIic Iav 79-377). Appropria-
lions of $500 miIIion ovor a 7-yoar poriod voro aullorizod for projocls
villin llo Unilod Slalos pIus $20 miIIion for projocls in AIasIa,
Havaii, Iuorlo Rico, and llo Virgin IsIands. In I950 llo 7-yoar poriod
vas oxlondod for an addilionaI 5 yoars (IubIic Iav 81-846). Hov-
ovor, annuaI approprialions approvod by Congross voro mucl Ioss
llan llo amounls aullorizod by llo acl.
Tlo originaI acl providod llal a projocl slaII nol bo approvod for
fodoraI aid unIoss sufficionl funds aro avaiIabIo for llal porlion of
llo projocl vlicl is nol lo bo paid by llo Unilod Slalos.
IocaI govornmonls oflon roquirod 2 lo 3 yoars lo maIo arrango-
monls for raising funds and mosl of llo Iargor projocls voro financod
IocaIIy llrougl llo saIo of bonds. Tlis mollod of financing roquirod
IogisIalion al llo IocaI IovoI and, in somo casos, aIso al llo slalo IovoI.
GonoraI obIigalion bonds normaIIy roquirod approvaI by llo oIocloralo.
Irograms lo inform llo pubIic on llo nood for airporl improvomonl
musl bo carofuIIy pIannod and oxoculod. Tlus, aflor llo compIolion
of lloso ovonls, IocaI govornmonls froquonlIy found llal sufficionl
fodoraI funds voro nol approprialod lo malcl IocaI funds, and llo
projocls voro doIayod. Anollor compIainl of IocaI govornmonls lad
boon llal Congross faiIod lo fuIfiII ils obIigalion, sinco llo amounl
approprialod by Congross foII far slorl of llo amounl aullorizod by
llo IodoraI Airporl Acl. Tloso doficioncios as voII as ollor mallors
voro incorporalod in a nov biII (S. I855) and loarings voro loId
boforo llo subcommilloo of llo Commilloo on Inlorslalo and Ioroign
Commorco of llo U.S. Sonalo in I955. Roprosonlalivos of llo CounciI
of Slalo Govornmonls, llo Amorican MunicipaI Associalion, llo
NalionaI Associalion of Slalo Avialion OfficiaIs, airporl and induslry
lrado associalions, and individuaIs voro unanimous in llo fooIing
llal air lransporlalion lad roaclod a slago of malurily vloro many
airporls voro voofuIIy inadoqualo and groalor financiaI assislanco
from llo fodoraI govornmonl vouId bo roquirod lo mool llo curronl
noods of avialion. Aflor mucl dobalo, llo biII vas approvod by llo
Irosidonl (IubIic Iav 84-211).

- -
Tlis amonding acl mado no clango in llo basic poIicios and pur-
posos oxprossod in llo originaI acl. Tloro voro no clangos in llo
roquiromonls vill rospocl lo llo adminislralion of llo granls aullo-
rizod, sucl as llo dislribulion and apporlionmonl of funds, oIigibiIily
of llo various lypos of airporl conslruclion, sponsorslip roquiromonls,
olc. Tlo primary purposo of llo acl vas lo provido provisions granl-
ing subslanliaI annuaI conlracl aullorizalion in spocific amounls ovor
a poriod of four fiscaI yoars. Airporl sponsors voro llus furnislod
assuranco llal fodoraI funds vouId bo avaiIabIo al llo limo projocls
voro lo bo undorlaIon.
Tlis Iav providod $40 miIIion for fiscaI yoar I956 and $60 miIIion
for oacl of fiscaI yoars I957, I958, and I959 for airporl conslruclion in
llo conlinonlaI Unilod Slalos. Il aIso providod $2.5 miIIion in fiscaI
yoar I956 and $3 miIIion for llo llroo succooding fiscaI yoars for air-
porl conslruclion in AIasIa, Havaii, Iuorlo Rico, and llo Virgin
IsIands. Bosidos llo $42.5 miIIion mado avaiIabIo in fiscaI yoar I956 by
IubIic Iav 84-2II, Congross approvod an addilionaI approprialion of
$20 miIIion for airporl projocls.
In I958, llo 85ll Congross passod a biII (S. 3502) proposing lo
oxlond llo IodoraI Airporl Acl for 4 yoars al an annuaI funding ralo
of $I00 miIIion. Tlis biII vas volood by llo Irosidonl in Soplombor
I958 vill a volo slalomonl (S. 3502 Volo Slalomonl), vlicl slalod
in parl:
I am convincod llal llo limo las como for llo fodoraI govornmonl lo
bogin an ordorIy villdravaI from llo airporl granl program. Tlis con-
cIusion is basod, firsl, on llo lard facl llal llo govornmonl musl nov
dovolo llo rosourcos il can maIo avaiIabIo for llo promolion of civiI
avialion programs vlicl cannol bo assumod by ollors, and socond, on
llo conviclion llal ollors slouId bogin lo assumo llo fuII rosponsibiIily
for llo cosl of conslruclion and improvomonl of civiI airporls.
In llo 86ll Congross, mucl dobalo invoIvod a significanl incroaso
in llo fodoraI airporl program. Tvo biIIs, ono inlroducod in llo Houso
($297 miIIion ovor a 4-yoar poriod) and llo ollor in llo Sonalo
($465 miIIion for a 4-yoar poriod), logollor vill llo Irosidonls roc-
ommondod biII for a 4-yoar program of $200 miIIion, voro finaIIy
morgod inlo a 2-yoar conlinualion of llo oxisling aid program al
$63 miIIion por yoar (IubIic Iav 86-72).
Significanl clangos voro llo romovaI of llo lorriloriaI slalus from
Havaii and AIasIa vlicl lad boon admillod as slalos and llo oxcIu-
sion of aulomobiIo parIing and corlain porlions of airporl buiIding
improvomonl cosls as aIIovabIo cosls.
A 3-yoar conlinualion of llo fodoraI aid program providing
$75 miIIion annuaIIy vas onaclod by llo 87ll Congross (IubIic
Iav 87-255). Tlo provisions of llo biII voro vory simiIar lo lloso
of IubIic Iav 86-72. Ono nov foaluro of llo IogisIalion vas llal il
-

providod llo adminislralor of llo IAA vill a discrolionary fund

of $7 miIIion from llo $75 miIIion for dovoIoping gonoraI avialion
airporls lo roIiovo congoslion al ligl-donsily commorciaI airporls.
Tlus llis IogisIalion slarlod llo roIiovor airporl program. Tlo
IodoraI Airporl Acl vas again amondod in 1964, aullorizing llo
oxpondiluro of $75 miIIion for fiscaI yoars I965 lo I967 (IubIic
Iav 88-280). Tlo finaI amondmonl vas accoplod in I966, aulloriz-
ing llo conlinualion of llo oxpondiluro of $75 miIIion for fiscaI
yoars I968 lo 1970 (IubIic Iav 89-647). Tlis marIod llo ond of llo
IodoraI Airporl Acl, as llo Airporl and Airvay DovoIopmonl Acl
of I970 bocamo Iav in I970.
During llo 24 yoars of airporl funding undor llo IodoraI Airporl
Acl, a lolaI of $I.2 biIIion las boon approprialod by llo fodoraI gov-
ornmonl for improvomonls al 23I6 airporls invoIving aImosl 8000
projocls. Mucl of llo capilaI infraslrucluro of airporls sliII in oxis-
lonco voro fundod by, and adloro lo llo lorms of llo IodoraI Aid lo
Airporls program.

Bocauso of llo rapidIy groving roquiromonls for modornizing llo air
lraffic conlroI syslom and airporl oxpansion, noillor llo fodoraI gov-
ornmonl nor llo IocaI aullorilios voro abIo lo fund capilaI improvo-
monls badIy noodod for llo grovll of avialion. Tlo IAA noodod
moro monoy in ils budgol lo accoIoralo llo impIomonlalion of a
program lo modornizo llo air lraffic conlroI syslom. Tlo $75 miIIion
aullorizod annuaIIy by llo IodoraI Avialion Acl, logollor vill IocaI
malcling funds, foII far slorl of llo noods of llo IocaI airporl aullor-
ilios lo mool llo curronl and projoclod grovll of airporl lraffic. Cilios
voro unabIo lo raiso sufficionl funds al llo IocaI IovoI lo mool llo ris-
ing cosls of airporl conslruclion. Tlo IodoraI Avialion Acl of I946 vas
supporlod by gonoraI rallor llan usor lax rovonuos and lloroforo il
lad lo compolo annuaIIy vill ollor govornmonl programs for scarco
fodoraI doIIars. Tlo incroasod compolilion for fovor doIIars rosuIlod
in doIay and poslponomonl of airporl conslruclion llrougloul llo
nalion. As a rosuIl of llis silualion, avialion organizalions roprosonling
airporl ovnors, airIinos, piIols, and gonoraI avialion aircrafl ovnors
joinod in prossing for moro funds for airporls and airvays and llo
oslabIislmonl of a lrusl fund simiIar lo llal for llo nalionaI liglvay
program. SovoraI biIIs voro inlroducod in llo Houso and Sonalo lo
onacl IogisIalion vlicl vouId romody llo doficioncios in llo IodoraI
Airporl Acl of I946 (S. 1637, S. 2437, S. 2651). Aflor mucl dobalo incIud-
ing llo quoslion of vlollor airporl lorminaI buiIdings slouId bo
incIudod in llo IogisIalion (iniliaIIy lloy voro nol), IubIic Iav 9I-258
vas signod inlo Iav in May I970. As slalod in Clap. 1, llo Iav con-
sislod of lvo parls, roforrod lo as TilIos I and II. TilIo I vas Inovn as
llo Airporl and Airvay DovoIopmonl Acl of I970, vlicl ropIacod llo

- -
IodoraI Airporl Acl of I946. TilIo II vas Inovn as llo Airporl and
Airvay Rovonuo Acl of I970, and il providod llo oxciso laxos roquirod
lo furnisl llo rosourcos nocossary lo carry oul llo TilIo I programs
llrougl I980. Tloso oxciso laxos providod llo rovonuos lo fund llo
programs undor llo acl and voro doposilod in llo Airporl and
Airvay Trusl Iund oslabIislod by llo acl.
TilIo I of llo originaI acl providod for $250 miIIion annuaIIy for
llo acquisilion, oslabIislmonl, and improvomonl of air navigalionaI
faciIilios and socurily oquipmonl roquirod by llo sponsor for fiscaI
yoars 1971 llrougl I980. Ior airporl assislanco, llo Airporl DovoIop-
monl Aid Irogram (ADAI) iniliaIIy aullorizod a lolaI of $2.5 biIIion
for llo I0-yoar poriod. Tlo acl furllor spocificaIIy aullorizod
$250 miIIion annuaIIy llrougl fiscaI yoar I973 and $275 miIIion oacl
for fiscaI yoars I974 and I975 for airporls sorvod by air carriors and
gonoraI avialion airporls vlicl roIiovo ligl-donsily air carrior air-
porls. AIso aullorizod voro $30 miIIion annuaIIy llrougl fiscaI yoar
I973 and $35 miIIion oacl for fiscaI yoars I974 and I975 for aII ollor
gonoraI avialion airporls (IubIic Iav 93-44). Ialor amondmonls
(IubIic Iav 94-353) raisod llo program IovoI lo rango from $500 lo
$610 miIIion annuaIIy llrougl 1980. Tlo Avialion Safoly and Noiso
Abalomonl Acl (IubIic Iav 96-193) furllor raisod llo finaI-yoar pro-
gram lo $667 miIIion. Tloso amondmonls providod $435 lo $539 miIIion
annuaIIy for airporls sorving aII sogmonls of avialion and $65 lo
$95 miIIion annuaIIy for gonoraI avialion airporls. Tlo acl aIso aullo-
rizod llo issuanco of pIanning granls for llo proparalion of airporl
syslom pIans and airporl maslor pIans. Tlo IIanning Granl Irogram
(IGI) vas dosignod lo promolo llo offoclivo Iocalion and dovoIop-
monl of pubIicIy ovnod airporls and lo dovoIop a nalionaI airporl
syslom pIan. Syslom pIans voro proparod by slalo and rogionaI agon-
cios lo formuIalo air lransporlalion poIicy, dolormino faciIily roquiro-
monls noodod lo mool forocasl avialion domand, and oslabIisl a
framovorI for dolaiIod airporl maslor pIanning. Airporl maslor
pIans, vlicl voro dovoIopod by llo airporl ovnor, focusod on llo
naluro and oxlonl of llo dovoIopmonl roquirod lo mool llo fuluro
avialion domand al spocific faciIilios.
Tlo funds llal voro aullorizod for airporl dovoIopmonl for llo
sovoraI cIassos of airporls voro apporlionod lo air carrior and gonoraI
avialion airporls. In llo finaI amondod form of llo Iav, lvo-llirds of
llo air carrior and commulor sorvico funds voro mado avaiIabIo lo air
carrior airporls basod upon llo numbor of annuaI onpIanod passon-
gors. Tloso voro lormod -. Tlo romaining monios
voro pIacod in a discrolionary fund, of vlicl $15 miIIion annuaIIy
vas apporlionod lo commulor sorvico airporls. Air carrior airporls
sorving aircrafl loavior llan 12,500 Ib voro aullorizod lo rocoivo
bolvoon $150,000 and $10 miIIion annuaIIy. Airporls sorving aircrafl
voigling Ioss llan 12,500 Ib voro lo rocoivo nol Ioss llan $50,000
annuaIIy. Of llo funds approprialod for gonoraI avialion and gonoraI
-

avialion roIiovor airporls, $15 miIIion annuaIIy vas apporlionod lo

roIiovor airporls. Sovonly-fivo porconl of llo romaining funds vas
aIIocalod lo llo slalos on llo basis of popuIalion and aroa, 1 porconl
vas aIIocalod lo Iuorlo Rico, Guam, llo Virgin IsIands, Amorican
Samoa, and llo Trusl Torrilorios of llo Iacific IsIands and vas dislrib-
ulod by llo Socrolary of Transporlalion.
Tlo maximum fodoraI granl for any spocifiod projocl variod from
50 lo 90 porconl of llo lolaI oIigibIo projocl cosls ovor llo Iifo of llo
acl, doponding upon llo lypo of projocl boing considorod for funding.
A maximum of 75 porconl of llo aIIovabIo projocl cosl vas aIIovod
for airporls in aroas llal onpIanod 0.25 porconl or moro of llo lolaI
annuaI passongors onpIanod by air carriors corlifiod by llo CiviI
Aoronaulics Board. Tloso airporls voro caIIod llo Iargo and modium
air lraffic lub airporls. A maximum of 90 porconl of llo aIIovabIo
projocl cosl vas aIIovod for airporls in aroas llal onpIanod Ioss llan
0.25 porconl of llo lolaI annuaI passongors, for smaII air lraffic lub
and nonlub airporls, and for gonoraI avialion airporls.
Tlo originaI acl spocificaIIy prolibilod llo uso of fodoraI funds for
aulomobiIo parIing faciIilios or airporl buiIdings oxcopl lloso parls
inlondod lo louso faciIilios or aclivilios diroclIy roIalod lo llo safoly
of porsons al llo airporl. Hovovor, amondmonls lo llo acl in 1976,
(IubIic Iav 94-353) providod fodoraI funding for llo non-rovonuo-
producing pubIic aroas of lorminaI faciIilios roquirod for llo procossing
of passongors and baggago. In llis caso llo fodoraI slaro vas Iimilod lo
50 porconl of llo projocl cosls, and llo airporl couId nol spond moro
llan 60 porconl of ils onpIanomonl funds on sucl dovoIopmonl.
Tloro vas no slalo apporlionmonl for pIanning granl funds. Tlo
Socrolary of Transporlalion proscribod llo roguIalions govorning llo
avard and adminislralion of lloso granls. Wlon llo program firsl
bogan, llo fodoraI govornmonl providod up lo lvo-llirds of llo cosl
of pIanning granl projocls. Hovovor, amondmonls lo llo acl in 1976
incroasod llis slaro lo 75 porconl of llo cosl of airporl syslom pIans,
90 porconl of llo cosl for maslor pIans al gonoraI avialion airporls, and
a rango from 75 lo 90 porconl of llo cosl for maslor pIans al air carrior
airporls, doponding upon llo numbor of onpIanod passongors.
In adminisloring llo Airporl and Airvays DovoIopmonl Acl, llo
IAA oslabIislod, in dolaiI, llo lypos of improvomonls vlicl voro
oIigibIo for fodoraI aid undor llo acl. In gonoraI, iloms llal voro oIi-
gibIo incIudod Iand acquisilion, paving and grading, Iiglling and oIoc-
lricaI vorI, uliIilios, roads, romovaI of obslruclions lo air navigalion,
foncing, firo and roscuo oquipmonl, snov romovaI oquipmonl, lormi-
naI-aroa dovoIopmonl, and plysicaI barriors and Iandscaping for noiso
allonualion.
Soparalo buiIdings for airporl omorgoncy, snov romovaI, and
firofiglling oquipmonl voro oIigibIo bul adminislralion buiIdings
sorving air commorco or gonoraI avialion voro nol oIigibIo. BuiId-
ings usod oxcIusivoIy for llo landIing of cargo voro aIso inoIigibIo.

- -
Tlo non-rovonuo-producing pubIic-uso aroas of lorminaI faciIilios
bocamo oIigibIo for funding in 1976 (IubIic Iav 94-353) if lloso aroas
voro diroclIy roIalod lo llo movomonl of passongors and baggago in
air commorco villin llo boundarios of llo airporl.
Roads and slrools voro oIigibIo if lloy voro villin llo boundary
of llo airporl and voro noodod for llo oporalion and mainlonanco of
llo airporl, or voro diroclIy roIalod lo llo movomonl of passongors
and baggago.
Iacl oIigibIo projocl vas ovaIualod soparaloIy. Il vas ralod on llo
basis of llo aoronaulicaI nocossily of llo airporl, voIumo and claraclor
of lraffic, and lypo of vorI incIudod in llo projocl. Tloso ralings oslab-
Iislod a priorily scoro for oacl incromonl of vorI in any ono slalo and
voro usod lo program llo funds aIIocalod lo llal slalo. Tlo ralings
voro basod on sucl faclors as safoly, officioncy, and convonionco.
A communily inloroslod in oblaining fodoraI aid conlaclod llo
Airporls Dislricl Offico (ADO) of llo IAA in llo goograplic aroa in
vlicl llo airporl vas Iocalod. In slalos vlicl roquirod llal aII fod-
oraI aid bo clannoIod llrougl llo slalo, submission of a roquosl for
aid vas mado llrougl llo slalo aoronaulicaI agoncy.
If llo projocl quaIifiod for aid, if lloro voro sufficionl funds, and
if llo projocl vas found by llo Socrolary of Transporlalion lo bo
accoplabIo from llo slandpoinl of ils oconomic, sociaI, and onviron-
monlaI offocls on llo communily, llon llo sponsor vas nolifiod llal
a lonlalivo aIIocalion of funds lad boon mado for parl of or aII of llo
iloms Iislod in llo roquosl. Tlo lonlalivo aIIocalion vas an indicalion
llal funds lad boon pIacod in rosorvo ponding llo compIolion of
arrangomonls for nocossary financing, Iand acquisilion, and propara-
lion of pIans, spocificalions, and conlracl documonls.
Upon submilling dolaiIod pIans and spocificalions vill a projocl
appIicalion and upon approvaI of llo IAA, llo sponsor socurod bids
from conlraclors and mado rocommondalions for llo avard of llo
conlracls. Al llis limo llo sponsor aIso formaIIy accoplod fodoraI aid
and llo obIigalions connoclod llorovill by oxoculing vlal vas
Inovn as a granl agroomonl. Tlo oxoculion of llo granl agroomonl
IogaIIy bound llo communily lo fuIfiII llo obIigalions (sponsors
assurancos) sol forll in llo projocl appIicalion. Somo of llo sponsors
imporlanl obIigalions incIudod:
1. Tlo sponsor vouId oporalo llo airporl for llo uso and bon-
ofil of llo pubIic, on fair and roasonabIo lorms villoul unjusl
discriminalion.
2. Il vouId Ioop llo airporl opon lo aII lypos, Iinds, and cIassos
of aoronaulicaI uso villoul discriminalion bolvoon sucl
lypos, Iinds, and cIassos.
3. Il vouId oporalo and mainlain in a safo and sorvicoabIo
condilion llo airporl and aII faciIilios lloroon vlicl aro
-

nocossary lo sorvo aoronaulicaI usos ollor llan faciIilios

ovnod or conlroIIod by llo Unilod Slalos.
4. Il vouId maIo ovory offorl lo mainlain cIoar approaclos lo
llo runvays.
5. Il vouId nol clargo govornmonl ovnod or miIilary aircrafl
for llo uso of runvays and laxivays unIoss llo uso vas
subslanliaI.
6. Tloso obIigalions vouId romain in offocl for nol moro
llan 20 yoars.
Tlo aullorily lo issuo granls undor llis acl oxpirod in 1981.
During llo 11-yoar poriod undor llis IogisIalion, 8809 granls lolaIing
$4.5 biIIion voro approvod for airporl pIanning and dovoIopmonl al
ovor 1800 airporls. Tlis vas aboul four limos groalor llan llo lolaI
amounl providod by llo IodoraI Airporl Acl of I946. Ovor 6700 of
lloso granls voro mado undor llo Airporl DovoIopmonl Aid Iro-
gram, and aImosl 2000 of lloso granls voro mado undor llo IIanning
Granl Irogram.
In 1982, Congross onaclod llo Airporl and Airvay Improvo-
monl Acl (TilIo V of llo Tax Iquily and IiscaI RosponsibiIily Acl of
1982, IubIic Iav 97-248). Tlis acl conlinuod lo provido funding for
airporl pIanning and dovoIopmonl undor a singIo program caIIod
llo Airporl Improvomonl Irogram (AII). Tlo acl aIso aullorizod
funding for noiso compalibiIily pIanning and impIomonlalion of
noiso compalibiIily programs conlainod in llo Noiso Abalomonl
Acl of 1979 (IubIic Iav 96-193). Il roquirod llal lo bo oIigibIo for a
granl, llo airporl musl bo incIudod in llo NalionaI IIan of Inlo-
gralod Airporl Sysloms (NIIAS). Tlo NIIAS, llo succossor lo llo
NalionaI Airporl Syslom IIan (NASI), is proparod by llo IAA and
pubIislod ovory 2 yoars and il idonlifios pubIic-uso airporls con-
sidorod nocossary lo provido a safo, officionl, and inlogralod sys-
lom of airporls lo mool llo noods of civiI avialion, nalionaI dofonso,
and llo U.S. IoslaI Sorvico.
Irojocls oIigibIo for funding undor llis IogisIalion voro roslriclod
lo pIanning, dovoIopmonl, and noiso compalibiIily projocls al or asso-
cialod vill pubIic-uso airporls, incIuding loIiporls and soapIano
basos, vlicl voro dofinod as airporls opon lo llo pubIic and pubIicIy
ovnod, or privaloIy ovnod bul dosignalod by llo IAA as a roIiovor
airporl, or privaloIy ovnod and laving scloduIod sorvico and al Ioasl
2500 annuaI onpIanomonls.
Airporls voro dofinod in fivo calogorios: commorciaI sorvico air-
porls, primary airporls, cargo sorvico airporls, roIiovor airporls, and
ollor airporls. CommorciaI sorvico airporls aro pubIicIy ovnod air-
porls vlicl onpIanod al Ioasl 2500 passongors annuaIIy and rocoivod
scloduIod sorvico. Irimary sorvico airporls aro commorciaI sorvico
airporls vlicl onpIanod al Ioasl 10,000 passongors annuaIIy. Cargo

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sorvico airporls aro airporls sorvod by aircrafl providing air lrans-
porlalion of proporly onIy, incIuding maiI, vill an aggrogalo annuaI
aircrafl Iandod voigll in oxcoss of 100,000,000 Ib. RoIiovor airporls
aro airporls in molropoIilan aroas dosignalod by llo IAA as laving
llo funclion of roIioving congoslion al Iargo commorciaI sorvico air-
porls by providing aIlornalivo Ianding aroas for gonoraI avialion
aircrafl and vlicl providod moro gonoraI avialion accoss lo llo
communily. Ollor airporls aro llo romaining airporls, commonIy
roforrod lo as gonoraI avialion airporls.
Tlo aIIocalion of funds undor llo AII vas aIso dofinod in llo
IogisIalion sucl llal lloso funds aro dislribulod bolvoon apporlionod
and discrolionary funds. As amondod by llo Airporl and Airvay
Safoly, Capacily, Noiso Improvomonl and InlormodaI Transporlalion
Acl of 1992, of llo lolaI funds avaiIabIo nol moro llan 44 porconl is
apporlionod as onlilIomonls lo primary airporls and 3.5 porconl is
apporlionod as onlilIomonls lo cargo sorvico airporls. AddilionaIIy,
12 porconl of llo lolaI funds is apporlionod for slalos and insuIar
aroas. Tloro is a soparalo apporlionmonl for airporls in AIasIa, and
2.5 porconl is apporlionod lo llo MiIilary Airporl Irogram for curronl
and formor miIilary airfioIds, lo onlanco llo capacily of llo nalionaI
lransporlalion syslom by onlancomonl of airporl and air lraffic con-
lroI sysloms in major molropoIilan aroas. Tlo romaining funds aro
dosignalod as discrolionary funds, vlicl aro roquirod lo bo usod so
llal of llo lolaI funds avaiIabIo a minimum of 10 porconl is lo bo usod
for roIiovor airporls, 12.5 porconl for noiso compalibiIily projocls,
2.5 porconl for nonprimary commorciaI sorvico airporls, and 0.5 porconl
for inlogralod syslom pIans for slalos, rogions, or molropoIilan aroas.
Of llo romaining discrolionary funds 75 porconl aro lo bo usod for
projocls lo prosorvo and onlanco capacily, safoly, and socurily and
projocls carrying oul noiso compalibiIily pIanning programs al pri-
mary and roIiovor airporls.
Tlo fodoraI slaro of llo cosls associalod vill inlogralod airporl
syslom pIanning vas Iimilod lo 90 porconl. Ior individuaI airporls,
llo fodoraI slaro of pIanning and airporl dovoIopmonl projocl cosls
vas Iimilod lo 75 porconl al primary airporls and 90 porconl al aII
ollor airporls. Tlo fodoraI slaro of llo cosls of noiso compalibiIily
projocls vas Iimilod lo 80 porconl. Tlo fodoraI slaro of non-rovonuo-
producing pubIic-aroa lorminaI dovoIopmonl cosls al Iargo, modium,
and smaII lub commorciaI sorvico airporls vas Iimilod lo 75 porconl.
Tlo fodoraI slaro of boll rovonuo-producing and non-rovonuo-
producing pubIic aroas in lorminaI buiIdings and non-rovonuo-
producing parIing Iols al nonlub commorciaI sorvico airporls vas
Iimilod lo 85 porconl.
Tlo Airporl and Airvay Improvomonl Acl las boon amondod
sovoraI limos rosuIling in significanl clangos in llo provisions of llo
acl and in aullorizod approprialions. Tloso amondmonls aro incIudod
-

in llo Conlinuing Approprialions Acl of 1982, llo Surfaco Transpor-

lalion Assislanco Acl, llo Airporl and Airvay Safoly and Capacily
Ixpansion Acl of 1987, llo Airvay Safoly and Capacily Ixpansion
Acl of 1990 llo Airporl and Airvay Safoly, Capacily, Noiso Improvo-
monl and InlormodaI Transporlalion Acl of 1992, llo WondoII H.
Iord Avialion Invoslmonl and Roform Acl for llo Tvonly-Iirsl
Conlury (AIR-21), and Conlury of Avialion Roaullorizalion Acl
(Vision 100) of 2003. Iacl of lloso amondmonls aIlorod, and oflon
incroasod, llo annuaI congrossionaI aullorizod of AII funding IovoIs
and llo lorms lo vlicl lloy aro approprialod. In addilion, llo lorms
lo vlicl llo Airporl and Airvay Trusl Iund is conlribulod las boon
modifiod vill llo abovo amondmonls. Iiguro 13-1 iIIuslralos llo
annuaI aullorizalions and approprialions of AII funding sinco ils
incoplion in 1982.
In 2007, llo finaI yoar of llo amondmonls associalod vill Vision
100, approximaloIy $3.4 biIIion in AII funding vas aullorizod.
Approprialod funds from lloso aullorizalions voro aIIocalod llrougl
lvo primary funding calogorios: onlilIomonls and discrolionary fund-
ing (TabIo 13-1).
AII onlilIomonls lo a primary airporl aro basod on llo numbor of
an airporls calogorizalion villin llo NIIAS and llo airporls annuaI
onpIanomonl IovoIs. In 2006, primary airporls rocoivod annuaI AII
onlilIomonls ranging from $750,000 lo moro llan $6 miIIion, vloroas
nonprimary onlilIomonls, offorod lo nonprimary commorciaI sorvico,
gonoraI avialion, and roIiovor airporls, voro lypicaIIy $150,000 por
airporl.
AII discrolionary funds aro granls llal may bo appIiod for by air-
porls lo fund capilaI improvomonl projocls, incIuding infraslrucluro
0.0
1
9
8
2
1
9
8
3
1
9
8
4
1
9
8
5
1
9
8
6
1
9
8
7
1
9
8
8
1
9
8
9
1
9
9
0
1
9
9
1
1
9
9
2
1
9
9
3
1
9
9
4
1
9
9
5
1
9
9
6
1
9
9
7
1
9
9
8
1
9
9
9
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
2
*
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
4
2
0
0
5
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
7
Fiscal Year AR-21 Vision 100
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
F
u
n
d
i
n
g

(
b
i
l
l
i
o
n
s
)3.0
3.5
$4.0
Authorized
Appropriated
Estimate of Amount to be Appropriated by Congress
- -

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

-
-

I
o
d
o
r
a
I

A
v
i
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A
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.

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-

-
-

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onlancomonls diroclIy bonofiling avialion aclivily, Iand acquisilion,
noiso miligalion, and pIanning sludios. Tloso funds aro avardod lo
lloso projocls doomod mosl imporlanl for improving llo nalionaI
airspaco syslom. AII discrolionary funds lypicaIIy may assumo up lo
80 porconl of a projocls capilaI cosls and 100 porconl for corlain noiso
miligalion programs.
--
Tlo yoars foIIoving llo 1982 Airporl and Airvay Transporlalion Acl
sav significanl grovll al a fov of llo nalions airporls, duo lo llo
lub-and-spoIo nolvorI slralogios adoplod by llo nalions commor-
ciaI air carriors. As a rosuIl, llo vasl majorily of AII funding vas
diroclod lovard invoslmonl in lloso Iargosl lub airporls. Tlis aIIoca-
lion of funding Iofl roIalivoIy IillIo assislanco avaiIabIo lo llo smaIIor
airporls vlo voro in nood of capilaI improvomonls and ollor pIan-
ning aclivilios.
Will llo goaI of providing moro funding avaiIabIo lo llo smaIIor
airporls by aIIoving llo Iargor airporls lo raiso capilaI funding on an
individuaI basis, llo fodoraI govornmonl aullorizod a poIicy llal
vouId aIIov airporls lo clargo passongor faciIily clargos (IICs).
Tlrougl llo Avialion Safoly and Capacily Ixpansion Acl of 1990,
airporl oporalors voro pormillod lo proposo coIIocling a $1, $2, or $3
foo por onpIanod passongor. Rovonuos from IICs couId bo usod for
airporl pIanning and dovoIopmonl projocls oIigibIo for AII funding,
as voII as for llo proparalion of noiso compalibiIily pIans and moa-
suros. Tlo provision of IIC las aIIovod moro AII funds lo bo aIIo-
calod lo smaIIor airporls vill fovor annuaI onpIanomonls.
Tlo IogisIalion aIso providod llal al lloso commorciaI sorvico air-
porls in aroas vlicl onpIanod al Ioasl 0.25 porconl of llo nalionaI
annuaI onpIanomonls in any yoar, i.o., llo Iargo and modium lub airporls.
Tlo onlilIomonl funds apporlionod lo llo airporl basod upon passon-
gor onpIanomonls vouId bo roducod by 50 porconl of llo rovonuo
oblainod llrougl llo IICs bul lloso roduclions of onlilIomonl funds
vouId nol oxcood 50 porconl of llo apporlionod funds. Tlo IogisIalion
diroclod llal 25 porconl of llo rovonuos oblainod llrougl a roduc-
lion in lloso apporlionod funds aro lo bo pIacod in llo AII discrolion-
ary fund, of vlicl ono-laIf is lo bo usod for smaII lub airporls, and
75 porconl is lo bo usod lo oslabIisl a SmaII Airporls Iund. Ono-llird
of llo rovonuos in llo SmaII Airporl Iund is lo bo dislribulod lo
gonoraI avialion airporls and lvo-llirds lo nonlub commorciaI
sorvico airporls.
Tlo spocific roquiromonls imposod upon airporls roquosling
aullorily lo imposo passongor faciIily clargos aro conlainod in IAR
Iarl 158 |15].
In 2000, llo passago of llo WondoII H. Iord Avialion Invoslmonl
and Roform Acl for llo Tvonly-Iirsl Conlury (AIR-21) incroasod llo
-

aIIocalion of fodoraI granl programs by incroasing llo amounl of AII

funding llal may bo roIoasod from llo Airporl and Airvay Trusl
Iund on an annuaI basis, and aIIoving IICs lo bo sol al $4.00 or $4.50.
As of 2006, noarIy 525 commorciaI sorvico airporls in llo Unilod Slalos
lavo parlicipalod in llo IIC program, gonoraling noarIy $2.2 biIIion
in funding for approvod capilaI projocls.
Tlo Vision 100 Acl of 2003 oxlondod llo Iifo of lloso programs
llrougl 2007. As of 2008, a roaullorizalion of lloso programs las yol
lo bo passod. Up for dobalo aro a numbor of issuos incIuding lov lo
bosl fund llo Trusl Iund and lov lo bosl dissominalo llo funds
among llo nalions airporls, vliIo aIso maIing invoslmonls in a
major modornizalion of llo nalions airspaco syslom.
As airfaros lavo docIinod, avialion aclivily oulsido of airIinos las
incroasod, and avialion infraslrucluro las agod lo llo poinl of nood-
ing major roinvoslmonl, lloro las boon mucl dobalo llal llo curronl
modoI of funding llo syslom slriclIy llrougl airIino passongor and
Ianding foos viII bo insufficionl. Mucl of llo dobalo is focusod on llo
sooIing usor-basod foos from boll commorciaI and gonoraI avialion
aclivily lo fund llo syslom, mucl lo llo conslornalion of llo gonoraI
avialion communily. AIso, lloro las boon somo dobalo associalod
vill raising llo aIIovabIo IIC from $4.50 lo $7.00. Tlis las brougll
concorn lo commorciaI air carriors vlo fooI llal any addilionaI foos
couId lurl domand for sorvico.
In addilion, dobalo las surroundod llo rodislribulion of funds
from llo lrusl fund. WliIo AII and IIC funding lavo lradilionaIIy
favorod llo Iargosl of airporls, smaIIor airporls llal slruggIo lo rolain
air sorvico, and gonoraI avialion airporls llal lavo no commorciaI air
sorvico, lavo rocoivod Ioss funding. IolonliaI poIicios boing dobalod
lavo considorod significanlIy roducing llo onpIanomonl-basod AII
onlilIomonl funding program, in favor of moro discrolionary granls.
As of pubIicalion of llis loxl, lloso dobalos conlinuo, Ioaving curronl
funding programs undor conlinuing rosoIulions.

-
Airporl dovoIopmonl and avialion pIanning aro a major concorn in
mosl slalos. As of 2003, 30 U.S. slalos providod somo formaI financiaI
assislanco for airporl improvomonls. Incroasos in slalo financiaI sup-
porl lavo boon dramalic during llo pasl sovoraI yoars. Dala slov
llal oxpondiluros by slalos for airporls lavo rison from $59 miIIion in
1966 |11] lo ovor $450 biIIion in 2008 |22].
Slalo slaring in airporl dovoIopmonl varios doponding on
vlollor fodoraI aid is invoIvod and vlollor llis aid is clannoIod
llrougl a slalo aoronaulicaI agoncy. Mosl slalos roquiro llal fodoraI

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funds bo clannoIod llrougl llo slalo lo IocaI sponsors. In lloso slalos
vloro llis is a roquiromonl, llo slalo normaIIy conlribulos ono-laIf of
llo sponsors slaro of llo projocl cosls, vlicl amounls lo approxi-
maloIy ono-quarlor of llo lolaI projocl cosl. If no fodoraI aid is
invoIvod, llo slalo oflon conlribulos bolvoon 50 and 90 porconl of llo
projocl cosl. In ollor slalos vloro rovonuos aro oblainod from usor
laxos, formuIas for apporlioning llo rovonuos aro oslabIislod.
Slalos oblain llo rovonuos lo financo avialion and airporl improvo-
monl projocls from a varioly of sourcos, incIuding llo gonoraI fund,
avialion fuoI laxos, aircrafl saIos and uso laxos, and ollor sourcos
incIuding langar ronls and ollor proporly Ioasos, and lax rovonuo.
Nino U.S. slalos parlicipalo in a fodoraI Slalo BIocI Granl
program. Tlis program aIIovs parlicipaling slalos lo rocoivo Iargo
amounls of AII funding for dislribulion among slalo airporls and
bollor manago lloir avialion syslom and associalod capilaI improvo-
monl pIans.
Onco slalo and IocaI funding sourcos aro considorod, municipaIi-
lios provido llo romaindor of llo funds for airporl improvomonls.
Tloso funds lavo como from four principaI sourcos: rovonuos gonor-
alod al llo airporl, laxos for llo supporl of IocaI govornmonl as a
vloIo, saIo of gonoraI obIigalion bonds, and saIo of rovonuo bonds. In
llo oarIy yoars of avialion, llo gonoraI lax fund vas llo principaI
sourco of IocaI funds, and il sliII is for smaII airporls. Tlo laxos Ioviod
aro nol oarmarIod spocificaIIy for airporl uso bul aro llo Iind llal aro
normaIIy imposod lo oporalo mosl of llo affairs of IocaI govornmonl.
As Iong as llo amounl of funding is roIalivoIy smaII, llis mollod of
financing las nol mol vill mucl opposilion from llo cilizons in
vloso poIilicaI jurisdiclion llo airporl is Iocalod.

As avialion grov and llo amounls of funds roquirod bocamo Iargo in
roIalion lo ollor communily oxpondiluros, draving funds from llo
gonoraI lax fund bocamo impraclicaI, and municipaIilios lad lo rosorl
lo llo saIo of bonds. IniliaIIy lloso voro primariIy gonoraI obIigalion
lypo. Tloro voro sovoraI roasons for rosorling lo llis lypo of bond
financing. Iirsl, obIigaling llo onliro rosourcos of a IocaI govornmonl
lo bacI llo bonds rosuIlod in mucl moro favorabIo inlorosl ralos llan
couId bo oblainod by any ollor form of financing. Socond, llo pro-
joclod rovonuos lo bo dorivod from llo faciIily lo bo dovoIopod voro
oflon insufficionl lo uliIizo any ollor mollod of financing.
-
As air lransporl conlinuod lo grov and maluro, llo roquiromonls for
airporl capilaI improvomonls aIso grov subslanliaIIy. Al llo samo
-

limo, communilios voro facod vill an incroasod domand for sclooIs,

slrools, sovago disposaI, and ollor pubIic sorvicos. In many casos cilios
oillor lad roaclod or voro roacling llo slalulory Iimil on llo amounl
of gonoraI obIigalion bonds vlicl lloy couId issuo, and llo cilios
dosirod lo rosorvo vlalovor romaining margin of bonding capacily
lloy lad lo carry oul noodod improvomonls llal did nol lavo llo
rovonuo polonliaI of airporls.
-
Airporl financing llrougl gonoraI obIigalion bonds sliII oxisls for
many smaIIor airporls duo lo facl llal lloso bonds aro lypicaIIy
financod al roIalivoIy Iov inlorosl ralos, doponding on llo crodil
slrongll of llo airporl sponsor, Iovor issuanco cosls, and IillIo covor-
ago roquiromonls.
Iargor airporls lavo movod avay from gonoraI obIigalion bonds
in roconl yoars, moslIy duo lo llo difficuIly of rocoiving Iargo funding
and risIs associalod vill obIigaling llo municipaIily. To ovorcomo
llo Iimilalion of financing llrougl llo saIo of gonoraI obIigalion
bonds, many communilios raiso funds llrougl llo saIo of rovonuo
bonds vlonovor possibIo.
GonoraI airporl rovonuo bonds (GARBs) aro llo mosl common
bonds issuod for airporl capilaI improvomonls. WliIo inlorosl ralos
aro gonoraIIy liglor for rovonuo bonds llan lloy aro for gonoraI
obIigalion bonds, llo difforonliaI bolvoon llo lvo las docroasod
considorabIy sinco llo firsl issuanco of rovonuo bonds. Rovonuo
bond financing is mosl succossfuI for lloso compononls of llo airporl
vlicl aro good rovonuo producors, sucl as lorminaI buiIdings and
parIing garagos. In addilion rovonuos gonoralod from airIino ralos
and clargos, lorminaI concossions, and ollor Ioasos conlribulo lo llo
financing of rovonuo bonds. GARBs aIIov for rovonuos gonoralod
from llo fuII spoclrum of airporl rovonuo sourcos lo bacI capilaI
improvomonl projocls, incIuding airfioId infraslrucluro, sucl as run-
vays or laxivays.
-
Somo faciIilios al an airporl, sucl as langars, loloIs, and slopping
conlors, lavo boon financod llrougl vlal aro Inovn as spociaI faciIily
bonds. Tloso bonds aro issuod oillor by llo airporl sponsor or a singIo
lonanl lo financo llo conslruclion of a singIo faciIily, sucl as a lorminaI,
lorminaI oxpansion, mainlonanco or cargo faciIilios, or airIino ground
supporl faciIilios. SpociaI faciIily bonds aro bacIod by llo rovonuo lo
bo gonoralod by llo faciIily or llo faciIily sponsor. Tlo risIs associ-
alod vill lloso bonds aro diroclIy corroIalod lo llo financiaI slabiIily
of llo sponsor, and as sucl, spociaIly faciIily bonds lavo bocomo Ioss
rocommondod, parlicuIarIy for projocls bacIod by llo commorciaI air
carriors.

