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Problems Based on Possibilities

In these days, questions based on possibilities are often
asked in various exams. To solve such questions, keep
the following points in your mind:
(1) When the definite conclusions can be drawn from
the given statements, the case of possibility does not exist.
It is to be noted that conclusions can be drawn either by
mediate inf erence or by immediate inference or by
implication of a given proposition.
For example, take the statement as given below:
All S are P
For this statement definite conclusions are:
(a) All S are P conversion Some P are S
(b) All S are P implication Some S are P
Take another statement,
Some S are P
For this statement only definite conclusion is as follows:
Some S are P conversion Some P are S.
Therefore, The above drawn conclusions cannot be the
cases of possibilities.
(2) For E-Type of proposition (No S are P), case of
possibility cannot exist.
(3) Case of possibilities always arises when definite
conclusions cannot be drawn from the given propositions.
For example, we know that A+I and I+I do not give a
defi ni te concl usi on. Therefore, i n such cases,
possibilities exist. Now, we analyse the different cases
of possibilities in the following pages:
(a) Immediate Possibility
If we draw A type, E-type, I-type, and O-type of conclusions,
from the given statements, we have the following cases of
immediate possibilities:
(i) For A-type:
All S are P:
[All P are S]
Here, there is an overlapping Venn-diagram of S and P.
(ii) For E-Type:
We know that, for E-type of proposition, case of possibility
does not exist.
(iii) For I-Type:
Some S are P : For this type of proposition following cases
of possibilities exist:
(a) Some S are not P
(b) All S are P
(c) All P are S
(iv) For O-Type:
Some S are not P: Following possibilities can exist:
a) Some S are P
(b) All P are S
(c) No S are P
Note: Here, for the cases of possibilities, we consider O-
Type and O*-Type statements alike. For this reason,
we will not take E+I=O* and E+A=O* as separate cases
of possibilies. This will be better clear in the illustrative
example and the exercises later on.
All the above discussed cases of possibilities can be
termed as Immediate Possibility. Now, we take another
type of possibili ties that can be termed as Mediate
Possibility for our convenience.
(b) Mediate Possibility
( i ) A+I Type
Suppose, we have the following propositins:
All S are P (A-Type)
Some P are Q (I-Type)
We know that A+I = - ie No difinite conclusion. But there
some relationship between S and Q exists. We cannot say
difinitely that relationship between S and Q does exist.
Hence a case of possibilities arises. There is a possibility
that some relationship between S and Q exists. These
possibilities are as given below:
(a) All S are Q
(b) Some S are Q
(c) All Q are S
(d) Some Q are S
Now, we enlist the all possible cases of possibilities for
the above given two statements (A+I Type).
(1) Immediate Possibilities
All S are P (A-Type)
(a) All P are S
Some P are Q (I-Type)
(b) Some P are not Q
(c) All P are Q
(d) All Q are P
(2) Mediate Possibilities
(e) All S are Q
(g) Some S are Q
(f) All Q are S
(h) Some Q are S
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(ii) I + I Type
Now, take the following statements:
Some S are P (I type)
Some P are Q (I type)
We know that I+I = - ie No definite conclusion. But there
is a possibility of relationship between S and Q.
These Possibilities are as given below:
(a) Some S are Q
(c) All S are Q
(e) Some S are not Q
(b) Some Q are S
(d) All Q are S
(f) Some Q are not S
Now, we can enlist all the cases of possibilities for the
above given statements (I-I Type) as given below:
(1) Immediate Possibilities
Some S are P (I-Type)
(a) Some S are not P
(b) All S are P
(c) All P are S
Some P are Q (I-Type)
(d) Some P are not Q
(e) All P are Q
(f) All Q are P
(2) Mediate Possibilities
(g) Some S are Q
(h) Some Q are S
(i) All S are Q
(j) All Q are S
(k) Some S are not Q
(l) Some Q are not S
Ex.: In each question below are given two statements
followed by two conclusions numbered I and II.
You have take the two given statements to be true
even if they seem to be at variance with commonly
known facts. Read the conclusions and then
decide which of the given conclusions logically
follows from the given statements disregarding
commonly known facts.
Give answer
1) If only conclusion I follows.
2) if only conclusion II follows.
3) if either I or II follows.
4) if neither I nor II follows.
5) if both I and II follow.
1. Statements:
Some letters are words.
All words are sentences .
Conclusions:
I. All sentences are letters.
II. All sentences being words is a possibility.
2. Statements:
No gas is liquid.
Some liquids are solids.
Conclusions:
I. Some solids being gases is a possibility.
II. At least some gases are solids.
Soln.:
1. 2; Some letters are words + All words are sentences
= I + A = I = Some letters are sentences. Hence
conclusion I does not follow. Again, look for the
subject and predicate of the given conclusion II
(here, these are sentences and words) in the
gi ven statements and try to est abl i sh
relationship and draw all the possible immediate
and mediate possibilities discussed above. Here
the rel evant statement i s Al l words are
sentences. For this A-type statement, only one
case of possibility exists ie All sentences are
words.
