Respiration

Introduction
The lung is the essential respiration organ in air-breathing vertebrates. Its principal function is to
transport oxygen from the atmosphere into the bloodstream, and to excrete carbon dioxide from the
bloodstream into the atmosphere. This exchange of gases is accomplished in the mosaic of specialised
cells that form millions of tiny, exceptionally thin-walled air sacs called alveoli. The lungs also have
nonrespiratory functions.
Mechanism of breathing
Energy production from aerobic respiration reuires oxygen and produces carbon dioxide as a by-
product, creating a need for an efficient means of oxygen delivery to cells and excretion of carbon
dioxide from cells.
!. "ir enters the body through the nose, is warmed, filtered, and passed through the nasal cavity.
#. "ir passes the pharynx $which has the epiglottis that prevents food from entering the trachea%.
&. The upper part of the trachea contains the larynx. The vocal cords are two bands of tissue that
extend across the opening of the larynx.
'. "fter passing the larynx, the air moves into the bronchi that carry air in and out of the lungs.
(. )ronchi are reinforced to prevent their collapse and are lined with ciliated epithelium and mucus-
producing cells. )ronchi branch into smaller and smaller tubes *nown as bronchioles.
+. It moves to the lungs.
,. The lungs are a rich lattice of alveoli, which provide an enormous surface area for gas exchange. "
networ* of fine capillaries allows transport of blood over the surface of alveoli. -xygen from the
air inside the alveoli diffuses into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to
the alveoli, both across thin alveolar membranes.
.. The drawing and expulsion of air is driven by muscular action/ a complicated musculos*eletal
system is used. " large muscle, the diaphragm $in addition to the internal intercostal muscles%, drive
ventilation by periodically altering the intra-thoracic volume and pressure.
Inspiration $inhalation%
0uring inspiration, the intercostal muscles contract and push the ribs upward and forward .The rib cage
itself is also able to expand and contract to some degree, through the action of other respiratory and
accessory respiratory muscles.
"t the same time the muscles of diaphragm contract and diaphragm becomes less dome shaped. )y
increasing volume and thus decreasing pressure of diaphragm, air flows into the airways down a
pressure gradient.
These two actions cause an increase in the chest cavity and reduce pressure. 1hen the pressure from
the lungs removed, they expand. 1ith the expansion of the lungs ,vacuum is created inside the lungs in
which the air rushes from the outside due to higher atmospheric pressure.
The lungs filter the oxygen through its lattice of alveoli from the air. -xygen from the air inside the
alveoli diffuses into the bloodstream. The oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary
veins to be pumped bac* into systemic circulation.
This is called inspiration. The lungs made to expand by movements of ribs and diaphragm.
Expiration $exhalation%
0uring expiration the muscles of diaphragm relax and so the diaphragm assumes its dome shaped
position.
"t the same time, the intercostal muscles of ribs relax , the ribs move downward and inward. Thus the
si2e of the chest is reduced from side to side. The sternum comes to its original state. "s the result of
relaxation of the muscles of diaphragm and of the intercostal muscles ,the si2e o the whole thorax is
decreased which exerts pressure on enlarged lungs.
0eoxygenated blood from the heart is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, where
oxygen diffuses into blood and is exchanged for carbon dioxide in the haemoglobin of the erythrocytes
$red blood cells%. carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood to the alveoli of lungs. "fter collecting the
carbon dioxide from the blood, the lungs are pressed the carbon dioxide inside lungs moves out of the
lungs. 3ot all of the oxygen breathed in is converted into carbon dioxide/ around !&4 of what we
breathe out is still oxygen.
0uring normal breathing, expiration is passive and no muscles are contracted $the diaphragm relaxes%.
The lungs are composed of involuntary muscle. 0uring inspiration and expiration, the part of the hind
brain called medulla oblongata controls the movement of the intercostal muscles and lung5s muscles.

0eoxygenated blood from the heart is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, where
oxygen diffuses into blood and is exchanged for carbon dioxide in the haemoglobin of the erythrocytes
$red blood cells%. The oxygen-rich blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary veins to be pumped
bac* into systemic circulation.
"nother name for this inspiration and expulsion of air is ventilation
6as exchange
gas exchange occurs at the alveoli, the tiny sacs which are the basic functional component of the lungs.
The alveolar walls are extremely thin $approx. 7.# micrometres%. These walls are composed of a single
layer of epithelial cells $type I and type II epithelial cells% in close proximity to the pulmonary
capillaries which are composed of a single layer of endothelial cells. The close proximity of these two
cell types allows permeability to gases and, hence, gas exchange.