- -
To ovorcomo llo risIs of a singIo bacIor or lo buiId faciIilios lo bo
usod by muIlipIo lonanls, sucl as a consoIidalod ronlaI car faciIily,
muIlilonanl spociaI faciIily bonds lavo boon issuod. Tloso bonds aro
bacIod by moro llan ono sponsor, and lypicaIIy lavo groalor crodil
slronglls.
-
As llo passongor faciIily clargo (IIC) program las grovn sinco ils
incoplion in 1990, slralogios lavo boon ompIoyod lo Iovorago oillor
curronl or fuluro IIC rovonuos lo fund capilaI improvomonls. Tloso
slralogios aro Inovn as IIC Iovoraging, or llo issuanco of IIC bonds.
Tloro aro a numbor of variolios of IIC Iovoraging, from llo considor-
alion of IICs as rovonuo lo pay aII or parl of oxisling GARB dobl
sorvico lo issuing bonds llal viII bo paid off soIoIy by projoclod IIC
rovonuo.
-
SimiIar lo IICs, corlain airporl lonanls assoss cuslomor faciIily
clargos (CICs) lo gonoralo rovonuo. Tlis is mosl common vill ronlaI
car agoncios. Iovoraging lloso CICs las boon a slralogy ompIoyod lo
financo llo conslruclion of ronlaI car faciIilios, parlicuIarIy consoIi-
dalod ronlaI car faciIilios, slarod by a numbor of lonanls.
Tlo lonanl buiIds llo faciIily on proporly llal is Ioasod from llo
airporl ovnor. Ono advanlago of llis lypo of airporl financing is llal
il roIiovos llo communily of aII capilaI invoslmonl in llo faciIily
oxcopl for uliIilios and accoss roads or laxivays. Hovovor, il doos
roquiro llo communily lo commil llo Iand on llo airporl for 25 lo
30 yoars, llo poriod normaIIy roquirod in a ground Ioaso if llo lonanl
is lo socuro privalo financing.
-
Irivalizalion is a moclanism by vlicl somo IovoI of airporl manago-
monl, oporalion, or ovnorslip is lransforrod from llo pubIic soclor lo
llo privalo soclor. Ils purposo is lo inlroduco marIol compolilion inlo
llo oporalion of airporls and lo roIiovo govornmonl of llo financiaI
burdon of providing llo Iargo invoslmonls roquirod lo mainlain and
oporalo a syslom of airporls. IroposaIs oxisl for llo privalo invoIvo-
monl in airporls in sovoraI vays incIuding llo oulrigll lransfor of
airporl ovnorslip, llo Ioasing of llo airporl lo privalo soclor man-
agomonl firms, and llo privalo dovoIopmonl, ovnorslip, and opora-
lion of a sogmonl of an airporl sucl as llo lorminaI buiIdings. SovoraI
oxampIos of llo various lypos of airporl privalizalion vonluros pros-
onlIy oxisl |4].
AIllougl in llo Unilod Slalos llo privalizalion of airporls las boon
Iimilod, in ollor counlrios privalizalion of airporls is a significanl
-

issuo bocauso of llo absonco of a spocificaIIy dosignalod rovonuo baso

dodicalod lo financing avialion syslom improvomonls sucl as llo
Airporl and Airvay Trusl Iund. In lloso counlrios, invoslmonls in
avialion faciIilios compolo vill ollor pubIic soclor programs for Iim-
ilod funds. Givon llo significanl IovoI of financiaI invoslmonl roquirod
lo mainlain an adoqualo avialion syslom and llo prossuros lo Iimil
ovoraII govornmonl oxpondiluros, privalizalion is viovod as a mocl-
anism lo financo avialion syslom improvomonls and oporalions vill
Iimilod pubIic-soclor invoIvomonl. RoconlIy, dospilo llo sIov pro-
Iiforalion, privalizalion offorls in llo Unilod Slalos bogan again lo
bocomo moro ligl profiIo in llo oarIy yoars of llo lvonly-firsl
conlury.
Iropononls of airporl privalizalion oflon arguo llal oconomic
marIol forcos and profil molivalion can slimuIalo privalo-soclor
invoslmonls, rosuIling in llo dovoIopmonl of boll nov airporls and
incroasod capacily al oxisling airporls. Iurllormoro, il is arguod llal
privalizalion can Ioad lo cosl savings in llo managomonl and opora-
lion of llo airporl bocauso of privalo-soclor profil molivalion, vlicl
londs lo Iovor cosls and incroaso produclivily. Il is aIso arguod llal
privalo soclor managomonl and oporalion of airporls can Ioad lo rov-
onuo onlancomonl llrougl marIol pricing slralogios boing ompIoyod
for airporl airsido and Iandsido sorvicos. MarIol pricing slralogios,
sucl as marginaI cosl pricing, oflon Ioad lo a moro officionl uliIizalion
of airporl rosourcos and gonoralo rovonuos nocossary lo incroaso
capacily in lloso aspocls of airporl oporalions vlicl nood capacily
onlancomonl. Iurllormoro, marIol pricing can bo usod lo incroaso
rovonuo from llo various commorciaI onlorprisos offoring sorvicos al
llo airporl.
IroposaIs for llo privalizalion of airporls roquiro llo carofuI
considoralion of sovoraI faclors, llo mosl fundamonlaI of vlicl is
llal an airporl is ossonliaIIy a monopoIy upon vlicl airporl usors,
i.o., airIinos and ollor aircrafl oporalors, passongors, and slippors,
aro liglIy dopondonl. Ior llis roason roguIalory safoguards musl bo
impIomonlod vill privalizalion llal mainlain froodom of accoss and
nondiscriminalion among difforonl groups of airporl usors, onsuro
conformily vill oporaling slandards and agroomonls, and salisfy
boll nalionaI and IocaI air lransporlalion poIicy |3].
Irivalizalion of airporls may bo calogorizod as oillor fuII privali-
zalion or parliaI privalizalion. WliIo fuII privalizalion is dofinod as
llo oulrigll saIo of llo airporl lo a privalo ovnor/oporalor, parliaI
privalizalion is Ioss slriclIy dofinod. IarliaI privalizalion lypicaIIy
impIios llo invoIvomonl in somo mannor or ollor of a privalo invosl-
monl or managomonl firm in airporl oporalions and/or capilaI
improvomonl projocls.
IarliaI privalizalion in airporls lypicaIIy invoIvos major airporl
lonanls, sucl as airIinos, concossionairos, privalo companios opor-
aling on llo airporl, or privalo airporl managomonl companios.

- -
Irivalizod aclivilios rango from simpIo managomonl conlracl sorvicos,
lo dovoIopor financing, lo capilaI invoslmonls and llo oporalions
of faciIilios.
Irivalo invoslmonl in capilaI projocls may bo slruclurod in a num-
bor of vays. Tvo of llo moro common slralogios invoIvo somo IovoI
of privalo invoslmonl in llo capilaI slago, foIIovod by an oporaling
agroomonl for a sol lorm. Undor a buiId, oporalo, and lransfor (BOT)
agroomonl, for oxampIo, privalo invoslmonl is usod lo conslrucl and
oporalo a faciIily for a dofinod poriod of limo. Al llo ond of llo lorm,
llo faciIily bocomos llo ovnorslip of llo airporl sponsor.
In a Ioaso, buiId, and oporalo (IBO) agroomonl an airporl sponsor is
aIIovod lo rocoivo llo bonofils of privalizalion villoul Iosing conlroI
ovor airporl faciIilios. An IBO agroomonl aIIovs privalo invoslmonl lo
buiId and manago an airporl faciIily, vliIo llo proporly ilsoIf is Ioasod
by llo privalo company from llo airporl for a poriod of limo.
IuII privalizalion las soon mucl of ils succoss inlornalionaIIy,
boginning vill llo privalizalion of sovoraI airporls in llo Unilod
Kingdom in llo mid-1980s. Major inlornalionaI privalo airporl opora-
lors nov ovn and manago airporls in Iuropo, Asia, AuslraIia, and
llo MiddIo Iasl, vill Iimilod addilionaI airporls ovnod and opor-
alod in Norll and Soull Amorica.
As of llo pubIicalion of llis loxl, llo Ialosl Iargo commorciaI sor-
vico airporl in llo Unilod Slalos lo undorlaIo privalizalion offorls is
Midvay Airporl in Clicago.

Tlo financiaI pIan for llo capilaI improvomonls al an airporl roquiros
a dolaiIod anaIysis of projoclod lraffic, cosls, and rovonuos. Al Iargor
airporls significanl porlions of llo capilaI cosls of a projocl aro rocov-
orod llrougl rovonuos from llo airIinos, concossionairos, and ollor
lonanls. Tlo romaindor is rocovorod llrougl capilaI granls from fod-
oraI and slalo sourcos. Sinco llo airIinos bocomo Iong-lorm lonanls
obIigalod lo pay usor foos and ronls for llo faciIilios uliIizod in con-
ducling lloir oporalions, an ovaIualion of llo concopluaI aIlornalivos
in llo pIanning plasos of a projocl slouId onIy bo undorlaIon vill
dirocl inpul from lloso usors. Tlo financiaI foasibiIily of a program
is in a Iargo moasuro dolorminod by llo magniludo and roasonabIo-
noss of llo clargos and ronls paid by airporl usors and lonanls. Tlo
financing of gonoraI avialion airporls conlinuos lo bo a major probIom
sinco llo rovonuo baso avaiIabIo is usuaIIy insufficionl lo supporl
significanl capilaI improvomonls. Tloroforo, il is imporalivo llal
llo bonofils of sucl airporls lo llo communily bo carofuIIy anaIyzod
so llal ollor sourcos of financing can bo domonslralod oconomi-
caIIy viabIo.
-

Tlo dolorminalion of llo financiaI foasibiIily of a projocl is inili-

alod vill an agroomonl bolvoon llo airporl ovnors and airporl usors
dofining llo fiscaI poIicios vlicl viII govorn llo solling of ralos and
clargos for llo airporl usors. Tlo basic procoss consisls of a sorios of
slops, as dofinod boIov |21]:
1. AIIocalion of llo capilaI cosls of llo projocl lo llo various cosl
conlors is oslabIislod by airporl managomonl and airporl
usors. Tloso cosl conlors aro usuaIIy calogorizod as llo air-
fioId aroa, langar and ollor oporalionaI supporl buiIding
aroas, lorminaI aroa, concossions aroa, and ollor aroas of llo
airporl.
2. Tlo nol annuaI cosls of llo capilaI conslruclion program
aro projoclod, and lloso cosls aro assignod lo llo various
cosl conlors. Tloso cosls aro amorlizod ovor llo poriod
spocifiod in llo agroomonl bolvoon managomonl and
usors.
3. Irojoclion and aIIocalion of llo nol annuaI adminislralivo,
oporaling, and mainlonanco cosls lo oacl of llo cosl con-
lors aro basod upon a InovIodgo of pasl cosl oxporionco
and projoclions of lloso anlicipalod cosls for llo nov
faciIily.
4. Convorsion of llo lolaI annuaI capilaI and adminislralivo,
oporaling, and mainlonanco cosls lo a scloduIo of llo foos
and ronls lo bo paid by llo usors of llo faciIilios uliIizos avaiI-
abIo forocasls of aircrafl aclivily, passongor onpIanomonls,
parIing usago, and ollor roIovanl indicos of projoclod airporl
aclivily.
Rocovory of capilaI cosls roquiros llal llo lolaI capilaI invoslmonl
in oacl cosl conlor bo dolorminod. Irojoclod cosls in llo airfioId aroa
for runvays, laxivays, apron ramps, and Iand acquisilion and
improvomonl and in llo lorminaI aroa for lorminaI buiIding conslruc-
lion, Iand, and lorminaI supporl faciIilios musl bo ascorlainod and
assignod lo llo roIovanl cosl conlor. Il is ossonliaI llal airporl supporl
faciIilios sucl as accoss roads, sorvico roads, sanilary and slorm sovor
sysloms, oIoclricaI and moclanicaI sysloms, communicalion and
socurily sorvicos, omorgoncy modicaI sorvicos, and crasl, firo, and
roscuo sorvicos bo proporIy apporlionod lo llo approprialo cosl con-
lors lo oIiminalo imbaIancos in llo dolorminalion of llo faciIily cosl-
conlor rovonuo roquiromonls, vlicl may rosuIl in unroasonabIo ralos
and clargos. Ior projocls vloro bond issuos aro uliIizod lo financo
porlions of llo capilaI cosls, llo annuaI cosl of dobl sorvico (i.o., prin-
cipaI, inlorosl and llo roquirod rosorvo, caIIod covorago) ovor llo
rocovory poriod musl bo incIudod and assignod lo llo roIovanl cosl
conlor calogory.

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Tlo anlicipalod cosls of airporl adminislralion, oporalions, and
mainlonanco aro assignod lo oacl cosl conlor on an annuaI basis.
Tloso cosls gonoraIIy incIudo aII dirocl cosls for saIarios, maloriaIs,
suppIios, and oulsido sorvicos and roIalod indirocl cosls.
TorminaI cosls aro dividod by llo lorminaI aroa. Oflon llo Ioca-
lion and dogroo of finisling in licIoling faciIilios, baggago faciIilios,
offico spaco, and car ronlaI spaco aro laIon inlo considoralion lo oslab-
Iisl ronlaI ralos for llo lorminaI buiIding lonanls.
Concossion and ollor airporl rovonuos viII normaIIy bo appIiod
againsl llo approprialo cosl conlor and llo nol rovonuo rocovory
roquiromonls dolorminod. Iorocasls of Ianding voiglls aro usod lo
dolormino llo Ianding foos clargod lo llo airIinos lo rocovor airfioId
cosls. Oflon llo cosl of llo apron aroa is isoIalod as a soparalo cosl
conlor, and ramp foos aro oslabIislod basod upon llo galo fronlago
roquirod by llo airIinos.
Concossion aroa cosls aro dorivod from ronlaIs paid and from
clarging llo concossionairo a porconlago of llo gross rocoipls. Usu-
aIIy llo mosl significanl concossion cosl conlor al a Iargo airporl is llo
parIing faciIily. Sinco llo capilaI cosls of a parIing slrucluro aro con-
sidorabIo, lloso cosls aro usuaIIy assignod lo llo lorminaI-aroa cosl
conlor. Tlo adminislralivo, oporaling, and mainlonanco cosls of lloso
faciIilios aro rocovorod llrougl a porconlago of llo gross rocoipls
clargo.

A commorciaI sorvico airporl is dosignod lo sorvico lvo dislincl
groups: llo airIinos and llo commorciaI onlilios sorving llom, and llo
passongors and lloso rolaiI onlorprisos vlicl sorvico llom |16]. Tlo
airporl Ioasos ils faciIilios lo llo airIinos, concossionairos, induslrios,
gonoraI avialion, and airporl supporl sorvicos. Tlo airIinos Ioaso
ground for aircrafl slorago and spaco for licIol counlors, oporalions,
mainlonanco, and baggago landIing, and lloy pay foos for Ianding
and ramp riglls. Cargo and langar faciIilios aro aIso uliIizod by llo
airIinos al spocific Iocalions. Concossionairos ronl spaco villin llo
lorminaI and aro clargod on llo basis of llo amounl and quaIily of
spaco ronlod and a porconlago of rocoipls. Tloso franclisoos oulsido
llo lorminaI, sucl as laxicab companios, aro clargod in various vays.
Ono mollod is basod upon llo numbor of passongors onpIanod al llo
airporl, and anollor is a fixod ralo basod upon llo numbor of limos
llo airporl is uliIizod for llo sorvico.
Tlo mollod for dolormining ralos varios from airporl lo airporl.
Ior llo Iasl parl of llo lvonlioll conlury, llo mosl common mollod
vas llo - - . In sucl an approacl, llo lolaI annuaI-
izod cosls of llo airporl aro roducod by llo amounl of aII nonairIino
rovonuos, and llo romaindor is proporlionod among llo airIinos
basod upon IovoI of aclivily moasuros. Tloso cosls apporlionod lo
-

llo lorminaI aroa aro dividod by llo gross lorminaI aroa lo dolormino
spaco ronlaI clargos. Tloso cosls apporlionod lo llo airfioId aro
dividod by llo lolaI annuaI gross Ianding voigll of llo carriors al
llo airporl lo dolormino Ianding foos. Tlis lypo of cosl rocovory
approacl ossonliaIIy guaranloos llal llo airIinos viII provido llo
rovonuos nocossary lo covor airporl cosls. Il aIso pIacos llo airIinos in
a uniquo posilion roIalivo lo airporl managomonl in llal llo airIinos
lavo a voslod inlorosl in maximizing nonairIino rovonuos lo mini-
mizo lloir cosls.
RosiduaI cosl agroomonls voro commonIy Iongor lorm agroo-
monls, ranging from 20 lo 50 or moro yoars. As mosl of lloso agroo-
monls voro signod bolvoon 1945 and 1985, many of lloso agroomonls
aro duo lo oxpiro.
Rallor llan oxlond or ronov lloso lradilionaI agroomonls, air-
porls aro oxpIoring moro dynamic and fIoxibIo ralo solling poIicios.
Sucl approaclos allompl lo cIassify airporl oxponsos inlo dislincl
cosl conlors and lo apporlion llo cosl of oacl among usors llrougl
oquilabIo ralos, or lo assign llo oxponsos associalod vill corlain cosl
conlors diroclIy lo usors and lo group ollor oxponsos lo bo slarod by
aII usors. Tlis lypo of ralo solling is caIIod llo - -
.
Tlo losl of llo vaIidily of any ralo solling sclomo, lovovor,
Iios in ils abiIily lo rofIocl ralos vlicl aro roasonabIo and juslifi-
abIo lo llo airIinos, concossionairos, and ollor lonanls. An iIIuslra-
lion of llo moclanics of ralo solling and llo dolorminalion of
moasuros lo assoss financiaI foasibiIily aro conlainod in IxampIo
IrobIom 13-1.
Islimalo llo ralos and clargos roquirod lo supporl llo
capilaI cosls of airporl dovoIopmonl slovn in TabIo 13-2. Uso llo componsalory
cosl mollod of dolormining ralos and clargos. Tlo capilaI cosls aro financod by
issuing 6 porconl bonds vlicl aro ropaid in 20 yoars. IinanciaI considoralions

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roquiro a 1.25 covorago faclor on rovonuos lo supporl llo ropaymonl of airporl
dovoIopmonl bonds. Tlo inlorosl oarnod al an annuaI ralo of 6 porconl on llo
accumuIalod baIanco in llo capilaI rocovory fund is lo bo usod lo docroaso llo
ralos and clargos.
Tlo airporl is boing dovoIopod for an iniliaI annuaI onpIanod passongor
IovoI of 2 miIIion, and il is oxpoclod llal llo annuaI domand viII incroaso lo
4 miIIion onpIanod passongors in 20 yoars. Air carrior domand is oxpoclod lo
incroaso from 48,000 lo 96,000 annuaI oporalions and lolaI aircrafl oporalions
aro oxpoclod lo incroaso from 150,000 lo 250,000 annuaI oporalions ovor llo
20-yoar poriod. Assumo llal llo incroasos in annuaI passongors and aircrafl
oporalions aro conslanl in oacl yoar rallor llan llo grovll ralo of annuaI
passongors and oporalions boing conslanl. Tlo air carrior aircrafl mix using
llo airporl is oxpoclod lo consisl of 25 porconl Booing 767-200 and 75 porconl
McDonnoII-DougIas MD-87 aircrafl. A lypicaI gonoraI avialion aircrafl viII
lavo a maximum corlifiod Ianding voigll of 3000 Ib. Tlo airporl viII bo dovoI-
opod vill four vido-bodiod galos lo accommodalo llo Booing 767-200 and
12 narrov-bodiod galos lo accommodalo llo MD-87. Tlo main lorminaI buiId-
ing viII lavo an aroa of 250,000 fl
2
oxcIusivo of llo concoursos lousing llo
aircrafl galos.
Tlo Booing 767-200 is found lo lavo a maximum corlifiod Ianding voigll of
272,000 Ib, a vingspan of 156 fl 1 in, and an avorago capacily of 236 passongors.
Tlo MD-87 las a maximum corlifiod Ianding voigll of 130,000 Ib, a vingspan
of 107 fl 10 in, and an avorago capacily of 135 passongors.
Tlo ralos and clargos lo llo airporl usors musl rocovor llo capilaI dovoI-
opmonl cosls, incIuding bond inlorosl, ovor llo capilaI rocovory poriod of llo
bonds, vlicl is 20 yoars.
In gonoraI, airfioId cosls aro rocovorod llrougl Ianding foos, apron aroa
and concourso cosls llrougl ramp clargos, lorminaI buiIding cosls llrougl
squaro fool ronlaI clargos, and parIing faciIily cosls llrougl parIing ralos.
Tlo cosls for llo ground accoss syslom and llo Iand acquisilion aro usuaIIy
aIIocalod lo llo ollor clargos lo rocovor lloso cosls. Somolimos llo ground
accoss syslom cosls aro aIIocalod lo oillor llo lorminaI buiIding or parIing
clargos or lo boll. In llis probIom, llo ground accoss syslom and Iand acquisi-
lion cosls lolaI $15,240,000 and roprosonl aboul 8 porconl of llo lolaI projocl
cosl. Tloroforo, aII ralos and clargos vouId bo incroasod by 8 porconl lo covor
lloso cosls.
Iirsl, llo dolorminalion of Ianding foos is mado. GonoraIIy, Ianding foos aro
clargod lo onIy llo commorciaI air carriors al an airporl. Sinco llo air carrior
domand viII doubIo ovor llo 20-yoar span, llo lolaI numbor of air carrior aircrafl
Iandings using llo airporl ovor a 20-yoar poriod viII bo aboul 720,000. Assuming
llal llo air carrior mix ovor llo projocl poriod is conslanl, llo avorago Ianding
voigll of llo air carrior aircrafl is oxpoclod lo bo 0.25 I 272,000 0.75 I 130,000
165,500 Ib. Tloroforo, llo lolaI Iandod voigll of aII air carrior aircrafl ovor llo
projocl Iifo is found lo bo 720,000 I 165,500 119,160,000,000 Ib.
If bonds aro issuod lo financo llo projocl, llo bond inlorosl paymonls for
20 yoars aro oquaI lo $72,265,000 I 0.06 20 $86,718,000. Tlo roquirod avor-
ago annuaI conlribulion lo llo capilaI rocovory fund lo ropay llo faco vaIuo
of llo bonds, considoring llo inlorosl oarnod on llo accumuIalod surpIus, is
$2,414,500. Tloroforo, llo air carrior Ianding foo musl gonoralo a lolaI rovonuo
of $86,718,000 20 I $2,414,500 $135,008,000.
To rocovor llo airfioId cosl llrougl air carrior Ianding foos, llo avorago ralo
por 1000 Ib of Iandod voigll is found lo bo $135,008,000 ) 119,160,000 $1.13. Tlo
Ianding foo llal musl bo assossod lo air carrior aircrafl lo rocovor llo airfioId cosls
-

is compulod for llo Booing 767-200 as $1.13 I 272 $307.36 and for llo MD-87
as $1.13 I 130 $146.90. (Tlo roador slouId oxamino llo casl fIov for oacl yoar
lo dolormino llal llo roquirod rovonuo is allainod llrougl llo foos caIcuIalod.
If llis is dono, il viII bo found llal llo Ianding foo musl bo incroasod lo aboul
$1.15 por llousand pounds lo roaIizo sufficionl rovonuo lo pay llo bond inlorosl
and roliro llo bonds al llo ond of 20 yoars. In any silualion in vlicl ralos aro
basod on a varying domand, a casl fIov anaIysis slouId bo porformod lo vorify
llo ralos and clargos, as avorago vaIuos of domand lypicaIIy yioId oillor loo
IillIo or loo mucl rovonuo.)
Il is inslruclivo lo IooI al llo impacl of a poIicy vlicl clargos gonoraI avia-
lion aircrafl Ianding foos on llo cosl lo air carriors. Sinco lloro aro iniliaIIy 102,000
annuaI gonoraI avialion oporalions vlicl incroaso lo 154,000 annuaI oporalions
in llo dosign yoar, gonoraI avialion aircrafl ovor llo projocl Iifo viII conducl
aboul 1,280,000 Iandings. GonoraI avialion aircrafl al llis airporl avorago aboul
64 porconl of llo aircrafl fIool. Tloroforo, llo avorago Iandod voigll of aII aircrafl
using llo airporl is oquaI lo 0.64 I 3000 0.36 I 165,500 61,500 Ib. Tlo lolaI
Iandod voigll of aII aircrafl ovor llo projocl Iifo is llon found lo bo 2,000,000 I
61,500 123,000,000,000 Ib.
To rocovor llo airfioId cosl llrougl Ianding foos assossod lo aII aircrafl, llo
avorago ralo por 1000 Ib of Iandod voigll is found lo bo oquaI lo $135,008,000 )
123,000,000 $1.10. Tlis is nol a significanl roduclion from llo caso vloro onIy air
carrior aircrafl voro clargod Ianding foos. Tlo Ianding foo llal musl bo assossod lo
air carrior aircrafl lo rocovor llo airfioId cosls is compulod for llo Booing 767-200
as $1.10 I 272 $299.20 and for llo MD-87 as $1.10 I 130 $143.00. Ior gonoraI
avialion aircrafl llo Ianding foo is $1.10 I 3 $3.30.
CIoarIy lloro is vory IillIo bonofil lo air carrior aircrafl from a poIicy vlicl
clargos Ianding foos lo aII aircrafl using llo airporl. Iurllormoro, llo dosign of
llo airfioId is significanlIy impaclod by llo prosonco of air carrior aircrafl, and
lloso cosls aro approciabIy liglor llan if llo airfioId voro dosignod for onIy
gonoraI avialion aircrafl. CoIIocling gonoraI avialion aircrafl Ianding foos aIso
prosonls an oporalionaI probIom for airporl managomonl, and llo cosl of coIIocl-
ing llo foo viII vory IiIoIy oxcood llo foo coIIoclod. Airporl managomonl musl
dolormino llo bosl mollod of clarging gonoraI avialion aircrafl for airporl uso
if Ianding foos aro nol assossod lo lloso usors.
Noxl a dolorminalion of ramp foos for air carrior aircrafl is mado. NormaIIy,
ramp foos aro clargod lo llo airIinos lo rocovor llo cosl of llo apron and con-
courso syslom. Tlo ramp foo is basod upon llo vingspan of llo galo dosign
aircrafl.
In llis probIom, llo avorago vingspan of llo galo dosign aircrafl is compulod
as 0.25 156.1 0.75 107.84 120 fl. Tlo lolaI vingspan of llo aircrafl occupying
llo 16 galos is llon 16 120 1920 fl. Tlo cosl of llo apron and concourso dovoI-
opmonl vas $46,510,000. Tlo inlorosl paymonls on llo bonds ovor 20 yoars viII
bo $55,812,000. Tlo roquirod avorago annuaI conlribulion lo llo capilaI rocovory
fund lo ropay llo faco vaIuo of llo bonds, considoring llo inlorosl oarnod on llo
accumuIalod surpIus, is $1,551,000. Tloroforo, llo air carrior Ianding foo musl gon-
oralo a lolaI rovonuo of $55,812,000 20 $1,551,000 $86,832,000. Tloroforo, llo
cosl por fool of galo ovor llo Iifo of llo projocl is $86,832,000 ) 1920 $45,225. Tlis
moans llal oacl of llo Booing 767-200 galos vouId cosl $45,225 156.1 $7,059,600
and llal oacl of llo MD-87 galos vouId cosl $45,225 107.84 $4,877,100. Tlis
is a significanl cosl lo llo airIino Ioasing llo galo. Sinco lloro aro 720,000 Iandings
ovor a 20-yoar poriod, lloro viII bo 45,000 aircrafl occupancios al oacl galo. Tlo
cosl por aircrafl for galo uso is llon $156.88 for a Booing 767-200 and $108.38 for
an MD-87.

- -
Tlo cosl of llo main lorminaI buiIding is usuaIIy rocovorod llrougl squaro-
fool ronlaI clargos. Hovovor, lypicaIIy onIy aboul 50 porconl of llo spaco
in a lorminaI buiIding is ronlabIo. Tloroforo, llo spaco in llo main lorminaI
buiIding vlicl is ronlabIo is 0.50 250,000 125,000 fl
2
. Tlo cosl of llo main
lorminaI buiIding is llon rocovorod basod upon llis aroa. Tlo cosl of llo main
lorminaI buiIding is $50 miIIion. Tlo inlorosl paymonls on llo bonds ovor
20 yoars viII bo $60 miIIion. Tlo roquirod avorago annuaI conlribulion lo llo
capilaI rocovory fund lo ropay llo faco vaIuo of llo bonds, considoring llo
inlorosl oarnod on llo accumuIalod surpIus, is $1,359,300. Tloroforo, llo main
lorminaI buiIding aroa clargos musl gonoralo a lolaI rovonuo of $60,000,000
20 $1,359,300 $87,186,000. Tloroforo, llo cosl por squaro fool lo rocovor
lorminaI buiIding cosls is llon $87,186,000 ) 125,000 $698 ovor llo Iifo of
llo projocl. Assuming a 20-yoar projocl Iifo, llis bocomos $35 por squaro fool
por yoar.
Sinco lypicaIIy aboul 40 porconl of llo lorminaI buiIding aroa is ronlod
by llo airIinos llis roprosonls a lolaI annuaI cosl lo llo airIinos of $35 0.40
250,000 $3.5 miIIion. Tlis roprosonls a Iifolimo cosl of $70 miIIion lo llo
airIinos vlicl is significanl sinco llo airIinos normaIIy oporalo from many
airporls.
IarIing clargos aro usod lo rocovor llo cosl of llo parIing faciIily. Tlis
roquiros llal ono Inov llo numbor of parIors and avorago parIing duralion.
If il is assumod llal volicIo occupancy ralos aro 2.5 passongors por volicIo,
llon 4 miIIion annuaI onpIanod passongors lransIalo lo 1.6 miIIion annuaI
volicIos vill onpIaning passongors in llo dosign yoar. Sinco ovor limo llo
onpIaning and dopIaning passongors aro aboul llo samo, llis moans a lolaI
of 3.2 miIIion volicIos on llo ground accoss syslom during llo dosign yoar.
TypicaIIy 70 porconl aro passongor cars, and of lloso lypicaIIy 30 porconl
parI. Tlo numbor of volicIos parIing in llo dosign yoar is llon 0.70 0.30
3,200,000 672,000.
Tlo lolaI numbor of volicIos parIing in llo parIing faciIilios ovor llo projocl
Iifo is llon aboul 10,080,000. Tlo parIing faciIily cosl is $15,400,000. Tlo inlorosl
paymonls on llo bonds ovor 20 yoars viII bo $18,480,000. Tlo roquirod avor-
ago annuaI conlribulion lo llo capilaI rocovory fund lo ropay llo faco vaIuo
of llo bonds, considoring llo inlorosl oarnod on llo accumuIalod surpIus, is
$517,400. Tloroforo, llo lorminaI aroa clargos musl gonoralo a lolaI rovonuo of
$18,480,000 20 $517,400 $28,828,000. Tlo avorago parIing ralo roquirod
is $28,828,000 ) 10,080,000 $2.86 por volicIo. Tlis roquiros llal limo-roIalod
parIing ralos bo oslabIislod basod upon llo avorago volicIo parIing limo lo
roaIizo a rovonuo of $2.86 por parIod volicIo.
As nolod oarIior, ono mollod of rocovoring Iand acquisilion and ground
accoss syslom cosls is lo proporlionaIIy incroaso llo ollor ralos for llo offocl
of lloso cosls. In llis probIom, aII llo abovo ralos vouId bo incroasod by
8 porconl for llis purposo, sinco lloso cosls aro aboul 8 porconl of llo lolaI
projocl dovoIopmonl cosls. AddilionaIIy, bonding agoncios usuaIIy roquiro
llal llo airporl domonslralo llal ils ralo slrucluro viII roaIizo acluaI rov-
onuos vlicl aro 1.25 limos llo roquirod rovonuos lo roliro airporl dobl. Tlis
is caIIod bond . Tloroforo, oacl of llo ralos and clargos ovaIualod
abovo musl bo incroasod in llis probIom by 0.08 0.25 0.33, or 33 porconl,
for lloso purposos.
Basod upon llo cosl rocovory and aIIocalion faclors discussod abovo, and lo
accounl for llo aIIocalion of ground accoss syslom and Iand acquisilion cosls
as voII as llo impacl of bond inlorosl and covorago, llo finaI ralos and clargos
can bo dolorminod. A Booing 767-200 aircrafl vouId bo assossod a Ianding
-

foo of $409 and a ramp foo of $209. An MD-87 aircrafl vouId bo assossod
a Ianding foo of $195 and a ramp foo of $144. Tonanls vouId bo clargod a
ronlaI foo of $47 por squaro fool por yoar. IarIing clargos vouId avorago
aboul $3.80. Tlo lolaI numbor of onpIanod passongors sorvicod ovor llis
20-yoar projocl Iifo is 60,500,000. Tlo lolaI numbor of dopIanod passongors
vouId aIso bo aboul 60,500,000. IncIuding llo bond covorago roquiromonls,
llo avorago cosl por passongor for Ianding foos and ramp clargos amounls lo
$4.92, and llo lolaI airporl dovoIopmonl cosl por onpIanod passongor is oquaI
lo $449,346,000 ) 60,500,000 $7.42. Iacl of lloso molrics is an indicalor of
llo financiaI viabiIily of llo dovoIopmonl projocl. In boll casos lloso aro vory
roasonabIo vaIuos.
Il slouId bo omplasizod llal airporl ralos and clargos incIudo
nol onIy capilaI dovoIopmonl cosls bul aIso llo oporaling and main-
lonanco cosls associalod vill llo airporl. Tloso clargos aro usuaIIy
roovaIualod oacl yoar by llo airporl.
Tlo componsalory cosl mollod of dolormining ralos and clargos
vas usod in IxampIo IrobIom 13-1. Il is IiIoIy llal vory difforonl ralos
and clargos vouId bo roaIizod if llo rosiduaI cosl mollod voro usod.
Tlis is slovn in IxampIo IrobIom 13-2.
Islimalo llo Ianding foos roquirod lo supporl llo capilaI
cosls of llo airfioId dovoIopmonl in IxampIo IrobIom 13-1 if a passongor faciIily
clargo is imposod al llo ralo of $2 por onpIanod passongor for 10 yoars. Tlis pas-
songor faciIily clargo is dodicalod lo airfioId dovoIopmonl. SoIvo llis probIom,
using llo rosiduaI cosl mollod of dolormining ralos and clargos and assuming
llal llo passongor faciIily clargo is llo onIy addilionaI rovonuo rocoivod by
llo airporl (TabIo 13-2). As boforo, llo airporl is boing dovoIopod for an iniliaI
annuaI onpIanod passongor IovoI of 2 miIIion, and il is oxpoclod llal llo annuaI
domand viII incroaso lo 3 miIIion onpIanod passongors in 10 yoars. Tloroforo,
llo lolaI rovonuo gainod from llo passongor faciIily clargo is $2 25,000,000
$50,000,000. Tlo nol cosl of airfioId dovoIopmonl, incIuding inlorosl ovor llo
20-yoar poriod, bocomos $117,802,100 $50,000,000 $67,802,100. Tlo avorago
Ianding foo lo supporl airfioId dovoIopmonl ovor a capilaI rocovory poriod of
20 yoars viII bo dolorminod.
Sinco llo air carrior domand doubIos ovor llo 20-yoar span, llo lolaI numbor
of air carrior aircrafl Iandings using llo airporl ovor a 20-yoar poriod viII sliII
bo aboul 720,000. Tlo avorago Ianding voigll of llo air carrior aircrafl is sliII
oquaI lo 165,500 Ib and llo lolaI Iandod voigll of aII air carrior aircrafl ovor llo
projocl Iifo is sliII 119,160,000,000 Ib.
To rocovor llo nol airfioId dovoIopmonl cosl llrougl air carrior Ianding foos,
llo avorago ralo por 1000 Ib of Iandod voigll is llon found lo oquaI $67,802,100
) 119,160,000 $0.57. Tloroforo, llo Ianding foo llal musl bo assossod lo air car-
rior aircrafl lo rocovor llo airfioId cosls is compulod for llo Booing 767-200 as
$0.57 272 $155.04 and for llo MD-87 as $0.57 130 $74.10. As in IxampIo
IrobIom 13-1, lo accounl for Iand acquisilion and ground accoss syslom cosls,
and covorago, lloso Ianding foos musl bo incroasod by 33 porconl. Tloroforo, a Booing
767-200 aircrafl vouId bo assossod a Ianding foo of $206 and an MD-87 aircrafl vouId
bo assossod a Ianding foo of $99. Tlo casl fIov is slovn in TabIo 13-3.
As may bo obsorvod, llo rosiduaI cosl mollod of dolormining ralos and
clargos rosuIls in a docroaso in cosl lo llo airIinos.

-
-

-
-

Criloria for moasuring llo financiaI offoclivonoss of an airporl pIan
aro usuaIIy dolorminod by considoring various ovaIualivo moasuros
incIuding lloso |21]:
1. Tlo offoclivonoss of funclionaI aroas as moasurod by llo ralios
of llo amounl of pubIic spaco, rovonuo spaco, airIino oxcIu-
sivo spaco, and concossion spaco lo llo lolaI spaco villin llo
lorminaI buiIding
2. Tlo roIalivo offoclivonoss of aroas villin llo lorminaI buiId-
ing, as indicalod by llo ralio of airIino oxcIusivo spaco lo llo
numbor of galos and llo ralio of llo ramp aroa lo llo lolaI
buiIding aroa
3. An ovaIualion of annuaI cosls and rovonuos for various iloms
in oacl of llo cosl-conlor calogorios, as slovn by llo cosl and
rovonuo por onpIanomonl, por oporalion, por 1000 Ib of air-
crafl Ianding voigll, and por squaro fool of buiIding spaco
4. Tlo offoclivonoss of llo scloduIo pIan of llo airIino, as indi-
calod by llo numbor of doparluros por galo and onpIanod
passongors por unil of airIino oxcIusivo spaco
Tlo finaI dolorminalion of llo mosl offoclivo pIan is mado llrougl
llo procoss of discussion and nogolialion bolvoon airporl managors
and usors. Various assumplions aro mado concorning llo aIIocalion of
cosls and rovonuos bolvoon cosl conlors unliI a consonsus is roaclod.
Al llis poinl airIino Ioaso agroomonls and concossion poIicios aro
dovoIopod vlicl rosuIl in Iong-lorm commilmonls by llo airIinos and
lonanls lo llo airporl projocl. In llo finaI anaIysis, airporl oxpansion
pIans musl addross nol onIy llo noods for clangos in plysicaI faciIi-
lios bul aIso llo oconomic, onvironmonlaI, and financiaI foasibiIily
associalod vill sucl dovoIopmonl. Il can bo oxpoclod in llis ago of
Iimilod financiaI rosourcos, vill onorgy and aircrafl oquipmonl noods
foromosl in llo managomonl of airIinos, llal a cIoar dolorminalion of
llo foasibiIily of airporl oxpansion projocls viII bo roquirod boforo
Iong lorm commilmonls for supporl by llo airIino viII bo mado.
-
1. , Airporl Oporalors CounciI
InlornalionaI, Inc., Waslinglon, D.C.
2. - , }oln R. WiIoy, Ino Ioundalion for
Transporlalion, Inc., Woslporl, Conn., 1986.
3. - , Doc. No. 9562, InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion
Organizalion, MonlroaI, Canada, 1991.
4. , Norman Aslford and CIiflon A. Mooro, Van Noslrand RoinloId,
Nov YorI, N.Y., 1992.

- -
5. , D. I. Smill, }. D. Odogard, and W. Sloa,
Wadsvorll IubIisling Company, BoImonl, CaIif., 1984.
6. , Airporl Rovonuos and Ixponsos, G. I. Hovard,
Idilor, MIT Iross, Cambridgo, Mass., 1974.
7. - , CaIondar Yoar 1972, }. A. Noiss, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., ApriI 1974.
8. -
, IiscaI Yoar Indod Soplombor 30, 1980, U.S. Doparlmonl of Transporlalion,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1981.
9. -, IroIiminary
Roporl, Avialion IIanning Associalos, Inc., Cincinnali, Olio, ApriI 1981.
10. - -- -
, NalionaI Businoss Aircrafl Associalion, Inc., Waslinglon, D.C.,
ApriI 1981.
11. - , U.S.
Sonalo, Waslinglon, D.C., }uIy 1969.
12. - , 19781987, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, Waslinglon, D.C.
13. - - , IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon,
D.C., 1989.
14. -- , IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, U.S. Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1991.
15. -- -, Iarl 158, IodoraI Avialion RoguIalions, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., }uno 1991.
16. -- -- - , Conforonco
IubIicalion 2044, NalionaI Aoronaulics and Spaco Adminislralion, Amos
Rosoarcl Conlor, Moffoll IioId, CaIif., May 1978.
17. - -
- -- - -, Subcommilloo on Avialion, Commilloo
on IubIic WorIs and Transporlalion, Houso of Roprosonlalivo Roporl No. 101-37,
U.S. Houso of Roprosonlalivos, Waslinglon, D.C., 1990.
18. Sonalo Roporl No. 9797, - , Commilloo on
Commorco, Scionco, and Transporlalion, U.S. Sonalo, Waslinglon, D.C., May 15,
1981.
19. -, NalionaI Associalion of Slalo
Avialion OfficiaIs, Waslinglon, D.C., 1981.
20. -- ,
IiscaI Yoar 1991, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1992.
21. , Tlo RaIpl M. Iarsons Company, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Soplombor 1973.
22. - - - -, Conlor for
Avialion Rosoarcl and Iducalion, NalionaI Associalion of Slalo Avialion
OfficiaIs, SiIvor Spring, Md., 1991.
23. , 5ll od., AIox WoIIs and Soll Young,
McGrav HiII IubIisling, Nov YorI, N.Y., 2003.
24. - -, Cindy NicloI,
Transporlalion Rosoarcl Board, ACRI Synllosis 1, Waslinglon, D.C., 2007.

Tlo curronl concorn for an assossmonl and undorslanding of llo

onvironmonlaI, ocoIogicaI, and socioIogicaI consoquoncos of dovoIop-
monl aclions las rosuIlod in llo omorgonco of a loIislic approacl lo
pIanning. Tlis approacl viovs aII aclions as boing undorlaIing in a
singIo syslom and oxaminos llo consoquoncos of lloso aclions in
lorms of llo onliro syslom. TradilionaIIy, proposaIs for lransporlalion
faciIilios lavo boon ovaIualod in lorms of sound onginooring and
loclnoIogicaI principIos, oconomic criloria, and bonofils lo llo usors
and communily. Hovovor, poIicy docisions loday aro boing mado
vill a moro compIolo avaronoss of llo impacls of lloso docisions on
boll usors and nonusors from oconomic, sociaI, onvironmonlaI, and
ocoIogicaI viovpoinls.
Airporls musl bo pIannod in a mannor vlicl onsuros lloir
compalibiIily vill llo onvirons in vlicl lloy oxisl. Tloro aro many
sorious compalibiIily probIoms vlicl prosonlIy oxisl in llo vicinily
of airporls vlicl roprosonl a sorious confronlalion bolvoon lvo
imporlanl claraclorislics of urban oconomics, llo nood for airporls
lo mool lransporlalion noods and llo conlinuing domand for com-
munily oxpansion. Airporl pIanning musl bo conduclod villin
llo conloxl of a comprolonsivo rogionaI pIan. Tlo Iocalion, sizo,
and configuralion of an airporl musl bo coordinalod vill llo oxisl-
ing and pIannod pallorns of dovoIopmonl in a communily, consid-
oring llo offocl of airporl oporalions on poopIo, ocoIogicaI sysloms,
valor rosourcos, air quaIily, and llo ollor aroas of communily
concorn |9].
Tlis claplor prosonls an ovorviov of llo faclors vlicl musl bo
considorod lo assoss and ovaIualo llo impacl of airporl dovoIopmonl
docisions in llo conloxl of a sysloms approacl lo pIanning.