Possibility:
[All sentences are words]
Here, there is an overlapping venn-diagram for
Sentences and Words.
Therefore, conclusion II (All sentences being words
is a possibility) follows.
2. 1; No gas is liquid + Some liquids are solids = E +
I = O* = Some solids are not gases. Now drawing
al l t he possi bl e venn-di agrams f or thi s
conclusion as given in the above table.
Possibility I:
(Some solids are gases.)
Therefore, conclusion I, ie Some solids being
gases is a possibility follows.
Since, we get the conclusion I follows as the
answer, therefore, we need not draw further
possible venn-diagrams.
Again, conclusion II, ie At least some gases are
solids means Some gases are solids, does not
f ol l ow.
Determining the Hidden Proposition
The reader must have noticed that there are some
sentences in the previous example that are on standard
patterns as gi ven in the f irst table. But some other
sentences are not on the standard patterns. We should
know, therefore, how to find out the hidden propositions
in such sentences.
Some A-type propositions not beginning with All
(i) All positive propositions beginning with every, each,
any, are A-type propositions.
Examples:
(a) Every man makes sandwiches.
(All men make sandwiches.)
(b) Each of them has a share of profit.
(All (of them) have a share of profit.)
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(c) Any one could kill a mosquito.
(All (men) can kill mosquitoes.)
(ii) A positive sentence with a particular person as its subject
is always an A-type proposition.
Examples:
(a) He should be awarded a gold medal.
He (is a man) who should be awarded a (gold medal).
Subject Predicate.
(b) Baba Ramdev is a controversial personality.
(iii) A positive sentence with a very definite exception is also
of A-type.
Example:
All students except Ram have failed.
(All except Ram (are the students) who have failed.)
Subject Predicate
Some E-type propositions not beginning with No
(i) All negative sentences beginning with no one, none,
not a single, etc are E-type propositions.
Examples:
(a) None can escape from Tihar.
(No man is one who/can escape from Tihar).
Subject Predicate
(b) Not a si ngl e pl ayer i s present. ( No player i s
present.)
(ii) A sentence with a particular person as its subject but a
negative sense is an E-type proposition.
Examples:
(a) He does not deserve a gold medal.
(He (is not a man) who deserves a gold medal.)
Subject Predicate
(b) Baba Ramdev is not a controversial personality.
(iii) A negative sentence with a very definite exception is also
of E-type.
Example:
No student except Ram has failed.
(iv) When an interrogative sentence is used to make an
assertion, this could be reduced to an E-type proposition.
Examples:
(a) Is there any sanity left in the world?
(No sanity is left in the world.)
(b) Is there any person who can cheat himself?
(None can cheat himself.)
Some I-type propositions not beginning with
Some
(i) Positive propositions beginning with words such as most,
a few, mostly, generally, almost, frequently, often
are to be reduced to the I -type.
Examples:
(a) Girls are usually feminine.
(Some girls are feminine.)
(b) Students are frequently short-tempered.
(Some students are short-tempered.)
(c) Almost all the books have been sold.
(Some books have been sold.)
(d) A few dollars are left in my pocket.
(Some dollars are left in my pocket.)
(e) Most of the paper is handmade.
(Some (of the) paper is handmade.)
(ii) Negative propositions beginning with words such as few,
seldom, hardly, scarcely, rarely, little etc are to be
reduced to the I -type.
Examples:
(a) Few men are not corruptible.
(Some men are corruptible.)
(b) Seldom are people not jealous.
(Some people are jealous.)
(c) Rarely is a rich man not worried.
(Some rich (men) are worried.)
(iii) A positive sentence with an exception which is not definite,
is reduced to I -type proposition.
Examples:
(a) All students except three have passed.
(Some students have passed.)
(b) All students except a few are present.
(Some students are present.)
Some O-type propositions not beginning with
Some...not
(i) All negative propositions beginning with words such as
all, every, any, each etc are to be reduced to O-type
propositions.
Examples:
(a) All men are not rich.
(Some men are not rich.)
(b) Every one is not present.
(Some are not present.)
(c) All that glitters is not gold.
(Some glittering objects are not gold.)
(ii) Negative propositions with words as most, a few,
mostly, generally, almost, frequently are to be reduced
to the O-type.
Examples:
(a) Girls are usually not feminine.
(Some girls are not feminine.)
(b) Students are not frequently short-tempered.
(Some students are not short-tempered.)
(c) Almost all the books have not been sold.
(Some books have not been sold.)
(d) Most of the paper is not handmade.
(Some (of the) paper is not handmade.)
(iii) Positive propositions with beginning words such as few,
seldom,hardlyscarcely,rarely, littleetc are to be
reduced to the O-type.
Examples:
(a) Few men are corruptible.
(Some men are not corruptible.)
(b) Seldom are people jealous.
(Some people are not jealous.)
(c) Rarely is a rich man worried.
(Some rich men are not worried.)
(iv) A negative sentence with an exception, which is not
definite, is to be reduced to the O-type.
Examples:
(a) No students except two have passed.
(Some students have not passed.)
(b) No students except a few are absent.
(Some students are not absent.)