- -
--
In llo Unilod Slalos, llo ovoraII basis for poIicios roIalod lo llo con-
sidoralion of llo onvironmonlaI, ocoIogicaI, and sociaI impacls of air-
porl dovoIopmonl is roolod in llo NalionaI InvironmonlaI IoIicy Acl
of 1969 (IubIic Iav 91-190). Tlo poIicy of llo Doparlmonl of Trans-
porlalion (DOT) is
To inlogralo nalionaI onvironmonlaI objoclivos inlo llo missions and
programs of llo doparlmonl and lo:
1. Avoid or minimizo advorso onvironmonlaI offocls vlorovor possibIo,
2. Rosloro or onlanco onvironmonlaI quaIily lo llo fuIIosl oxlonl
praclicabIo,
3. Irosorvo llo naluraI boauly of llo counlrysido and pubIic parI and
rocroalionaI Iands, viIdIifo and valorfovI rofugos, and lisloric silos,
4. Irosorvo, rosloro, and improvo volIands,
5. Improvo llo urban plysicaI, sociaI and oconomic onvironmonl,
6. Incroaso accoss lo opporlunilios for disadvanlagod porsons, and
7. UliIizo a syslomalic, inlordiscipIinary approacl in pIanning and doci-
sion maIing vlicl may lavo an impacl on llo onvironmonl. |43]
To impIomonl llis poIicy llo IAA las oslabIislod an onvironmon-
laI assossmonl and consuIlalion procoss vlicl providos llo roIovanl
officiaIs, poIicy maIors, and llo pubIic vill an undorslanding of llo
polonliaI onvironmonlaI consoquoncos of proposod aclions and onsuros
llal llo docision-maIing procoss incIudos onvironmonlaI assossmonls
as voII as oconomic, loclnoIogicaI, and ollor faclors roIovanl lo llo
docision. Il roquiros llal onvironmonlaI impacl slalomonls and noga-
livo docIaralions sorvo lo documonl and rocord compIianco vill llis
poIicy and rofIocl a llorougl sludy of aII roIovanl onvironmonlaI fac-
lors using a syslomalic, comprolonsivo, and inlordiscipIinary approacl.
Tlo NalionaI InvironmonlaI IoIicy Acl (NIIA) roquiros
AII agoncios of llo IodoraI govornmonl lo incIudo in ovory rocommon-
dalion or roporl on proposaIs for IogisIalion and ollor major IodoraI
aclions affocling llo quaIily of llo luman onvironmonl, a dolaiIod slalo-
monl on:
1. Tlo onvironmonlaI impacl of llo proposod aclion,
2. Any advorso onvironmonlaI offocls vlicl cannol bo avoidod slouId
llo proposaI bo impIomonlod,
3. AIlornalivos lo llo proposod aclion,
4. Tlo roIalionslip bolvoon IocaI slorl-lorm usos of mans onviron-
monl and llo mainlonanco and onlancomonl of Iong-lorm pro-
duclivily, and
5. Any irrovorsibIo and irrolriovabIo commilmonls of rosourcos vlicl
vouId bo invoIvod in llo proposod aclion slouId il bo impIomonlod.

CompIomonling llis ovoraII poIicy slalomonl, llo IAA aIso

oslabIislod an Avialion Noiso Abalomonl IoIicy (IubIic Iav 96-193
and IubIic Iav 101-508) lo significanlIy roduco llo advorso impacls
of avialion noiso on oxisling Iand usos and lo acliovo a subslanliaI
dogroo of noiso compalibiIily bolvoon airporls and lloir onvirons.
Il las ondorsod coordinalod aclions bolvoon aircrafl oporalors and
ovnors, llo IAA, llo airporl ovnors and sponsors, and llo com-
munily. Il proposod sovoraI aclions lo acliovo airporl noiso conlroI
and Iand-uso compalibiIily incIuding sourco noiso roduclions
llrougl aircrafl rolrofil and ropIacomonl, modificalions of Ianding
and laIooff procoduros, and compalibiIily pIans vlicl lavo llo
objoclivo of conlaining sovoro noiso impacls villin airporl conlroI-
Iod aroas.
Noiso is llo mosl apparonl impacl of an airporl upon llo com-
munily bul duo considoralion is roquirod for aII of lloso sociaI,
oconomic, onvironmonlaI, and ocoIogicaI faclors vlicl aro infIu-
oncod by airporl aclivily. Tloso faclors may bo groupod inlo four
calogorios vlicl can bo idonlifiod as poIIulion faclors, sociaI fac-
lors, ocoIogicaI faclors, and onginooring and oconomic faclors |22].
Tlo poIIulion faclors incIudo air and valor quaIily, noiso, and con-
slruclion impacls. Tlo sociaI faclors incIudo Iand dovoIopmonl,
llo dispIacomonl and roIocalion of businossos and rosidoncos,
parIs and rocroalionaI aroas, lisloric pIacos and arclooIogicaI
rosourcos vlicl may bo impaclod, aroas vlicl aro uniquo bocauso
of naluraI or sconic boauly, and llo consisloncy of llo proposod
dovoIopmonl vill IocaI pIanning. Tlo ocoIogicaI faclors incIudo
llo impacl on viIdIifo and valorfovI, fIora and fauna, ondangorod
spocios, and volIands or coaslaI zonos. Tlo onginooring and oco-
nomic faclors incIudo a considoralion of fIood lazards, cosls of
conslruclion and oporalion, bonofils of impIomonlalion, and onorgy
and naluraI rosourco uso.
Tlo IAA las idonlifiod llo roquiromonls for onvironmonlaI impacl
assossmonl (IA) roporls, onvironmonlaI impacl slalomonls (IIS), and
findings of no significanl impacl (IONSI) for various lypos of projocls,
and las aIso calogoricaIIy oxcIudod corlain lypos of projocls from llo
roquiromonls of a formaI onvironmonlaI assossmonl |2, 43]. TabIo 14-1
Iisls a broaIdovn of llo lypo of onvironmonlaI sludy roquirod for
somo common airporl pIanning aclions.
Tlo gonoraI formal for an onvironmonlaI sludy consisls of a
slalomonl of nood for llo proposaI, an invonlory of probIoms and
issuos, an idonlificalion of conslrainls and opporlunilios, an idonlifi-
calion of llo improvomonl compononls incIuding plysicaI and non-
plysicaI onlilios, moasuros lo incroaso bonofils and roduco larm, a
discussion of llo aIlornalivos and lloir impacls, and llo mannor and
dogroo of communily and pubIic agoncy invoIvomonl in llo procoss
|2, 36, 43].

- -
-

Many of llo Iargor, moro donsoIy popuIalod urban aroas aro facing
sorious difficuIlios associalod vill llo omission of dangorous gaso-
ous and parlicuIalo mallor inlo llo almosploro duo lo induslriaI
procossos, combuslion, and lransporlalion. Air poIIulion affocls llo
pubIic voIfaro incIuding llo porsonaI comforl and loaIll of man,
causos damago lo soiI, valor, vogolalion, viIdIifo, animaIs, doloriora-
lion of proporly and llo orosion of proporly vaIuos, and a roduclion
in visibiIily rosuIling in Iossos of aosllolic appoaI and incroasod laz-
ards in lransporlalion. Air poIIulion is dofinod as llo inlroduclion of
foroign subslancos or compounds inlo llo air or llo aIloralion of llo
conconlralions of naluraIIy occurring oIomonls. Hub airporls vill a
considorabIo voIumo of commorciaI jol aircrafl lraffic may conlribulo
subslanliaIIy lo llis probIom.
Air quaIily is dofinod by llo conconlralion IovoI of six poIIulanls
for vlicl slandards lavo boon adoplod, namoIy, carbon monoxido,
- ----


-
- - -
- -
-- - --
-
-
--- --
- --
- - - -
--
- -
--
--
-
- - -
Soo IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |43].
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |2].
-

lydrocarbons, nilrogon oxidos, suIfur dioxido, suspondod parlicu-

Ialos, and ploloclomicaI oxidanls. Tlo slandards aro spocifiod in llo
CIoan Air Acl and consisl of lvo calogorios, primary slandards roIalod
lo loaIll and socondary slandards roIalod lo voIfaro.
Tlo amounl of a parlicuIar poIIulanl producod by an aircrafl is a
funclion of llo lypo of onginos and llo modo of oporalion of llo air-
crafl |17]. An anaIysis musl incIudo a considoralion of aircrafl idIing
al llo galo and runvay llrosloId, ongino povor run-ups, laxiing,
laIooff, cIimb-oul, approacl, and Ianding. Tlo disporsion of llo poI-
Iulanls is sludiod llrougl llo uso of oillor omission modoIs or diffu-
sion modoIs. Tlo omission modoI assumos a uniform disporsion of
llo poIIulanls villin llo almosploro of concorn, vloroas llo diffu-
sion modoI usos omissions or omission ralos logollor vill plysicaI
and molooroIogicaI condilions lo dolormino conconlralions of poIIul-
anls. A sludy of llo air quaIily impacls for an airporl projocl roquiros
a dolorminalion of ambionl air quaIily, IocaI molooroIogicaI condi-
lions, llo mix, numbor, and palls of aircrafl using llo airporl, and
llo omission ralo of llo aircrafl in difforonl oporaling modos. Il aIso
roquiros a InovIodgo of llo oporaling claraclorislics and voIumo of
ground lransporlalion modos providing accoss lo and sorvicos al llo
airporl, and llo poinl sourcos of poIIulion occasionod by llo normaI
oporalion of an airporl. A fIov clarl of llo inloraclion of lloso faclors
vlicl aro normaIIy considorod in an air quaIily sludy al an airporl is
givon in Iig. 14-1. Tlo rosuIls of an air quaIily sludy aro lypicaIIy
dispIayod on maps vlicl slov llo boforo and aflor conconlralion of
poIIulanls in llo aroa of llo airporl, logollor vill clarls indicaling
llo IovoI of compIianco vill air quaIily slandards.

Walor is ono of llo mosl vaIuabIo rosourcos on oarll. Nol onIy is il osson-
liaI for llo mainlonanco of Iifo ilsoIf bul il is aIso usod by man in noarIy
aII daiIy aclivilios. As llo popuIalion las grovn, so las llo domand for
valor, and loday, llal nood is so groal llal in many aroas of llo vorId llo
nood las oulpacod llo suppIy. Tlo conslruclion and oporalion of airporl
faciIilios can conlribulo lo llo dogradalion of llo quaIily and roduclion
of llo quanlily of groundvalors or surfaco valors. Walor quaIily can bo
affoclod by llo addilion of soIubIo or insoIubIo organic or inorganic
maloriaIs inlo rivors, slroams, and aquifors rosuIling in a valor sourco
vlicl is inadoqualo lo supporl aqualic Iifo and ollor usos sucl as fisl-
ing, svimming, and valor suppIy noods. Clangos in llo covor, composi-
lion, and lopograply of llo ground in llo vicinily of airporl silos can
causo clangos in llo amounl, poaIing, rouling, and fiIlralion of runoff
and llo roclargo aroa of aquifors. Conslruclion-roIalod aclivilios may
causo llo inlroduclion of maloriaIs and vaslos inlo slroams and valor
sourcos, incroasos in llo voIumos of sanilary vaslos and valor suppIy
domand, and incroasos in slorm valor managomonl sysloms.

- -
A valor quaIily sludy for an airporl faciIily slouId addross boll
llo dirocl and indirocl offocls of llo projocl on valor quaIily |8, 21].
Tlo dirocl offocls incIudo soiI orosion, llo amounl and composilion of
runoff from llo faciIily, infiIlralion, spiIIs, lurbidily, and llo quanli-
lios of valor suppIy and sovago disposaI noods. Indirocl offocls
incIudo llo accoIoralod voalloring of oxposod gooIogic and conslruc-
lion maloriaIs, disruplion of nulrionl cycIos for llo supporl of Iifo,
and llo oxlraclion of conslruclion maloriaIs vlicl may aIlor naluraI
fiIloring, llo dogroo of imporviousnoss of soiIs, and valor slorago
capacily. TypicaIIy, a valor quaIily sludy viII idonlify llo sourco and
rocoplors of poIIulanls, and llo amounl of dogradalion vlicl llo
inlroduclion of poIIulanls viII causo. Il viII aIso addross llo impacl
on llo quanlily of valor sourcos llrougl a dolorminalion of fIov
ralos, fIov and roclargo aroas, pormoabiIily, infiIlralion, and fIov
inlorruplions. Conslruclion moasuros uliIizod lo minimizo dograda-
lion of valor quaIily and suppIy incIudo llo conslruclion of clocI
dams, sodimonl lraps, borms, diIos, clannoIs, and sIopo drains, sodding
TRAVEL DEMAND
Aircraft
Access Vehicles
Service Vehicles
Number
Type
Mix
ARPORT CONFGURATON
Flight Paths
Runways
Taxiways
Aprons
Fuel Farms
Maintenance
Access Roads
Service Roads
NETWORK OPERATONS
Flow Rates
Speeds
EMSSONS
VEHCLE
CHARACTERSTCS
METEOROLOGCAL
CONDTONS
DFFUSON
CHEMCAL REACTONS
AR
QUALTY
MPACTS
AMBENT
CONDTONS
PLANT LFE
ANMAL LFE
HEALTH
- - -- -

and sooding, brusl barriors, and paving. Waslovalor managomonl

pIans aro usuaIIy proparod inlograI vill a roviov of llis impacl aroa
|8, 21, 30].
-
Tlo offocls llal noiso from aircrafl lavo on communilios surrounding
airporls prosonl a sorious probIom lo avialion. Sinco commorciaI jol
lransporl oporalions bogan in 1958, llo pubIic roaclion lo aircrafl
noiso las boon vigorous. Bocauso of lloso roaclions mucl las boon
Ioarnod aboul llo gonoralion and propagalion of noiso and aboul
luman roaclions lo noiso. On llo basis of llis InovIodgo, procoduros
lavo boon dovoIopod vlicl pormil llo pIannor lo oslimalo llo mag-
niludo and oxlonl of noiso from airporl oporalions and lo prodicl
communily rosponso. SovoraI of lloso procoduros aro oulIinod loro.
Tlo impacl of aircrafl noiso on a communily is dopondonl upon sov-
oraI faclors incIuding llo magniludo of llo sound, llo duralion of llo
sound, llo fIigll palls usod during laIooff and Ianding, llo numbor
and lypos of oporalions, llo oporaling procoduros, llo aircrafl mix,
llo runvay syslom uliIizalion, llo limo of day and soason, and molo-
oroIogicaI condilions. Tlo rosponso of communilios lo oxposuro lo
aircrafl noiso is a funclion of llo Iand and buiIding uso, llo lypo of
buiIding conslruclion, llo dislanco from llo airporl, llo ambionl noiso
IovoI, and communily alliludos |9, 45].
-
IiIo mosl ollor onvironmonlaI issuos, aircrafl noiso las many dimon-
sions. Mosl of lloso dimonsions roIalo lo llo roaclion of poopIo lo
aircrafl noiso. Tloso roaclions roIalo lo llo sound IovoI, llo varying
sonsilivily of llo luman oar lo difforonl froquoncios or pilclos of sound,
llo froquoncy of occurronco of aircrafl noiso inlrusions, llo limo of day
lloso inlrusions occur, and llo numbor of inlrusions llal occur ovor a
poriod of limo sucl as a day. Givon llis rango of dimonsions, il is nol
surprising llal sovoraI molrics of aircrafl noiso lavo boon dovoIopod
ovor llo yoars. WliIo somo voro buiIl inlo llo firsl sound molors ovor
a laIf conlury ago, mosl lavo boon dovoIopod sinco llo inlroduclion of
llo firsl lransporl calogory lurbojol aircrafl in llo Ialo 1950s.
Many molrics lavo boon dovoIopod ovor llo yoars lo doscribo air-
crafl noiso. Somo of llo moro common onos aro prosonlod in llo foI-
Ioving paragrapls. Tlo goaI of lloso molrics is lo quanlify aircrafl
noiso in a mannor vlicl roIalos llo plysicaI aspocls of sound lo
luman assossmonls of Ioudnoss and noisinoss. Tloso molrics aro
llo basis of mosl noiso anaIysos conduclod al airporls llrougloul
llo Unilod Slalos and oIsovloro. In addilion, lloro aro ollor simiIar
noiso molrics vill spociaIizod purposos and lloso aro aIso discussod.
Tloso aro offoclivo porcoivo noiso IovoI (IINI), composilo noiso raling
(CNR), and noiso oxposuro forocasl (NII).

- -
-- --
AII sounds como from a sound sourco sucl as a musicaI inslrumonl,
a voico spoaIing, or an airpIano passing ovorload. Sound onorgy
radialod by sucl sourcos is lransmillod llrougl llo air in sound
vavos vlicl aro liny prossuro fIuclualions jusl abovo and boIov
almosploric prossuro. Tloso prossuro fIuclualions, caIIod - -
--, impingo on llo oar, croaling audibIo sound. Sound prossuros
aro quanlifiod by llo rool-moan-squaro (RMS) vaIuo, llal is, llo
squaro rool of llo avorago squarod prossuro fIuclualion ovor somo
briof poriod of limo (aboul 1 s for aircrafl noiso purposos) as slovn in
Iq. (14-1).
p
T
p t dt
t
T
rms

1
2
0
1 2
( )
/
(14-1)
vloro
rms
rool moan squaro sound prossuro
() dovialion from almosploric prossuro al limo
avoraging limo, 1 s for airporl noiso purposos
Tlo luman audilory syslom is sonsilivo lo a vory vido rango of
RMS sound prossuros. Tlo Ioudosl sounds poopIo can loar villoul
pain lavo aboul 1 miIIion limos llo RMS sound prossuro as llo fainl-
osl sounds poopIo can loar. IquaIIy romarIabIo is llo vay llo audi-
lory syslom porcoivos - in Ioudnoss. To a firsl approximalion,
oquaI clangos in RMS sound prossuro aro porcoivod as
oquaI clangos in Ioudnoss. Honco, al liglor RMS sound prossuros,
Iargor absoIulo clangos in RMS sound prossuro aro roquirod lo maIo
a nolicoabIo difforonco in Ioudnoss llan al Iovor RMS sound pros-
suros. Tlo smaIIosl difforonco in RMS sound prossuro llo luman
audilory syslom can dolocl is aboul 10 porconl.
Ior lloso roasons a Iogarillmic, or -, is voII suilod for
quanlifying sound in a mannor vlicl roIalos lo luman porcoplion. In
ils Iogarillmic form, RMS sound prossuro is caIIod llo RMS -
-- (SII). Sound prossuro IovoI is llo Iogarillm of llo ralio
of lvo squarod prossuros, llo numoralor conlaining llo prossuro of
llo sound sourco of inlorosl and llo donominalor conlaining a rofor-
onco prossuro, as slovn in Iq. (14-2). Tlo unils of sound prossuro
IovoI aro dociboIs (dB).
L
p
p
p
10 Iog
rms
2
0
2
(14-2)
vloro

RMS sound prossuro IovoI

rms
RMS sound prossuro

0
roforonco prossuro of 20 10
6
novlons por squaro
molor or 2.90 10
9
pounds por squaro incl
Iog Iogarillm lo llo baso 10

Tlo vaIuo of
0
las boon closon lo approximalo llo Iovosl RMS sound
prossuro a loaIlly young aduIl can loar. Subsliluling llis baroIy
audibIo RMS sound prossuro for
rms
in Iq. (14-2) producos a sound
prossuro IovoI of 0 dB. In conlrasl, an RMS sound prossuro 1 miIIion
limos groalor producos a sound prossuro IovoI of 120 dB. Mosl sounds
in our day-lo-day onvironmonl lavo sound prossuro IovoIs on llo
ordor of 30 lo 100 dB. Tvo usofuI ruIos of llumb for comparing sound
prossuro IovoIs aro llal, on an avorago, poopIo porcoivo a 6 lo 10 dB
incroaso in llo sound prossuro IovoI as a doubIing of subjoclivo Ioud-
noss and clangos of Ioss llan 2 or 3 dB aro nol roadiIy doloclabIo
oulsido of a Iaboralory onvironmonl.

Anollor imporlanl allribulo of sound is ils froquon cy, or . Ior a
puro lono llis is llo numbor of limos por socond llo sound prossuro
osciIIalos bacI and forll aboul almosploric prossuro. Tlo unil of fro-
quoncy is lorlz (Hz) bul may aIso bo roforrod lo as cycIos por socond
in roforoncos prodaling llo adoplion of lorlz as an inlornalionaI
slandard. VirluaIIy aII sounds conlain onorgy across a broad rango of
froquoncios. Ivon a singIo nolo of a musicaI inslrumonl conlains a
fundamonlaI froquoncy pIus a numbor of ovorlonos.
Tlo normaI froquoncy rango of loaring for a young aduIl oxlonds
from a Iov of 16 Hz lo a ligl of aboul 16,000 Hz. Hovovor, llo luman
audilory syslom is nol oquaIIy sonsilivo across llis onliro rango. Iro-
quoncios in llo rango of 2000 lo 4000 Hz sound Ioudor llan Iovor or
liglor froquoncios vlon loard al llo samo RMS sound prossuro
IovoI. Tlus, il is possibIo for lvo difforonl sounds vill llo samo
sound prossuro IovoI lo sound difforonl in Ioudnoss.
Ior llis roason llo - (A-IovoI) vas dovoIopod.
Incorporalod in aImosl ovory commorciaIIy avaiIabIo sound IovoI
molor, a slandardizod A-voiglling fiIlor adds gain or allonualion lo
difforonl froquoncios in a mannor approximaling llo sonsilivi ly of llo
luman oar. Tlo froquoncy rosponso of llo fiIlor las a 3 dB offocl in llo
midfroquoncy rango bolvoon 500 and 10,000 Hz and incroas ing allonu-
alion oulsido llis rango. AIllougl llo A-voiglling fiIlor is onIy an
approximalion lo a compIox plysioIogicaI procoss, ono sound judgod
Ioudor llan anollor viII gonoraIIy lavo a liglor A-voigllod sound
IovoI. SimiIarIy, lvo sounds judgod oquaIIy Ioud viII gonoraIIy lavo
noarIy llo samo A-voigllod sound IovoIs. A rango of commonIy
oncounlorod A-voigllod sound IovoIs is slovn in Iig. 14-2.
Ior onvironmonlaI assossmonl purposos, llo A-voigllod sound
IovoI roprosonls a significanl improvomonl ovor llo ovoraII
(unvoigllod) sound prossuro IovoI. Unvoigllod sound prossuro
IovoIs aro raroIy, if ovor, usod in onvironmonlaI anaIysos. AII fodoraI
agoncios doaIing vill communily noiso, incIuding lransporlalion,
lavo adoplod llo A-voigllod sound IovoI as llo basic unil for anaIysis
of onvironmonlaI impacls.

- -
A-voigllod sound IovoIs aro moasurod in dociboIs as aro
unvoigllod sound prossuro IovoIs and sovoraI ollor molrics dis-
cussod in llis claplor. Tlus, llo moasuromonl unils llomsoIvos do
nol idonlify llo quanlily boing roporlod. To avoid ambiguily llo
quanlily, in llis caso llo A-voigllod sound IovoI, slouId aIvays bo
roporlod aIong vill llo unils. An oxampIo vouId bo an A-voigllod
sound IovoI of 85 dB. |AIllougl nol mooling curronl acouslicaI lor-
minoIogy slandards, A-voigllod sound IovoIs may bo roporlod in
llo Iiloraluro as dBA, dB(A), or simpIy .]

In addilion lo sound , anollor imporlanl dimonsion lo onviron-
monlaI sound is ils varialion ovor limo. Ior oxampIo, a dislanl
liglvay vill roIalivoIy sloady lraffic producos a fairIy conlinuous
bacIground sound IovoI vill momonl-lo-momonl varialions of onIy
- - - -
-
CONCORDE, LANDNG 1000 m. FROM RUNWAY END Rock Band
NSDE SUBWAY TRAN (New York)
FOOD BLENDER AT 3 ft.
VACUUM CLEANER AT 10 ft.
NORMAL SPEECH AT 3 ft.
LARGE BUSNESS OFFCE
DSHWASHER NEXT ROOM
LBRARY
SMALL THEATRE, LARGE CONFERENCE
(Background)
GARBAGE DSPOSAL AT 3 ft.
SHOUTNG AT 3 ft.
747-100 TAKEOFF 6500 m. FROM START OF TAKEOFF ROLL
727-200 6500 m. FROM START OF TAKEOFF
DESEL TRUCK AT 50 ft.
757-200 6500 m. FROM START OF TAKEOFF
COMMERCAL AREA
CESSNA 172 LANDNG 1000 m. FROM RUNWAY END
QUET URBAN DAYTME
QUET URBAN NGHTTME
QUET SUBURBAN NGHTTME
QUET RURAL NGHTTME
NOSY URBAN DAYTME
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
BEDROOM AT NGHT
CONCERT HALL (Background)
BROADCAST & RECORDNG STUDO
THRESHOLD OF HEARNG
A-Weighted
Sound Level (dB)

a fov dociboIs. In conlrasl, an aircrafl pass-by producos a dislincl,

lransionl noiso ovonl. During an aircrafl pass-by, llo sound IovoI
omorgos oul of llo fIuclualing bacIground onvironmonl, conlinuos
lo incroaso unliI llo aircrafl passos llo obsorvor, and llon docroasos
lo bIond in vill llo bacIground as llo aircrafl rocodos inlo llo dis-
lanco. Iiguro 14-3 iIIuslralos llis plonomonon.
Ior roporling as voII as comparison purposos il is dosirabIo lo uso
a singIo numbor for doscribing llo sound IovoI of sucl a noiso ovonl.
A convonionl molric is llo maximum A-voigllod sound IovoI. Tlis
vaIuo is convonionl lo moasuro as il roquiros an obsorvor lo simpIy nolo
llo maximum roading on a sound IovoI molor. Il is aIso convonionl lo
doscribo sinco mosl poopIo can roIalo lo llo Ioudosl parl of a noiso
ovonl. In Iig. 14-3 llo maximum A-voigllod sound IovoI is 85 dBA.
-
WliIo boing a vory usofuI molric of aircrafl noiso ovonls, llo maxi-
mum IovoI doos nol addross llo limo oIomonl, or , of llo
ovonl. During llo Ialo 1960s and oarIy 1970s sovoraI psycloacouslic
Iisloning sludios voro conduclod lo invosligalo lov poopIo assossod
llo roIalivo noisinoss of noiso ovonls vill difforing duralions. AII
ollor llings boing oquaI, il vas found llal incroasod duralion rosuIlod
in groalor porcoivod noisinoss. On avorago, llo sludios dolorminod
llal poopIo voro viIIing lo lrado a doubIing of duralion for a 3-dB
roduclion in maximum A-IovoI sound. Tlis finding supporlod a
simpIo modoI for subjoclivo noisinoss, noiso ovonls vill oquaI limo-
inlogralod A-voigllod sound onorgy aro ralod as oquaIIy noisy.
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time, seconds
- - --
- -

- -
DovoIopod lo addross llis finding, llo - - (SII) is
dofinod as llo lolaI A-voigllod sound onorgy conlainod in llo noiso
ovonl. Ils doscriplion as a conlinuous inlograI is slovn in Iq. (14-3).
Tlo unils aro dociboIs. TloorolicaIIy, llis inlograI couId approacl
infinily as bocomos Iargo. If llo inlogralion laIos pIaco ovor llo lop
20 dB, llo compulalion viII bo onIy 0.1 dB Ioss llan llo lloorolicaI
maximum.
L
T
dt
AE
L
t
T
At

10
1
10
0
10
0
Iog
/
(14-3)
vloro

sound oxposuro IovoI

0
1 s lo mainlain a dimonsionIoss argumonl for llo
Iogarillm

conlinuous A-voigllod sound IovoI funclion doscribing

llo noiso ovonl limo lislory. Tlo Iimils of from 0 lo
aro suffi cionl lo on com pass llo lop 10 lo 20 dB of llo
noiso ovonl.
Ior moasuromonl purposos, llo conlinuous inlograI prosonls lvo
difficuIlios, namoIy, a conlinuous, mallomalicaI funclion for llo
A-voigllod sound IovoI limo lislory is novor Inovn, and llo limo
Iimils of inlogralion aro nobuIous sinco lloro is no procisoIy dofinod
boginning or ond lo an aircrafl noiso ovonl vlicl sIovIy omorgos
from, and llon bIonds bacI, inlo a limo-varying bacIground. Tloso
difficuIlios aro circumvonlod using discrolo sampIos of A-voigllod
sound IovoI, llo summalion approximalion of Iq. (14-4) and ompiri-
caIIy dorivod guidoIinos for llo Iimils of from 1 lo .
L
T
t
AE
L
i
N
A i

10
1
10
0
10
1
Iog
,
/
(14-4)
vloro

is llo inslanlanoous, ll A-voigllod sound IovoI moasurod

ovory 0.5 s and is 0.5 s. Tlo Iimils of from 1 lo aro sufficionl lo
porform llo summalion ovor al Ioasl llo lop 10 dB of llo noiso
ovonl.
An accoplod sampIing inlorvaI is 0.5 s. If llo summalion
slarls, oquaI lo 1, vill llo firsl sampIo lo como villin 20 dB of
llo maximum vaIuo and conlinuos unliI llo Iasl sampIo, oquaI lo
, is villin 20 dB of llo maximum, llis approximalion viII bo
aboul 0.1 dB Iovor llan llo lloorolicaI vaIuo. If llo summalion is
porformod onIy ovor llo lop 10 dB of llo limo lislory, llo discrop-
ancy viII bo Ioss llan 1 dB. Tlis discrolo summalion approximalion
lo llo inlograI is usod in aII sound IovoI molors and moniloring
dovicos. Tlo uso of Iq. (14-4) in compuling SII is iIIuslralod in
IxampIo IrobIom 14-1.

Tlo foIIoving sampIo of A-voigllod sound IovoIs vas

moasurod al 0.5-s inlorvaIs during an aircrafl fIyovor: 64.5, 66.7, 67.1, 69.2, 71.3,
73.2, 74.1, 75.6, 77.8, 79.1, 78.6, 77.2, 75.7, 74.5, 72.6, 71.1, 69.7, 68.6, 68.0, and
66.4 dB.
To dolormino llo SII of llis noiso ovonl, vo musl subslilulo inlo Iq. (14-4)
oblaining
L
AE
10
1
1
10 10 10
64 5 10 66 7 10 66 4
Iog (
. / . / . /110
0 5
10 253 734 091 84 0
) . ]
Iog( , , ) . dB
Il viII bo obsorvod llal ovon llougl nono of llo individuaI sound ovonls lad
an A-voigllod sound IovoI in oxcoss of 79.1 dB llo offocl of llo duralion of llo
noiso ovonl Ioads lo a numoricaIIy liglor vaIuo for llo SII.
Bocauso of llo sound IovoI duralions invoIvod vill lypicaI aircrafl
pass-bys, llo SII viII aIvays bo numoricaIIy Iargor llan llo maxi-
mum A-voigllod sound IovoI of llo ovonl. Ior mosl aircrafl ovor-
fIiglls, llo difforonco is on llo ordor of 7 lo 12 dB. Iaclors affocling llis
difforonco aro aircrafl spood (llo groalor llo spood, llo smaIIor llo dif-
foronco) and llo dislanco lo llo aircrafl al ils cIososl poinl of approacl
lo llo obsorvor (llo groalor llo dislanco, llo groalor llo difforonco).

Tlo procoding discussion focusod on moasuros of sound associ alod
vill individuaI ovonls. Hovovor, il is froquonlIy nocos sary lo quan-
lify sound IovoIs ovor Iongor poriods of limo, sucl as an lour, sovoraI
lours, or ovon a day. Sucl noods ariso vlon lracIing diurnaI pal-
lorns, doscribing cumuIalivo oxposuro ovor inlormodialo oxposuro
poriods (sucl as during sclooI or offico lours), or cumuIalivo oxpo-
suro ovor a 24-l day. In conlrasl lo llo onorgy - molrics usod
for individuaI noiso ovonls, onorgy molrics aro usod for Iongor
limo poriods. Ono sucl molric is llo - - (QI).
AIllougl nol mooling curronl acouslicaI lorminoIogy slandards, llo
oquivaIonl sloady sound IovoI roporlod in llo Iiloraluro as
- ,
oq
or IIQ and llo unils aro dociboIs. Mallomali-
caIIy, llo oquivaIonl sloady sound IovoI is llo sound prossuro IovoI
slovn in Iq. (14-2) caIcuIalod using a Iong-lorm RMS sound prossuro
( in Iq. (14-1) oquaIs lo llo limo poriod of inlorosl). As a praclicaI
mallor, llo oquivaIonl sloady sound IovoI is aImosl aIvays caIcuIalod
from a limo sorios of A-voigllod sound IovoIs acquirod vill a sound
IovoI molor vill roadings laIon al 0.5 s inlorvaIs or Ioss. Iqualion
(14-5) slovs llo mannor in vlicl llo oquivaIonl sloady sound IovoI
is compulod from a discrolo limo sorios of dala.
L
T
t
L
i
N
A i
oq

10
1
10
10
1
Iog
,
/
(14-5)

- -
vloro
oq
oquivaIonl sloady sound IovoI

inslanlanoous ll A-voigllod sound IovoI moasurod

ovory 0.5 s
limo poriod of inlorosl (o.g., 1 l)
lypicaIIy 0.5 s or Ioss
/ , vloro and musl bo in llo samo unils
An oquivaIonl and compulalionaIIy moro officionl mannor of oxpross-
ing Iq. (14-5) is
L
N
L
i
N
A i
oq

10
1
10
10
0
Iog
,
/
(14-6)
vloro

is llo inslanlanoous ll A-voigllod sound IovoI moasurod

ovory 0.5 s and is lolaI numbor of sound IovoI sampIos.
Tlo compulalionaI procoss doscribod in Iqs. (14-5) and (14-6)
doos nol maIo any dislinclion bolvoon sourcos, llal is, il accumu-
Ialos sound IovoIs producod by boll aircrafl and nonaircrafl sourcos.
Wlon QI is compulod in llis mannor il is caIIod QI. Hovovor, il
is oflon usofuI lo Inov onIy llo aircrafl compononl. Tlo aircrafl com-
pononl can bo caIcuIalod from llo sound oxposuro IovoIs of individuaI
ovonls using Iq. (14-7).

L
T
L
j
M
AE j
oq

10
1
10
10
1
Iog
,
/
(14-7)
vloro

sound oxposuro IovoI producod by llo ll aircrafl pass-

by during llo limo poriod
limo poriod of inlorosl (o.g., 1 l) moasurod in soconds
numbor of aircrafl noiso ovonls during llo poriod
IunclionaIIy, llis oqualion accumuIalos aII of llo aircrafl sound onorgy
from muIlipIo ovonls, llon sproads il oul uniformIy ovor llo limo
poriod by dividing by llo Iongll of llo poriod (nol jusl llo Iongll of
limo llal aircrafl voro prosonl).
Tlo compulalion of lourIy avorago sound IovoI is iIIuslralod in
IxampIo IrobIom 14-2.
Tlo foIIoving sound oxposuro IovoIs for four aircrafl
fIyovors voro moasurod in a 1-l poriod: 84.0, 89.1, 90.2, and 86.6 dB.
To compulo llo lourIy avorago sound IovoI, vo musl subslilulo inlo
Iq. (14-7) oblaining
L
oq
10
1
3600
10 10 10
84 0 10 89 1 10 90 2 1
Iog (
. / . / . / 0 0 86 6 10
10
10 713 339 58 5

. /
)
Iog . . dB

Il viII bo obsorvod llal ovon llougl llo sound oxposuro IovoI of oacl aircrafl
fIyovor vas groalor llan 58.5 dB llo avoraging procoss roducos llo lourIy avor-
ago sound oxposuro IovoI.
Ixporionco las slovn llo concopl of an sound IovoI is
oflon misinlorprolod by llo affoclod pubIic as an undorroporling or
undorslalomonl of lloir noiso onvironmonl. Tloir concorn is llal llo
molric doos nol roporl llo noiso onorgy ovor llo limo poriod. As
can bo soon in Iqs. (14-5), (14-6), and (14-7), llis molric, as voII as
ollor molrics, doos indood incIudo aII of llo noiso onorgy.
Iacl and ovory noiso ovonl, no mallor lov ligl or Iov llo sound
IovoI, incroasos llo vaIuo of llo molric. Viovod anollor vay, llo avor-
ago vaIuo is llo lolaI noiso onorgy adjuslod by a conslanl, 10 Iog .
Tlo IocaI communily compononl of llo oquivaIonl sloady sound
IovoI is aIso a froquonlIy roporlod slalislic vlicl sorvos as a basis of
comparison for llo aircrafl compononl. Il may bo oslimalod using a
varianl of Iq. (14-6) vlicl accumuIalos sound IovoIs onIy during sub-
inlorvaIs of llo lolaI poriod vlon no aircrafl aro prosonl. Il is an -
bocauso lloro is no vay of Inoving llo communily sound IovoI
conlribulion during poriods vlon aircrafl aro prosonl. Iqualion (14-8)
slovs llo basic summalion procoss. Iacl summalion in llo oqualion
roprosonls a nonaircrafl subinlorvaI.

L
N
L L
i
N
A i A i
oq

10
1
10 10 10
10 10
1
2
Iog
, ,
/ / LL
i
N
i
N
A i
n
,
/10
1 1
1

(14-8)
vloro

inslanlanoous ll A-voigllod sound IovoI moas-

urod ovory 0.5 s

1
,
2
,

numbor of sound IovoI sampIos in oacl subinlorvaI

conlaining no aircrafl noiso
lolaI numbor of sampIos vlicl is oquaI lo (
1


2

)
Tlis molric is roforrod lo as llo lourIy avorago sound IovoI vlon
1 l of avoraging limo is usod. (AIllougl nol mooling curronl acouslicaI
lorminoIogy slandards, llo lourIy avorago sound IovoI may bo roporlod
in llo Iiloraluro as - , ,
oq
or 1-l
oq
) In
airporl appIicalions, lourIy avorago sound IovoIs may bo usod for pIol-
ling and visuaIizing diurnaI lronds. Iigll and lvonly-four lour poriods
aro roforrod lo as 8-l and 24-l avorago sound IovoIs. Tlo symboI
oq
is
gonoric roforring lo any arbilrary poriod of limo. To avoid ambiguily,
llo subscripl is ropIacod by llo approprialo limo framo. Tlus, llo sym-
boIs
1 l
,
8 l
, and
24 l
, aro usod for 1-, 8-, and 24-l poriods, rospoclivoIy.

As llo namo impIios, llo day-nigll avorago sound IovoI, DNI, is a
molric usod lo doscribo sound oxposuro ovor a 24-l poriod and llo unils

- -
aro dociboIs. CompulalionaIIy il is idonlicaI lo llo 24-l avorago sound
IovoI vill ono imporlanl difforonco. Tlo DNI incorporalos a limo-of-
day voiglling vlicl adds 10 dB lo sound IovoIs occurring bolvoon 10
p.m. and 7 a.m. WliIo llo magniludo of llo voiglling poriodicaIIy
bocomos a lopic of discussion villin llo scionlific communily, llo
inlonl is lo accounl for a prosumod incroaso in luman sonsilivily lo
noiso during niglllimo lours. WliIo llo formaI dofinilion is a con-
linuous inlograI, Iq. (14-9) slovs llo formuIa for compuling llo lolaI
(aircrafl pIus communily sourcos) DNI from discrolo sampIos of llo
A-voigllod sound IovoI.

L t
dn
L W
i
N
A i i

10
1
86 400
10
10
1
Iog
,
( )/
,
(14-9)
vloro

day-nigll avorago sound IovoI for 1 day

inslanlanoous ll A-voigllod sound IovoI moasurod

ovory 0.5 s
86,400 numbor of soconds in a day

limo-of-day voiglling for llo ll A-voigllod sound

IovoI (0 dB if il occurrod bolvoon 7 a.m. and 10 p.m.,
10 dB if il occurrod bolvoon 10 p.m. and 7 a.m.)
lypicaIIy 0.5 s or Ioss and llo unils musl bo in soconds
oquaI lo 86,400/
Tlo aircrafl compononl of DNI may bo compulod from sound
oxposuro IovoIs of individuaI ovonls using Iq. (14-10).

L
dn
L W
j
M
AE j j

10
1
86 400
10
10
1
Iog
,
( )/
, (14-10)
vloro

sound oxposuro IovoI producod by llo ll aircrafl pass-

by during llo day

limo-of-day voiglling for llo ll aircrafl pass-by (0 dB

if il occurrod bolvoon 7 a.m. and 10 p.m., 10 dB if il
occurrod bolvoon 10 p.m. and 7 a.m.)
numbor of aircrafl noiso ovonls during 24-l poriod
Tlo appIicalion of llis oqualion lo dolormino llo DNI of sovoraI
aircrafl fIyovors al various limos during llo day is iIIuslralod by
IxampIo IrobIom 14-3.
Tlo foIIoving sound oxposuro IovoIs of fivo aircrafl
fIyovors voro moasurod ovor llo courso of a 24-l poriod: 81.2 dB al 6:03 a.m.,
95.1 dB al 10:32 a.m., 79.2 dB al 2:15 p.m., 88.8 dB al 7:33 p.m., and 71.2 dB al
10:05 p.m.

To compulo llo DNI, vo musl subslilulo inlo Iq. (14-10). Tlo sound oxposuro
IovoIs al 6:03 a.m. and 10:05 p.m. musl bo incroasod by llo limo of day voiglling
of 10 dB sinco lloso fIyovors occurrod bolvoon 10:00 p.m. and 7:00 a.m.

L
dn
10
1
86 400
10 10 10
91 2 10 95 1 10
Iog
,
(
. / . / 8 81 2 10 . /
)
= 10 Iog 63,978.85 = 48.1 dB
To find llo aircrafl vlicl las llo groalosl and Ioasl conlribulion lo llo day-
nigll avorago sound IovoI llo (

)/10 vaIuo of llo quanlily 10 musl bo

ovaIualod for oacl aircrafl. CIoarIy, by adding llo limo of day voiglling, vo soo
llal llo aircrafl fIyovor al 10:32 a.m. is llo groalosl conlribulor and llo aircrafl
fIyovor al 2:15 is Ioasl conlribulor lo llo day-nigll avorago sound oxposuro
IovoI.
A usofuI ruIo of llumb for oslimaling llo conlribulion of DNI lo
a singIo daylimo (7 a.m. lo 10 p.m.) noiso ovonl may bo oblainod by
simpIifying Iq. (14-10) for llo condilion, vloro is oquaI lo 1. Tlo
approximalion slovn in Iq. (14-11) is accuralo lo villin 0.5 dB.

50 (14-11)
vloro

is llo sound oxposuro IovoI of a singIo aircrafl pass-by.

Tlo uso of Iqs. (14-10) and (14-11) lo compulo llo DNI of a singIo
daylimo noiso ovonl is iIIuslralod by IxampIo IrobIom 14-4.
Iol us dolormino llo DNI producod by a singIo daylimo
noiso ovonl vill a sound oxposuro IovoI of 105 dB.
Using Iq. (14-10), vo lavo
L
dn
10
1
86 400
10
105 0 10
Iog
,
( )
. /
10 Iog 366,004 55.6 dB
Using Iq. (14-11), vo lavo

105 50 55 dB
If llis noiso ovonl voro addod lo llo noiso ovonls in IxampIo IrobIom 14-3,
vo vouId find llal llo DNI vas incroasod lo 56.3 dB or lloro vouId bo an
incroaso of 0.7 dB.
InvironmonlaI roporling criloria oflon roquiro annuaI avorago
vaIuos of DNI. Boll airporl and almosploric faclors conlribulo lo
day-lo-day variabiIily in llo DNI obsorvod al a parlicuIar Iocalion
noar llo airporl. In casos vloro avorago vaIuos musl bo compulod
from moasuromonls, llo avoraging musl bo dono on a sound onorgy

- -
basis. Iqualion (14-12) slovs llo formuIa for compuling llo annuaI
avorago vaIuo.

L
dn
L
i
dn i
,
/
Iog
,
annuaI

10
1
365
10
10
1
365
(14-12)
vloro

is llo DNI for llo ll day of llo yoar.

Tlis oqualion assumos 365 individuaI DNI vaIuos aro lo bo usod
in llo avoraging procoss. Ior condilions vloro llo numbor of days
diffors from 365 (Ioap yoars, missing dala, olc.) llo avaiIabIo numbor
of dala poinls slouId bo usod in llo summalion and llo numbor 365
ropIacod by llo acluaI numbor of dala poinls usod.
Roprosonlalivo vaIuos of DNI rango from a Iov of 40 lo 45 dB in
oxlromoIy quiol isoIalod Iocalions lo ligls of 80 or 85 dB immodialoIy
adjaconl lo a busy lrucI roulo or jusl off llo ond of a runvay al an
aclivo miIilary air baso. Tlo U.S. InvironmonlaI Iroloclion Agoncy
(IIA) idonlifiod llis moasuro as llo mosl approprialo moans of ovaI-
ualing communily (incIuding aircrafl) noiso in 1974 |28]. Mosl ollor
pubIic agoncios doaIing vill noiso oxposuro, incIuding llo IAA, llo
Doparlmonl of Dofonso, and llo Doparlmonl of Housing and Urban
DovoIopmonl (HUD), lavo aIso adoplod DNI in lloir guidoIinos and
roguIalions.
-
Tlo procoding molrics quanlify noiso oxposuro in lorms of sound
IovoI or sound onorgy. An aIlornalo doscriplor usos duralion, or limo,
as llo basic molric. Tlo molric is (TA), dofinod as llo Iongll
of limo llal llo A-voigllod sound IovoI oxcoods a spocifiod -
IovoI ovor a givon poriod of limo. TypicaIIy TA is roporlod as llo num-
bors of minulos por day llal llo A-voigllod sound IovoI oxcoods vaI-
uos of 55, 65, 75, 85, 95, and 105 dB. Tlo lisloricaI appoaI of TA las
gonoraIIy boon ono of simpIicily, llal is, TAs aro arillmolicaIIy addi-
livo. TAs for singIo noiso ovonls can bo arillmolicaIIy addod lo com-
pulo lourIy TAs, and lourIy TAs can bo arillmolicaIIy addod lo form
24-l vaIuos. Iropononls of TA arguo llal llo arillmolic addilion
procoss aIIovs oasy-lo-undorsland assossmonls of major conlribulors
lo 24-l lolaIs. TA may bo roquirod for somo onvironmonlaI anaIysos.
Hovovor, al llo prosonl limo lloro aro no accoplod criloria or Iand-
uso compalibiIily guidoIinos using TA.
-
Tlo - (INI) and - (IINI)
aro quanlilios simiIar lo A IovoI and sound oxposuro IovoI, rospoc-
livoIy. Tloy voro dovoIopod spocificaIIy lo corroIalo vill subjoclivo
rosponso lo aircrafl sound. Tlo porcoivod noiso IovoI, in unils of
INdB, is a quanlily vlicl varios from momonl lo momonl, jusl IiIo
llo A-voigllod sound IovoI. As a gonoraI ruIo, llo porcoivod noiso

IovoI is approximaloIy 13 dB groalor llan llo A-voigllod sound

IovoI.
Tlo offoclivo porcoivod noiso IovoI, in unils of IINdb, is a singIo
ovonl molric vlicl sums llo porcoivod noiso IovoI in a mannor simi-
Iar lo llo vay SII sums A-IovoI. IINI, lovovor, aIso incorporalos a
lono corroclion adjuslmonl lo accounl for llo incroasod subjoclivo
noisinoss of sounds conlaining discrolo froquoncy lonos (IiIo lloso
producod by lurbofan ongino comprossor bIados). Tlo formuIa for
compuling IINI is slovn in Iq. (14-13) |39].

L
T
t
L TC
i
N
i i
IIN
IN

10
1
10
0
10
1
Iog
( )/
, (14-13)
vloro
IIN
offoclivo porcoivod noiso IovoI

IN,
inslanlanoous ll porcoivod noiso IovoI moasurod ovory
0.5 s

inslanlanoous ll lono corroclion

0.5 s

0
10 s. Tlo Iimils of from 1 lo aro sufficionl lo porform
llo summalion ovor llo lop 10 dB of llo noiso ovonl.
Boll llo INI and llo lono corroclion aro compulod from sound
prossuro IovoIs moasurod in individuaI ono-llird oclavo bands from
50 lo 10,000 Hz. Tlo magniludo of llo lono corroclion rangos from 0
lo 6 dB doponding upon llo froquoncy vloro llo lono occurs and llo
sound prossuro IovoI of llo lono roIalivo lo llo broadband noiso in llo
samo froquoncy rango. As a gonoraI ruIo, llo IINI is aboul 3 dB
groalor llan SII bul can bo moro if vory nolicoabIo puro lonos aro
prosonl, or Ioss al vory Iargo dislancos.
Bocauso of llo compIoxily invoIvod in moasuromonl, soplisli-
calod froquoncy anaIysos and nonIinoar ampIiludo adjuslmonls aro
roquirod, lloy aro nol usod in llo Unilod Slalos for roulino onviron-
monlaI anaIysos. Tloir curronl uso is Iimilod lo aircrafl airvorllinoss
corlificalion undor IodoraI Avialion RoguIalions, Iarl 36 |39].
-
Tlo - (CNII) adoplod in CaIifornia airporl
noiso slandards vas acluaIIy a fororunnor of DNI. Tlo compulalion
procoduro is virluaIIy idonlicaI lo DNI. Iqualions (14-9) and (14-10) can
bo usod lo compulo CNII, llo onIy difforonco is llo uso of 3 voiglling
poriods insload of 2. Ior 7 a.m. lo 7 p.m. llo voiglling is 0 dB, for 7 p.m.
lo 10 p.m. llo voiglling is 4.77 dB (llo acluaI voiglling is a faclor of 3 in
sound onorgy and 10 Iog 3 or 4.77 dB), and for 10 p.m. lo 7 a.m. llo
voiglling is 10 dB. Tlo onIy difforonco bolvoon llo lvo molrics is llo
approximaloIy 5 dB voiglling during llo llroo ovoning lours from
7 p.m. lo 10 p.m. NumoricaIIy, CNII is aIvays groalor llan DNI bul
from a praclicaI slandpoinl llis difforonco is raroIy moro llan 1 dB.

- -
Boforo llo adoplion of DNI, lvo ollor doscriplors of daiIy noiso
oxposuro voro usod lo quanlify noiso impacls around airporls. Noi-
llor is sliII in aclivo uso in llo Unilod Slalos loday. Tlo - -
(CNR) vas ono of llo firsl 24-l molrics lo ombody individuaI
aircrafl sound IovoIs, lloir froquoncy of occurronco, and lloir limo-of-
day in a singIo numbor raling. Irodaling llo dovoIopmonl and uso of
porsonaI compulors by moro llan lvo docados, CNR caIcuIalions
voro porformod using a landbooI procoduro pubIislod in 1963
undor a joinl offorl by llo U.S. Air Iorco and llo IAA. CNR usod llo
maximum porcoivod noiso IovoI as llo singIo ovonl sound IovoI
doscriplor.
Tlo - - - (NII) vas dovoIopod in 1967 and
quicIIy ropIacod CNR. Tlo NII usos IINI as llo singIo ovonl sound
IovoI doscriplor and a sound onorgy summalion procoss simiIar lo
DNI. Iqualion (14-14) slovs llo formuIa for compuling NII.
Bocauso of llo compulalionaI compIoxilios invoIvod in lloir undorIy-
ing singIo ovonl molrics, boll CNR and NII foII inlo disuso vill llo
adoplion of DNI.

NII 10 Iog 10
(
1
IIN,

L W
j
M
j j
)/10
88
(14-14)
vloro
IIN,
IINI producod by llo ll aircrafl pass-by during llo
day

limo-of-day voiglling for llo ll aircrafl pass-by (0 dB

if il occurrod bolvoon 7 a.m. and 10 p.m., 12 dB if il
occurrod bolvoon 10 p.m. and 7 a.m.)
88 adjuslmonl faclor dosignod lo slifl llo molric lo a
Iovor numoric rango nol occupiod by any ollor llon-
curronl 24-l molric
Bocauso of difforoncos in froquoncy voigllings, difforoncos in
accounling for llo duralions of individuaI ovonls, and difforoncos in
llo ovoning and niglllimo voigllings, lloro is no oxacl funclionaI
roIalionslip bolvoon lloso llroo molrics. Willin 3 dB, lovovor, llo
roIalionslip slovn in Iq. (14-15) las boon found lo bo vaIid. Tlus,
for DNI and CNII vaIuos of 65, an NII vaIuo of 30, and a CNR
vaIuo of 100, aII indicalo approximaloIy llo samo dogroo of noiso
oxposuro, villin 3 dB.

NII 35 CNR 35 (14-15)

- - -
Tlo offocls of noiso on poopIo can bo cIassifiod inlo ono of lvo
calogorios, namoIy, bolavioraI offocls and loaIll or plysioIogicaI
offocls. BolavioraI offocls aro lloso llal aro associalod vill aclivily

inlorforonco. Tloso offocls incIudo annoyanco, inlorforonco vill com-

municalion, monlaI aclivily, rosl, and sIoop. HoaIll offocls aro lloso
llal produco loaring Ioss or nonaudilory offocls sucl as cardiovascu-
Iar disoaso and lyporlonsion.
Various fodoraI agoncios lavo dovoIopod guidoIinos for assossing
llo compalibiIily of noiso vill Iand usos, incIuding llo IIA, HUD, and
llo IAA. AII of llo guidoIinos aro basod on llo day-nigll avorago sound
IovoI (DNI) and voro dosignod lo prolocl pubIic loaIll and voIfaro, bul
aIso laIo inlo accounl llo foasibiIily of conlroIIing noiso |28, 44].

Ono of llo primary offocls of aircrafl noiso is ils londoncy lo drovn oul
or - spoocl, maIing il difficuIl or impossibIo lo carry on a normaI
convorsalion villoul inlorruplion. Tlo sound IovoI of spoocl docroasos
as dislanco bolvoon a laIIor and Iislonor incroasos. As llo IovoI of
spoocl docroasos in llo prosonco of bacIground noiso, il bocomos
lardor and lardor lo loar. Iiguro 14-4 prosonls lypicaI dislancos
bolvoon a laIIor and Iislonor for salisfaclory ouldoor convorsalions in
llo prosonco of difforonl sloady A-voigllod bacIground sound IovoIs
for llroo dogroos of vocaI offorl, namoIy, raisod, normaI, and roIaxod.
As llo bacIground IovoI incroasos, llo individuaIs musl oillor laII
Ioudor or musl gol cIosor logollor lo conlinuo lloir convorsalion.
0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.5 2 3 4 6 8 10 15 20
Communicating Distance in Meters
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
S
t
e
a
d
y

A
-
W
e
i
g
h
t
e
d

S
o
u
n
d

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

i
n

D
e
c
i
b
e
l
s
R
a
is
e
d
V
o
ic
e
S
a
tis
fa
c
to
ry
C
o
n
v
e
rs
a
tio
n
(S
e
n
te
n
c
e
n
te
llig
ib
ility
9
5
%
)
N
o
rm
a
l V
o
ic
e
S
a
tis
fa
c
to
r
y
C
o
n
v
e
rs
a
tio
n
(S
e
n
te
n
c
e
n
te
llig
ib
ility
9
5
%
)
R
e
la
x
e
d
C
o
n
v
e
rs
a
tio
n
(S
e
n
te
n
c
e
n
te
llig
ib
ility
9
9
%
)
R
e
la
x
e
d
C
o
n
v
e
rs
a
tio
n
(
S
e
n
te
n
c
e
n
te
llig
ib
ility
1
0
0
%
)
-- - - - --
- - -

- -
As indicalod in llo figuro, -- - doos nol aIvays
roquiro loaring ovory vord, 95 porconl inloIIigibiIily is accoplabIo for
many convorsalions. Tlis is bocauso a fov unloard vords can bo
inforrod vlon lloy occur in a famiIiar conloxl. Hovovor, for roIaxod
convorsalion, poopIo lavo liglor oxpoclalions of loaring spoocl and
roquiro compIolo 100 porconl inloIIigibiIily. Any combinalion of laIIor-
Iislonor dislancos and bacIground noiso llal faIIs boIov llo bollom
Iino in Iig. 14-4, llus onsuring 100 porconl inloIIigibiIily, roprosonls an
idoaI onvironmonl for ouldoor spoocl communicalion and is consid-
orod nocossary for accoplabIo indoor convorsalion as voII.
Ono impIicalion of llo roIalionslips in Iig. 14-4 is llal for lypicaI
communicalion dislancos of 3 or 4 fl (1 lo 1.5 m), accoplabIo ouldoor
convorsalions vloro 95 porconl inloIIigibiIily is accoplabIo can bo car-
riod on in a normaI voico as Iong as llo bacIground A-voigllod
sound IovoI is Ioss llan aboul 65 dB. In ollor silualions, vloro groalor
spoocl inloIIigibiIily is roquirod, bacIground IovoIs musl bo Iovor.
Ior oxampIo, indoors, vloro 100 porconl inloIIigibiIily is dosirod, llo
bacIground A-voigllod sound IovoI musl bo Ioss llan aboul 45 dB. If
llo noiso oxcoods oillor of lloso IovoIs, as migll occur vlon an air-
crafl passos ovorload, inloIIigibiIily is Iosl unIoss vocaI offorl is
incroasod or communicalion dislanco docroasod.
A socond impIicalion of lloso roIalionslips is llal an accoplabIo
A-voigllod bacIground IovoI of 60 lo 65 dB ouldoors doos nol guar-
anloo an accoplabIo bacIground IovoI indoors. Tlis is bocauso mosl
lousing conslruclion lypicaIIy providos aboul 15 dB of sound allonu-
alion from oulsido lo insido llo buiIding vlon vindovs aro opon.
Tlus, onIy if llo ouldoor A-voigllod sound IovoI is 60 dB or Ioss is
lloro a roasonabIo clanco llal llo rosuIling indoor sound IovoI viII
afford accoplabIo convorsalion insido.

Tlo disruplivo offocls of noiso on sIoop can bo of concorn in communilios
oxposod lo aircrafl ovorfIiglls during niglllimo lours. Ovor llo pasl
lvo docados, many invosligalions of noiso-inducod sIoop disruplion
lavo boon conduclod vorIdvido. Tlo funclionaI roIalionslip mosl oflon
ovaIualod las boon llo probabiIily of a sIoop disruplion croalod by a
singIo noiso inlrusion of a givon sound IovoI. Iour major rosoarcl roviov
sludios |10, 32, 37, 46] aII supporl llo samo gonoraI finding llal incroasod
sound oxposuro IovoI (SII) rosuIls in liglor probabiIilios of sIoop dis-
ruplion. CurronlIy, lovovor, lloro aro no guidoIinos or accoplabiIily
criloria for assossing llo cumuIalivo impacl of many aircrafl noiso inlru-
sions of various SIIs ovor llo courso of a niglllimo sIooping poriod.
Tlo aforomonlionod roviovs provido somo insigll as lo vly sucl
guidoIinos and criloria lavo nol boon forllcoming. Dala acquisilion
mollodoIogios, llo lroalmonl of miligaling variabIos, and llo cloico
of boll doso and disruplion molrics aro far from slandardizod, ovon
for sludios Iimilod lo slorl-lorm, lransionl noiso ovonls simiIar lo
lloso producod by aircrafl ovorfIiglls.

Dospilo aII of llis variabiIily, firsl ordor doso-rosponso curvos lavo

boon dovoIopod vlicl allompl lo roIalo llo probabiIily of an arousaI,
oillor a sIoop slago clango or an acluaI avaIoning, lo llo sound oxpo-
suro IovoI of a singIo noiso ovonl |11, 26]. Al llo prosonl limo caulion
slouId bo oxorcisod in draving inforoncos from sucl curvos. Among
ollor llings, llo propondoranco of undorIying dala gonoraIIy roprosonls
Iaboralory Iisloning condilions. Tlus llo curvos couId bo oxpoclod lo
bollor prodicl roaclion lo nov and unfamiIiar sounds rallor llan oIdor,
moro famiIiar onos. Wlon comparod vill in-Iaboralory sludios, llo
Iimilod dala avaiIabIo from in-lomo invosligalions using famiIiar sound
sourcos suggosls llal arousaI probabiIilios may bo on llo ordor of onIy
ono-oiglll lloso obsorvod from unfamiIiar sourcos. In addilion lo lloso
adaplalion issuos, uncorlainly sliII romains on imporlanl quoslions sucl
as llo cumuIalivo offocls of muIlipIo noiso inlrusions, llo offocls of noiso
on faIIing asIoop as opposod lo avaIoning, and llo oxlonl lo vlicl
sIoop doprivalion roprosonls a quanlifiabIo plysioIogicaI probIom.

SociaI survoy dala lavo Iong mado il cIoar llal individuaI roaclions lo
noiso vary vidoIy for a givon 24-l avorago sound IovoI. As a group,
lovovor, llo aggrogalo rosponso of poopIo lo faclors sucl as spoocl
and sIoop inlorforonco and dosiro for an accoplabIo onvironmonl is
prodiclabIo and roIalos voII lo moasuros of cumuIalivo noiso oxpo-
suro sucl as DNI. Iiguro 14-5 slovs llo mosl vidoIy rocognizod
Range for 90%
of Survey Points
40 50 60 70 80 90
Day-Night Average Sound Level (decibels)
100
80
60
40
20
0
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

P
e
o
p
l
e

H
i
g
h
l
y

A
n
n
o
y
e
d
-
- -

- -
roIalionslip bolvoon day-nigll avorago sound IovoI and llo porconl-
ago of poopIo liglIy annoyod, rogardIoss of llo noiso sourco. Basod on
dala from 18 sludios of llo alliludos of poopIo lovard noiso conduclod
vorIdvido, llo curvo indicalos llal llo roIalionslip bolvoon group
roaclion and 24-l oxposuro is quanlifiabIo. Tlo curvo slovs llal al
DNIs as Iov as 55 dB, approximaloIy 5 porconl of llo poopIo viII sliII
bo liglIy annoyod vill lloir noiso onvironmonl. Tlo porconlago
incroasos moro rapidIy as llo DNI incroasos abovo 65 dB |49].
Soparalo vorI by llo IIA suggosls llal ovoraII communily roac-
lion lo a noiso onvironmonl is aIso dopondonl on llo IovoI of llo
inlruding noiso as comparod vill llo IovoI of llo oxisling noiso.
Rosoarcl vas conduclod lo dolormino llo roIalionslip bolvoon
inlruding noiso IovoI and communily roaclion for 55 casos of com-
munily noiso inlrusion vloro roaclions voro Inovn |16]. Tlo dala
voro normaIizod lo llo samo sol of condilions so llal llo casos voro
comparabIo. In parlicuIar, llo condilions voro adjuslod lo an oxisling
noiso onvironmonl, villoul llo inlruding noiso, of aboul 60 dB. Tlo
dala slov llal sporadic compIainls occurrod vlon llo inlruding
oquivaIonl noiso IovoI vas bolvoon aboul 59 lo 65 dB, and vido-
sproad compIainls occurrod vlon llo inlruding noiso foII bolvoon
aboul 63 and 75 dB.
Tlo impIicalion of llis rosoarcl is llal compIainls may bogin lo
occur vlon aircrafl DNI is approximaloIy oquaI lo llo bacIground
DNI, and llal vidosproad compIainls slarl lo occur vlon llo aircrafl
DNI oxcoods llo bacIground DNI by 3 lo 5 dB. Sucl a concIusion
providos somo assislanco in anlicipaling vlal communily roaclion
couId bo lo a clango in llo noiso IovoI of an inlruding sourco, sucl as
an airporl. If llo clango is IiIoIy lo rosuIl in an incroaso abovo oxisl-
ing noiso IovoIs of 3 lo 5 dB, somo communily roaclion may bo
oxpoclod |16].
- --
Hoaring Ioss is moasurod as - -. TlrosloId rofors lo llo qui-
olosl sound a porson can loar. Wlon a llrosloId slifl occurs, llo
sound musl bo Ioudor boforo il can bo loard. Ior lundrods of yoars il
las boon Inovn llal oxcossivo oxposuro lo Ioud noisos can Ioad lo
noiso-inducod lomporary llrosloId slifls, vlicl in limo can rosuIl in
pormanonl loaring impairmonl. Will a llrosloId slifl of 25 dB a
porson couId corroclIy undorsland onIy aboul 90 porconl of llo
sonloncos spoIon in a convorsalionaI IovoI al a 3 fl (1 m) dislanco in
a quiol room |42].
Rosoarcl ovor llo Iasl 40 yoars on induslriaI and miIilary popuIa-
lions providos an undorslanding of llo dovoIopmonl of noiso-inducod
loaring Ioss and ils roIalionslip lo noiso IovoI, spoclraI conlonl and
Iongll of oxposuro. DolaiIod inlornalionaI criloria lavo boon dovoIopod
llal idonlify maximum noiso oxposuros llal do nol produco noiso-
inducod loaring Ioss in any sogmonl of llo popuIalion oxposod |1].

Tlo U.S. OccupalionaI Safoly and HoaIll Adminislralion (OSHA) rog-

uIalion |41] idonlifios llo maximum pormissibIo A-voigllod sound
oxposuro of 90 dB for 8 l.
Il is oxlromoIy unIiIoIy llal aircrafl noiso around airporls couId
ovor produco loaring Ioss. Ior oxampIo, il vouId laIo conlinuous
oxposuro lo moro llan 1000 ovorfIiglls por day vill an SII of 100 dB
oacl lo produco a limo-voigllod avorago sound IovoI of 85 dB. If llis
occurrod 5 days a vooI for 40 yoars, and if poopIo voro oxposod lo
llis ouldoors villoul any allonualion from buiIdings, llo rosuIlanl
noiso oxposuro vouId slarl lo produco a -
- - (NIITS) of Ioss llan 10 dB in llo mosl sonsilivo 10
porconl of llo popuIalion.
-
Concorn is oflon raisod llal noiso las advorso offocls on luman loaIll
ollor llan loaring. In spilo of considorabIo vorIdvido rosoarcl,
lovovor, no unambiguous scionlific ovidonco lo roIalo quanlilalivoIy
any noiso onvironmonl vill llo origin of or conlribulion lo any cIini-
caI nonaudilory disoaso. Ivon llo mosl roconl rosoarcl, conduclod al
IovoIs abovo llo Iimils for consorvalion of loaring, faiIod lo givo con-
sislonl rosuIls. Mosl aullorilalivo roviovs, sucl as llo WorId HoaIll
Organizalion InvironmonlaI HoaIll Criloria Documonl on noiso |33],
agroo llal rosoarcl on llis subjocl las nol yioIdod any posilivo ovi-
donco, so far, llal disoaso is causod or aggravalod by noiso oxposuro,
insufficionl lo causo loaring impairmonl. Ior praclicaI noiso conlroI
considoralions, llo prosonl slalus of our InovIodgo moans llal by
using criloria llal provonl noiso inducod loaring Ioss, minimizo
spoocl and sIoop disruplion, and minimizo communily roaclions and
annoyanco, any offocls on loaIll viII aIso bo provonlod. In gonoraI,
lloso guidoIinos slouId nol bo rogardod as idonlifying IovoIs of oxpo-
suro llal aro dosirabIo bul rallor as a baIancing of vlal is dosirabIo
vill vlal is foasibIo.
- - -
Basod on llo roIalionslips bolvoon noiso and llo coIIoclivo rosponso
of poopIo lo lloir onvironmonl, DNI las bocomo accoplod as a sland-
ard for ovaIualing communily noiso oxposuro and as an aid in docision-
maIing rogarding llo compalibiIily of aIlornalivo Iand usos.
In lloir appIicalion lo airporl noiso in parlicuIar, DNI projoclions
lavo lvo principaI funclions:
1. To provido a moans for comparing oxisling noiso condilions
vill lloso llal migll rosuIl from llo impIomonlalion of noiso
abalomonl procoduros or from forocasl clangos in airporl
aclivily
2. To provido a quanlilalivo basis for idonlifying and judging
polonliaI noiso impacls

- -
Boll of lloso funclions roquiro llo appIicalion of objoclivo criloria.
Govornmonl agoncios doaIing vill onvironmonlaI noiso lavo dovolod
significanl allonlion lo llis issuo and lavo dovoIopod noiso and Iand-
uso compalibiIily guidoIinos lo loIp fodoraI, slalo, and IocaI officiaIs
vill llo noiso ovaIualion procoss.
In IAR Iarl 150 |6], vlicl dofinos procoduros for dovoIoping air-
porl noiso compalibiIily programs, llo IAA las oslabIislod DNI as
llo officiaI cumuIalivo noiso oxposuro molric for uso in airporl noiso
anaIysos, and las dovoIopod guidoIinos for noiso and Iand-uso com-
palibiIily ovaIualion. TabIo 14-2 prosonls lloso guidoIinos.
Tlo guidoIinos roprosonl a compiIalion of oxlonsivo scionlific
rosoarcl inlo noiso-roIalod aclivily inlorforonco and alliludinaI rosponso.
Hovovor, roviovors of DNI conlours slouId rocognizo llo liglIy
subjoclivo naluro of rosponso lo noiso and llo spociaI circumslancos
llal can oillor incroaso or docroaso llo loIoranco of an individuaI. Ior
oxampIo, a ligl nonaircrafl bacIground or ambionl noiso IovoI, sucl
as from ground lraffic, can roduco llo significanco of aircrafl noiso.
AIlornalivoIy, rosidonls of aroas vill unusuaIIy Iov bacIground IovoIs
may find roIalivoIy Iov IovoIs of aircrafl noiso vory annoying. Rosponso
may aIso bo affoclod by oxpoclalion and oxporionco. IoopIo oflon gol
usod lo a IovoI of noiso oxposuro llal guidoIinos suggosl may bo unac-
coplabIo, and simiIarIy, clangos in oxposuro may gonoralo a rosponso
llal is far groalor llan llal vlicl llo guidoIinos migll suggosl.
IinaIIy, llo cumuIalivo naluro of DNI moans llal llo samo IovoI
of noiso oxposuro can bo acliovod in an ossonliaIIy infinilo numbor of
vays. Ior oxampIo, a Iargo incroaso in roIalivoIy quiol fIiglls can
counlor baIanco a smaIIor roduclion of roIalivoIy noisy oporalions,
vill no nol clango in DNI. Tlo incroasod froquoncy of oporalions
can annoy rosidonls, dospilo llo apparonl unclangod slalus quo of
llo noiso. Will lloso caulions in mind, llo guidoIinos of llo IAA for
compalibIo Iand uso can bo combinod vill DNI conlours indicaling
poinls of oquaI oxposuro lo idonlify llo polonliaI lypos and Iocalions
of Iand usos and llo dogroo of lloir incompalibiIily. Nolo llal, by
lloso guidoIinos, aII Iand usos aro considorod compalibIo vill aircrafl
day-nigll avorago sound IovoIs boIov 65 dB. Tlis doos nol moan llal
poopIo viII nol compIain or ollorviso bo dislurbod by aircrafl noiso
al Iovor IovoIs, as las boon slovn oarIior, nor doos il procIudo indi-
viduaI communilios or ollor jurisdiclions from adopling Iovor sland-
ards lo mool IocaI noods.

Tlo oxlonl of a polonliaI or ongoing airporl noiso probIom is gonor-
aIIy quanlifiod in ono of lvo vays:
1. Irodiclion using compulor-basod simuIalion modoIs
2. Moasuromonl llrougl porlabIo or pormanonl moniloring
sysloms

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Tlo simuIalion modoIs produco maps dopicling conlours of oquaI
sound IovoI sucl as DNI. Moasuromonls aro usod lo provido or con-
firm inpul lo llo simuIalion modoIs as voII as lo confirm modoI pro-
diclions al spocific ground Iocalions.
-
Tvo compulor-basod simuIalion modoIs aro curronlIy usod in llo
Unilod Slalos. Boll produco maps sloving conlours of oquaI day-
nigll avorago sound IovoI. DovoIopod by llo IAA, llo inlogralod
noiso modoI (INM) is mosl oflon usod for civiI airporls |29]. NOISIMAI,
dovoIopod by llo U.S. Air Iorco, is gonoraIIy usod for miIilary airbasos
bul is aIso usod for civiI and joinl-uso airporls. Tlo IAA las approvod
boll modoIs for uso in airporl noiso sludios. Tlo lvo modoIs roquiro
llo samo basic inpul paramolors bul formals diffor.

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Nolos: Y(Yos) Iand uso and roIalod slrucluros compalibIo villoul roslriclions
N(No) Iand uso and roIalod slrucluros aro nol compalibIo and slouId bo
prolibilod
25, 30, or 35 Iand uso and roIalod slrucluros gonoraIIy compalibIo, moasuros lo
acliovo ouldoor-lo-indoor Noiso IovoI Roduclion of 25, 30, or 35 dB
musl bo incorporalod inlo dosign and conslruclion of slrucluro.
Tloro aro spociaI provisions porlaining lo many of llo compalibiIily dosignalions llal aro
nol incIudod loro, rofor lo IAR Iarl 150 |6] for dolaiIs.
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |36]
- - -

Uso of oillor modoI roquiros inpuls in lvo principaI calogorios,

namoIy, aircrafl noiso and porformanco dala, and aircrafl oporalionaI
dala. Tlo major difforonco bolvoon llo lvo calogorios of inpul is llal
llo firsl is gonoraIIy nol airporl dopondonl vliIo llo socond is airporl
spocific and musl bo individuaIIy dovoIopod for oacl airporl.
-
Tlo INM usos a slandard, inlornaI noiso and porformanco dala baso
conlaining a Iargo numbor of aircrafl lypos. Tlo modoI usos llo noiso
dala lo dolormino llo SII of spocific aircrafl lypos as a funclion of
llrusl and dislanco from llo obsorvor. Tlo porformanco dala usod by
llo modoI dofino llo Iongll of llo laIooff roII, cIimb ralo, spood, and
llrusl managomonl for boll doparluros and arrivaIs.

Tlo INM aIso roquiros oporalionaI inpul dala spocific lo llo airporl undor
sludy. Tloso dala aro oflon difficuIl lo oblain as lloy aro nol roulinoIy coI-
Ioclod by oillor llo airporl or llo IAA. To addross llis probIom, airporls
aro boginning lo dovoIop spocific dala coIIoclion procoduros for llis spo-
cific purposo. OporalionaI inpuls doscribo aclivily al llo airporl using
avorago vaIuos during llo poriod of inlorosl and incIudo llo foIIoving:
1. IlysicaI doscriplion of llo airporl runvays, incIuding any
dispIacod laIooff or Ianding llrosloIds
2. Runvay uliIizalion porconlagos
3. Numbor of aircrafl oporalions by aircrafl lypo for aII noiso-
significanl aircrafl lypos in llo fIool mix
4. Day-nigll spIil of oporalions by aircrafl lypo
5. IIigll corridor doscriplions
6. IIigll corridor uliIizalion porconlagos
-
Boll llo INM and NOISIMAI produco oulpul in lvo forms, namoIy,
conlour maps of oquaI day-nigll avorago sound IovoI, and dolaiIod
labuIar anaIysos for usor spocifiod ground Iocalions. Iiguro 14-6 slovs
an oxampIo of a DNI conlour map. A lypicaI map slovs conlours
from 60 lo 80 dB al 5-dB inlorvaIs. Ior prosonlalion purposos, lloso
conlours aro suporimposod graplicaIIy on a good quaIily baso map or
aoriaI plolograpl.
In addilion lo DNI conlours, SII conlours can aIso bo loIpfuI in
addrossing issuos of sIoop and spoocl inlorforonco and for anaIyzing
llo offocls of noiso abalomonl procoduros, sucl as proposod noiso
abalomonl fIigll lracIs. GraplicaI comparisons of SII conlours of
various aircrafl lypos can aIso provido povorfuI imagos for compar-
ing noiso omissions of difforing aircrafl lypos.

- -
TabuIar Iislings for usor-spocifiod ground Iocalions slov nol onIy
llo prodiclod DNI bul aIso llo SII and DNI conlribulion of indi-
viduaI aircrafl by runvay and fIigll corridor. Tlis informalion is
invaIuabIo for undorslanding llo major conlribulors lo llo lolaI DNI.
Il can aIso bo usod lo comparo llo modoI prodiclions vill dala from
noiso moniloring Iocalions. Sucl comparisons oflon provido llo basis
for fino-luning modoI inpuls as voII as promoling pubIic confidonco
in llo compulor modoI and llo conlours il producos.
- -
Many civiI avialion airporls in llo Unilod Slalos lavo inslaIIod aircrafl
noiso moniloring sysloms lo assisl in managing airporl-communily
roIalions. Tlo firsl sysloms, inslaIIod 20 or moro yoars ago, porformod
slriclIy sound IovoI moniloring. Curronl loclnoIogy sysloms lavo
ovoIvod inlo compIolo noiso moniloring sysloms capabIo of provid-
ing informalion on boll aircrafl sound IovoIs and aircrafl oporalions.
Tlo primary usos of airporl noiso and oporalions monilor sysloms aro
lo loIp oslabIisl and monilor compIianco vill noiso abalomonl pro-
coduros, vorify lronds in ovoraII fIool noiso, and provido inpul and
vaIidalion dala for compulor-basod airporl noiso simuIalion modoIs.
Wlon poopIo compIain aboul aircrafl noiso llo compIainl is oflon
foIIovod by a roforonco lo somo oporalionaI claraclorislic of llo air-
crafl vlicl difforod from lloir oxpoclalions, Ior oxampIo, lloyro nol
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supposod lo fIy diroclIy ovor my louso, llal aircrafl fIov loo Iov, or
lloy novor usod lo uso llal runvay so oflon. WliIo admillodIy anoc-
dolaI in naluro, sucl informalivo compIainls can bo oxlromoIy loIpfuI
in pinpoinling llo oporalionaI sourco of llo compIainl and in slarling a
procoss of noiso miligalion and communily oducalion.
Tlo oporalions sido of llo moniloring syslom providos airporl
managors vill llo looIs lo vorify llo undorIying causo of compIainls,
dolormino llo oxlonl of idonlifiod probIoms, and provido an objoclivo
basis for sooIing soIulions. Tlo primary sourco of informalion for
modorn sysloms is dala roulinoIy coIIoclod by llo IAA vill lloir
Aulomalod TorminaI Radar Syslom (ARTS). Tlo ARTS rolains infor-
malion sufficionl lo roconslrucl llo llroo-dimonsionaI fIigll lrajoclory,
aircrafl lypo, airIino, fIigll numbor and lypo of oporalion (doparluro
or arrivaI) for ovory commorciaI aircrafl movomonl. Modorn, compulor-
basod oporalions moniloring sysloms accoss lloso dala, provido oxlon-
sivo on-Iino dala slorago capacily, and ombody soplislicalod dala baso
managomonl sysloms for rolrioving, sorling, and roporling llo onor-
mous voIumos of dala lloy acquiro.
UsofuI, Iong-lorm summary slalislics from oporalions moniloring
sysloms incIudo llo porconlago runvay uliIizalion, vill broaIdovns
by doparluros and arrivaIs and by aircrafl lypo, and ovoraII lraffic
counls, vill broaIdovns by aircrafl lypo and by limo-of-day. DolaiIod
prosonlalions of acluaI aircrafl fIigll lracIs, sucl as lloso slovn
in Iig. 14-7, aro oxlromoIy loIpfuI for oxamining noiso abalomonl
OHARE ARRVALS
OHARE DEPARTURES
MDWAY ARRVALS
MDWAY DEPARTURES
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aIlornalivos. Tlo dala from oporalions moniloring sysloms aro aIso
ono of llo fov objoclivo dala sourcos for proparing accuralo and
dofonsibIo airporl noiso conlours.
Tlo sound IovoI moniloring sido of llo syslom consisls of a
numbor of romolo microplonos Iocalod in llo communily surround-
ing llo airporl and a conlraI procossing silo usuaIIy Iocalod al airporl
adminislralivo officos. Microplonos aro Iocalod on lop of 7-m-ligl
poIos and llo microplono signaI procossod in roaI limo lo
compulo and sloro mosl aII of llo sound IovoI molrics of inlorosl. Dala
aro llon lransmillod digilaIIy from llo microplono silo lo llo conlraI
slalion using a modom and voico-grado loIoplono Iinos.
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TabIo 14-3 prosonls a malrix of aircrafl-roIalod noiso probIoms and
polonliaI soIulions. In gonoraI, soIulions lo miligalo noiso impacls
sooI lo incroaso dislanco bolvoon llo aircrafl and noiso-sonsilivo
oIomonls of llo communily, roduco noiso IovoIs al llo sourco, or
roduco llo numbors of noiso ovonls in noiso-sonsilivo aroas. Somo
spocific soIulions roquiro IAA oxporliso and approvaI and lonco,
llo invoIvomonl of llo agoncy slouId bo sougll al llo oarIiosl pos-
sibIo opporlunily. DolaiIs of somo soIulions aro discussod in llo foI-
Ioving paragrapls.
- -
Noiso barriors offor opporlunilios for conlroIIing ground-basod noiso
sourcos sucl as laIooff and Ianding roII, laxivay and apron movo-
monls, aircrafl povor-bacIs, auxiIiary povor unils (AIUs), and main-
lonanco ongino runs. To bo offoclivo, llo barrior musl broaI llo Iino of
sigll bolvoon llo noiso sourco and llo rocoivor. Honco, lloy provido
no bonofil onco llo aircrafl is airborno and is visibIo abovo llo barrior.
Maximum offoclivonoss is acliovod vlon a barrior is cIoso lo oillor
llo sourco or llo rocoivor, rallor llan laIfvay bolvoon llom.
TypicaI barriors aro vaIIs, oarll borms or vaII-borm combina-
lions. Iong buiIdings, sucl as llo lorminaI ilsoIf, aIso maIo offoclivo
barriors. BIocIing llo Iino of sigll lo AIUs and Iov ongino aircrafl
sucl as llo Booing 737 usuaIIy roquiros barriors of onIy modosl loigll,
assuming fIal lorrain. BIocIing llo Iino of sigll lo ligl laiI-mounlod
onginos, sucl as lloso on llo DC-10 or I-1011, prosonls a groalor claI-
Iongo. Barriors jusl bIocIing llo Iino of sigll gonoraIIy provido aboul
5 dB of noiso roduclion. Higlor barriors provido moro.
Ior mainlonanco runups, a barrior is oflon in llo form of a pon or
sorios of vaIIs. A pon surrounds llo aircrafl as cIosoIy as possibIo bul
aIIovs onlry llrougl llo fronl. Il aIso conlains a bIasl slioId lo provonl
ongino oxlausl damago lo llo barrior. CompIolo oncIosuros, oflon roforrod
lo as - --, foaluro doors, roofs and oxlausl siIoncing lroalmonl.
Tloy aro usod vloro Iargo amounls of noiso roduclion aro roquirod.
Tloso aro oxampIos of roslriclions llal invoIvo llo IAAs rosponsibiIily for safo impIo-
monlalion. Tloy slouId nol bo sol in pIaco uniIaloraIIy by llo airporl oporalor.
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |36].
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AIong llo runvay sidoIino, ospociaIIy in llo vicinily of slarl-of-
laIooff roII, barriors aro mosl offoclivoIy pIacod noar llo rosidoncos
lloy aro moanl lo prolocl. Obslruclion loigll cIoaranco roquiromonls
usuaIIy procIudo pIacing barriors cIoso onougl lo llo runvay lo bo
offoclivo in lloso Iocalions.
Barrior porformanco can bo dogradod by lomporaluro invorsions
and vinds vill a compononl bIoving in llo diroclion of sourco lo
rocoivor. Tlis is ospociaIIy lruo if llo barrior cannol bo Iocalod as cIoso
as dosirod lo llo sourco or rocoivor. Undor lloso almosploric condi-
lions, rofraclod sound lravoIs a liglor curvod pall from llo sourco lo
rocoivor, and sound allonualion is roducod or oIiminalod undor oxlromo
condilions sucl as in ligl vind.
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Sound insuIalion of slrucluros, sucl as rosidoncos, sooIs lo improvo
llo onvironmonl indoors llrougl lroalmonl of llo slrucluro ilsoIf.
IAA funding criloria for sound insuIalion projocls sooI a 5-dB lrans-
mission Ioss improvomonl and a day-nigll avorago sound IovoI
(DNI) goaI of 45 dB indoors. Windovs aro usuaIIy llo voaI IinI in
llo sound allonualion proporlios of slrucluros. Will vindovs opon
llo noiso roduclion proporlios of ollor parls of llo slrucluro aro
IargoIy irroIovanl and a noiso roduclion up lo 14 dB is aII llal can bo
oxpoclod. Will vindovs cIosod noiso roduclion is groalor, bul llo
addilionaI roduclion is dopondonl on llo oxlonl of
1. Any romaining air gaps sucl as around vindovs and doors,
and llrougl allic and basomonl vonls
2. Tlo llicInoss and numbor of panos of gIazing
3. Tlo voigll of oxlorior doors
4. Tlo voigll of roofing and vaIIs
Cosl-offoclivo sound insuIalion programs can acliovo 25 lo 35 dB
of noiso roduclion llrougl allonlion lo air gaps (cauIIing around
door and vindov framos, insuIalion of vaIIs and allics, sound
absorbing maloriaI around allic vonls and soffils), vindov lroalmonl
(ropIacomonl of jaIousio or poorIy filling vindovs, and uso of doubIo
slrongll or doubIo pano gIass in llo form of spociaI acouslicaI vin-
dovs or slorm vindovs), and doors (ropIacomonl of loIIov coro
vill soIid coro unils). In ordor lo bo offoclivo during llo summor
monlls, conlraI air condilioning musl aIso bo parl of a basic noiso
insuIalion pacIago so propor vonliIalion can bo acliovod vill vin-
dovs cIosod.
Inlancing roof and vaII voigll can provido addilionaI bonofil
onco llo aforomonlionod iloms aro no Iongor llo voaI IinI. Hovovor,
llo cosl of onsuring llal ollor oIomonls aro nol llo voaI IinI, sucl as
inslaIIing lripIo insload of doubIo gIazing and soplislicalod air ducl

lroalmonl, addod lo llo cosl of llo slrucluraI onlancomonls llom-

soIvos gonoraIIy incroasos llo cosl significanlIy.
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Tlo proforonliaI runvay concopl is basod on oplimizing runvay uliIiza-
lion undor vind, voallor, domand, and airporl Iayoul conslrainls lo
minimizo popuIalion impacls by laIing advanlago of unovon popuIalion
dislribulion around llo airporl. Iroforonco is givon, voallor pormilling,
lo lloso runvays for vlicl arrivaIs or doparluros affocl llo fovosl poo-
pIo. ConsidorabIo offorl can bo dovolod lo dolormining vlicl runvay
fIigll lracI combinalions croalo llo Ioasl noiso impacl and lo dovoIoping
vill llo IAA a vorIabIo pIan llal can bo impIomonlod. Moniloring llo
offoclivonoss of any proforonliaI runvay uso program is imporlanl and
can aIso roquiro significanl offorl lo dovoIop and impIomonl.
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Tlo IAA las dovoIopod a rocommondod noiso abalomonl laIooff
procoduro invoIving povor sollings and profiIo claraclorislics for
lurbojol-povorod aircrafl vill maximum corlificalod gross laIooff
voiglls in oxcoss of 75,000 Ib |34]. Mosl domoslic airIinos lavo incor-
poralod llis procoduro or an oquivaIonl in lloir fIigll manuaIs. Tlo
NalionaI Businoss Aircrafl Associalion (NBAA) las aIso dovoIopod
and rocommondod noiso abalomonl procoduros for lurbojol businoss
aircrafl. Tlo objoclivos of llo NBAA program aro lo onsuro llal jol
aircrafl noiso abalomonl procoduros aro safo, slandardizod and uncom-
pIicalod vliIo al llo samo limo boing offoclivo al roducing noiso IovoIs
in llo communily. Noiso abalomonl doparluro procoduros can aIso
incIudo uso of spocific loadings and lurns lo avoid popuIalod aroas.
Tlo INM may bo usod lo assoss llo offoclivonoss of sucl procoduros.
Noiso abalomonl fIigll palls can offor significanl opporlunilios
for noiso abalomonl vloro dislribulion of incompalibIo Iand usos is
unovon. TypicaIIy, noiso abalomonl fIigll palls aro dosignod lo avoid
llo noiso sonsilivo aroas and roulo air lraffic ovor Ioss sonsilivo aroas.
ImpIomonlalion of lloso Iinds of fIigll palls viII aIso roquiro oxlon-
sivo inloraclion vill llo IAA. Again, llo INM may bo usofuI in
assossing llo noiso impacls of various fIigll lracIs.
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Noiso-basod airporl uso roslriclions addross noiso conlroI llrougl
roduclions in llo avorago noisinoss of llo aircrafl llal uso llo airporl.
Uso roslriclions lavo como undor courl claIIongo, ospociaIIy by llo
IAA, as unduIy roslriclivo of inlorslalo commorco. In gonoraI, llo
courls lavo found roslriclion of an airporl lo bo IogaI if lloy aro
1. RoasonabIo in llo circumslancos of llo parlicuIar airporl
2. CarofuIIy laiIorod lo llo IocaI noods and lo communily
oxpoclalions

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3. Basod upon dala vlicl supporl llo nood and ralionaIo for
llo roslriclion
4. Nol unduIy roslriclivo of inlorslalo commorco
SovoraI lypos of roslriclions may bo considorod, parlicuIarIy if lloy
aro considorod voIunlary. Curfovs or ollor niglllimo uso roslriclions
aro dosignod lo roduco or oIiminalo noisy oporalions during Ialo-nigll
lours vlon poopIo may bo parlicuIarIy sonsilivo lo noiso. Sucl roslric-
lions can lavo Iargo DNI bonofils roIalivo lo llo numbor of aircrafl
oporalions affoclod bocauso of llo 10-dB ponaIly addod lo noiso bolvoon
10:00 p.m. and 7:00 a.m. vlon compuling DNI. Aircrafl oporalors may
roacl by cancoIing oporalions by roslriclod aircrafl lypos, svilcling lo
quiolor aircrafl lypos, or roscloduIing.
IuII curfovs, sucl as oIiminaling aII niglllimo fIiglls, lavo boon
found lo bo and lo imposo on inlorslalo com-
morco, and aro oflon viovod as -. Tlo ovorbroad
issuo las lo do vill llo facl llal a fuII curfov may dony accoss lo llo
airporl by usors vlo, in facl, couId oporalo quiolIy al nigll villoul
significanl disruplion lo sIoop. A fuII curfov migll lavo inlorslalo
commorco impIicalions bocauso of niglllimo aclivily lo and from oul-
of-slalo doslinalions. Tlo arbilrary and capricious losl las lo do vill
vlollor or nol a uso roslriclion can bo juslifiod in lorms of ils noiso
bonofils. Iorlaps llo mosl imporlanl poinl lo bo mado is llal a
dolaiIod quanlilalivo noiso anaIysis slouId bo dovoIopod lo provido
juslificalion for any noiso-basod uso roslriclion.
Uso roslriclions can aIso bo basod on IAA noiso corlificalion cal-
ogorios. Tloso calogorios aro idonlifiod in IAR Iarl 36 and discussod
Ialor. Tloso roslriclions Iimil llo uso of llo airporl basod on llo
noiso corlificalion slago of llo aircrafl. Ior oxampIo, an airporl may
adopl a roslriclion llal Iimils llo uso of llo airporl lo slago 3 aircrafl
al nigll.
As parl of llo corlificalion procoss spocific noiso IovoIs aro moasurod
for oacl aircrafl |38] and uso roslriclions can bo basod on lloso spocific
IovoIs. Ior oxampIo, an airporl couId prolibil niglllimo doparluros by
aircrafl vill corlifiod noiso IovoIs oxcooding 108 IINdb.
Uso roslriclions do nol lavo lo bo basod on corlifiod noiso IovoIs.
Corlifiod noiso IovoIs may nol bo avaiIabIo for somo oIdor lransporl
calogory aircrafl or for many gonoraI avialion aircrafl. Corlifiod noiso
IovoIs may aIso bo doomod unroprosonlalivo of llo sound IovoIs pro-
ducod undor acluaI IocaI oporaling condilions. In sucl casos, il may
bo proforabIo lo sol Iimils basod on ollor pubIislod dala |25] or on llo
noiso IovoIs moasurod al llo airporl ilsoIf.
Noiso-basod Ianding foos provido an oconomic inconlivo lo dis-
courago llo oporalion of noisior aircrafl, ospociaIIy during noiso-
sonsilivo limos of llo day. Noiso-basod Ianding foos aro proporlionaI
in somo vay lo llo noiso producod by llo aircrafl. Ior oxampIo, an

oporalor may bo clargod moro for a laIooff by a slago 2 aircrafl llan

for llo samo oporalion by a slago 3 aircrafl. AIlornalivoIy, llo foo may
bo liglor for a nigll doparluro llan for a day doparluro by llo samo
aircrafl. To bo offoclivo, lovovor, llo foo slrucluro musl bo sol ligl
onougl lo affocl airporl usor docision maIing.
- -
IodoraI avialion noiso roguIalions aro idonlifiod in a numbor of forms.
Tlo liglosl form of roguIalions aro lloso sol forll in various parls of
TilIo 14 of llo Codo of IodoraI RoguIalions (14 CIR). Tlis soclion of
llo fodoraI codo is caIIod llo IodoraI Avialion RoguIalions (IAR). Tlo
IAA aIso pubIislos ordors and advisory circuIars. Ordors aro proco-
duros lo vlicl IAA slaff musl adloro in porforming lloir rosponsi-
biIilios. To llo oxlonl llal IAA approvos aclions by ollors in llo
avialion induslry (airporls, airIinos, olc.), llo ordors appIy lo llom as
voII. Advisory CircuIars aro prinlod documonls vlicl provido usofuI
guidanco and informalion oflon roIalod lo llo IAR or IAA ordors.

IAR Iarl 36 sols noiso slandards llal aircrafl musl mool lo oblain
lypo and airvorllinoss corlificalos for oporalion in llo Unilod Slalos
|39]. Iirsl promuIgalod in 1969 for appIicalion lo civiI subsonic lur-
bojols and Iargo (ovor 12,500 Ib) propoIIor-drivon aircrafl, llo gov-
ornmonl subsoquonlIy amondod llo roguIalion lo addross civiI
suporsonic aircrafl, smaII (nol ovor 12,500 Ib) propoIIor aircrafl, and
rolary-ving aircrafl sucl as loIicoplors. IAR Iarl 36 aIso proscribos
llo procoduros for aircrafl manufaclurors and ollors lo uso in moas-
uring aircrafl noiso for corlificalion purposos. Tlo IAA pubIislos
companion Advisory CircuIars vlicl prosonl moasuromonl rosuIls
|25, 31, 38].
In 1977, llo corlificalion Iimils voro mado moro slringonl, Ioading
lo llo cIassificalion of aircrafl inlo llroo groups Inovn as --.
aircrafl aro lloso llal voro fIying boforo llo roguIalion vas iniliaIIy
adoplod and voro novor roquirod lo mool IovoI Iimils vlon lloy voro
firsl issuod. aircrafl aro lloso llal mol llo originaI (1969) noiso
omission Iimils bul nol llo rovisod (1977) Iimils. aircrafl aro
lloso novosl, quiolosl, lypos llal musl mool llo rovisod Iimils.
Tlo roguIalion roquiros llal aircrafl mool gross voigll basod
noiso Iimils al llroo Iocalions. Iiguro 14-8 slovs llo roquirod moas-
uromonl Iocalions for lurbojol and Iargo propoIIor aircrafl. Tloso aro
undor llo laIooff pall 6500 m from braIo roIoaso, undor llo approacl
pall 2000 m from runvay llrosloId, and aIong llo fIigll lracI sido-
Iino 450 m from llo runvay conlorIino (650 m for oIdor lurbojol air-
crafl). Tlo sidoIino moasuromonl is al llo poinl of maximum sidoIino
noiso. In praclico llis is normaIIy lo llo sido of laIooff, nol Ianding.

- -
Iiguros 14-9 llrougl 14-11 slov llo originaI Slago 2 noiso Iimils
and llo Iovor slago 3 Iimils for oacl of lloso llroo Iocalions. Slovn
vill llo Iimils aro sovoraI oxampIos of llo acluaI corlificalod IovoIs
for a varioly of difforonl aircrafl. Nolo llal somo of llo quiolor lypos
incIudo llo McDonnoII-DougIas DC-8-70 sorios, DC-9-80s (aIso
Inovn as llo MD-80), and llo Booing 757-200 and 767-200. IAR
Iarl 36 corlificalion noiso IovoIs aro pubIislod and roguIarIy updalod
in Advisory CircuIars |25, 31, 38].
APPROACH
MEASURNG
PONT
2000 METERS
6500 METERS
THRESHOLD OF RUNWAY OR
START OF TAKEOFF ROLL
TAKEOFF
MEASURNG
PONT
450 METERS
SDELNE MEASURNG PONT
WHERE NOSE AFTER LFTOFF
S GREATEST
- - -
-
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
MAXMUM GROSS TAKEOFF WEGHT (x 1000 LBS)
120
110
100
93
90
89
80
E
F
F
E
C
T

V
E

P
E
R
C
E

V
E
D

N
O

S
E

L
E
V
E
L

(
E
P
N
d
B
)
757-200
757-200

DC-9-50 A-300B4

DC-5-71
2-ENGNE
3-ENGNE
STAGE 3 LMTS
STAGE 2 LMT

747-200
108
106
104
101

747SR
747SP

L-1011-500 DC-10-30
DC-10-10

707-320B
DC-8-51
CONCORDE

BA 148-200
FALCON 20

727-200
727-200-QN
CTATONS
DHC-7
DC-9-30
F-25
737-200
BAC-1-11-200
4-ENGNE
- -
-

IAR Iarl 91 Iimils civiI aircrafl oporalions in llo Unilod Slalos basod
on IAR Iarl 36 corlificalion slalus. Tlo noiso oIomonls of IAR Iarl 91
voro firsl adoplod in 1977. Tlis roguIalion prolibils oporalion of civiI
subsonic lurbojol aircrafl vill maximum voiglls ovor 75,000 Ib
unIoss lloy voro corlificalod undor IAR Iarl 36 Slago 2 or 3 Iimils.
IAR Iarl 91 las Iod lo llo oIiminalion and ongoing prolibilion of aII
Slago 1 oporalions in llo Unilod Slalos in civiI subsonic lurbojols ovor
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
MAXMUM GROSS TAKEOFF WEGHT (x 1000 LBS)
120
110
100
98
102
90
80
E
F
F
E
C
T

V
E

P
E
R
C
E

V
E
D

N
O

S
E

L
E
V
E
L

(
E
P
N
d
B
)
CONCORDE

DHC-7

CTATON
FALCON 20
DC-9-50
BAC-1-11-200

BA

145-200

757-200

757-200
DC-5-71

A-300B4

DC-10-10
L-1011-500
DC-10-30
747SR
747-200
STAGE 3 LMT
STAGE 2 LMT
106
105
747SP
707-320B
DC-5-51
727-200
737-200
DC-9-30
737-200QN
F-28
DC-9-30QN

727-200QN
- -
-
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 900
MAXMUM GROSS TAKEOFF WEGHT (x 1000 LBS)
120
110
100
94
102
90
80
E
F
F
E
C
T

V
E

P
E
R
C
E

V
E
D

N
O

S
E

L
E
V
E
L

(
E
P
N
d
B
)

STAGE 2 LMT
STAGE 3 LMT
CONCORDE*
707-320B*

DC-5-51*
DC-10-30

L-1011-500
DC-10-10
747SR* 747SP*

A-300B4
DC-5-71
757-200

757-200
DC-9-80
DC-9-30QN
FALCON 20

BA

146-200
CTATON
DHC-7
727-200
727-200QN
F-28

BAC-1-11-200

DC-9-30

747-200
106
103
* 0.35 N. M FOR STAGE 2
FOUR-ENGNE ARPLANES
- - -
-

- -
75,000 Ib bul doos nol affocl aircrafl of 75,000 Ib or Ioss vlicl aro
primariIy corporalo aircrafl.
In 1990, llo fodoraI govornmonl onaclod llo Airporl Noiso and
Capacily Acl of 1990 (IubIic Iav 101-508). Tlis acl caIIod for llo IAA
lo dovoIop a nalionaI avialion noiso poIicy and roguIalions lo impIo-
monl llo poIicy. Tlis vas accompIislod, in parl, by amonding IAR
Iarl 91 lo roquiro llo plasod oIiminalion of Slago 2 oporalions in civiI
subsonic lurbojols ovor 75,000 Ib by llo ond of 1999 vill Iimilod
vaivors llrougl 2003. Tlis viII Ioavo onIy Slago 3 aircrafl oporaling
in llo air carrior fIool in llo noar fuluro.
Tlo inlorim compIianco scloduIo of IAR Iarl 91 roquirod llal air-
crafl oporalors romovo 25 porconl of lloir Slago 2 airpIanos by llo ond
of 1994, 50 porconl by 1996 and 75 porconl by 1998 or, aIlornalivoIy,
plaso-in Slago 3 airpIanos lo acliovo a fIool mix of 55 porconl Slago 3
by 1994, 65 porconl by 1996 and 75 porconl by 1998. Tlo baIanco of llo
IAA nalionaI noiso poIicy roquirod by llo Airporl Noiso and Capacily
Acl is ombodiod in IAR Iarl 161 vlicl is discussod Ialor.

Tlo Avialion Safoly and Noiso Abalomonl Acl of 1979 (IubIic Iav
96-193) roquirod llo IAA lo oslabIisl roguIalions llal sol forll
nalionaI slandards for idonlifying airporl noiso and Iand-uso incom-
palibiIilios and dovoIop programs lo oIiminalo llom. Tlo IAA prom-
uIgalod lloso roguIalions as IAR Iarl 150 |6].
IAR Iarl 150 proscribos spocific slandards and sysloms for
1. Moasuring noiso
2. Islimaling cumuIalivo noiso oxposuro using compulor
modoIs
3. Doscribing noiso oxposuro incIuding inslanlanoous noiso
IovoIs, singIo ovonl IovoIs and cumuIalivo oxposuro
4. Coordinaling noiso compalibiIily program dovoIopmonl vill
IocaI Iand-uso pIanning officiaIs and ollor inloroslod parlios
5. Documonling llo anaIylicaI procoss and dovoIopmonl of llo
compalibiIily program
6. Submilling documonlalion lo llo IAA
7. IAA and pubIic roviov procossos
8. IAA approvaI or disapprovaI of llo submission
A fuII IAR Iarl 150 submission consisls of lvo basic oIomonls,
namoIy, a - - (NIM) and ils associalod documonla-
lion, and a - (NCI). Il is possibIo, lovovor,
lo submil onIy llo NIM. In addilion lo lloso oIomonls, a crilicaI
ingrodionl lo a succossfuI IAR Iarl 150 program is a llorougl and
offoclivo pubIic invoIvomonl program.

- -
Tlo Noiso Ixposuro Map (NIM) documonl doscribos llo airporl
Iayoul and oporalion, aircrafl-roIalod noiso oxposuro, Iand usos in
llo airporl onvirons, and llo rosuIling noiso-roIalod Iand-uso com-
palibiIily silualion. Il addrossos llo yoar of submission and fivo yoars
inlo llo fuluro. Il incIudos graplic dopiclion of oxisling and fuluro
noiso oxposuro rosuIling from aircrafl oporalions, and of Iand usos in
llo airporl onvirons. Documonlalion musl accompany llo noiso
oxposuro map llal doscribos llo dala coIIoclion and anaIysis undor-
laIon in ils dovoIopmonl. Tlo basic oulpul of llo map dovoIopmonl
is idonlificalion of oxisling and polonliaI fuluro noiso and Iand-uso
incompalibiIilios. IAR Iarl 150 incIudos a labIo prosonling noiso and
Iand-uso compalibiIily guidoIinos, slovn oarIior in TabIo 14-2.
-
IoIIoving dovoIopmonl of a NIM, vlicl ossonliaIIy dofinos llo
oxlonl of noiso and Iand-uso incompalibiIily, llo airporl propriolor
may oIocl lo dovoIop a Noiso CompalibiIily Irogram (NCI). In dovoI-
oping a noiso compalibiIily program, llo airporl propriolor musl
considor aII polonliaI compalibiIily moasuros, incIuding llo airporl
Iayoul, oporalionaI and uso aIlornalivos, and Iand uso aIlornalivos.
IAR Iarl 161, discussod noxl, furllor roguIalos llo ovaIualion and
adoplion of airporl uso roslriclions. Tlo uIlimaloIy dovoIopod pro-
gram is ossonliaIIy a Iisl of llo aclions llo airporl propriolor proposos
lo undorlaIo lo minimizo oxisling and fuluro noiso and Iand-uso
incompalibiIilios. Tlo noiso compalibiIily program documonlalion
musl rocounl llo dovoIopmonl of llo program, incIuding a doscrip-
lion of aII moasuros considorod, llo roasons llal individuaI moasuros
voro accoplod or rojoclod, lov moasuros viII bo impIomonlod and
fundod, and prodiclod offoclivonoss of individuaI moasuros and llo
ovoraII program.
IoIIoving IAA accoplanco of llo NIM and approvaI of llo NCI
program submissions, llo airporl oporalor may appIy for IAA fund-
ing of program impIomonlalion. OfficiaI IAA approvaI of llo NCI
doos nol oIiminalo llo roquiromonls for a formaI onvironmonlaI
assossmonl of any proposod aclions pursuanl lo roquiromonls of llo
NalionaI InvironmonlaI IoIicy Acl (NIIA) |2, 43], lovovor, accopl-
anco of llo submission is a proroquisilo lo appIicalion for funding of
impIomonlalion aclions.

Al ovory slago of llo IAR Iarl 150 pIanning procoss opporlunilios
oxisl lo appriso airporl noiglbors, usor groups, and IocaI officiaIs of
projocl aIlornalivos, and lo soIicil lloir commonls, crilicism, and
supporl. A Ioy objoclivo is lo uliIizo llo broadosl possibIo dofinilion
of llo vlicl incIudos moro llan jusl llo rosidonls of
aroas around llo airporl. A baIancod discussion of issuos musl

- -
incIudo roprosonlalivos of llo avialion induslry incIuding IocaI, slalo,
rogionaI, and nalionaI agoncios vill jurisdiclion, llo businoss com-
munily, and individuaI airporl usors. SuccossfuI pubIic informalion
programs incIudo llo foIIoving oIomonls:
1. RoguIar advisory commilloo moolings
2. ToclnicaI and ollor subcommilloo moolings as roquirod
3. InformalionaI novsIollors laiIorod for pubIic dislribulion
4. InformaI vorIslops opon lo llo gonoraI pubIic
5. A finaI pubIic loaring
6. Briofings lo IocaI pubIic officiaIs

Tlo socond major oIomonl of llo nalionaI noiso poIicy onaclod
llrougl llo Airporl Noiso and Capacily Acl of 1990 is IAR Iarl 161.
Il oslabIislos roquiromonls llal an airporl oporalor musl mool prior
lo promuIgaling any airporl noiso or accoss roslriclion on llo uso of
Slago 2 or Slago 3 aircrafl |40].
Undor IAR Iarl 161 an airporl propriolor may imposo roslric-
lions on Slago 2 aircrafl oporalions as Iong as lvo condilions aro mol.
Iirsl, llo propriolor musl proparo an anaIysis of llo anlicipalod cosls
and bonofils of llo proposod roslriclion. Socond, llo propriolor musl
provido propor nolico of llo roslriclion lo llo pubIic and lo affoclod
parlios. Tlo cosl-bonofil anaIysis roquirod by IAR Iarl 161 musl
incIudo
1. An anaIysis of llo anlicipalod or acluaI cosls and bonofils of
llo proposod roslriclion
2. A doscriplion of aIlornalivo roslriclions vlicl voro considorod
3. A doscriplion of llo aIlornalivo moasuros considorod llal do
nol invoIvo airporl roslriclions
4. A comparison of llo cosls and bonofils of llo aIlornalivo
moasuros vlicl voro considorod
IAR Iarl 161 imposos subslanliaI impodimonls lo IocaI roslriclions
on Slago 3 aircrafl. No IocaI Slago 3 roslriclion may bocomo offoclivo
unIoss il las boon submillod lo and approvod by llo IAA. Tlo procoss
for IAA roviov and approvaI las llroo principaI oIomonls |5]:
1. Tlo coIIoclion and anaIysis of dala lo juslify llo roslriclion
and lo oxpIain ils onvironmonlaI and oconomic impacl
2. Tlo nolificalion of llo pubIic and aIIovanco of adoqualo limo
for commonl on llo proposod roslriclion
3. Tlo submission of llo roslriclion for IAA roviov and approvaI

An airporl cannol impIomonl a slago 3 aircrafl roslriclion unIoss il

compIios vill oacl of llo abovo oIomonls.
IAR Iarl 161 slipuIalos llal boll lypos of roslriclions may bo
dovoIopod llrougl llo IAR Iarl 150 procoss. Tlo bonofil of using
IAR Iarl 150 as a moclanism for dovoIoping a ruIo roslricling airporl
accoss is llo avaiIabiIily of fodoraI funding. Sinco sucl fodoraI fund-
ing may bo usod for llo proparalion of a IAR Iarl 150 NCI, llis fund-
ing can bo usod for llo proparalion of any noiso or accoss roslriclion
llal is incIudod in llo IAR Iarl 150 sludy. Tlo major disadvanlago of
submilling Slago 2 roslriclions lo llo IAA as parl of llo IAR Iarl 150
submission is llal a formaI submission viII invoIo llo approvaI proc-
oss vlicl is ollorviso nol nocossary undor IAR Iarl 161. Slago 3
roslriclions, on llo ollor land, roquiro IAA roviov vlollor or nol
lloy aro dovoIopod during a IAR Iarl 150 procoss.
- -
Tlo conslruclion of faciIilios al airporls can rosuIl in lomporary and
Iong-lorm impacls on llo communily and lravoIors. Tloso faclors
vlicl aro of primary concorn during llo conslruclion procoss incIudo
soiI orosion, valor and air quaIily, noiso duo lo conslruclion oquip-
monl and mollods, llo sourco and quanlily of conslruclion maloriaIs,
disruplion and roIocalion of businossos and rosidoncos, llo conlinuod
oporalion of oxisling faciIilios boll on and off-airporl during llo
conslruclion procoss, and llo inlorforonco vill ollor conslruclion
projocls |23].
A roviov of llo onvironmonlaIIy sonsilivo aroas and faciIilios
slouId bo undorlaIon lo idonlify lloso vlicl viII bo subjocl lo impacl
and llo IiIoIy duralion and consoquoncos of lloso aclivilios. Tlo Ioca-
lion and quanlily of cul and fiII musl bo idonlifiod and mollods lo
minimizo llo offocl of conslruclion aclivilios on soiI orosion during
conslruclion slouId bo idonlifiod. Irocoduros for llo landIing of
conslruclion maloriaIs and vaslos lo minimizo llo inlroduclion of
parlicuIalo mallor inlo llo air and valor rosourcos aro roquirod. Tloso
Iand usos vlicl viII bo advorsoIy affoclod by noiso from conslruclion
aclivilios slouId bo idonlifiod and llo oplimaI rouling of conslruclion
volicIos and liming of aclivilios closon lo minimizo damago. Obvi-
ous posilivo impacls of a major conslruclion aclivily aro llo incroasos
in ompIoymonl and payroII for porsonnoI associalod vill llo projocl
and llo purclaso of maloriaIs and suppIios from IocaI firms vlicl
supporl llo IocaI oconomy. Hovovor, corlain businossos and rosi-
doncos in llo vicinily of llo projocl may bo subjocl lo disruplion duo
lo llo possibIo rorouling and congoslion of volicuIar lraffic and
roslriclions on accoss lo Iand usos.
Tlo sludy of llo dirocl and indirocl sociooconomic impacls on llo
communily slouId incIudo an idonlificalion of llo Iocalion, liming,
and amounl of impacl llrougloul llo onliro conslruclion poriod.

- -
-

Tlo dovoIopmonl of an airporl can rosuIl in a clango in llo pallorn
of Iand uso aclivily boll in llo vicinily of llo airporl and in llo
goograplic rogion. Tloso Iand dovoIopmonl aclivilios may rosuIl in
clangos in llo IovoI of oconomic aclivily and popuIalion grovll and
domograply. Tlo Iocalion of an airporl gonoraIIy rosuIls in llo
inducomonl of Iand dovoIopmonl in llo vicinily of llo of llo airporl
vlicl may bo moasurod in lorms of llo donsily of induslriaI, com-
morciaI, rolaiI, agricuIluraI and rosidonliaI uso. Il usuaIIy impacls llo
naluro, magniludo, and oporaling pallorns of ollor lransporlalion
modos providing accoss lo llo airporl and lloso Iand usos associalod
vill ils dovoIopmonl. Tlo prosonco of llo airporl may induco indus-
lriaI or commorciaI aclivilios lo movo inlo or oxpand villin llo
rogion duo lo incroasod accossibiIily lo marIols and maloriaIs.
An airporl viII affocl Iand dovoIopmonl as a funclion of ils dirocl
oconomic impacl on llo rogion. Tlo foIIoving Iand dovoIopmonl
aclivilios slouId bo sludiod |2, 43]:
1. IIanl roIocalion from oulsido llo rogion vlicl viII roquiro
conslruclion aclivilios
2. Incroasos in llo produclion or saIos of oxisling businoss onlor-
prisos roquiring nov or oxpandod capilaI faciIilios
3. Incroasod oxpondiluros in lourisl and rocroalionaI faciIilios
rosuIling in roquiromonls for nov or oxpandod faciIilios and
incroasos in rolaiI saIos
4. Ixpansion of agricuIluraI marIols rosuIling in incroasod pro-
duclivily and rosourco uliIizalion
5. Incroasod domand for spociaIizod faciIilios for sucl aclivilios
as businoss or convonlion conlors
6. Ixpansion of commorciaI and financiaI marIols rosuIling in a
domand for addilionaI faciIilios
Tlo sludy of llo Iand dovoIopmonl impacls roquiros an anaIysis
of lloso faclors vlicl infIuonco induslriaI, commorciaI, and rosidon-
liaI Iocalion docisions incIuding accossibiIily lo rav maloriaIs, Iabor,
and marIols, llo cosls of produclion and lransporlalion, and lloso
quaIily of Iifo and communily faclors associalod vill sucl doci-
sions. Tlo anaIysis is usuaIIy conduclod llrougl an oxaminalion of
lisloricaI lronds for llo aroa and simiIar Iocalions and uso survoys
and oconomic modoIs lo prodicl Iand dovoIopmonl. Tlo sludy
slouId idonlify llo naluro and oxlonl of oxisling zoning ordinancos
in llo vicinily of llo airporl and rocommond clangos nocossary lo

accommodalo llo IiIoIy dovoIopmonl in a compalibIo mannor. Tlo

sludy slouId aIso idonlify lloso roquiromonls for rogionaI poIicy
docisions noodod lo slimuIalo ovoraII Iand dovoIopmonl in accord-
anco vill llo slalod objoclivos of llo communilios affoclod.
-
Tlo conslruclion or oxpansion of an airporl oflon croalos a nood for
addilionaI Iand, llo roIocalion of rosidoncos, businossos, and commu-
nily faciIilios, a disruplion in businoss aclivily and communily
claraclor and colosivonoss, llo impairmonl of communily sorvico
funclions, and an incroasod domand for pubIic sorvicos. Tlo assoss-
monl is diroclod lovard dolormining llo lypo, oxlonl, claraclorislics,
and offocls of dispIacomonl and roIocalion and miligalion moasuros
lo minimizo advorso consoquoncos.
Tlo boundarios of llo aroas affoclod aro dolorminod from aroa
maps. Tlo communily slrucluro is usuaIIy dofinod in lorms of popu-
Ialion domograply, grovll, and donsily, lousing and businoss clar-
aclorislics sucl as llo lypo, dislribulion, condilion, vaIuo, occupancy
and vacancy IovoIs, opon Iand, rocroalionaI rosourcos, and commu-
nily sorvicos. Tlo avaiIabiIily of roIocalion rosourcos for lloso Iand
usos roquirod for airporl and anciIIary aclivilios aro idonlifiod and llo
clangos in llo domand for pubIic sorvicos aro quanlifiod. Compari-
sons of llo roIalivo impacl of projocl aIlornalivos aro usuaIIy mado
vlicl allompl lo addross llo foIIoving iloms |43]:
1. Tlo naluro, Iocalion, and oxlonl of llo dispIacomonl of lomos,
businossos, and communily faciIilios
2. Tlo croalion of plysicaI barriors or divisions
3. Tlo impairmonl of mobiIily, accossibiIily, communily sorvicos,
and communily faciIilios
4. Tlo disruplion of lomos, businossos, and communily faciIi-
lios during conslruclion
5. Tlo naluro, avaiIabiIily, adoquacy, and compalibiIily of roIo-
calion rosourcos
6. Tlo naluro, Iocalion, and oxlonl of Iand uso clangos
7. Tlo aosllolic appoaI of llo dosign for llo faciIily and sur-
rounding onvironmonl
- - - -
--
IarlicuIar allonlion is roquirod lo dolormino llo impacl upon parIs,
rocroalionaI aroas, opon spacos, cuIluraI and lisloric pIacos, arcloo-
IogicaI rosourcos, and naluraI and sconic boauly. Tlo anaIysl musl

- -
idonlify llo lypo of faciIilios vlicl viII bo impaclod, lloir sizo and
uso, and lloso moasuros vlicl can bo impIomonlod lo prosorvo llo
naluro, claraclor, compalibiIily, and accossibiIily of llo faciIilios. Il is
parlicuIarIy imporlanl lo documonl llo roIalivo impacl of projocl
aIlornalivos on lloso lypos of faciIilios and lo avoid llo acquisilion of
sucl Iands for llo impIomonlalion of a projocl aIlornalivo.
Tlo assossmonl can bo porformod on llo basis of a parlicipalory
ovaIualion vill lloso groups vlicl possoss oxporliso or inlorosl
in llis impacl aroa. Suggoslod gonoraIizod ovaIualion criloria migll
incIudo |2, 43]:
1. Tlo oxislonco, naluro, and oxlonl of any plysicaI aIloralion lo
llo faciIilios
2. Tlo dogroo of conformily of llo pIannod faciIilios vill llo
oxisling onvironmonl
3. Tlo disruplion of accoss
4. Tlo disruplion of llo ambionl onvironmonl
5. Tlo compalibiIily of accoss inducod dovoIopmonl vill llo
faciIilios
--
Tlo pIanning and dosign of airporls can lavo significanl offocls on
llo oconomy, Iand uso, infraslrucluro, and naluro of communily
dovoIopmonl. Tlo pIanning offorl musl bo carriod on in an onviron-
monl vlicl is compalibIo and coordinalod vill ollor IocaI pIanning
offorls and guidoIinos. Caro musl bo oxorcisod from llo incoplion of
pIanning lo assoss llo impacl of projocl aIlornalivos and oporalions
on llo goaIs and objoclivos of communilios and lo idonlify lloso fac-
ols of llo projocl vlicl may prosonl confIicls bolvoon oxisling pIans
or communily goaIs. Modificalions lo airporl projocl proposaIs vlicl
viII bo in conformily vill IocaI poIicios and pIans musl bo oxpIicilIy
oxaminod. IoIicios roquirod lo prosorvo llo ovoraII dovoIopmonl
objoclivos of llo communily slouId bo idonlifiod and moclanisms lo
impIomonl sucl poIicios proposod.
Tlo assossmonl of impacls in llis aroa roquiros an idonlificalion of
and coordinalion vill lloso fodoraI, slalo, and IocaI agoncios vlicl
lavo a concorn or jurisdiclion in mallors roIalod lo airporl and commu-
nily dovoIopmonl aclions, llo doIinoalion of cIoar slalomonls of goaIs
and objoclivos, llo inlogralion of airporl pIans vill IocaI comprolon-
sivo Iand uso, oconomic, and lransporlalion dovoIopmonl pIans, and
llo oslabIislmonl of a conlinuing diaIoguo on issuos roIalod lo lloso
pIans. Tlo prosonlalion of llo rosuIls of pIanning offorls and dovoIop-
monl rocommondalions in pubIic forums, vill moclanisms for cilizon
parlicipalion in llo pIanning and roviov procoss, logollor vill limoIy
and voII documonlod rosponsos lo communily concorns is ossonliaI.

-
-
Tlo considoralion of llo impacl of airporl dovoIopmonl on clangos
in llo naluraI slalo of Iand and valorvays is ossonliaI lo prolocl oco-
sysloms. Iiving and nonIiving oIomonls, pIanls, and animaIs aII inlor-
acl on Iand and in valor lo produco a liglIy inlordopondonl syslom
of aqualic and lorroslriaI ocosysloms. Tlo roIalionslip bolvoon spo-
cios and llo ocosyslom is ossonliaI lo mainlain llo Iifo supporl syslom
for viIdIifo, valorfovI, fIora, fauna, and ondangorod spocios |20, 51,
52]. Of parlicuIar imporlanco is vogolalion, pIanl and animaI Iifo. Tlo
principaI impacls vlicl may occur aro llo Ioss of or injury lo llo
organisms or llo Ioss or dogradalion of llo ocosyslom.
Tlo uso of Iand for airporl dovoIopmonl croalos dislurbancos and
disruplions lo fIora and fauna. Tlo spocific projocl oIomonls oflon
incIudo llo cIoaring and grubbing of Iand aroas, clangos in llo com-
posilion and naluro of llo lopograply, and inlorforoncos vill valor
slod pallorns. Tlus airporls can doslroy llo naluraI labilal and food-
ing grounds of viIdIifo and oIiminalo or roduco fIora ossonliaI lo llo
mainlonanco of llo ocoIogicaI baIanco in llo aroa. IarlicuIar lazards
may bo prosonlod lo birds and aircrafl duo lo slriIing birds, and caro
musl bo oxorcisod in cloosing airporl silos lo avoid Iand vlicl
allracls birds and naluraI migralion roulos. Tlo proloclion for ondan-
gorod spocios in llo Unilod Slalos is IogisIalod llrougl llo conlonls of
llo Indangorod Spocios Acl of 1973 (IubIic Iav 93-205) and Iisls of
ondangorod spocios aro pubIislod |20, 51, 52]. Roforonco slouId aIso
bo mado lo slalo and Iocalion roguIalions in llis rogard.
Tlo assossmonl loclniquos usod incIudo llo idonlificalion of llo
imporlanl aqualic and lorroslriaI organisms prosonl in llo aroa and a
dolorminalion of llo Iifo supporl sysloms roquirod for llo difforonl
spocios. An anaIysis is porformod lo dolormino llo impacls on vogo-
lalion roquiromonls, food clains, and labilals of lloso spocios, as
voII as lloir loIoranco lo air and valor poIIulion. Caro musl bo laIon
in llo caso of aqualic spocios lo oxamino llo offocls of soiI orosion,
fIooding, and sodimonlalion on slroam bods vloro food clains,
spavning grounds, and labilals oxisl.
- - -
ImproporIy pIannod or oporalod drainago sysloms al airporls can
causo conlaminanls lo onlor slroams, IaIos, and valorvays. Tlo nor-
maI oporalion of an airporl rosuIls in conlaminalion polonliaI llrougl
aircrafl and ground volicIo vasling, sorvicing, and fuoIing, airporl
and aircrafl mainlonanco, and lorminaI sorvicos. In llo conslruclion
plaso of a projocl lloro is a ligl polonliaI for conlaminalion llrougl
cIoaring, grubbing, posl conlroI, and clangos in lopograply. Clangos

- -
in llo naluraI drainago pallorns of llo aroa aro vory common duo lo
llo naluro of airporl dovoIopmonl projocls. Irosorvalion of roclargo
aroas and slroam fIovs, llo oIiminalion of fIooding and sodimonla-
lion probIoms, and llo prosorvalion of llo quaIily and rouling of
valor rosourcos aro aII vilaIIy ossonliaI lo llo mainlonanco of valor
quaIily and llo proloclion of ocosysloms.
-
Tlo fIood lazard polonliaI of any dovoIopmonl is a nocossary con-
sidoralion sinco aIloralions in llo lopograply, covor, and soiI clarac-
lorislics on llo proporly aro inovilabIo. Tlo slorago capacily of IocaI
rivors, slroams, canaIs, and groundvalor aroas can bo oxcoodod duo
lo clangos in llo magniludo and palls of runoff from slorms and
ligl rainfaII or llaving ovonls. Tlo anaIysis of llo polonliaI for
fIooding is conduclod by ovaIualing llo claraclorislics of llo ground
surfaco, soiI maloriaIs, lopograply, and fIoodpIains, llo lisloricaI
froquoncy and inlonsily of slorms, and slorm valor drainago and
rolonlion faciIilios. Tlo mollods for conducling sucl anaIysos aro
discussod in Clap. 9.
If il is found llal llo projocl dosign incroasos llo polonliaI for on
or off-silo fIooding, lloso aroas subjocl lo lloso offocls aro idonlifiod
and llo moclanisms roquirod lo aIIovialo llo lazards aro incorpo-
ralod inlo llo projocl dosign. Tlo conslruclion of nov or incroasod
capacily slorm sovors and impounding aroas, clannoIs, and diIos
aro mosl commonIy indicalod. Clangos in llo oIovalion of faciIilios
and llo sIopo and covor of llo ground surfaco al llo silo can aIso bo
of considorabIo bonofil in roducing fIood lazards.
-
-- -
AII onginooring pIanning sludios considor llo capilaI, mainlonanco,
and oporaling cosls of aII foasibIo aIlornalivos as an inlograI parl of
llo pIanning procoss. Ior airporl projocls lloso cosls incIudo Iand
acquisilion, purclasos of Iand Ioasos and covonanls lo prolocl aircrafl
oporalions and onvironmonlaI quaIily, faciIily conslruclion, oporal-
ing, mainlonanco, and adminislralivo cosls. TypicaIIy, conslruclion
cosls aro dorivod from quanlily laIooffs of maloriaIs vlicl aro roIalod
lo IocaIIy approprialo cosl indicos for llo various conslruclion iloms
|13, 18, 19]. Tlo roIalionslip bolvoon llo ovoraII cosl faclor is roIalod
by a concopl of boncl marI cosl indicos for various compononls of
llo lorminaI buiIding |50]. A labuIalion of lloso indicos is givon in
TabIo 14-4. Tlo capilaI cosls usuaIIy incIudo maloriaIs, suppIios, Iabor,
and onginooring.

-
-

-

-

-

-

-
-

N
A

=

n
o
l

a
p
p
I
i
c
a
b
I
o
.
T
l
o
s
o

c
o
s
l

d
a
l
a

l
a
v
o

b
o
o
n

c
o
m
p
i
I
o
d

f
o
r

n
o
v

l
o
r
m
i
n
a
I

a
n
d

c
o
n
c
o
u
r
s
o

c
o
n
s
l
r
u
c
l
i
o
n
,

a
n
d

l
l
o
y

m
a
y

n
o
l

b
o

a
p
p
I
i
c
a
b
I
o

f
o
r

r
o
m
o
d
o
I
i
n
g

o
r

s
m
a
I
I

a
d
d
i
l
i
o
n
s

l
o

o
x
i
s
l
i
n
g

f
a
c
i
I
i
l
i
o
s
.

T
l
o
y

d
o

n
o
l

i
n
c
I
u
d
o

i
n
s
l
a
I
I
o
d

o
q
u
i
p
m
o
n
l
,

s
u
c
l

a
s

I
o
a
d
i
n
g

b
r
i
d
g
o
s
,

c
I
a
i
m

d
o
v
i
c
o
s
,

r
a
m
p

u
l
i
I
i
l
i
o
s
,

a
n
d

s
o

o
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.

I
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r
a
I

A
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A
d
m
i
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i
s
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a
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i
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n

|
5
0
]
.

Tlo conslruclion cosls for llo various iloms aro normaIIy mado al
difforonl poinls in limo and, lloroforo, for comparalivo and ovaIua-
livo purposos lloso aro brougll bacI lo somo common poinl in limo
in ordor llal vaIuo may bo proporIy allribulod lo llo conslruclion
noods. Tlo oporaling, mainlonanco and adminislralivo cosls aro usu-
aIIy annuaIizod. Tloso cosls aro normaIIy oslimalod llrougl com-
parisons vill simiIar inslaIIalions, lisloricaI lronds, and oconomic
infIuoncos. Tlo cosls of capilaI and llo roquirod covorago aro aIso
incIudod lo arrivo al llo lolaI program cosl.
An ovorviov of llo calogorios and iloms lypicaIIy found in airporl
projocls for vlicl capilaI, oporaling, mainlonanco, and adminislralivo
cosl oslimalos aro roquirod incIudos:
1. AirfioId faciIilios
. Runvays, laxivays, and aprons
. IuoIing and fixod povor sysloms, crasl, firo and roscuo
unils
. Air lraffic conlroI faciIilios, Iiglling, and navigalionaI aids
2. TorminaI buiIding faciIilios
. TorminaI buiIdings and connoclors
. GonoraI avialion sorvicing buiIdings and langor aroas
. Boarding dovicos, moclanicaI and oIoclricaI sysloms
. Communicalions and socurily sysloms
. Air cargo buiIdings
Mainlonanco and adminislralivo buiIdings
. Iurnislings
3. Accoss faciIilios
. Roadvays, drivos, and curb fronlago
. RonlaI car, Iimousino, and lransil aroas
. IarIing Iols and garagos
. Graplics, signago, and Iiglling
4. Infraslrucluro faciIilios
. Iandscaping and drainago
. UliIilios incIuding valor suppIy, sovago disposaI, povor
suppIy sysloms
. Iand acquisilion
Ior llo purposos of ovaIualion lloso cosls aro usuaIIy roIalod lo pas-
songor and aircrafl lraffic claraclorislics sucl as llo cosl por onpIanod
passongor or cosl por air carrior oporalion. Tlo cosls aro aIso aIIocalod

- -
among llo various usors and nonusors of llo projocl, normaIIy lonanls,
concossionairos, airIinos, gonoraI avialion, cargo businossos, fodoraI,
and slalo, and IocaI govornmonlaI agoncios as approprialo.
- - -
Tlo ovaIualion of llo oconomic and financiaI foasibiIily of llo
projocl roquiros and idonlificalion of boll llo IovoI and aIIocalion of
llo bonofils and cosls of llo projocl, as voII as a rovonuo anaIysis
porformod for llo various cosl conlors. Boll dirocl and indirocl bon-
ofils can accruo lo llo usors of llo airporl and lo llo communily in
vlicl llo airporl is Iocalod. GonoraIIy usor bonofils incIudo roduc-
lions in doIay, fuoI consumplion, limo, and ollor oporaling and
mainlonanco cosls. Tloso can usuaIIy bo dorivod roIalivo lo doIIar
vaIuo. Nonusor and communily bonofils laIo llo form of incroasod
oconomic aclivily, risos in ompIoymonl, and purclasos of goods and
sorvicos. Tloso can aIso bo ovaIualod llrougl cIassicaI oconomic
loclniquos |2, 8, 21].
AIllougl il may bo possibIo lo juslify oxpondiluros from an oco-
nomic slandpoinl, il may nol bo possibIo lo gonoralo or capluro llo
vaIuo of lloso bonofils from a rovonuo viovpoinl. A rovonuo anaIysis
sooIs lo idonlify llo rovonuo roquiromonls by cosl conlor and llo
IovoI of rovonuo roquirod lo covor projocl cosls. NormaIIy, llo cosls
aro aIIocalod lo faciIily usors and ronls, ralo and clargos, and concos-
sion agroomonls aro nogolialod on llo principIo llal aII usors slouId
pay lloir fair and proporlionalo slaro of llo cosls of providing, main-
laining, oporaling, and adminisloring llo faciIilios lloy uso.
Various indicos aro usod lo dolormino llo roasonabIonoss of rov-
onuo roquiromonls incIuding llo porconlago of rovonuo gonoralod
vlicl is paid for lorminaI ronls or Ianding foos, and llo rovonuo
roquirod por onpIanod passongor. A comparison of llo bonding
capacily of llo govornmonlaI unils concornod vill llo projocl is
vilaI in ordor lo dolormino llo infIuonco of llo projocl on ollor pubIic
rovonuo roquiromonls.
--
Tlo uso of nov loclnoIogy in povor gonoralion sysloms al airporls,
llo officionl Iayoul of apron aroas and laxiing roulos, improvomonls
in llo capacily of runvay sysloms, llo inslaIIalion of navigalionaI
aids, and llo offoclivo usos of conslruclion maloriaIs can subslanliaIIy
roduco llo cosls and rosourco uso of onorgy. A dolaiIod oxaminalion
of llo impacl of airporl dosign oIomonls on onorgy consumplion
slouId bo porformod. TypicaIIy comparisons bolvoon oxisling and
pIannod sysloms, and bolvoon aIlornalivo sysloms for proposod faciIily
modificalions roIalivo lo fuoI consumplion of aircrafl and lorminaI
sysloms may yioId ossonliaI informalion concorning lloir foasibiIily
and moril.

Tlougl llo inconlivo for llo sludy of onvironmonlaI, socioIogicaI,

and ocoIogicaI faclors in llo ovaIualion of onginooring projocls vas
iniliaIIy providod llrougl nalionaI, slalo, and IocaI IogisIalion, llo
slalo of llo arl las ovoIvod lo llo poinl llal a bollor and moro com-
pIolo undorslanding of llo slorl- and Iong-lorm impIicalions of lloso
projocls is Ioading lo moro officionl onginooring dosigns. Truo llo
cosls of pIanning lavo incroasod bocauso of llo nood lo sludy sovoraI
criloria in llo ovaIualion of pIanning proposaIs, bul llo polonliaI for
llo ovoraII roduclion in llo roaI -- of lloso proposaIs on llo Iong-
lorm roquiromonls of socioly llrougl llo uso of comprolonsivo pIan-
ning approaclos las aIso boon incroasod.
-
1. - - - - -
IubIicalion 1999, InlornalionaI Organizalion for
Slandardizalion, Gonova, SvilzorIand, 1990.
2. , Ordor No. 5050.4A, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1985.
3. - - --, Advisory CircuIar AC
150/5320-14, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1978.
4. - -, Advisory CircuIar AC 150/ 5070-6A, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1985.
5. - - -
, CulIor and SlanfioId and Harris MiIIor MiIIor and Hanson, Inc., Ioxinglon,
Mass., }anuary 1992.
6. - , Iarl 150, IodoraI Avialion RoguIalions,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1991.
7. - , Groalor Iillsburgl InlornalionaI Airporl,
Avialion IIanning Associalos, Cincinnali, Olio, 1986.
8. ----, NolobooI Sorios, 4 VoIs., DOT
I 5600.5, Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1978.
9. , , Iand Uso and InvironmonlaI ConlroI, 2d od.,
Documonl No. 9184-AN/902, InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion,
MonlroaI, Canada, 1985.
10. -- - -, K. S. Ioarsons,
D. S. Barbor, and B. G. TabaclnicI, Roporl No. HSD-TR-89-029, U.S. Air Iorco,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1989.
11. AppIiod AcouslicaI Roporl: Criloria for Assossmonl of Noiso Impacls on
IoopIo, I. S. IinogoId, C. S. Harris, and H. I. Von GiorIo, submillod lo
- , Nov YorI, N.Y., 1992.
12. - -, S. }. Novman, Roporl No. IAA-IM-85-2, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1985.
13. - - , R. S. Moans Company, Inc., Duxbury,
Mass.
14. - , VoI. I: Clicago Airporl/Airspaco
Oporaling Invironmonl, Iandrum and Brovn Avialion ConsuIlanls, Clicago, III.,
ApriI 1991.
15. , Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5050-4,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1975.
16. - WyIo Iaboralorios, Roporl No. DOT-NTID300.3, Offico
of Noiso Abalomonl and ConlroI, U.S. InvironmonlaI Iroloclion Agoncy,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1971.

- -
17. -- -, Roporl No. AI-42, InvironmonlaI
Iroloclion Agoncy, Waslinglon, D.C., IoriodicaIIy Rovisod.
18. - - - --, McGrav-HiII
Informalion Sysloms Company, Nov YorI, N.Y.
19. - , McGrav-HiII
Informalion Sysloms Company, Nov YorI, N.Y.
20. -, - , Doparlmonl
of llo Inlorior, Waslinglon, D.C.
21. ---- -, Roporl No. DOT I5600.4,
7 VoIumos, Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1975.
22. InvironmonlaI Considoralions in Airporl IIanning, C. V. Robarl, Courso
Nolos for Airporl IIanning and Dosign Slorl Courso, Univorsily of CaIifornia,
Univorsily Ixlonsion, BorIoIoy, CaIif., }uno 1977.
23. InvironmonlaI Impacl Assossmonl Roporl for llo Ixpansion of llo Ixisling
TorminaI CompIox al llo Iorl IaudordaIo-HoIIyvood InlornalionaI Airporl,
Avialion Division, Brovard Counly Doparlmonl of Transporlalion, Iorl
IaudordaIo, IIa., 1980.
24. , Annox 16 lo llo Convonlion on InlornalionaI CiviI
Avialion, VoI. 1: Aircrafl Noiso, 2d od., InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion,
MonlroaI, Canada, 1988.
25. - - - -, Advisory CircuIar AC
36-3I, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1990.
26. - -- ---, IodoraI Inloragoncy
Commilloo on Noiso (IICON), Waslinglon, D.C., 1992.
27. -, Iarl 91, IodoraI Avialion RoguIalions, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1992.
28. Informalion on IovoIs of InvironmonlaI Noiso Roquisilo lo Irolocl IubIic
HoaIll and WoIfaro vill an Adoqualo Margin of Safoly, U.S. InvironmonlaI
Iroloclion Agoncy, ArIinglon, Va., 1974.
29. - - , Usors Guido, Roporl No. IAA-II-
81-17, Offico of Invironmonl and Inorgy, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1982.
30. - -, Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5320-15,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1991.
31. - - () - -, Advisory CircuIar AC
36-2C, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1986.
32. -- -
--- - }. S. Iucas, Roporl No. IIA- 600/
1-77-010, InvironmonlaI Iroloclion Agoncy, Waslinglon, D.C., 1977.
33. - - WorId HoaIll Organizalion, Gonova,
SvilzorIand, 1980.
34. - -, Advisory CircuIar AC 91-53, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1978.
35. - , AC 36-4B, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1988.
36. - -, Advisory CircuIar AC
150/5020-1, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1983.
37. Noiso-Inducod SIoop Dislurbanco and Tloir Iffocl on HoaIll, B. Griofaln and
A. Muzol, , VoI. 59, No. 1, Nov YorI, N.Y., 1978.
38. - - , Advisory CircuIar AC 36-1I, IodoraI
Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1992.
39. - - -- Iarl 36,
IodoraI Avialion RoguIalions, IncIuding Clangos 1 lo 21, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1991.
40. - -- --, Iarl 161, IodoraI
Avialion RoguIalions, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1991.
41. OccupalionaI Noiso Ixposuro, Hoaring Consorvalion Amondmonl, IodoraI
Rogislor 48(46), OccupalionaI Safoly and HoaIll Adminislralion, Waslinglon,
D.C., 1983.

42. - - - -, K. D. Krylor, Roforonco

IubIicalion 1115, NalionaI Aoronaulics and Spaco Adminislralion, Waslinglon,
D.C., 1984.
43. - - - -, Ordor No. 1050.1D,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1986.
44. -, U.S. InvironmonlaI Iroloclion
Agoncy, ArIinglon, Va., 1973.
45. - - -, CircuIar-205
AN1/25, InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion, MonlroaI, Canada, 1988.
46. Rosoarcl on Noiso-Dislurbod SIoop Sinco 1973, B. Griofaln, Irocoodings,
Tlo Tlird InlornalionaI Congross on Noiso as a IubIic HoaIll IrobIom, ASHA
Roporl No. 10, Irioburg, Wosl Gormany, 1980.
47. -- - , Airporls
Associalion CounciI InlornalionaI-Norll Amorica, Waslinglon, D.C., 1991.
48. - -, WyIo Iaboralorios, Roporl No.
DOT-IAA- AIQ-77-9, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1977.
49. Synllosis of SociaI Survoys on Noiso Annoyanco, T. }. ScluIlz,
- , VoI. 64, No. 2, Nov YorI, N.Y., 1978.
50. , Roporl No. IAA-RD-75-191,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., }uIy 1975.
51. -, Iisl and WiIdIifo Sorvico, Doparlmonl of
llo Inlorior, Waslinglon, D.C.
52. - - , - , Doparlmonl of
llo Inlorior, Waslinglon, D.C.

-

A rolorcrafl is a rolary vingod aircrafl llal can Iifl vorlicaIIy and suslain
forvard fIigll by povor-drivon rolor bIados lurning on a vorlicaI axis.
Tlo loIicoplor is a volicIo vlicl ossonliaIIy can laIo off from and Iand
in a noarIy vorlicaI diroclion. Tlis is Inovn as vorlicaI laIooff and
Ianding (VTOI). Sinco llo loIicoplor is by far llo mosl advancod and
uliIizod of llo vorlicaI laIooff aircrafl, llo omplasis on llis claplor is on
ground faciIilios for loIicoplors and ollor rolary ving lypo aircrafl,
roforrod lo as loIiporls.
-
A is dofinod as an idonlifiabIo aroa on Iand, valor, or slrucluros,
incIuding buiIdings or faciIilios, usod or inlondod lo bo usod for llo Iand-
ing and laIooff of loIicoplors or ollor rolary ving lypo aircrafl |10]. A
is a loIiporl Iocalod on a fIoaling or an off-sloro slrucluro. A
- is dofinod as an aroa dovoIopod and usod for loIicoplor Iandings and
laIooffs lo drop-off or picIup passongors or cargo. A is dofinod as
a pavod or ollor surfaco usod for parIing loIicoplors al a loIiporl.
-
HoIicoplors aro usod for a varioly of avialion aclivilios incIuding aoriaI
obsorvalion, sigllsooing, agricuIluraI appIicalion, Iav onforcomonl, firo
figlling, omorgoncy modicaI sorvicos, lransporling porsonnoI and sup-
pIios lo offsloro oiI rigs, lraffic and novs roporling, corporalo and busi-
noss lransporlalion, porsonaI lransporlalion, and loavy Iifling. HoIi-
coplors aro aIso oxlonsivoIy usod in miIilary oporalions llrougloul llo
vorId. Transporlalion by loIicoplor can gonoraIIy bo cIassifiod inlo lvo
gonoraI calogorios, namoIy, privalo oporalions and commorciaI opora-
lions. Irivalo oporalions aro of llo samo naluro as gonoraI avialion and
commorciaI oporalions aro simiIar lo scloduIod air carrior aclivily.
Mosl of llo loIicoplors usod in privalo oporalions lavo a capacily
of 1 lo 5 porsons and lavo maximum gross voiglls bolvoon 3000 and
6000 Ib. HoIicoplors in commorciaI oporalions aro of groalor capacily,

- -
lypicaIIy bolvoon 10 and 50 passongors, and lavo maximum gross
voiglls bolvoon 10,000 and 50,000 Ib. IrimariIy bocauso of llo dif-
foronco in sizo, loIiporl faciIilios for privalo oporalions aro normaIIy
mucl smaIIor llan lloso for commorciaI oporalions.
Irivalo oporalions incIudo conslruclion, forosl and poIico palroI,
crop dusling, advorlising, omorgoncy modicaI sorvico and roscuo, and
lransporl lo off-sloro oiI voII Iocalions. CommorciaI oporalions may
bo cIassifiod inlo lvo lypos. Ono is lransporlalion in Iargo molro poIilan
aroas bolvoon sovoraI airporls in llo rogion and bolvoon airporls and
llo businoss conlor in llo rogion. Tlo socond is inlorcily lransporla-
lion bolvoon cilios nol nocossariIy in llo samo molropoIilan aroa.
Ixporionco lo dalo slovs llal llo loIicoplor las acliovod ils
groalosl succoss in llo firsl lypo of sorvico, llo oporaling sorvico aroa
boing villin a radius of aboul 50 mi. Tlo conlinuod dovoIopmonl of
llo socond lypo of sorvico viII dopond on llo abiIily of loIicoplors lo
compolo favorabIy vill fixod-ving aircrafl vill rospocl lo spood and
oconomics ovor slago Ionglls up lo aboul 300 mi.
Dospilo llo grovll of lransporl by loIicoplor, il onIy accounls for
a smaII porconlago of llo lolaI numbor of porsons lravoIing by air.
HoIicoplor oporaling cosls lavo graduaIIy boon roducod bul lloy aro
sliII considorabIy liglor llan lloso for fixod-ving aircrafl.
-- -
A loIicoplor is a povorod aircrafl vlicl gains ils Iifl from llo rolary
molion of airfoiI surfacos. Tlo dislinclivo claraclorislic of a loIicoplor is
ils abiIily lo lovor llrougl appIicalion of povor lo llo rolaling airfoiIs.
Tlo praclicaI consoquoncos of llis claraclorislic aro a mucl groalor
rango of fIigll spoods and fIigll alliludos llan is llo caso vill convon-
lionaI aircrafl and llo abiIily lo Iand on and laIooff from comparalivoIy
smaII aroas. Wlon on llo ground, loIicoplors lavo llo abiIily of laxiing
undor lloir ovn povor. HoIicoplors in privalo oporalion lypicaIIy lavo
cruiso spoods bolvoon 90 and 130 In, rangos bolvoon 300 and 400 nm,
and passongor capacilios bolvoon 2 and 10. HoIicoplors in llo lransporl
calogory lypicaIIy lavo cruiso spoods from 100 lo 150 In, rangos bolvoon
300 and 700 nm, and passongor capacilios bolvoon 10 and 50.
WliIo loIicoplors can ascond vorlicaIIy from llo ground, pro-
Iongod vorlicaI asconls sovoroIy roslricl Ioad-carrying capacilios. Tlo
usuaI procoduro is lo ompIoy vorlicaI asconl onIy lo inilialo llo laIo-
off. As vill ollor aircrafl, laIooffs aro usuaIIy mado inlo llo vind.
Tlo iniliaI vorlicaI riso for laIooff is aidod by a ground cuslion buiIl
up by llo prossuro of llo air diroclod againsl llo ground by llo
rovoIving rolors. Aflor a fov fool of vorlicaI asconl, lorizonlaI accoI-
oralion is bogun unliI cIimb-oul spood is roaclod. Irior lo roacling
cIimb-oul spood, llo loIicoplor can bo fIovn in a lorizonlaI pall or in
a sIigllIy asconding pall. CIimb-oul and dosconl spoods vary from 30
lo 60 In. }usl boforo loucldovn, llo loIicoplor lovors momonlariIy 5
lo 10 fl abovo llo Ianding pad.
-

Irom a safoly slandpoinl, llo oporalion of singIo-ongino loIicop-

lors roquiros llal omorgoncy Ianding aroas bo avaiIabIo aIong llo onliro
fIigll pall. In caso of ongino faiIuro, safo Iandings using aulorolalion
can bo mado if spaco is avaiIabIo. Aulorolalion is llo conlinualion of
rolor rolalion in fIigll aflor cossalion of povor. Sufficionl loigll musl
bo roaclod by llo loIicoplor in ordor lo uliIizo llo principIo of auloro-
lalion. Tvin-ongino loIicoplors, on llo ollor land, aro dosignod lo por-
mil conlinualion of fIigll and ovon a modoralo ralo of cIimb in llo
ovonl onco llo ongino faiIs. Ior lloso lypos of loIicoplors, il is nol noc-
ossary from a safoly slandpoinl lo lavo spaco avaiIabIo for omorgoncy
Ianding aIong llo onliro roulo. VirluaIIy aII smaII loIicoplors in privalo
oporalion aro singIo ongino. Mosl of llo loIicoplors, vill llo oxcoplion
of a fov modoIs, aro aIso singIo ongino. Tvin-ongino loIicoplors aro
nol, lovovor, dosignod lo lovor vill onIy ono ongino in oporalion. On
laIooff, lloroforo, in llo ovonl an ongino faiIs boforo llo loIicoplor las
roaclod a ono-ongino-oul fIigll spood, a Ianding musl bo mado. To laIo
caro of llis ovonluaIily, sufficionl spaco musl bo providod aload of llo
Ianding aroa for an omorgoncy Ianding. Tlo singIo-ongino loIicoplor
aIso noods llis aroa, bul in addilion roquiros spaco for omorgoncy Iand-
ings aII aIong llo fIigll pall. If loIicoplors aro dosignod lo lovor vill
ono ongino oul, spaco aload of llo Ianding aroa is nol roquirod.
Bocauso il is nol oconomicaIIy praclicaI for a loIicoplor lo ascond
and doscond vorlicaIIy, unobslruclod approacl-doparluro palls Ioad-
ing lo llo loIiporl aro roquirod. To prolocl llo approacl-doparluro
pall, obslruclions aro nol pormillod lo oxlond abovo a proscribod
incIinod pIano, an approacl surfaco, boginning al llo loIiporl and
oxlonding lo spocifiod dislanco from llo loIiporl. Tlo obslruclion
cIoaranco roquiromonls spocifiod by llo IAA aro discussod Ialor and
ICAO las adoplod simiIar rocommondalions.
HoIicoplors can bo oillor singIo-rolor or landom rolor and pov-
orod by ono or lvo onginos. Tlo Ianding goar can consisl of ponloons
for Ianding on valor, sIids, or vlooIs oquippod vill rubbor liros.
Wlon vlooIs aro usod, llo Ianding goar normaIIy consisls of lvo main
vlooIs and a singIo noso or laiI vlooI, or four vlooIs. Iiguro 15-1
slovs sovoraI smaII uliIily loIicoplors al llo Iorl Aullorily of Nov
YorI and Nov }orsoy loIiporl on llo Iasl Rivor in Nov YorI Cily.
Tlo principaI dimonsions of roprosonlalivo loIicoplors usod for pri-
valo and commorciaI oporalions aro slovn in Iig. 15-2 and labuIalod
in TabIo 15-1.
-
Tlo soIoclion of a loIiporl silo in an urban aroa roquiros llo considor-
alion of many faclors, llo mosl imporlanl of vlicl aro:
1. Tlo bosl Iocalions lo sorvo polonliaI lraffic
2. Tlo provision of minimum obslruclions in llo approacl and
doparluro aroas

- -
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n
a
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a
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i
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- -
3. Tlo provision of minimum dislurbanco from noiso and dosir-
abIo Iocalion vill rospocl lo adjaconl Iand uso
4. Tlo provision of adoqualo accoss lo surfaco lransporlalion
and parIing
5. Tlo cosl lo acquiro and dovoIop
6. Tlo provision of lvo approacl palls soparalod by al Ioasl 90p
and orionlod vill rospocl lo provaiIing vinds
7. Tlo avoidanco of lraffic confIicls bolvoon loIicoplors and
ollor air lraffic
8. Tlo considoralion of lurbuIonco and visibiIily roslriclions
prosonlod by noarby buiIdings
9. Tlo provision of omorgoncy Ianding aroas aIong llo onliro
roulo for singIo-ongino loIicoplors
IinaI soIoclion of a loIiporl silo viII usuaIIy roquiro a compromiso
among lloso various faclors. Tlo mosl sovoro probIoms can bo
oxpoclod in Iargo, liglIy dovoIopod molropoIilan aroas. In Iargo
urban aroas loIiporls slouId bo pIannod on a rogionaI basis. Tlo firsl
slop is lo proparo an oslimalo of llo domand for loIicoplor sorvicos
and llo origins and doslinalions of llis domand. Tlo socond slop is lo
soIocl a loIiporl silo or silos vlicl can roasonabIy salisfy llo domand
and yol mool llo roquiromonls cilod abovo.
Tlo principaI marIol for commorciaI loIicoplor lransporlalion las
boon in Iargo urban aroas bolvoon ono or moro airporls and llo conlraI
businoss dislricl. Tloroforo, il is ossonliaI llal llo dovnlovn loIiporl
bo conlraIIy Iocalod noar llo loloI aroa and llo businoss dislricl. IiIo-
viso adoqualo provision for loIicoplors slouId bo mado al airporls. In
oxlromoIy Iargo urban compIoxos, lloro may bo oulIying smaIIor
conlors, and socondary loIiporls aro noodod so llal llo bonofils of air
lransporlalion can oxlond lo lloso conlors. A loIiporl musl lavo good
accoss lo slrools, liglvays, and pubIic lransil faciIilios so llal passon-
gors using busos, porsonaI volicIos, or mass lransil can oasiIy roacl
llo faciIily.
-
Tlo noiso causod by loIicoplor oporalions villin or adjaconl lo buiIl-
up urban aroas is and viII conlinuo lo bo an oxlromoIy imporlanl fac-
lor in pIanning for loIicoplor lransporl, as il las boon vill fixod-ving
aircrafl. Manufaclurors aro avaro of llis probIom and conlinuo lo
sludy vays in vlicl noiso can bo minimizod.
A loIiporl slouId bo Iocalod so llal llo noiso gonoralod by loIi-
coplors viII nol causo oxcossivo dislurbanco lo surrounding dovoIop-
monls. Tlo noiso faclor is mosl crilicaI undornoall llo fIigll pall on
laIooff and Ianding. Tlo amounl of sound llal can bo loIoralod by llo
avorago porson is dopondonl upon a numbor of faclors, incIuding llo
-

ovoraII noiso IovoI, ils froquoncy, and ils duralion, llo lypo of dovoI-
opmonl (rosidonliaI, induslriaI, olc.) surrounding llo sourco of llo
noiso, and llo ambionl sound IovoI in llo aroa. A groalor amounl of
noiso can bo loIoralod in induslriaI aroas llan in rosidonliaI aroas.
DocIs and ollor valorfronl silos offor somo of llo bosl possibiIilios
for loIiporl Iocalion in Iargo, congoslod urban conlors. Approacl and
noiso probIoms can usuaIIy bo ovorcomo by maIing llo uso of valor
aroas for loIiporl Iocalion. Tlo dovnlovn loIiporl in Nov YorI Cily
is an oxampIo of sucl a faciIily.
Noiso gonoralod by smaII lvo- and llroo-soal loIicoplors can bo
loIoralod in businoss and induslriaI aroas, bul llo noiso gonoralod
by Iargo muIliongino loIicoplors povorod by lurbino onginos can
oxcood loIorabIo IovoIs ovon in businoss and induslriaI aroas. Il is
voII lo clocI vill llo manufaclurors concorning llo Ialosl informa-
lion on llo IovoIs of noiso gonoralod by llo sovoraI lransporl lypo
loIicoplors.
To minimizo llo noiso, il is dosirabIo lo orionl llo Ianding pad so
llal Iandings and laIooffs aro mado ovor aroas vloro noiso vouId bo
Ioasl objoclionabIo. ConsidorabIy moro Ialiludo can bo oxorcisod in
llis rospocl for loIicoplors llan vill fixod-ving aircrafl.
-
Zoning is nocossary boll lo conlroI llo Iocalion of loIiporl silos for
maximum bonofil lo llo communily and lo provido safoly in loIi-
coplor oporalions by proloclion of llo surrounding airspaco. Tlo
dimonsions of llo approacl-doparluro palls for various lypos of
loIiporl oporalions aro discussod boIov.
-
Anollor faclor vlicl musl bo considorod in llo soIoclion of a silo for
a loIiporl is llo offocl of lurbuIonco ovor roof surfacos and dovn-
drafls noar buiIdings. Tlis faclor is of parlicuIar imporlanco for roof-
lop loIiporls. If lloro is doubl in llo pIannors mind, llo silo slouId
bo fIigll-clocIod vill a loIicoplor.
Ioor visibiIily can bo an imporlanl faclor lo considor for silos on
laII buiIdings, llal is, lloso of 100 fl or moro in loigll. Tlo cIoud docI
soIdom roaclos llo ground, bul al liglor IovoIs llo loIiporl migll
find ilsoIf onvoIopod in fog vlon llo ground is cIoar.
- --
A loIiporl is dofinod as a faciIily vlicl is inlondod lo bo usod for
llo Ianding and laIooff of loIicoplors, and may incIudo spaco for
loIicoplor parIing, buiIdings, sorvicing faciIilios, and volicuIar
parIing. Tlo (IATO) is a dofinod aroa
ovor vlicl llo finaI plaso of llo approacl manouvor lo a lovor or

- -
a Ianding is compIolod and from vlicl llo laIooff manouvor is
commoncod. Tlo (TIOI) is a lard surfacod
Ioad boaring aroa lypicaIIy Iocalod villin llo finaI approacl and
laIooff aroa on vlicl a loIicoplor may loucl dovn or Iifl off. Iunc-
lionaIIy, llo lorminaI aroa roquiromonls for llo parIing, sorvicing,
and fuoIing of loIicoplors and llo procossing of passongors and
ground volicIos aro no difforonl from llo roquiromonls for fixod-
ving aircrafl.
HoIiporls aro usuaIIy cIassifiod according lo uso as foIIovs:
IaciIilios oporalod by ono of llo branclos of llo
armod sorvicos. Tlo dosign criloria aro spocifiod by llo brancl of
llo sorvico and usuaIIy prolibil nonmiIilary usos.
IaciIilios oporalod by a nonmiIilary agoncy or
doparlmonl of llo fodoraI govornmonl. Tloy aro usod lo carry
oul llo funclions approprialo lo llo agoncy.
- IaciIilios vlicl aro roslriclod in uso by llo
ovnor. Tloso may bo pubIicIy ovnod bul lloir uso is roslriclod,
as in poIico or ro doparlmonl uso.
- IaciIilios vlicl aro opon lo llo gonoraI pubIic
and do nol roquiro llo prior pormission of llo ovnor lo Iand. Tlo
oxlonl of llo faciIilios avaiIabIo may Iimil oporalions lo loIicoplors
of spociod sizos or voiglls.
- IubIic uso and pubIic ovnod faciIilios
vlicl aro dosignod for llo uso of loIicoplors in commorciaI pas-
songor or cargo sorvico vlicl onpIano 2500 passongors annuaIIy
and rocoivo scloduIod passongor sorvico vill loIicoplors.
-- IaciIilios vlicl aro usod oxcIusivoIy by llo
ovnor.
Tlo principaI compononls of a loIiporl aro llo finaI approacl
and loucldovn aroa, llo loucldovn and Iifloff aroa, and, for Iargo
loIiporls, laxivays, loIicoplor parIing aroas, and llo lorminaI buiId-
ing aroa. Tlo roIalionslips bolvoon lloso compononls aro slovn
in Iig. 15-3.

Tlo finaI approacl and laIooff aroa (IATO) is a surfaco from vlicl
llo loIicoplor can Iand or laIo off. Tlo IAA aIIovs llo IATO lo bo
any slapo as Iong as il is oncIosod by a squaro of llo dimonsions
indicalod in TabIo 15-2. ICAO spocifios llal llo IATO is a circIo. Ils
sizo doponds primariIy on llo ovoraII Iongll of llo Iargosl loIicop-
lor lo bo accommodalod by llo loIiporl. Bocauso of llo dusl llal can
bo croalod by llo rolor of a loIicoplor, il is nocossary lo proparo llo
surfaco of llo Ianding and laIooff aroa so llal il viII bo froo of dusl
-

(o.g., lurf or pavomonl). Il is rocommondod llal paving or slabiIizing

llo soiI of llo laIooff and Ianding aroa lo improvo llo Ioad carrying
abiIily of llo surfaco, minimizo llo orosivo offocls of rolor dovnvasl,
and lo faciIilalo surfaco runoff duo lo rain or snov.
Tlo rocommondod dimonsions of llo finaI approacl and laIooff
aroa aro givon in TabIo 15-2. Ior procision inslrumonl oporalions llo
finaI approacl and laIooff aroa is 300 fl vido by 1225 fl Iong and incor-
poralos a (IARA) vlicl is an obslruclion-
froo aroa 150 fl by 150 fl Iocalod al llo far ond of llo finaI approacl and
laIooff aroa.
-

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.

- -

Willin llo finaI approacl and laIooff aroa, an aroa is dosignalod for
llo normaI ovoryday Ianding of loIicoplors. Tlo TIOI aroa is usuaIIy
dofinod by a soIid bordor painlod on llo pavomonl surfaco. Tlo roc-
ommondod dimonsions of llo loucldovn and Iifloff aroa aro givon in
TabIo 15-2.

A poriploraI or cIoaranco aroa surrounding llo finaI approacl and
laIooff aroa is rocommondod as an obslruclion froo safoly zono. Tlo
aroa slouId bo Iopl froo of objocls lazardous lo llo oporalion of loIi-
coplors. Tlo cIoaranco from llo odgos of llo finaI approacl and laIo-
off aroa roquirod for llis aroa is aIso givon in TabIo 15-2.

AIllougl loIicoplors can manouvor in mucl liglor crossvinds llan
fixod-ving aircrafl, llo laIooff and Ianding aroa slouId proforabIy bo
orionlod as noarIy as possibIo lo pormil oporalion inlo llo vind. Al
llo prosonl limo il appoars llal llo crossvind claraclorislics of llo
loIicoplor viII bo sucl llal for a majorily of casos a roclanguIar laIo-
off and Ianding aroa nood bo orionlod in ono diroclion onIy.

Al loIiporls vloro llo voIumo of lraffic is roIalivoIy smaII, llo Ioading
and unIoading of passongors can bo accompIislod villin llo finaI
approacl and laIooff aroa. As lraffic incroasos, il bocomos nocossary lo
provido addilionaI spaco for llo parIing of loIicoplors and passongor
procossing. Tlis is usuaIIy accompIislod on a loIipad vlicl is an aroa
adjaconl lo llo lorminaI buiIding for procossing passongors. Tlis aroa
providos for ono or moro parIing spacos for loIicoplors and is simiIar
in naluro and funclion lo llo galo or ramp aroa providod on llo apron
adjaconl lo airporl lorminaI faciIilios. CIoarancos bolvoon adjaconl
loIicoplor parIing posilions aro providod so llal a soparalion is pro-
vidod bolvoon llo rolor pIanos of loIicoplors as slovn in TabIo 15-2.
Tlo loIipad is connoclod lo llo finaI approacl and laIooff aroa by
laxivays and laxiIanos. HoIicoplors may lravorso laxivays in a lovor
or ground modo on singIo or paraIIoI laxivay roulos. Tlo vidll of
lloso laxivay roulos and llo laxiIanos adjaconl lo llo loIipad aro
givon in TabIo 15-2. Tlo laxiIano vidlls aro llo samo as llo laxivay
roulos in a ground modo of oporalion.

Tloro is a roquiromonl llal loIiporls lavo al Ioasl ono approacl and
laIooff cIimb pall vlicl is froo of obslruclions llal slouId bo oslab-
Iislod on llo basis of llo diroclion of provaiIing vinds and llo accoss
roulo llal las llo fovosl obslacIos in llo fIigll pall. As condilions
pormil, addilionaI approacl and laIooff cIimb palls slouId bo oslab-
Iislod lo faciIilalo oporalions al limos vlon vinds aro from ollor
diroclions. Al privalo uso loIiporls, il is rocommondod llal lloso
-

palls fIaro oul in llo lorizonlaI pIano from llo finaI approacl and
laIooff aroa al llo ralo of 1:20 and sIopo upvard al llo ralo of 8:1.
Tloso palls lorminalo vlon llo dosign loIicoplor allains a safo on
roulo aIliludo. Tloso palls may curvo lo avoid objocls or noiso sonsi-
livo aroas vlon nocossary. Tlo IAA is in llo procoss of dovoIoping
dosign criloria for curvod visuaI approaclos and rocommonds llal llo
IAR Iarl 77 spocificalions bo appIiod unliI lloso criloria aro dovoIopod.
Ior a commorciaI sorvico airporl il is rocommondod llal al Ioasl ono
inslrumonl approacl and laIooff cIimb pall bo oslabIislod. Ior pubIic
uso loIiporls llo dimonsions of llo finaI approacl and cIimb palls cor-
rospond lo lloso spocifiod undor IAR Iarl 77 as discussod boIov.
- -
Imaginary obslruclion cIoaranco surfacos aro oslabIislod for oacl
cIass of loIiporl in IAR Iarl 77 |10]. Ior loIiporls, llo principaI sur-
facos aro llo approacl and doparluro surfacos, llo lransilionaI sur-
facos, and llo loIiporl proloclion zono. Tlo is
llo aroa on llo ground boIov llo approacl surfaco from llo odgo of
llo finaI approacl and laIooff aroa lo llo poinl vloro llo approacl
surfaco is 35 fl abovo llo oIovalion of llo finaI approacl and laIooff
aroa. Tlo lorizonlaI surfaco roquirod for airporls is nol nocossary for
loIiporls. Tlo approacl surfaco roquiromonls for visuaI, nonproci-
sion inslrumonl and procision inslrumonl oporalions spocifiod by
llo IAA aro givon in TabIo 15-3. SimiIar roquiromonl aro spocifiod
-
- - -

Bogins 1225 fl from llo far ond of llo finaI approacl and laIooff aroa.

Widll of finaI approacl and laIooff aroa.

Ior a 3p gIido sIopo, 22.7:1 for a 4.5p gIido sIopo, 17:1 for a 6p gIido sIopo, gIido
sIopo can bo incroasod in 0.1p incromonls vill corrosponding corroclions lo
approacl sIopo.
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion |10].
-- -

- -
by ICAO |3]. Irocision inslrumonl oporalions by commorciaI loIicop-
lors aro vory Iimilod and llus visuaI or nonprocision inslrumonl
oporalion criloria viII suffico for mosl loIiporls. Tlo various IAR
Iarl 77 surfacos aro slovn in Iig. 15-4. Il slouId bo nolod llal curvod-
pall approaclos and doparluros aro curronlIy nol pormillod undor
IIR condilions bul vill llo impIomonlalion of microvavo Ianding
sysloms (MIS) llis is subjocl lo clango. Tlo IAA las dovoIopod spoc-
ificalions for llo MIS crilicaI aroas and siling roquiromonls vlicl
slouId bo consuIlod if llo inslaIIalion of an MIS is conlompIalod. Tlo
spocificalions for IIR aro a funclion of llo naluro of llo navigalionaI
aids and roforoncos |10] slouId bo consuIlod prior lo oslabIisling
Ianding and laIooff palls.
Tlo various dimonsions spocifiod by llo IAA for a commorciaI
sorvico loIiporl aro iIIuslralod in IxampIo IrobIom 15-1.
Iol us dosign llo Iayoul of a commorciaI sorvico loIiporl
for oporalions vill a Booing-VorloI 234 dosign loIicoplor. Iol us assumo llal
llo loIipad or parIing apron adjaconl lo llo passongor lorminaI buiIding viII
roquiro spaco for four loIicoplors. Iol us assumo llal llo loIiporl oIovalion is
800 fl abovo moan soa IovoI. A ground laxivay roulo is lo bo providod from llo
loucldovn and Iifloff aroa lo llo loIipad.
Irom TabIo 15-1 llo dosign loIicoplor las a rolor diamolor of 60 fl, an
ovoraII Iongll of 99 fl, a loigll of 18.7 fl, a vlooIbaso of 25.8 fl, a vlooI lroad
of 10.5 fl, a maximum gross voigll of 48,500 Ib, and a maximum capacily
44 passongors.
Ior a commorciaI sorvico loIiporl, from TabIo 15-2 llo finaI approacl and
laIooff aroa is roquirod lo lavo a minimum Iongll of 200 fl and a minimum vidll
of 2 limos llo rolor diamolor or 2(60) or 120 fl. An objocl-froo cIoaranco vidll of al
Ioasl 30 fl from llo odgos of llo finaI approacl and laIooff aroa is aIso roquirod.
Tlo Iongll and vidll of llo Iifloff and loucldovn aroa is oquaI lo llo ovoraII
Iongll of llo dosign loIicoplor or 99 fl. Iol us uso 100 fl for lloso dimonsions. To
provido for llo Iongll of llo loIicoplor and llo minimum objocl-froo aroa dis-
lanco from llo finaI approacl and laIooff aroa, llo minimum Iongll of llo laxi-
vay Ioading lo and from llo loucldovn and Iifloff aroa is 100 + 30 or 130 fl.
- - -
-
-

IarIing posilions musl lavo a minimum vidll of 1.5 limos llo undorcar-
riago Iongll or undorcarriago vidll vliclovor is groalor. Tlo groalor of lloso
lvo dimonsions is llo vlooIbaso and lloroforo, llo roquirod minimum vidll
of a parIing posilion is 1.5 (25.8) or 39 fl. Iol us provido 40 fl. Hovovor, sinco
llo rolor diamolor of llo dosign loIicoplor is 60 fl, llo minimum vidll of llo
parIing posilion musl bo 60 fl of vlicl 40 fl viII bo pavod. Tloro musl aIso bo
a cIoaranco bolvoon llo odgos of adjaconl parIing posilions 30 fl. Tlis rosuIls
in llo minimum dislanco bolvoon llo conlorIinos of adjaconl parIing posilions
boing 90 fl.
A pavod ground laxivay viII bo providod and llis musl lavo a minimum
vidll of 2 limos llo vlooI lroad or 2(10.5) or 21 fl. Tlo ground laxivay roulo
is aIso roquirod lo lavo a safoly aroa vidll of llo rolor diamolor pIus 40 fl or
60 + 40 or 100 fl. Taxivays or laxiIanos in llo vicinily of llo lorminaI buiIding
musl aIso lavo llis safoly aroa lo provido cIoarancos bolvoon llo buiIding and
parIod loIicoplors. Tloroforo, llo minimum dislanco from llo conlorIino of llo
laxivay or laxiIanos is 50 fl.
Tlo Iayoul of llo loIiporl vill llo corrosponding dimonsions is slovn
in Iig. 15-5.
-

- -
-
Tlo primary purposo for marIing loIiporls is lo idonlify llo aroa
cIoarIy as a faciIily for llo uso of loIicoplors. Tlo roquiromonls for
marIing loIiporls aro spocifiod by llo IAA and llo ICAO. IssonliaIIy
lloso roquiromonls consisls of painling an oquiIaloraI squaro vill an
H in llo conlor of llo loucldovn and Iifloff aroa. Ior lospilaI loIi-
porls a vlilo cross is aIso inscribod villin llo squaro aIong vill llo
Iollor H as slovn in Iig. 15-6 for llo loIiporl Iocalod al llo AIoxian
Brollors ModicaI Conlor in Dado Counly, IIorida. MarIing doIinoal-
ing llo odgos of llo finaI approacl and laIooff aroa slouId bo broIon
vlilo Iinos vloroas on llo loucldovn and Iifloff aroa llo odgos
slouId bo doIinoalod by conlinuous vlilo Iinos. Taxivay conlorIinos
aro doIinoalod by soIid yoIIov Iinos and laxi roulo conlorIino and
apron odgo marIings slouId bo soIid yoIIov Iinos. Taxivay odgos
slouId bo marIod by a doubIo soIid yoIIov Iino. A painlod yoIIov
Iino is aIso rocommondod lo dofino llo conlorIino of parIing posilions
and vlon lloso posilions vary in llo amounl of cIoaranco providod a
numbor oncIosod by a circIo slouId bo painlod on llo onlranco lo llo
parIing posilion lo indicalo llo Iargosl loIicoplor llal can bo accom-
modalod.
-
Ior oporalion during lours of darInoss various lypos of Iiglls aro
suggoslod |10]. Tlo amounl of Iiglling doponds on llo claraclor and
-
- -
-

voIumo of oporalions. Moro Iiglling is roquirod for scloduIod air

carrior oporalions llan for privalo loIiporls vill occasionaI uso.
Tlo minimum rocommondalions for privalo uso and pubIic uso
loIiporls consisl of Iiglling of llo porimolor of oillor llo finaI approacl
and laIooff aroa or llo loucldovn and Iifloff aroa vill Iiglls vill
yoIIov Ionsos uniformIy spacod al 25-fl inlorvaIs. Al pubIic uso loIi-
porls groon Iiglls aro usod lo dofino llo laxivay and laxiIano conlor-
Iinos. Ior commorciaI sorvico loIiporls llo loucldovn and Iifloff aroa
is doIinoalod by yoIIov Iiglls Iocalod 10 fl from llo oulsido odgo. Al
sucl loIiporls in-pavomonl groon Iiglls aro rocommondod for laxi-
vay and laxiIano conlorIinos. BIuo rolrorofIoclivo marIors aro aIso
usod al lloso airporls lo idonlify laxivay onlranco and oxil poinls and
lo dofino laxivay odgos. Iorimolor Iiglling dofining llo loucldovn
and Iifloff aroa of a commorciaI sorvico loIiporl is slovn in Iig. 15-7.
AII objocls llal ponolralo llo obslruclion cIoaranco surfacos slouId bo
Iigllod vill rod coIorod Iiglls.
Ollor usofuI Iiglling aids aro llo Ianding diroclion Iiglls, visuaI
gIido pall indicalors, and loIiporl idonlificalion boacons. Tlo Iand-
ing diroclion Iiglls aro minialuro approacl Iiglls sinco lloy oxlond
onIy 75 fl. Tlo coIor is yoIIov. VisuaI gIido pall indicalors aro aIso
rocommondod for visuaI oporalions al commorciaI sorvico loIiporls.
Tlo Iovosl on-courso signaI slouId provido a 1p cIoaranco ovor any
objocl in llo approacl pall villin 10p lorizonlaIIy on oillor sido of
llo approacl pall conlorIino. Tlo oplimaI Iocalion is on llo oxlondod
runvay conlorIino of llo approacl pall sucl llal il viII bring llo

-

- -
loIicoplor lo bolvoon a 3- and 8-fl lovor dislanco ovor llo loucl-
dovn and Iifloff aroa. HoIiporl idonlificalion boacons, aIlornalo fIasl-
ing vlilo-groon-yoIIov Iiglls slouId bo Iocalod vill ono quarlor of a
miIo from a commorciaI sorvico loIiporl.
-
Wlon ground IovoI silos aro nol avaiIabIo or aro unsuilabIo, an oIo-
valod silo may bo praclicaI. IIovalod loIiporls may bo Iocalod on
piors or ollor slrucluros ovor valor, as voII as on buiIdings. Tlo
dimonsions of llo loucldovn and Iifloff aroa aro llo samo as for
loIiporls on llo ground, bul llo finaI approacl and laIooff aroa
can bo smaIIor and lloro is no nood for poriploraI aroas. Wlon
pIanning a rooflop loIiporl, a llorougl sludy slouId bo mado
of llo air curronls causod by llo prosonco of adjaconl buiIdings.
Roof aroas maIo il possibIo lo Iocalo llo loIiporl cIosor lo llo conlor
of businoss aclivilios in a cily, providod llo faciIily is onvironmon-
laIIy accoplabIo. Anollor advanlago is llal llo Iand cosl is parliaIIy
absorbod by llo lonancy of llo Iovor fIoors of llo buiIding.
Hovovor, il slouId bo roaIizod llal of llo oporalions of any sizo,
spaco on llo fIoors boIov llo laIooff and Ianding aroa may lavo lo
bo dovolod lo usos sucl as Iobby, froigll, and baggago landing.
Tlo possibIo disadvanlago of loigll vill rospocl lo visibiIily vas
monlionod oarIior. A loIiporl 100 fl or moro abovo llo ground
vouId roquiro a liglor cIoud baso llan a ground loIiporl lo provido
llo samo oporaling safoly. A dovnlovn commorciaI loIiporl vouId
roquiro, in addilion lo Iobby spaco, car parIing faciIilios roIalivoIy
cIoso by.
Wloro loIiporls aro buiIl on oIovalod slrucluros, llo slrongll of
llo fIoor slouId bo groalor llan llo slrongll of llo Ianding goar of llo
loIicoplor. Tlo Ioads imposod by loIicoplors and rocommondalions
concorning llo slrucluraI dosign of oIovalod slrucluros aro discussod
in llo noxl soclion.
- -
HoIicoplors using faciIilios on Iand aro usuaIIy supporlod on lubu-
Iar sIids or vlooIs oquippod vill rubbor liros. HoIicoplors
oquippod vill convonlionaI Ianding goar vlooIs aro normaIIy sup-
porlod by lvo main vlooIs and ono laiI or noso vlooI. Ior Iargor
loIicoplors oacl main Ianding goar consisls of lvo vlooIs. Iacl
main goar lypicaIIy supporls 40 lo 45 porconl of llo voigll of llo
loIicoplor and llo laiI or noso vlooI supporls llo romaindor of llo
voigll, approximaloIy 10 lo 20 porconl. If llo loIicoplor is sup-
porlod by lubuIar sIids, 50 porconl of llo voigll is supporlod by
oacl sIid.
-

Tlo slrongll roquiromonls for llo loucldovn and Iifloff aroa aro
dolorminod by considoring llo slalic Ioad, dynamic Ioad, and dovn-
vasl Ioad of llo loIicoplor. Boll llo slalic Ioad and llo dynamic Ioad
aro appIiod llrougl llo Ianding goar conlacl aroa vloroas llo dovn-
vasl Ioad is appIiod ovor a conlacl aroa dofinod by llo diamolor of
llo rolors. Tlo IAA rocommonds llal for dosign purposos llo loucl-
dovn and Iifloff aroa slouId bo capabIo of supporling 150 porconl of
llo maximum laIooff voigll of llo dosign loIicoplor.
- -
A Iargo numbor of loIicoplors viII oporalo inlo airporls lo sorvo
lraffic from llo dovnlovn aroa and surrounding communilios.
AccordingIy, provisions slouId bo mado al an airporl for llo Iand-
ing and laIooff of loIicoplors. Tlo laIooff and Ianding aroa slouId
bo Iocalod lo
1. Irovido maximum soparalion from fixod-ving aircrafl lraffic
pallorns so as lo avoid croaling a confIicl in laIooff and Iand-
ing oporalions.
2. Bo as cIoso as possibIo lo passongor clocI-in aroas for fixod-
ving aircrafl lo avoid Iong vaIIing dislancos for passongors.
3. Avoid as mucl as possibIo llo mixing of laxiing fixod-ving
aircrafl and loIicoplors, sinco loIicoplors laxi al roIalivoIy
Iov spoods.
Il is rocommondod llal if simuIlanoous samo diroclion divorging
loIicoplor and fixod-ving aircrafl oporalions aro lo bo conduclod
undor visuaI fIigll ruIo condilions, a runvay conlorIino lo a finaI
approacl and laIooff aroa and a loucldovn and Iifloff aroa conlor-
Iino soparalion of 700 fl bo providod. A 2500-fl minimum soparalion
is roquirod for radar doparluros undor inslrumonl fIigll ruIo condi-
lions |10]. HoIicoplor parIing apron aroas slouId mool llo samo run-
vay cIoaranco slandards as lloso roquirod for fixod-ving aircrafl
parIing |5].
AIlornalivo Iocalions for loIiporls al an airporl aro llo roof of llo
lorminaI buiIding, llo apron adjaconl lo llo lorminaI buiIding usod
by fixod-ving aircrafl, and llo aroa adjaconl lo llo lorminaI buiIding
soparalo from llo fixod-ving aircrafl apron. Tloro aro advanlagos
and disadvanlagos lo aII llroo Iocalions. NormaIIy, a ground-IovoI
silo is proforrod. Tlo mosl convonionl and Ioasl oxponsivo mollod for
accompIisling llis is lo rosorvo a parl of llo fixod-ving aircrafl apron
for llo laIooff and Ianding of loIicoplors. If llis is nol convonionl, a
spociaI pad for loIicoplor oporalions on llo aircrafl sido of llo lormi-
naI buiIding slouId bo providod.
Iiguro 15-8 slovs llo loIiporl al Miami InlornalionaI Airporl.

- -
-
1. - - , Roporl No. 11,
Canadian Scionco CounciI, Ollava, Canada, 1970.
2. - Iarl 2: - - -, 2d od.,
InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion, MonlroaI, Canada, 1983.
3. - , VoI. II,
-, InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion, MonlroaI, Canada, 1990.
4. - - Tlo DoHaviIIand Aircrafl of
Canada, Iimilod, Ollava, Canada, }anuary 1970.
5. -, Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5300-13 IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1989.
6. - - , ST-71-8,
Canadian Air Transporlalion Adminislralion, Ollava, Canada, Marcl 1972.
7. - - -, Iarl 127,
IodoraI Avialion RoguIalions, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon,
D.C., 1974.
8. -, Roads and Transporlalion Associalion
of Canada, Ollava, Canada, 1980.
9. , HoIicoplor Associalion InlornalionaI, AIoxandria, Va., 1992.
10. -, Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5390-2B, IodoraI Avialion
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., Soplombor 2004.
11. - -, Iarl 77: IodoraI Avialion RoguIalions,
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., 1989.
12. - -, Advisory CircuIar AC
150/5300-8, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., ApriI 1975.
13. IIanning STOI IaciIilios, I. Sclaofor, Iapor No. 690421, -, Socioly
of Aulomolivo Inginoors, Nov YorI, 1969.
-

-

14. - , Canadian Air Transporlalion

Adminislralion, Ollava, Canada, Augusl 1973.
15. -, Conlraclor Roporl
Nos. NASA CR 114612 and CR 114613, NalionaI Aoronaulics and Spaco
Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C., }uno 1973.
16. - , IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion, Waslinglon, D.C.,
Novombor 1990.
17. -, Transporl Aircrafl CounciI, Aorospaco Induslrios
Associalion of Amorica, Inc., Waslinglon, D.C., May 1971.
18. , 1sl od., Doc 9150-AN/899, vill Amondmonl 1, InlornalionaI
CiviI Avialion Organizalion, MonlroaI, Canada, 1988.
19. - --, C. Hinlz, }r., CiviI Aoronaulics Board,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1970.
20. - -- -
- - --,
R. S. SlovoII and D. W. }onos, }r., Slanford Univorsily, NalionaI Aoronaulics and
Spaco Adminislralion, Amos Rosoarcl Conlor, Moffoll IioId, CaIif., }uIy 1973.
21. - -- -
, Booing Company, Conlraclor Roporl No. NASA CR-114347, NalionaI
Aoronaulics and Spaco Adminislralion, Amos Rosoarcl Conlor, Moffoll IioId,
CaIif., 1970.
22. -, McDonnoII-
DougIas Corporalion Roporl No. MDC-}4371, for NalionaI Aoronaulics and
Spaco Adminislralion, Moffoll IioId, CaIif., }uno 1973.
23. -, Conlraclor Roporl No. CR-
137685, Amos Rosoarcl Conlor, NalionaI Aoronaulics and Spaco Adminislralion,
Moffoll IioId, CaIif., Soplombor 1975.
24. - - - IAA Ordor
8260.3B, vill Clangos 1 llrougl 12, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1992.
25. -, Advisory CircuIar AC 150/5390-3, IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion,
Waslinglon, D.C., 1991.
26. V/STOI Aircrafl: Tlo Iuluro RoIo in Urban Transporlalion as a IicIup and
Dislribulion Syslom, R. H. MiIIor, Irocoodings of Symposium on Transporlalion
and llo Irospocls for Improvod Ifficioncy, NalionaI Acadomy of Inginooring,
Waslinglon, D.C., Oclobor 12, 1972.

AAAI. Amorican Associalion of Airporl

Ixoculivos
abovo moan soa IovoI (AMSI), 101
abovo llo ground (AGI), 100
absoIulo zoro, 71
accoIoralo-slop dislanco (DAS), 85
accoIoralo-slop dislanco avaiIabIo (ASDA),
88
accoss inlorfaco
ground accoss syslom of, 384
of passongor lorminaI syslom, 384
syslom, 401
accoss modos/modaI spIils, 393
ACI. Airporls CounciI InlornalionaI
ACs. Advisory CircuIars
ADAI. Airporl DovoIopmonl Aid
Irogram
ADI. arrivaI doIay faclor, aulomalic
diroclion findor
ADG. airpIano dosign group
ADI. arrivaI doIay indox
ADOs. Airporls Dislricl Officos
ADS. aulomalod dopondonl
survoiIIanco
ADS-A (addross), 126
ADS-B (broadcasl), 126127
ADSIM. airporl doIay simuIalion modoI
Advisory CircuIars (ACs), 41
aorodromo roforonco codo, 175176,
176
Aorodromos, 45
Aorospaco Induslrios Associalion
of Amorica (AIA), 45
aggrogalo forocasling, 151152, 162
AGI. abovo llo ground
AIA. Aorospaco Induslrios Associalion
of Amorica
aiming poinls, 320321
AII. Airporl Improvomonl Irogram
air cargo, 810
six rogions for, 9
vorId vido, 9
vorIdvido dislribulion of, 10
air carriors, 3233, 603
commorciaI, 7
commulor, 7, 8
inlornalionaI, 7
passongor, 7, 60
rogionaI, 7, 8
air clarlor sorvicos, 7
Air Commorco Acl of 1926, 1718, 96
air donsily, 70
Air Iino IiIols Associalion, InlornalionaI
(AIIA), 45
Air MaiI Acl of 1925, 17
air navigalion, obslruclions lo,
216218, 220221
air oporalions aroa (AOA), 469, 470
air prossuro, 70
air quaIily, 576577, 578
air roulo survoiIIanco radar (ARSR), 98, 118,
128
air roulo lraffic conlroI conlors (ARTCC),
9798
Air Sorvicos AuslraIia, 96
air laxi oporalors, 7
air lomporaluro, 70
air lraffic, 135, 511
air lraffic conlroI
groving nood for, 25
minimum soparalion ruIos usod by,
504
radar-basod survoiIIanco of, 118,
127129
voico communicalion and, 127
Air Traffic ConlroI Syslom Command
Conlor (ATCSCC), 97
air lraffic managomonl
lislory of, 96
modornizalion of, 127130
organizalionaI liorarcly in, 97100
ruIos of, 100101
undorslanding of, 95
air lraffic soparalion ruIos, 110114,
493, 494
Air Transporl Associalion of Amorica (ATA),
45

Iago numbors foIIovod by or indicalo figuros or labIos, rospoclivoIy.

air lransporlalion
civiI/passongor lraffic, 8
commorciaI, 3
forocasl variabIos, 163
govornmonl agoncios and, 18
inlornalionaI, 78
roguIalion of, 1819
socioIogicaI clangos from, 4
in Unilod Slalos, 5
AIR-21, 34
Airborno Inslrumonls Iaboralory, 507
aircrafl, 176
airfioId soparalion criloria by, 212, 213,
214, 215
airporl cIassificalion by, 174177
airporl domand of, 529531, 529
annuaI doparluros and, 269
apron circuIalion of, 457
arrivaI dislribulion of, 445, 446
arrivaI v. limo of, 530
avorago doIay of, 522
A-voigllod sound IovoI of, 583
conlorIino curvo lracIing of, 247
crab angIo and, 74
crilicaI, 174, 194
doIay, 535
dimonsionaI slandards of, 5759, 58
dry runvay oxils and, 242
officioncy focus on, 57
ongino calogorios of, 63
fIigll aIliludos of, 111
fuoI consumplion of, 6465, 67
fuoIing of, 458460
gonoraI avialion, 5556
GIS sysloms on, 125
grounding faciIilios of, 460
loigll informalion in, 294295
lorizonlaI soparalion of, 113
Ianding crilicaI poinl of, 122123
Ianding foos of, 567
Ianding oporalions of, 293
Ianding procoss of, 240241
Iargo, 176
Iigll, 286287, 286
Ioading bridgo, 458
minimum IongiludinaI soparalion of, 112
minimum limo soparalion docroasing of,
501502, 504505
minimum limo soparalion incroasing of,
499501, 505507
minimum limo soparalion of, 500, 503
nov loclnoIogios in, 4950
noiso infIuonco of, 592593
noiso moniloring sysloms on, 602604
noiso/porformanco dala of, 601
noso vlooI lracIing of, 244246
occupancy limo oxiling of, 245
100 porconl of fIool, 196
oporalionaI dala of, 601
parIing lypo, 455457, 455
poIIulanls producod by, 577
poIIulion, 579
runvay capacily/arriving, 498
runvay domand of, 523
runvay Iongll and, 198201
sorvicing aclivily limo scloduIo of, 443
aircrafl ():
75 porconl of fIool, 195
sizo/spood groalor of, 135
smaII, 176, 192193
sound oxposuro IovoIs of, 588589
spocificalions, 49, 50
spood of, 7577
sland laxiIano conlorIino, 233
lorminaI aprons/ramps minimum
cIoaranco and, 252
lracI/loading/crossvind infIuoncing,
7475
lurning radius of, 5859, 59
lypo/oporaling claraclorislics of, 510
Unilod Slalos rogislralion of, 1011
voigll, 6163
vido-bodiod, 301302
aircrafl approacl calogory, 75, 174, 175
Aircrafl Mix Indox, 517
Aircrafl Ovnors and IiIols Associalion
(AOIA), 45, 481
aircrafl porformanco, 7590
air donsily infIuoncing, 70
aircrafl spood and, 7577
almosploric condilions infIuoncing, 6975
docIarod dislancos and, 8289
fioId oIovalion infIuonco on, 80
payIoad/rango and, 7779
runvay gradionl infIuoncing, 8081
runvay Iongll and, 7980
runvay surfaco condilions infIuoncing,
8182
slaIIing and, 76
surfaco vind infIuoncing, 80
V-spoods in, 77
ving lip vorlicos infIuoncing, 8990, 90
airfioId
capacily, 487489
capacily/doIay pIanning for, 485486
cosls, 566567
drain inIol capacilios, 366367, 368369
drainago syslom vill ponding and, 350
358
marIing/signago, 291292, 329, 341
pavomonl, 257, 258
soparalion criloria, 212, 213, 214, 215
undorground slorm drains, 366367
AirfioId Iavomonl Dosign and IvaIualion,
257, 285
AirIino DoroguIalion Acl of 1978, 3132
airIinos
aclivilios pIanning, 415
doroguIalion, 3233
objoclivos, 392
scloduIo, 444
simuIalod scloduIo of, 449
air-maiI roulo, 17
airpIano dosign group (ADG), 174, 175
airporl(s). - commorciaI sorvico
airporls, runvay(s)
aclivily, 150
air quaIily sludy procoss of, 578
annuaI lraffic of, 165
assislanco programs, 28
baggago cIaim faciIilios in, 411414, 411
boacon, 293

airporl(s) ():
CAA rocommondalions for, 1921
capilaI dovoIopmonl cosls of, 565
calogorios of, 551552
civiI avialion, 1117
CIass B airspaco around lloso,
102104, 103
cIassificalion, 174177
connocling, 396
conlroIIod, 104
dala/dalabasos/sludios of, 168
domand forocasl of, 155
dosign objoclivos for, 392
drainago dosign dolaiIs for, 351
drainago Iayoul of, 364
drainago sysloms al, 619620
fodoraI aid programs for, 545547
financing capilaI improvomonls of, 146
fiscaI poIicios of, 563
furllor CAA rocommondalions for,
2123
fuluro socurily of, 481482
gonoraI avialion, 11, 481
loIiporls al, 647
lourIy aircrafl domand al, 529531, 529
lub cIassificalion of, 13
improvomonls financing of, 557558
inlornalionaI, 300
managomonl objoclivos, 392
navigalionaI clarl of, 110
noiso, 579
noiso probIom from, 598600
noiso-basod uso roslriclions of, 607609
oporalions/sorvicos of, 416
porformanco/domand pallorns and,
149150
IMS usod al, 287288
primary, 11
primary sorvico, 552
privalizalion of, 561562
projocl pIan, 141142, 623624
pubIic, 2122, 30
pubIic ovnorslip of, 543
roforonco codo, 174175
roforonco poinl, 221
roIiovor, 1213
runvay capacily sludios of, 241
socuro aroa of, 470, 471
socurily lislory of, 468470
silo soIoclion, 137138
slalo roIo in, 3637
surfaco runoff of, 347
survoy, 21
lorminaI buiIdings cosls, 621622
lorminaI projocls, 439441
lransporl, 177
uliIily, 176177
vuInorabiIily assossmonl of,
477481, 478
vorIds busiosl, 1416
Airporl and Airvay DovoIopmonl Acl of
1970, 2730, 547, 549
Airporl and Airvay Improvomonl Acl of
1982, 33, 143, 553
Airporl and Airvay Rovonuo Acl of 1970,
28, 548
Airporl and Airvay Trusl Iund, 28,
554555
airporl annuaI onpIanomonl (INI), 160
airporl doIay simuIalion modoI (ADSIM),
537
airporl dosign slandards
concopls for, 426
IAA guidoIinos for, 173174
airporl dovoIopmonl
bond saIos for, 2324
capilaI cosls of, 563, 565566
onvironmonlaI sludy roquiromonls in,
576
organizalions and, 3746
slalo slaring in, 557558
Airporl DovoIopmonl Aid Irogram (ADAI),
547556, 548, 551
Airporl Improvomonl Irogram (AII), 33,
551552, 553
Airporl Iayoul IIan (AII), 140
airporl maslor pIan, 138140,
164168
fIovclarl for, 139
fuluro dovoIopmonl guidoIinos of,
138139
organizalion of, 139140
airporl movomonl aroa safoly syslom
(AMASS), 124
Airporl Noiso and Capacily Acl of 1990, 612
airporl oporalions
oarIy days of, 133134
major compononls of, 133, 134
mallomalicaI modoIs of, 487
obslruclions lo, 134135
in lorminaI pIanning procoss, 416
airporl pIanning/dosign, 4142. -
airporl maslor pIan, lorminaI pIanning
procoss
air lransporlalion forocasl variabIos in,
163
aircrafl dimonsions imporlanl lo, 5759
aircrafl spocificalions and, 50
airfioId capacily in, 487489
communily dovoIopmonl and, 618
conlinuous pIanning procoss in, 146147
dispIacomonl/roIocalion in, 617
ocoIogicaI faclors in, 619620
onorgy consumplion and, 624
onginooring/oconomic faclors in, 620624
forocasling and, 166167
fuluro domand forocasl iloms and,
149150
naluraI boauly/lislory impacl and,
617618
runvay ond siling roquiromonls in,
223227, 224225, 226, 228
sociaI faclors invoIvod in, 616618
sludios porformod for, 135146
Airporl Socurily Irogram (ASI),
470472
airporl surfaco doloclion oquipmonl (ASDI),
124
airporl syslom pIan, 135137
oIomonls of, 136137
forocasling roquiromonls for, 164
objoclivos of, 136

airporl lraffic conlroI lovor (ATCT),
99, 99
Airporls CounciI InlornalionaI (ACI), 45
Airporls Dislricl Officos (ADOs), 39, 550
airsido buiIding concourso IovoI, 391
airspaco
IaloraI soparalion in, 113114
IongiludinaI soparalion in,
111113
unconlroIIod, 106
Unilod Slalos cIassos of, 101106, 101,
103, 105
vorlicaI soparalion in, 111
airspood, 73, 75
Airvay Safoly and Capacily Ixpansion Acl
of 1990, 33
airvays, 106110
aroa navigalion in, 108110
coIorod, 107
jol roulos and, 108
navigalionaI clarl of, 110
viclor, 106, 108
Airvays Modornizalion Acl of 1957, 26
Airvays Modornizalion Board, 25
AIoxian Brollors ModicaI Conlor, 644
aIignmonl guidanco, 294
AII. Airporl Iayoul IIan
AIIA. Air Iino IiIols Associalion,
InlornalionaI
AIS. approacl Iiglling sysloms
AIS vill soquoncod fIaslors (MAIS), 298
AIS vill soquoncod fIasling Iiglls
(AISI-2), 297298
AIS vill soquonliaI fIaslors (MAISI),
298
AISI-2. AIS vill soquoncod fIasling
Iiglls
aIliludos, liglor, 60
AMASS. airporl movomonl aroa safoly
syslom
ambionl lomporaluro, 72
Amorican Associalion of Airporl Ixoculivos
(AAAI), 45
AMSI. abovo moan soa IovoI
anaIysis modoIs, 427
anaIylicaI quouing modoIs, 428438
angIod noso-in parIing, 455456
angIod noso-oul parIing, 456
annuaI doIay, 536
annuaI domand, 535
annuaI doparluros, 269270, 269
annuaI sorvico voIumo
annuaI domand/aircrafl doIay
roIalionslip vill, 535
avorago doIay and, 536
simuIalion modoIs of, 537538
loclniquo appIicalion for, 532538
AOA. air oporalions aroa
AOIA. Aircrafl Ovnors and IiIols
Associalion
approacl
loIiporls surfaco dimonsions and, 641
procoduro, 123
spood, 295
surfaco, 218
llrosloId Iiglling in, 303
approacl Iiglling sysloms (AIS), 123,
296301
CaIvorl, 296297, 297
CAT II-III, 297
configuralions of, 296301, 299, 300
ligl inlonsily, 298
modium inlonsily, 298
apron galo syslom, 442461
aircrafl circuIalion in, 457
aircrafl parIing lypo in, 455457, 455
apron Iiglling/marIing in, 460461
oIoclricaI povor in, 460
galo posilion painlod guidoIinos in, 461
galo sizo in, 453
Iayoul of, 456457
noso-in parIing in, 455456
numbor of galos in, 442448
parIing onvoIopo dimonsions in,
454
passongor-lo-aircrafl convoyanco in,
457458
ramp clarls in, 448453, 451, 452
simuIalod airIino scloduIo in, 449
uliIily roquiromonls in, 458461
aprons, 250254. - apron galo syslom,
lorminaI aprons/ramps
aircrafl circuIalion on, 457
loIding, 250252
inIols and, 369
Iiglling/marIing, 460461
lorminaI, 252254
aroa navigalion (RNAV), 108110
arrivaI doIay faclor (ADI), 521
arrivaI doIay indox (ADI), 520, 521
arrivaIs
aircrafl dislribulion, 445, 446
capacily, 499
oxil Iocalions and, 243, 515516
posilion orror/runvay capacily and,
506
llrosloId/oxils, 245
ARSR. air roulo survoiIIanco radar
ARTCC. air roulo lraffic conlroI conlors
ARTS. Aulomalod TorminaI Radar
Sysloms
ASDA. accoIoralo-slop dislanco avaiIabIo
ASDI. airporl surfaco doloclion
oquipmonl
ASI. Airporl Socurily Irogram
ATA. Air Transporl Associalion of
Amorica
ATCSCC. Air Traffic ConlroI Syslom
Command Conlor
ATCT. airporl lraffic conlroI lovor
almosploric condilions
aircrafl porformanco infIuoncod by,
6975
runvay Iongll and, 79
vind spood/diroclion and, 7375
aulomalod dopondonl survoiIIanco (ADS),
126
Aulomalod TorminaI Radar Sysloms (ARTS),
603
aulomalic diroclion findor (ADI),
114, 115
avorago doIay, 536

avialion. - civiI avialion

domand/capacily anaIysis of, 140
fodoraI govornmonls roIalionslip vill,
2425
fuluro forocasling in, 168169
gonoraI, 3, 1011, 11
organizalions invoIvod in, 3746
profossionaI organizalions invoIvod in,
4546
slorl-lorm forocasling in, 152, 169
slalo roIo in, 3637
Avialion and Transporlalion Socurily Acl,
3435, 470, 472
Avialion Noiso Abalomonl IoIicy, 575
Avialion Safoly and Capacily Acl of 1990,
3334
Avialion Safoly and Capacily Ixpansion Acl
of 1990, 556
Avialion Safoly and Noiso Abalomonl Acl of
1979, 2930, 548
Avialion Syslom Capacily IIan, 38
A-voigllod sound IovoI, 581582, 582, 583

baggago cIaim faciIilios, 411414, 411

Iinoar cIaim foolago of, 412
passongor doIay al, 431
lolaI aroa oslimaling of, 413
baggago scrooning, 474476
IDS oquipmonl for, 476
in-Iino, 475
TSA mandalos for, 475
baIanco fioId concopl, 84, 88
baromolric prossuro, 72
baso courso, 258, 271272
baso drainago, 376
boIIy cargo, 9
biluminous maloriaIs, 258
biluminous ovorIay, 283
bIasl pad, 202
bIasl pad marIings, 322323, 323
Booing 737-900
gonoraI airpIano claraclorislics of, 199
Ianding runvay Iongll for, 200
laIooff runvay Iongll for, 201
Booing 767-200, 253
bonds, 2324, 558560
BOT. buiId, oporalo and lransfor
boundary Iiglls, 303
buffor limo, 503
buiId, oporalo, and lransfor (BOT), 562
buiIding spaco roquiromonls, 417
Buroau of Air Commorco, 96
bypass ralio, 67

CAA. CiviI Aoronaulics Adminislralion

CAAA. Commulor AirIino Associalion
of Amorica
CAB. CiviI Aoronaulics Board
CaIifornia Boaring Ralio. CBR mollod,
CBR losl, fioId CBR vaIuo
CaIvorl, I. S., 296
CaIvorl syslom, 296297, 297
capacily, 484. - disclargo capacily,
runvay capacily, uIlimalo capacily
airfioId pIanning for, 485486
anaIysis approaclos lo, 486489
for arrivaIs, 499
doIay/cumuIalivo domand and, 531
doIay/domand and, 488
domand anaIysis vill, 140
difforonl dofinilions of, 488
galo, 538541
galo/anaIylicaI modoIs for, 539541
of inlorsocling runvays, 517
of mixod oporalions, 509
mixod oporalions lourIy, 513514
runvay (IIR), 519
runvay (VIR), 518
runvay sludios of, 241
runvay syslom doparluro onIy, 512513
of runvay sysloms, 517
runvay sysloms lourIy, 514519
capilaI cosls, 563, 565566
capilaI dovoIopmonl cosls, 565
capilaI improvomonls, 146
Caslro, IidoI, 469
CAT II-III, 297
CBR mollod, 272, 273
CBR losl, 263
CDI. cumuIalivo damago faclor
CDIU. cumuIalivo damago faclor usod
conlorIino curvo lracIing, 247
conlorIino inlorsoclions, 241242
conlorIino marIings, 320, 323325
conlorIino spacing, 313
conlraIizod passongor procossing, 416417
CICs. cuslomor faciIily clargos
clarls, for runvay capacily, 516
clocI-in counlor configuralions, 406
clocI-in faciIilios, 399, 405408
clomicaI slabiIizalion, 268
CiviI Aoronaulics Acl of 1938, 1821
CiviI Aoronaulics Adminislralion (CAA),
1923
CiviI Aoronaulics Aullorily, 19
CiviI Aoronaulics Board (CAB), 3132
civiI avialion
Air Commorco Acl of 1926 and, 1718, 96
AirIino DoroguIalion Acl of 1978 and,
3132
airIino doroguIalions impacl in,
3233
Airporl/Airvay DovoIopmonl Acl of 1970
and, 2730
airporls, 1117
Avialion Safoly and Capacily Acl of 1990
and, 3334
CiviI Aoronaulics Acl of 1938 and, 1821
commorciaI sorvico in, 3
DOT croalion and, 2627
IAA roguIalions for, 3942
IodoraI Airporl Acl of 1946 and, 2124
IodoraI Avialion Acl of 1958 and, 2426
IogisIalivo aclions infIuonco on, 1736
slalo agoncios invoIvod in, 4344
llroo soclors of, 4
lrado organizalions invoIvod in, 4546

CiviI WorIs Adminislralion (CWA), 544
CI. cIoarvay
cIass A airspaco, 101102, 101
cIass B airspaco, 101, 102104, 103
cIass C airspaco, 101, 104, 105
cIass D airspaco, 101, 104105, 105
cIass I airspaco, 101, 105106
cIass G airspaco, 101, 106
cIoarvay (CI), 83
cIimb-oul spood, 630
CIinlon, BiII, 124
cIosod marIings, 328329
CNII. communily noiso oquivaIonl
IovoI
CNR. composilo noiso raling
coarso-grainod soiIs, 259260
coaslaI zonos, 619620
cocIpil culoff angIo, 294
coofficionl of rouglnoss, 376
coofficionl of runoff, 348349, 349
coIorod airvays, 107
combinod concopls, in lorminaI pIanning
procoss, 419422, 420
commorciaI air carriors, 7
commorciaI air lransporlalion induslry, 3
commorciaI sorvico aircrafl, 5154
commorciaI sorvico airporls, 3, 46, 11, 552
air cargo in, 810
baggago scrooning in, 474476
ompIoyoo idonlificalion in, 476477
inlornalionaI air lransporlalion in, 78
passongor air carriors in, 7
passongor scrooning al, 473474, 473, 474
porimolor socurily al, 477
socurily al, 472477
commorciaI sorvico loIiporls, 642643, 643
common uso soIf-sorvico IiosIs (CUSS),
408
common-uso galos, 448, 452
communily annoyanco, 595596, 595
communily dovoIopmonl, 618
communily noiso oquivaIonl IovoI (CNII),
591592
communily objoclivos, 392
commulor air carriors, 7, 8
Commulor AirIino Associalion of Amorica
(CAAA), 46
componsalory cosl mollod, 565, 569
composilo noiso raling (CNR), 579, 592
compound curvos, 234235
concopl dovoIopmonl, 399, 400, 416417
concossion aroa cosls, 564
conicaI surfaco, 218
connocling airporl, 396
conslrainod forocasling, 165
conslruclion
cosls, 620
onvironmonlaI impacl of, 615
joinls, 278
Conlinuing Approprialions Acl of 1982, 33
conlinuous pIanning procoss, 146147
conlinuousIy roinforcod concrolo pavomonls
(CRCI), 279282
conlraclion joinls, 277278
conlroI lovor, visibiIily roquiromonls of,
254255
conlroIIod accoss galos, 477
conlroIIod airporls, 104
ConlroIIor IiIol Dala IinI Communicalors
(CIDIC), 98
convorsalions, sound IovoIs of, 593, 594
Corps of Inginoors, 358359, 360365
corridors, 410
CIDIC. ConlroIIor IiIol Dala IinI
Communicalors
CIM. crilicaI pall modoI
crab angIo, 74
CRCI. conlinuousIy roinforcod concrolo
pavomonls
criminaI bolavior, 468
crilicaI aircrafl, 174, 194
crilicaI ongino-faiIuro spood/docision spood,
85
crilicaI pall modoI (CIM), 428
crossvinds, 73, 7475, 74, 80, 185186
cumuIalivo damago faclor (CDI), 270
cumuIalivo damago faclor usod (CDIU),
285, 285
cumuIalivo damago faiIuro mollod, 270
cumuIalivo domand, 531
cumuIalivo probabiIily dislribulion, 445
Curlis, Idvard I., 25
curvaluro dimonsionaI slandards, 239
curvod pall, Ianding goar, 246
curvos
dosign paramolors, 248249
onlranco, 236
inlorsoclion dosign, 244249
ovorIand fIov, 363
soclions of, 311
slandard suppIy, 360, 361, 362
CUSS. common uso soIf-sorvico IiosIs
cuslomor faciIily clargos (CICs), 560
CWA. CiviI WorIs Adminislralion

DAS. accoIoralo-slop dislanco

day-nigll avorago sound IovoI (DNI),
587590, 595, 606
Daylona Boacl InlornalionaI Airporl, 104,
105
DCIA. dovoIopmonl of civiI Ianding
aroas
DDI. doparluro doIay faclor
DDI. doparluro doIay indox
doconlraIizod passongor procossing, 416417
dociboI scaIo, 580
docIarod dislancos, 8289, 84
dofonso Ianding aroa (DIA), 544
doIay, 484, 535
aircrafls avorago, 522
airfioId pIanning for, 485486
anaIysis approaclos lo, 486489
annuaI, 536
avorago, 536
capacily/domand and, 488
cumuIalivo domand minus capacily vill,
531
graplicaI mollods approximaling,
525531
lourIy labuIalion of, 526527

doIay ():
mallomalicaI formuIalion of, 490492
passongor, 431
in passongor procossing sysloms, 437
runvay syslom compulalion of, 520531
saluralod condilions/ovorIoad poriod
and, 525
domand
of aircrafl, 529531, 529
annuaI, 535
capacily anaIysis, 140
cumuIalivo, 531
doIay/capacily and, 531
IovoIs, 484
passongor compononl, 394
of runvay, 523
lorminaI, 393
lorminaI paramolors of, 393
domand profiIo faclor (DII), 522
donsily aIliludo, 72
Doparlmonl of HomoIand Socurily, 470
Doparlmonl of Transporlalion (DOT), 2627,
486
doparluro doIay faclor (DDI), 521
doparluro doIay indox (DDI), 520, 521
doparluros. - annuaI doparluros
annuaI, 269270
fIigll lracIs, 603
loIiporl palls of, 635
Ioungos for, 409, 410
modoI for, 507
noiso abalomonl procoduros and, 607
obslacIo idonlificalion surfacos, 226
runvay syslom capacily of,
512513
soparalion, 113
dopll of covor, pipos, 375
dosign dovoIopmonl, 387393, 399,
441442
dosign objoclivos, for airporls, 392
dosign-day scloduIo, 443448, 444
doslinalion signs, 332, 335, 335, 338
dolorminislic quouing modoI, 525, 528
dovoIopmonl of civiI Ianding aroas (DCIA),
544
dovoIopmonl pIan, OHaro InlornalionaI
airporl, 141
diosoI fuoI, 63
dimonsionaI slandards, of aircrafl,
5759, 58
diroclion signs, 332, 334335, 334, 338
disaggrogalo forocasling, 151152
disclargo capacily, 356358, 363
dispIacod llrosloId marIings,
321322, 322
dispIacomonl, 617
dislanco moasuring oquipmonl (DMI), 115
117
dislanco romaining signs, 330331, 330, 331
DIA. dofonso Ianding aroa
DMI. dislanco moasuring oquipmonl
DNI. day-nigll avorago sound IovoI
domoslic passongor lraffic, 5
DOT. Doparlmonl of Transporlalion
dovoIs, 279
dovnvind bar, 301
DII. domand profiIo faclor
drain inIol capacilios, 365
airfioId, 366367, 368369
maximum surfaco slorago v., 370, 371
drainago sysloms
airfioId vill ponding and, 350358
airporl dosign dolaiIs for, 351
airporl Iayoul of, 364
al airporls, 619620
baso, 376
dosign dala of, 355
inlorcopling, 376
pavomonl soclions and, 372
pipo lypos for, 377378
ponding Iayoul and, 356
purposo of, 343
rainfaII inlonsily and, 344347
slorm sovorily and, 343344
subsurfaco/grado, 376, 377, 379
surfaco drainago and, 368376
surfaco runoff compulalion/no ponding
and, 360365
dry runvay oxils, 242
duaI-landom Ianding goar, 59
duaI-vlooI Ianding goar, 59
dvoII limos, 401

vaIuo, 266
ocoIogicaI faclors, in airporl pIanning,
619620
oconomolric modoIing, 153, 158162
oconomic bonofils, 624
oconomic faclors, in airporl pIanning,
620624
oconomic/financiaI foasibiIily, 145146
odgo marIings, 323325, 327
IDS. oxpIosivo doloclion syslom
offoclivo porcoivod noiso IovoI (IINI),
590591
officioncy, of aircrafl, 57
Iisonlovor, Dvigll D., 25
oIoclricaI povor, 460
oIovalion
fioId, 80
of loIiporls, 646
runvay Iongll and, 198
smaII aircrafl /lomporaluro and, 193, 194
IMAS. onginoorod maloriaI arrosling
sysloms
omponnago, 57
ompIoyoo idonlificalion, 476477
ondangorod spocios, 619
Indangorod Spocios Acl of 1973, 619
ond-around laxivays, 249250, 250
onding signs, 336337
onorgy avorago sound IovoI (IIQ),
585
onorgy consumplion, 624
onginoorod maloriaI arrosling sysloms
(IMAS), 85
onginooring faclors, in airporl pIanning,
620624
ongino-faiIuro, 8586
onginos, 6369

onlancod marIings, laxivays/laxiIanos,
328340, 329
INI. airporl annuaI onpIanomonl
onpIanomonl dala, 155
onlilIomonl funds, 548
onlranco curvos, 236
onlry galos
aircrafl soparalion, 500
arrivaI llrosloId, 501
onlryvays, 404405
onvironmonl. - noiso, poIIulion
condilions, 7980
conslruclion impacls on, 615
impacl ovorviov on, 140
noiso probIom lo, 143144
poIicy considoralions roIalod lo, 574576
pubIic concorn for, 2930
sound IovoIs found in, 582
sludy of, 576
vaslo/poIIulion in, 144
Invironmonl Dala and Informalion Sorvico,
186
onvironmonlaI impacl assossmonl, 143145
onvironmonlaI impacl slalomonl,
2930, 144145, 575
InvironmonlaI IoIicy Acl of 1969, 143
InvironmonlaI Iroloclion Agoncy (IIA), 37,
4243
IIA. InvironmonlaI Iroloclion Agoncy
IINI. offoclivo porcoivod noiso IovoI
oquivaIonl sloady sound IovoI (QI), 585587
IrIang dislribulion, 431
orror-froo inlorarrivaI spacing,
496, 500
orror-froo malrix, 498
oslimaling runvay Iongll, 191201
IuroconlroI, 96
oxciso laxos, 28
oxcIusivo aroa, 472
oxcIusivo-uso galos, 448, 450, 451
oxils. - laxivay oxil
arrivaI llrosloId, 245
dry runvay, 242
Iocalions, 243, 515516
rango, 243
oxpIanalory variabIo sonsilivily,
159160
oxpIosivo doloclion syslom (IDS),
475, 476

IAA. IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion

IAA Roaullorizalion Acl of 2009,
3536
IAARIIIID soflvaro, 270, 273275, 274,
277
Iigll aircrafl pavomonls and,
286287, 286
pavomonl ovorIays considorod in,
283284
rigid pavomonl basos and, 277, 285
faciIily cIassificalion, 394396
IARA. finaI approacl roforonco aroa
farm liIo, 378
IARs. IodoraI Avialion RoguIalions
IATO. finaI approacl and laIooff
IBOs. fixod-baso oporalors
fodoraI agoncios, 37
fodoraI aid programs, 545547
IodoraI AirIino DoroguIalion Acl, 56
IodoraI Airporl Acl of 1946, 2124, 545546,
548
IodoraI Avialion Acl of 1958, 2426, 27
IodoraI Avialion Adminislralion (IAA), 12,
27, 3742
airfioId pavomonl guidanco of, 257, 258
airporl dosign guidoIinos from,
173174
oconomolric modoIs usod by, 162
funclions of, 3839
mission of, 96
organizalionaI clarl of, 40
pavomonl dosign mollods of,
268270
rogions of, 41
runvay Iongll oslimaling procoduros of,
191192
runvay signing convonlions of,
337338
laxivay guidanco sign syslom
rocommondalions from,
336337
IodoraI Avialion RoguIalions (IARs), 3942,
82
Iarl 36, 609610, 610, 611
Iarl 77 of, 216221, 219, 641
Iarl 91, 611612
Iarl 107, 469
Iarl 150, 612
Iarl 161, 614615
IodoraI Imorgoncy RoIiof Adminislralion
(IIRA), 544
fodoraI funding programs, 544557
fodoraI govornmonl. - govornmonl
agoncios, slalo govornmonl
air carriors appIying lo, 3233
avialions roIalionslip vill, 2425
inlogralod airporl syslom pIanning and,
552553
fodoraI-aid program, 2223
IIRA. IodoraI Imorgoncy RoIiof
Adminislralion
forry rango, 78
fioId CBR vaIuo, 261263
fioId oIovalion, 80
fioId Iongll (II), 85, 87
fiIIol dosign goomolry, 247, 248
fiIlor maloriaI, 378379, 380
finaI approacl, of loIiporls, 636637,
640641
finaI approacl and laIooff (IATO), 635
finaI approacl roforonco aroa (IARA), 637
financiaI pIanning, 562570, 571
financing, of airporl improvomonls,
557558
fino grain soiIs, 261
finilo oIomonl lloory, 276277
fiscaI poIicios, 563
fiscaI roquiromonls, 624
fixod-baso oporalors (IBOs), 472

II. fioId Iongll

fIool porconlago, 197
fIoxibIo ovorIay, 283
fIoxibIo pavomonl, 258
baso courso of, 271272
CBR mollod usod in, 272, 273
dosigning, 271275
IAARIIIID soflvaro and, 274
pipo covorago and, 373374
subbaso courso of, 272
fIigll
aIliludos assignod, 111
foIIoving, 100101
galo occupancy duralion, 447
lours, 11
inlorfaco, 386387
Ialo arriving/cancoIod, 486
niglllimo, 608
scloduIo froquoncy dislribulion,
445
lomporary roslriclions on, 106
lracIs, 603, 607
visuaI ruIos for, 180181
fIigll sorvico slalions (ISS), 100
fIood lazards, 620
fIoodIiglling, 303, 460
fIov-llrougl bypass loIding pad, 251252,
251
fIusl Iiglls, 460
forocasling
aggrogalo, 151152, 162
air lransporlalion variabIos in, 163
airporl pIanning/grovll,
166167
airporl syslom pIans and, 164
annuaI airporl lraffic, 165
conslrainod, 165
disaggrogalo, 151152
oconomolric modoIing, 158162
oxpIanalory variabIo sonsilivily in,
159160
four lypos of, 152
fuluro avialion, 168169
judgmonlaI, 153154
IovoIs of, 151152
marIol slaro, 153, 156158
mollods of, 152162
rodundancy in, 161
roquiromonls/appIicalions in,
162168
slorl-/modium-/Iong-lorm, 152, 169
limo sorios mollod of, 154156
unconslrainod, 165
Iorl IaudordaIo-HoIIyvood InlornalionaI
Airporl, 439, 441
4D RNAV, 109
foyors, 404405
frosl dosign soiI cIassificalion, 268
frosl infIuonco, 266267
IS. fuII-slrongll pavomonl
ISS. fIigll sorvico slalions
fuoI
for aircrafl, 458460
farm, 459
pricos/jol, 69
lrucIs, 458
fuoI consumplion, 6465, 67
in gaIIons por soal-miIo, 68
of jol aircrafl, 68
fuII-slrongll pavomonl (IS), 82, 85
fusoIago, 57
fuluro aclivily, 162
fuluro domand pallorns, 149150, 155
fuluro dovoIopmonl guidoIinos,
138139

gaIIons por soal-miIo, 68

GAMA. GonoraI Avialion Manufaclurors
Associalion
GARBs. gonoraI airporl rovonuo bonds
galo posilion painlod guidoIinos,
461
galos
arrivaIs concopl, 419, 421
capacily, 538541
capacily anaIylicaI modoIs for,
539541
common-uso, 448, 452
conlroIIod accoss, 477
oxcIusivo-uso, 448, 450, 451
numbor of, 442448
occupancy dislribulion, 445
occupancy limo, 442
roslriclod uso of, 540
slarod uso of, 452
simuIalion, 447
sizos, 453
uso slralogy, 443, 539
vido-bodiod, 448
gonoraI airporl rovonuo bonds (GARBs),
559
gonoraI avialion, 3, 1011, 11
gonoraI avialion aircrafl, 5556
gonoraI avialion airporls, 11, 481
GonoraI Avialion Manufaclurors Associalion
(GAMA), 45
gonoraI obIigalion bonds, 558559
Gonova InlorconlinonlaI Airporl, 387,
407, 420
goomolric dosign slandards, 638639
gIido sIopo faciIily, 122, 294
gIobaI posilioning sysloms (GIS), 109,
124126, 125
gIobaI rogions, 9
govorning bodios, of ICAO, 4445
govornmonl agoncios, 18
GIS. gIobaI posilioning sysloms
gradionl slandards
aircrafl porformanco and, 8081
runvay surfaco, 209, 211
of laxivays/laxiIanos, 230, 232
Gralam, }acI, 468
granuIar maloriaI, 378379
graplicaI mollods, doIay, 525531
gravily modoIs, 159
Groalor Iillsburgl InlornalionaI Airporl,
385, 388390, 414, 602
gross lorminaI aroa spaco roquiromonls,
396, 397
ground accoss syslom, 384, 385

ground radar, 124
ground-basod sysloms, 114124
grounding faciIilios, aircrafl, 460
groundspood, 73
guidanco sign syslom, 331
guidanco signs, 338340, 338

HAI. HoIicoplor Associalion

InlornalionaI
HarlsfioId-}acIson AlIanla InlornalionaI
Airporl, 99
loading, 7475
loadvind, 73
loaring Ioss, from noiso, 596597
loigll informalion, 294295
HoIicoplor Associalion InlornalionaI
(HAI), 46
loIicoplors
claraclorislics of, 630631
commorciaI dimonsions of, 633
dimonsions of, 632
naluro of, 629630
noiso causod by, 634635
singIo/lvin ongino, 631
loIidocI, 629
loIipad, 629, 640
loIiporls, 629647, 648
al airporls, 647
al AIoxian Brollors ModicaI Conlor,
644
approacl surfaco dimonsions of,
641
approacl/doparluro palls of, 635
commorciaI sorvico Iayoul of,
642643, 643
oIovalod, 646
finaI approacl of, 636637, 640641
goomolric dosign slandards of,
638639
Iayoul of, 637
Iiglling of, 644646, 645
marIing of, 644
obslruclion cIoaranco roquiromonls of,
641643, 642
poriploraI aroa of, 640
plysicaI claraclorislics of, 635636
porl aullorily, 632
proloclion zono of, 641
silo soIoclion faclors of, 631634
slrucluraI dosign of, 646647
laIooff aroa of, 636637, 640641
lorminaI aroa of, 640
loIislop, 629
lorlz, 581
ligl-spood oxil laxivays, 237
, 402
lisloricaI pIacos, 617618
loId marIings, laxivays/laxiIanos,
325326
loId slorl marIings, 327
loIding aprons, 250252
loIding Iino/runvay soparalion criloria,
215
loIding pads, 251252, 251
loIding posilion marIings, 326, 339
lorizonlaI dislribulion concopls,
417422, 418
lorizonlaI sogmonl, 295
lorizonlaI soparalion, of aircrafl, 113
lorizonlaI surfaco, 218
lourIy noiso IovoI, 587
lub and spoIo, 12
lub cIassificalions, 12, 13
luman loaIll, 597
lydranl syslom, 459
lydropIaning, formuIa for, 81

IAS. indicalod airspood

IATA. InlornalionaI Air Transporl
Associalion
ICAN. InlornalionaI Commission for Air
Navigalion
ICAO. InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion
Organizalion
ico Ionsos, 267
ico sogrogalion, 266, 267
idonlificalion, silo, 137
IIR. inslrumonl fIigll ruIos
IIS. inslrumonl Ianding syslom
IM. innor marIor
imaginary surfacos, 218221, 219
IMC. inslrumonl molooroIogicaI
condilions
indicalod airspood (IAS), 75
infiIlralion ralo, 359360
informalion signs, 336, 338
inIol limo, 347, 348, 352354
inIols, 369
in-Iino baggago scrooning, 475
INM. inlogralod noiso modoI
innor approacl obslacIo-froo zono,
203
innor marIor (IM), 120
innor lransilionaI obslacIo-froo zono,
203
inslrumonl fIigll ruIos (IIR), 101,
180181, 519
inslrumonl Ianding syslom (IIS),
118123
approacl procoduro vill, 123
capabiIilios, 122
configuralion of, 120121, 121
RVR oquipmonl vill, 122
inslrumonl molooroIogicaI condilions (IMC),
186
inlogralod airporl syslom pIanning,
552553
inlogralod noiso modoI (INM), 600602
inlorarrivaI spacing, of mixod oporalions,
508
inlorarrivaI limo, 497
inlorcopling drainago, 376
inlorcily lravoI, 4
inlormodialo rango pIanning, 397
inlornalionaI air carriors, 7
InlornalionaI Air Transporl Associalion
(IATA), 46, 453
inlornalionaI air lransporlalion, 78

inlornalionaI airporls, 300

InlornalionaI CiviI Avialion Organizalion
(ICAO), 7, 96
aorodromo roforonco codo usod by,
175176, 176
annox 14 of, 221222
calogory II syslom of, 297
dosign slandards of, 173
govorning bodios of, 4445
objoclivos of, 44
soparalion criloria adoplod by, 232233
InlornalionaI Commission for Air
Navigalion (ICAN), 96
inlornalionaI faciIilios, 415
inlorsocling runvays, 181, 182, 207, 208,
517
inlorsoclion configuralions, 238
inlraairporl lransporlalion sysloms, 414415
isoIalion joinls, 277

jol aircrafl, 68
jol fuoI pricos, 69
jol roulos, 106107, 108
}oinl IIanning and DovoIopmonl Offico
(}IDO), 129
joinls/joinl spacing, 277279, 278, 279, 280
}IDO. }oinl IIanning and DovoIopmonl
Offico
judgmonlaI forocasling, 153154
judgmonlaI ovorslooring lracIing, 247

vaIuo, 263
Kay IarIin Airporl, 106, 107

IaGuardia Airporl, 182

Iand dovoIopmonl, 616617
Ianding crilicaI poinl, 122123
Ianding dislanco (ID), 83
Ianding dislanco avaiIabIo (IDA), 88
Ianding foo casl fIov anaIysis, 570
Ianding goar
annuaI doparluros and, 269270
compIox configuralion of, 62
configuralions of, 5961
curvod pall of, 246
duaI-landom, 59
duaI-vlooI, 59
main, 57
singIo-vlooI, 59
lradilionaI configuralions of, 60
Ianding procoss, 240241, 293
aIignmonl guidanco during, 294
approacl spood in, 295
RIII in, 309310
runvay conlorIino in, 304307, 308
runvay odgo Iiglls in, 304
runvay Iiglling during, 303304
llrosloId Iiglling in, 303, 309
loucldovn zono Iiglls in, 308309
Iandsido buiIding onpIaning IovoI, 388390
Iand-uso compalibiIily, 592593,
597598, 599600
Iand-uso pIanning, 142143
IaloraI forcos, 235
IaloraI soparalion, in airspaco, 113114
Iayorod oIaslic dosign, 273275, 274
IBO. Ioaso, buiId, and oporalo
ICC. Iov-cosl carrior
ID. Ianding dislanco
IDA. Ianding dislanco avaiIabIo
Ioaso, buiId, and oporalo (IBO), 562
IogisIalivo aclions, 1736
IIQ. onorgy avorago sound IovoI
IovoI of sorvico criloria, 397398
II. Iov-froquoncy radio rangos
Iifloff dislanco (IOD), 83
Iigll aircrafl, pavomonls for, 286287, 286
Iiglling. - approacl Iiglling sysloms
apron, 460461
fIood, 303, 460
of loIiporls, 644646, 645
during Ianding procoss, 303304
obslruclions, 293
runvay, 303304
runvay conlorIino, 308
socurily, 477
sysloms, 291
laxivay, 310314, 311, 313
llrosloId, 303, 307, 309
Iinoar cIaim foolago, 412
Iinoar lorminaI concopl, 419, 421
Ioading bridgo, aircrafl, 458
Iobby aroa, 405
Iocalion signs, 332, 334, 334, 338
IOD. Iifloff dislanco
IOM. oulor marIor
Iong Rango Aorospaco forocasls, 162
IongiludinaI omboddod slooI, 282
IongiludinaI gradionls, 208212, 210, 213
IongiludinaI profiIos, 234
IongiludinaI soparalion, in airspaco,
111113
Iong-rango fiscaI pIans, 136
Iong-lorm forocasling, 152
Iong-lorm parIors, 403
Iov-cosl carrior (ICC), 6
Iov-froquoncy radio rangos (II), 107

Macl 1, 76
magnolomolor, 473
main Ianding goar, 57
MAIS. AIS vill soquoncod fIaslors
MAISI. AIS vill soquonliaI fIaslors
MAISR syslom, 298
mandalory inslruclion signs, 332333
marIol slaro mollod, 153, 156158
marIing pallorns
apron galo syslom and, 460461
of loIiporls, 644
runvay, 292, 315
marIing/signago, 291292, 329, 341
mallomalicaI formuIalions, 490492, 497
mallomalicaI modoIing loclniquos, 162

mallomalicaI modoIs, of airporls, 487
mallomalicaI lloory, 490492
maximum A-voigllod sound IovoIs,
582583
maximum gross laIooff voigll (MGTOW),
62, 112
maximum ramp voigll, 62
maximum slrucluraI Ianding voigll (MIW),
6263
maximum slrucluraI laIooff voigll
(MSTOW), 62, 78
maximum surfaco slorago, 370, 371
moan daiIy lomporaluro, 192193
moan sorvico ralo, 492
moclanicaI slabiIizalion, 268
modium-froquoncy radio rangos
(MI), 107
modium-lorm forocasling, 152
MI. modium-froquoncy radio rangos
MGTOW. maximum gross laIooff
voigll
Miami InlornalionaI Airporl, 648
Micligan RogionaI Avialion Syslom IIan,
135
microvavo Ianding syslom (MIS), 642
middIo marIor (MM), 119
midfioId lorminaI compIox, 414
miIilary Ianding aroas, 21
miIilary oporalions aroas (MOAs), 106
Minors ruIo, 270
minimum inlorarrivaI soparalion,
508509
minimum IongiludinaI soparalion, 112
minimum soparalion ruIos
air lraffic conlroI using, 504
posilion orrors caIcuIalod vill,
503504
minimum limo soparalion
air lraffic and, 511
of aircrafl, 500, 503
aircrafls docroasing, 501502,
504505
aircrafls incroasing, 499501,
505507
al runvay llrosloId, 504505
mix indox, 515
mixod oporalions
capacily of, 509
lourIy capacily vill, 513514
modoI for, 507514
runvay syslom inlorarrivaI spacing vill,
508
runvay/oqualions for, 509510
limo-spaco concopl for, 495
MIS. microvavo Ianding syslom
MIW. maximum slrucluraI Ianding
voigll
MM. middIo marIor
MOAs. miIilary oporalions aroas
mobiIo convoyanco concopl, 419
modoIing loclniquos, 427
modornizalion, of air lraffic managomonl,
127130
moduIus subgrado of roaclion, 263, 275
monoy, limo vaIuo of, 146
MSTOW. maximum slrucluraI laIooff
voigll
muIliIovoI passongor procossing sysloms,
425
muIlipIo Iinoar rogrossion anaIysis, 159
muIlislalion quouing syslom, 429

NAS. NalionaI Airspaco Syslom

NASAO. NalionaI Associalion of Slalo
Avialion OfficiaIs
NASI. NalionaI Airporl Syslom IIan
NalionaI AoronaulicaI Clarling Offico, 110
NalionaI Air Traffic Sorvicos Ild. (NATS), 96
NalionaI Airporl Syslom IIan (NASI), 29,
30, 551
NalionaI Airspaco Syslom (NAS), 97, 106
NalionaI Airspaco Syslom IIan, 38
NalionaI Associalion of Slalo Avialion
OfficiaIs (NASAO), 44
NalionaI InvironmonlaI IoIicy Acl (NIIA),
42, 574, 613
NalionaI IIan of Inlogralod Airporl Sysloms
(NIIAS), 12, 12, 33, 135, 551
NalionaI Transporlalion Safoly Board
(NTSB), 27, 43
NATS. NalionaI Air Traffic
Sorvicos Ild.
naluraI rosourcos, 2930, 624
navigalionaI aids, 114127
airvay/airporl clarls as, 110
ARSR as, 118
DMIs as, 115117
GIS, 125
ground-basod sysloms as, 114124
IIS vill, 118123
NDBs as, 114, 114
NoxlGon as, 129
NNIW as, 130
obslruclions and, 216218, 220221
saloIIilo-basod sysloms as, 124126
SWIM as, 129130
VORs as, 108, 115, 116, 120
NCI. noiso compalibiIily program
NDB. nondiroclionaI boacons
NII. noiso oxposuro forocasl
NIM. noiso oxposuro map
NIIA. NalionaI InvironmonlaI IoIicy
Acl
nol prosonl vaIuo (NIV), 146
nolvorI modoIs, 427428, 432
NoxlGon, 129
NoxlGon Iinancing Roform Acl of 2007,
3536
NoxlGon nolvorI onabIod voallor
(NNIW), 130
niglllimo fIiglls, 608
NIITS. noiso-inducod pormanonl
llrosloId slifl
NNIW. NoxlGon nolvorI onabIod
voallor
noiso. - poIIulion
abalomonl doparluro procoduros, 607
abalomonl roguIalions, 27
aircrafl, 592593
aircrafl/airporl, 579
aircrafl/porformanco dala of, 601
airporl probIoms vill, 598600

noiso ():
barriors, 604606
-basod uso roslriclions, 607609
communily annoyanco and,
595596, 595
conlroI aclions againsl, 605
onvironmonlaI probIom of, 143144
IAR Iarl 36 and, 609610, 610, 611
loaring Ioss from, 596597
loIicoplors causing, 634635
lourIy IovoIs of, 587
luman loaIll infIuoncod by, 597
Iand-uso compalibiIily guidoIinos and,
597598, 599, 600
Iand-uso pIanning minimizing, 143
modoI oulpuls for, 601602
moniloring sysloms, 602604
pubIic invoIvomonl conlroIIing,
613614
roguIalions, 609
-sonsilivo Iand, 189
sIoop inlorforonco and, 594595
soIulions lo, 604615
Noiso Abalomonl Acl of 1979, 33
noiso compalibiIily program (NCI),
613
noiso oxposuro forocasl (NII), 579, 592
noiso oxposuro map (NIM), 612, 613
noiso-inducod pormanonl llrosloId slifl
(NIITS), 597
NOISIMAI, 600, 601602
nondiroclionaI boacons (NDB), 114, 114,
119
noso goar, 57, 246248
noso vlooI lracIing, 244246
noso-in parIing, 455456
NIIAS. NalionaI IIan of Inlogralod
Airporl Sysloms
NIV. nol prosonl vaIuo
NTSB. NalionaI Transporlalion Safoly
Board

objocl-froo aroa (OIA), 203

OBS. omniboaring soIoclor
obsorvod sorvico limos, 433
obslacIo cIoaranco surfaco (OCS),
222, 222
obslacIo idonlificalion surfacos,
226, 227
obslacIo-froo zono (OIZ), 202, 203
obslruclions
lo air navigalion, 216218, 220221
lo airporl oporalions, 134135
cIoaranco roquiromonls, 641643, 642
Iiglling of, 293
occupancy limo, 243244, 245
OccupalionaI Safoly and HoaIll
Adminislralion (OSHA), 597
OCS. obslacIo cIoaranco surfaco
OIW. oporaling omply voigll
OIA. objocl-froo aroa
Offico of Noiso Abalomonl, 27
OIZ. obslacIo-froo zono
OHaro InlornalionaI Airporl, 141, 183, 184,
185, 421
omniboaring soIoclor (OBS), 115, 116
Omnibus Budgol RoconciIialion Acl of 1990,
2829
ono vay lravoI dislanco, 6
opon-V runvays, 181, 183
oporaling omply voigll (OIW), 61
oporalionaI dala, of aircrafl, 601
opporlunily cosl of capilaI, 146
organizalionaI clarl, of IAA, 40
organizalions
airporl dovoIopmonl and, 3746
profossionaI, 4546
lrado, 4546
originaling/lorminaling slalion
procoss, 394
OSHA. OccupalionaI Safoly and HoaIll
Adminislralion
oulor marIor (IOM), 119
ovorIand fIov curvos, 363
ovorIay pavomonl, 282285
biluminous, 283
fIoxibIo, 283
rigid pavomonl covorod by, 284, 284
lypos of, 283
lypicaI, 283
ovorIoadod lours, 524, 524, 525

IAII. procision approacl pall

indicalor
paraIIoI parIing, 456
paraIIoI runvays, 178181, 179
spacing of, 205207
vaIo lurbuIonco and, 206
paraIIoI laxiIano conlorIino, 231
paraIIoI laxivay conlorIino, 233
parIing
aircrafl lypo, 455457, 455
angIod noso-in, 455456
angIod noso-oul, 456
onvoIopo dimonsions, 454
garagos, 404
paraIIoI, 456
in lorminaI pIanning procoss,
403404, 403, 425, 441
parliaI privalizalion, 561562
passongor air carriors, 7, 60
passongor amonilios, 415416
passongor compononl domand, 394
passongor doIay, 431
passongor faciIilios, 395, 570
passongor faciIily clargos (IICs),
556557
passongor objoclivos, 392
passongor procossing sysloms, 404, 432
avorago doIay limos in, 437
onpIaning, 435
Iayoul of, 432
muIliIovoI, 425
obsorvod sorvico limos in, 433
passongor/visilor fIovs in, 435
sorvico procossor claraclorislics in,
436
lypicaI arrivaI dislribulion in, 438
passongor scrooning, 473474, 473, 474
passongor sorvico procossors, 434

passongor lorminaI syslom, 383387, 418
accoss inlorfaco of, 384
accoss modos/modaI spIils in, 393
compononls of, 383384, 387
dosign considoralions of, 387393
faciIily cIassificalion in, 394396
fIigll inlorfaco of, 386387
inlormodialo rango pIanning of, 397
IovoI of sorvico criloria of, 397398
passongor compononl domand accoss in,
394
passongor voIumos/lypos in,
393394
procossing syslom of, 384386
spaco approximalions of, 396397
lorminaI domand paramolors of, 393
passongor lravoI, 6
passongor voIumos/lypos, 393394
passongor-lo-aircrafl convoyanco,
457458
passongor/visilor fIovs, 435
pavomonl managomonl syslom (IMS), 287
288
pavomonls. - fIoxibIo pavomonl,
ovorIay pavomonl, rigid pavomonl
airfioId, 257, 258
conlinuousIy roinforcod concrolo, 279282
dalabaso, 288
dosign, 261263
drainago soclions of, 372
IAA dosign mollods of, 268270
fuII-slrongll, 82, 85
joinl lypos in, 280
for Iigll aircrafl, 286287, 286
ovorIay, 282285
slooI pIacod in, 280282
slrucluraI, 202
slrucluro, 257258
payIoad, 62
aircrafl porformanco and, 7779
compuling, 7879
maximum slrucluraI, 62
rango roIalionslip vill, 78
IC. poinl of curvaluro
ICC. porlIand comonl concrolo
porcoivod noiso IovoI (INI), 590
porimolor socurily, 477
poriploraI aroa, of loIiporl, 640
IIC bonds, 560
IICs. passongor faciIily clargos
IGI. IIanning Granl Irogram
pior/fingor concopl, 417418, 421
pipos
dopll of covor for, 375
fIoxibIo pavomonl covorago and, 373374
porous concrolo, 378
sIip, 378
soiI drainago/sizos/sIopos and, 378
subdrainago, 377378
lypos of, 377378
pislon ongino, 63, 82
pilcl, 581
pilol lubo, 75
IIanning Granl Irogram (IGI), 548, 551
pIalo boaring losl, 263
IMS. pavomonl managomonl syslom
INI. porcoivod noiso IovoI
poinl of curvaluro (IC), 313
Ioisson arrivaI dislribulion, 429430
Ioissons ralio, 273
poIicy considoralions, onvironmonlaI,
574576
poIIulion, 144, 576615, 577
air quaIily and, 576577
aircrafl/airporl noiso and, 579
A-voigllod sound IovoI and,
581582
day-nigll avorago sound IovoI and,
587590
maximum A-voigllod sound IovoIs and,
582583
QI and, 585587
sound oxposuro IovoI and, 583585
sound prossuro IovoIs and, 580581
limo abovo llrosloId IovoI and, 590
valor quaIily and, 577579
ponding, 350358, 356, 357, 357,
360365
IOI. sludy aroa popuIalion
porous concrolo pipo, 378
porl aullorily loIiporls, 632
porlIand comonl concrolo (ICC), 258, 275,
283
posilion orrors, 503504
procision approacl pall indicalor (IAII),
294, 302303, 303
proforonliaI runvay concopl, 607
prossuro aIliludo, 72
primary airporls, 11
primary sorvico airporls, 552
primary surfaco, 218
privalo aulomobiIos, dvoII limos for, 401
privalizalion, of airporls, 561562
probabiIily of vioIalion, 511
procossing syslom, 384386
programming plaso, 399, 400
prolibilod aroas, 106
propfan ongino, 64
proloclion zonos, of runvays, 213216, 216,
217
pubIic airporls, 2122, 30
pubIic invoIvomonl, 613614
pubIic ovnorslip, of airporl, 543
IubIic WorIs Adminislralion (IWA),
544
IWA. IubIic WorIs Adminislralion

QI. oquivaIonl sloady sound IovoI

quouing lloory, 428

RAA. RogionaI AirIino Associalion

radar-basod survoiIIanco, 118, 127129
radii of curvaluro, 236, 237
RAIIS. runvay aIignmonl indicalor
Iiglls
rainfaII inlonsily, 344347, 345, 346
infiIlralion ralo and, 359360
runoff compulalion and, 349350, 350

ramp clarls, 448453, 451, 452

rango, 7779, 78
RanIino unils, 71
ralo solling, 564570
ralio modoIs, 156
ralionaI mollod, 347
RDSIM. runvay doIay simuIalion
modoI
rocroalionaI aroas, 617618
roducod vorlicaI soparalion minima
program (RVSM), 111
rodundancy, 161
roforonco fioId Iongll, 175
rogionaI air carriors, 7, 8
RogionaI AirIino Associalion (RAA), 46
rogionaI annuaI onpIanomonls,
157, 158
rogrossion anaIysis, 159
roguIalions. - IodoraI Avialion
RoguIalions
of air lransporlalion, 1819
doroguIalion and, 3233
IAA, 3942
noiso, 609
noiso abalomonl, 27
pislon ongino, 82
socurily, 469
TilIo 49 Codo of IodoraI, 470
Transporlalion Socurily, 42
lurbino-povorod lransporl, 83
RIII. runvay ond idonlifior Iiglls
roIiovor airporls, 1213
roIocalion, 617
Roorganizalion Acl of 1939, 19
roquirod navigalion porformanco (RNI),
125, 126
roquirod obslacIo cIoaranco (ROC), 222
rosiduaI cosl approacl, 564, 565
roslriclod aroas, 106
roslriclod galo uso, 540
rolardanco coofficionl, 359, 359
rolrorofIoclivo marIings, 340
RGIs. runvay guard Iiglls
rigid pavomonl, 258
CDIU oslimalion for, 285
dosigning, 275277
IAARIIIID soflvaro and, 277, 285
joinl slrucluro Iocalions of, 278, 279
ovorIays ovor oxisling, 284, 284
sIab llicInoss of, 276
slooI dovoIs in, 281
subbaso of, 275
risI assossmonl procoss, 478480
RMS. rool-moan-squaro
RNAV. aroa navigalion
RNI. roquirod navigalion porformanco
roadvays oIomonls, 402403
ROC. roquirod obslacIo cIoaranco
RonaId Roagan Waslinglon NalionaI
Airporl, 116, 126
RoosovoIl, IranIIin D., 19
rool-moan-squaro (RMS), 580
rouglnoss faclors, 361
RIZ. runvay proloclion zono
RSA. runvay safoly aroa
runoff. surfaco runoff
runvay(s). - paraIIoI runvays,
laxivays/laxiIanos
aiming poinls on, 320321
aircrafl domand for, 523
airfioId soparalion roquiromonls and, 212,
213, 214, 215
aIignmonl guidanco on, 294
approacl calogory dimonsionaI slandards
of, 205
bIasl pad marIings on, 322323
bIasl pad of, 202
conlorIino marIings of, 320
cIosod marIings of, 328329
consoculivo doparluros soparalion on, 113
docIarod dislancos for oacl, 88
dosignalors, 315319, 319
dimonsionaI slandards of, 204, 206
dispIacod llrosloId marIings on, 321
322, 322
dislanco romaining signs on,
330331, 330, 331
odgo Iiglls, 304, 305, 306, 307
ond siling roquiromonls, 223227, 224
225, 226, 228
oxil rango lo, 243
oxils/arrivaI llrosloId of, 245
IAA signing convonlions of, 337338
four compononls of, 243244
gradionl, 8081
loIding Iino/airfioId soparalion criloria
vill, 215
lourIy capacily (IIR) of, 519
lourIy capacily (VIR) of, 518
Iayoul of, 516
Iiglling, 303304
IongiludinaI gradionl of, 210, 213
marIing pallorns on, 292, 315
marIings on, 316, 317, 318
mix indox of, 515
mixod oporalion oqualions of, 509510
occupancy limo, 497
orionlalion, 183190
proloclion zono dimonsions of, 217
proloclion zono of, 213216, 216
RSA of, 202203
soparalion criloria and, 212
slouIdor marIings of, 324
slouIdor of, 202
sido slripos on, 321
sigll dislancos on, 207213
sIopo clangos of, 212
slop bar, 314, 314
surfaco condilions, 8182
surfaco gradionl slandards for, 209, 211
laxivay odgo Iiglls on, 311313, 312
laxivay Iiglling on, 310314
laxivay/airfioId soparalion criloria vill,
215
llrosloId, 504505
llrosloId marIings of, 320
limo-spaco concopls usod on, 493
loucldovn zono marIings on, 321, 321
lransvorso groovod, 82
uliIizalion, 73
vind dala for, 190, 191
vind roso and, 187188

runvay aIignmonl indicalor Iiglls (RAIIS),
298
runvay capacily
arrivaIs posilion orror and, 506
for arriving aircrafl, 498
clarls usod for, 516
mallomalicaI lloory formuIaling, 490492
paramolors roquirod in, 514519
sludios, 241
limo-spaco concopl formuIaling, 492497
runvay conlorIino, 304307, 308
runvay configuralions, 177183
combinalions of, 181183
oxil Iocalions and, 243
inlorsocling, 181, 182, 207, 208, 517
OHaro airporls compIox, 183, 184
OHaro airporls pIannod simpIifiod, 185
opon-V, 181, 183
paraIIoI, 178181, 179
singIo, 178, 178
spacing in paraIIoI, 205207
VIR/IIR condilions and, 180181
runvay doIay simuIalion modoI (RDSIM),
537
runvay ond idonlifior Iiglls (RIII),
309310, 310
runvay guard Iiglls (RGIs), 311, 313, 314
runvay Iongll, 57, 87
for <12,500 Ib MGTOW aircrafl and,
192193
for >12,500 Ib bul <60,000 Ib, MGTOW
aircrafl and, 193198
for >60,000 Ib MGTOW aircrafl and,
198201
aircrafl porformanco and, 7980
almosploric condilions and, 79
avorago ligl lomporaluros and, 196
Booing 737-900 Ianding, 200
Booing 737-900 laIooff, 201
oIovalion and, 198
onvironmonlaI condilions and, 7980
oslimaling, 191201
oslimaling procoduro for, 198201
IAAs procoduros oslimaling, 191192
smaII aircrafl and, 176
Runvay Iongll Roquiromonls for Airporl
Dosign, 191
runvay proloclion zono (RIZ), 203
runvay safoly aroa (RSA), 202203
runvay sysloms, 517
approacl calogory dimonsionaI slandards
of, 205
doIay compulod on, 520531
doparluro onIy capacily of, 512513
dimonsionaI slandards of, 204, 206
dimonsions of, 202
goomolric spocificalions of, 201204
lourIy capacily of, 514519
mixod oporalions inlorarrivaI spacing of,
508
uIlimalo lourIy capacily of, 514
runvay visuaI rango oquipmonl (RVR), 122
runvay-uso slralogios, 515
RVR. runvay visuaI rango oquipmonl
RVSM. roducod vorlicaI soparalion
minima program

saloIIilo concopl, 418419, 421, 422

saloIIilo-basod sysloms, 124126
saluralod poriod, 524, 524, 525
sconario anaIysis, 480481
sclomalic dosign, 399
sclomalic dosign procoss, 426427
scrooning, silo, 137138
SD. slop dislanco
socuro aroa, 470, 471
socurily, 467
of airporls, 481482
airporls lislory of, 468470
al commorciaI sorvico airporls,
472477
al gonoraI avialion airporls, 481
Iiglling, 477
porimolor, 477
roguIalions, 469
as risI assossmonl procoss, 478480
-
-, 481
socurily idonlificalion dispIay aroa (SIDA),
472, 476
SII. sound oxposuro IovoIs
soIoclion, silo, 138
soIoclivo avaiIabiIily, 124
soIf-sorvico clocI-in IiosIs, 408
soparalion criloria, 212, 213, 214, 215,
232233
sorvico procossor claraclorislics, 436
sorvico limo dislribulion, 431
sorvicing aclivily limo scloduIo, 443
sovoro voallor avoidanco program (SWAI),
109
slarod galo uso, 452
slorl laIooff and Ianding aircrafl (STOI),
192
slorl-lorm forocasling, 152, 169
slorl-lorm parIors, 403
slouIdors
of runvay, 202
runvay marIings of, 324
of laxivays/laxiIanos, 326, 328
SIDA. socurily idonlificalion dispIay
aroa
sido slripos, runvays, 321
sigll dislancos
on inlorsocling runvays, 207
IongiludinaI profiIos and, 234
on runvays, 207213
sign iIIuminalion, 340
signing convonlions, 337338
simpIo Iinoar rogrossion anaIysis, 160
simpIifiod slorl approacl Iiglling syslom
(SSAIR), 298
simuIalod airIino scloduIo, 449
simuIalion modoIs, 153, 438441, 440
airporl lorminaI projocls vill,
439441
of annuaI sorvico voIumo, 537538
runvay doIay, 537
singIo runvay configuralion, 178, 178
singIo sorvor syslom, 429430
singIo-vlooI Ianding goar, 59

silo soIoclion, loIiporls, 631634

sIip pipo, 378
sIoop inlorforonco, 594595
sIopo clangos, 212
smaII aircrafl, 176
oIovalion/lomporaluro and, 193, 194
runvay Iongll and, 192193
SMSA. slandard molropoIilan slalislicaI
aroas
sociaI faclors, airporl pIanning,
616618
socioIogicaI clangos, 4
soiIs
boring spacing/doplls of, 260
claraclorislics of, 264265
cIassificalion of, 260
coarso-grainod, 259260
drainabiIily of, 379
drainago pipo sizos/sIopos and, 378
fino grain, 261
frosl dosign and, 268
frosl infIuonco on, 266267
groupings of, 261
invosligalion/ovaIualion, 259266
slabiIizalion, 268
sound oxposuro IovoIs (SII), 583585, 588
589, 602
sound insuIalion, 606607
sound IovoIs, 582
sound prossuro IovoIs (SII), 580581
Soullvosl Goorgia RogionaI Airporl, 104,
105
spaco programming, 400
spociaI faciIily bonds, 559560
spocific fuoI consumplion, 67
spoocl inlorforonco, 593594
spood
of aircrafl, 7577, 135
approacl, 295
cIimb-oul, 630
crilicaI ongino-faiIuro spood/docision, 85
ground, 73
of sound formuIa, 76
subsonic/suporsonic, 76
loucldovn, 240241
lurning radius v., 235236
V-, 77
vind, 7375, 188189
SII. sound prossuro IovoIs
SSAIR. simpIifiod slorl approacl
Iiglling syslom
slaIIing, 76
slandard almosploro, 70, 71
slandard condilions/day, 71
slandard molropoIilan slalislicaI aroas
(SMSA), 12
slandard prossuro, 71
slandard rogrossion anaIysis, 160
slandard suppIy curvos, 360, 361, 362
slalo agoncios, 4344
Slalo BIocI Granl, 558
slalo govornmonl, 557558
sloady noiso onvironmonl, convorsalions in,
593
slooI, 280282
slooI dovoIs, 281
slooring angIos, 246248
sloriIo aroa, 472
STOI. slorl laIooff and Ianding aircrafl
slop bar, 314, 314
slop dislanco (SD), 83
slopvay (SW), 85, 322
slralosploro, 70
slrucluraI dosign, of loIiporls, 646647
slrucluraI pavomonl, 202
sludios
air quaIily, 578
for airporl maslor pIan, 138140
airporl pIanning/dosign, 135146
airporl projocl pIan, 141142
for airporl silo soIoclion, 137138
for airporl syslom pIan, 135137
of airporls, 168
oconomic/financiaI foasibiIily,
145146
of onvironmonl, 576
for onvironmonlaI impacl assossmonl,
143145
for onvironmonlaI impacl slalomonl,
2930, 144145, 575
for Iand-uso pIanning, 142143
runvay capacily, 241
sludy aroa popuIalion (IOI), 160, 160, 161
subbaso, 259
of fIoxibIo pavomonl, 272
of rigid pavomonl, 275
subdrainago, pipo lypos for, 377378
subgrado drainago, 376, 377
subgrado slabiIizalion, 267268
subsonic spood, 76
subsurfaco drainago, 376, 379
subsurfaco valor, 377
suicido bombors, 468
suporsonic spood, 76
surfaco condilions, 8182
surfaco drainago, 368376
surfaco gradionl slandards, 209, 211
surfaco gradionls, 254
surfaco runoff, 343344
of airporls, 347
Corps of Inginoors procoduro for, 358359
drainago compulalion/no ponding and,
360365
ponding and, 357, 357
rainfaII inlonsily compulalion and,
349350, 350
Surfaco Transporlalion Assislanco Acl, 33
surfaco vind, 80
SW. slopvay
SWAI. sovoro voallor avoidanco
program
SWIM. syslom vido informalion
managomonl
syslom vido informalion managomonl
(SWIM), 129130

TACAN. laclicaI air navigalion

laclicaI air navigalion (TACAN), 116
laiI-vlooI, 57
laiIvind, 73

laIooff, 8586
laIooff aroa, of loIiporls, 636637,
640641
laIooff dislanco (TOD), 83, 85, 89
laIooff run (TOR), 83
laIooff run avaiIabIo (TORA), 88
Tampa InlornalionaI Airporl, 103, 422
TAS. lruo airspood
laxivay odgo Iiglls, 311313, 312
laxivay oxil, 234238
conlorIino inlorsoclions and, 241242
inlorsoclion configuralions and, 238
Iocalion of, 238244, 241
loucldovn spoods and, 240241
lurnoff angIo of, 237238
laxivay guidanco sign syslom,
336337
laxivay inlorsoclion marIings,
339, 340
laxivay Iiglling
conlorIino spacing of, 313
on curvod soclions, 311
on runvays, 310314
laxivay marIings, 323, 325
laxivays/airfioIds, soparalion criloria and,
215
laxivays/laxiIanos, 228250
conlorIino/odgo marIings of,
323325
cIosod marIings of, 328329
curvaluro dimonsionaI slandards of, 239
curvo dosign paramolors of, 248249
curvo/inlorsoclion dosign of,
244249
dosignalions on, 331332, 332
dimonsionaI slandards of, 229, 231
ond-around, 249250, 250
onding signs on, 336337
onlancod marIings on, 328340, 329
fiIIol dosign goomolry, 247
gradionl slandards of, 230, 232
guidanco sign sizo/Iocalion on,
338340, 338
guidanco sign syslom on, 331
loId marIings on, 325326
loId slorl/odgo marIings of, 327
IongiludinaI profiIos of, 234
paraIIoI laxiIano conlorIino and, 231
radii of curvaluro/onlranco curvos of, 236
soparalion roquiromonls for, 229232
slouIdors of, 326, 328
sign iIIuminalion on, 340
sign lypos on, 333337
visuaI aid roquiromonls on, 310311
vidlls/sIopos of, 228
loclnoIogy, of aircrafl, 4950
lomporaluros, 193, 194, 196
lomporary fIigll roslriclions (TIRs), 106
lorminaI approacl conlroI faciIilios
(TRACON), 98
lorminaI aprons/ramps, 252254
aircrafl minimum cIoaranco of, 252
roquiromonls, 253
surfaco gradionls, 254
lorminaI aroa, of loIiporls, 640
lorminaI buiIdings cosls, 621622
lorminaI cosls, 564
lorminaI curb, 401402
lorminaI domand paramolors, 393
lorminaI faciIilios, 400, 568
lorminaI inslrumonl approacl procoduros
(TIRIS), 222223, 223
doparluro obslacIo idonlificalion surfacos
in, 226
OCS and, 222
lorminaI pIanning procoss, 399442
accoss inlorfaco syslom in, 401
airIino aclivilios in, 415
airporl oporalions/sorvicos in, 416
anaIylicaI quouing modoIs in,
428438
baggago cIaim faciIilios in, 411414, 411
buiIding spaco roquiromonls in, 417
clocI-in counlor configuralions in, 406
clocI-in faciIilios/licIol offico in, 405408
combinod concopls in, 419422, 420
concopl dovoIopmonl for, 416417
corridors in, 410
doparluro Ioungos in, 409, 410
dosign dovoIopmonl in, 441442
onlryvays/foyors in, 404405
lorizonlaI dislribulion concopls in, 417
422, 418
inlornalionaI faciIilios in, 415
inlraairporl lransporlalion sysloms in,
414415
Iinoar lorminaI/galo arrivaIs concopls in,
419, 421
Iobby aroa in, 405
muIliIovoI passongor procossing sysloms
in, 425
nolvorI modoIs in, 427428
ovoraII spaco roquiromonls in, 416
parIing in, 403404, 403, 425, 441
passongor amonilios in, 415416
passongor procossing sysloms in, 404
pior/fingor concopl in, 417418, 421
programming/concopl dovoIopmonl
plaso of, 400
roadvays in, 402403
saloIIilo concopl in, 418419, 421, 422
sclomalic dosign procoss in, 426427
simuIalion modoIs in, 438441, 440
spaco programming in, 400
lorminaI curb in, 401402
lransporlor concopl/mobiIo convoyanco
concopls in, 419
vorlicaI dislribulion concopls in, 423426,
423
TIRIS. lorminaI inslrumonl approacl
procoduros
lorrorisls, 467468
Torzagli, K., 378
TIRs. lomporary fIigll roslriclions
3D-II. llroo-dimonsionaI finilo oIomonl
dosign lloory
llroo-dimonsionaI finilo oIomonl dosign
lloory (3D-II), 276
llrosloId Iiglling, 303, 307, 309
llrosloId marIings, 320
llrosloId slifl, 596
llrougl slalion, 396

llrusl-lo-voigll ralio, 64
licIol offico, 405408
limo abovo llrosloId IovoI, 590
limo of conconlralion, 347
limo of fIov, 347
limo soparalion
of aircrafl, 500, 503
aircrafls docroasing, 501502,
504505
aircrafls incroasing, 499501,
505507
limo sorios anaIysis, 153
limo sorios mollod, 154156
limo vaIuo of monoy, 146
limo-spaco concopl, 493
for arrivaIs, 494
orror-froo inlorarrivaI spacing and, 496,
500
for mixod oporalions, 495
runvay capacily formuIalod vill,
492497
liro infIalion prossuro, 8182
TilIo 49 Codo of IodoraI RoguIalions, 470
TIOI. loucldovn and Iifloff
TOD. laIooff dislanco
lop-dovn modoIs, 156, 157
TOR. laIooff run
TORA. laIooff run avaiIabIo
loucl-and-go oporalions, 515, 517
loucldovn and Iifloff (TIOI), 636, 640
loucldovn spoods, 240241
loucldovn zono Iiglls, 308309
loucldovn zono marIings, 321, 321
lracI, 7475
lracI-in, 246
TRACON. lorminaI approacl conlroI
faciIilios
lrado organizalions, civiI avialion,
4546
lransfor slalion, 396
lransilionaI surfaco, 218
lransporl airporls, 177
Transporlalion Socurily Adminislralion
(TSA), 3435, 37, 42, 470, 472473, 475
Transporlalion Socurily RoguIalions (TSRs),
42
lransporlalion syslom, 478
lransporlor concopl, 419
lransvorso omboddod slooI, 282
lransvorso gradionl, 213
lrond Iino anaIysis, 154, 155
of rogionaI annuaI onpIanomonls, 157,
158
sludy aroa popuIalion in, 160, 161
lribulary aroa, 347, 352354
lrip gonoralion, 159
lroposploro, 70, 71
lruo airspood (TAS), 75
TSA. Transporlalion Socurily
Adminislralion
TSRs. Transporlalion Socurily
RoguIalions
lurbino-povorod aircrafl, 8586, 89
lurbino-povorod lransporl roguIalions, 83
lurbofan/jol ongino, 63, 64, 6566, 67
lurboprop ongino, 63
lurning radius
of aircrafl, 5859, 59
passongor air carriors minimum, 60
spood v., 235236
lurnoff angIo, 237238
TVORs (airfioId VOR/NDB sysloms), 117,
117
lvo bar/llroo bar VASI, 302
lypicaI arrivaI dislribulion, 438

UDI. unduclod fan

UHB. uIlrabypass ralio
uIlimalo capacily
formuIalions of, 497514
lourIy/annuaI, 514, 533534
mallomalicaI formuIalions of, 497
uIlrabypass ralio (UHB), 64
unconslrainod forocasling, 165
unconlroIIod airporls, 104
unconlroIIod airspaco, 106
undorground slorm drains, 366367
unduclod fan (UDI), 64
Unifiod SoiI CIassificalion (USC),
259, 262
Unilod Slalos
air lransporlalion in, 5
aircrafl rogislorod in, 1011
airspaco cIassos in, 101106, 101, 103,
105
commorciaI sorvico avialion in, 46
domoslic passongor lraffic in, 5
fodoraI agoncios of, 37
fodoraI funding programs in,
544557
firsl air-maiI roulo in, 17
gonoraI avialion in, 3
inlornalionaI airporls in, 300
passongor lravoI in, 6
proloclion zono roquiromonls in, 213216
rainfaII inlonsily in, 345
roIiovor airporls in, 1213
socurily roguIalions in, 469
lolaI gonoraI avialion fIigll lours in, 11
unroslriclod galo-uso slralogy, 539
upvind bar, 301
USC. Unifiod SoiI CIassificalion
usofuI Ioad, 194, 197
uliIily airporls, 176177
uliIily loIos/risors, 378
uliIily roquiromonls, apron galo syslom,
458461

VASI. visuaI approacl sIopo indicalor

vorlicaI dislribulion concopls,
423426, 423
vorlicaI soparalion, in airspaco, 111
vorlicaI laIooff and Ianding (VIOI), 629
vory ligl froquoncy omnirango radios
(VORs), 108, 115, 116, 120
VIR. visuaI fIigll ruIos
viclor airvays, 106, 108
VIOI. vorlicaI laIooff and Ianding

visibiIily
conlroI lovor roquiromonls of, 254255
zono, 207208, 208
Vision 100 Conlury of Avialion Acl of 2003,
35, 557
visuaI aids, 292296, 295, 310311
visuaI approacl sIopo indicalor (VASI), 294,
301302, 302
visuaI fIigll ruIos (VIR), 180181, 518
visuaI molooroIogicaI condilions (VMC),
100, 186
VMC. visuaI molooroIogicaI condilions
voico communicalion, 127
VORs. vory ligl froquoncy omnirango
radios
vorlicos, ving lip, 8990, 90
V-spoods, 77
vuInorabiIily assossmonl, 477481, 478

WAAS. vido aroa augmonlalion syslom

vaIo lurbuIonco, 90, 90, 112113
avoidanco procoduros for,
179180
paraIIoI runvays and, 206
vaslo, 144
valor quaIily, 577579
WondoII Iord Avialion Invoslmonl Acl.
AIR-21
Woslorgaard, H. M., 275
Woslorgaards anaIysis, 275276, 276
volIands, 619620
vlooI lracI, 57
vlooIbaso, 57
vido aroa augmonlalion syslom (WAAS),
109, 125
vido-bodiod aircrafl, 301302
vido-bodiod galos, 448
viIdIifo, 619
vind considoralions, 184185
vind dala, 188189, 188, 190, 191
vind roso, 186190
coordinalo syslom/lompIalo,
187, 187
graplicaI voclor anaIysis using,
186187
oplimum runvay diroclion from,
187188
vind dala formallod in, 188189
vind spood/diroclion, 7375, 188189
ving lip vorlicos, 8990, 90
vingspan, 57
WorIs Irogross Adminislralion (WIA),
544
vorId oconomy, 3
WIA. WorIs Irogross Adminislralion

YarnoII, David I., 344

Youngs moduIus, 266

zoro fuoI voigll (ZIW), 62

ZIW. zoro fuoI voigll
zoning, in Iand-uso pIanning, 142