Lecture 03 Conciousness (Reading Chapter 5)

A) Biology of Sleep
Consciousness:
o is defined as awareness of ones own mental activity.
o Our subjective experience if the world, our bodies and mental perspectives
o Functions: mental representations of the world, test different courses of action, makes us rational
and flexible
Daydreaming:
o mild form of conscious alteration
o occurs when alone, relaxed, engaged in a boring/routine task, about to fall asleep (Klingers beeper
experiment)
o highest incidence in young adults ages 18-29
o 1/3 of waking life is spent daydreaming
Why do we daydream?
o rehearse mental alternatives
o keep us mentally aroused
o problem solving
o enjoyment
Circadian Rhythms:
o cyclical changes that occur on a roughly 24-hour basis in many biological processes
o circa means around, diem means day
o biological influence of day/night cycle:
~ arousal, metabolism, heart rate, body temp.
~ high-point: afternoon
~ low-point: night
o affects long-distance air travel (jet lag):
~ worse with eastward travel
o pilot errors and shift work
Biological Clock
o term for the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus thats responsible for controlling our
levels of alertness
o hypothalamus tells us when were sleepy, hungry, horny, etc. triggers our sense of fatigue (via
increasing melatonin)
o the ancient Greeks didnt know about melatonin, thought Hypnos (god of sleep) Brother to death, lived
in a dark cave. Eros life energy.

B) Stages of Sleep and Dreaming
Falling asleep is triggered by an increase in melatonin
Measuring sleep - EEG, EOG, EMG

o Stages (cycle through every 90 mins):
Non-REM Sleep (NREM) ~ stages 1-4 of the sleep cycle, eye movements do not occur and
dreaming is less frequent and vivid
REM Sleep ~ (paradoxical sleep) brainwaves looks like youre awake, rapid eye movement, darting of
the eyes underneath the eyelids during sleep
- increased heart rate/blood pressure, rapid breathing (20-25% of sleep)
- REM Rebound ~ when we evade REM sleep for a few days, the amount and intensity of REM sleep
increases, suggesting that it serves an important biological purpose
- bodies are paralyzed by REM so we dont act out our dreams
- REM Behaviour Disorder ~act out their dreams, may become violent
~ locus coeruleus doesnt function properly (paralyzing agent during REM)
- REM dreams tend to me emotional, illogical, prone to sudden shifts in plot while non-REM dreams
tend to be thoughtlike and repetitive
- blind people can dream: if the blindness occurred before 4 there is no visual imagery, if it occurred
after the age of 7, they do
Stage 1:
Sleep paralysis might occur -~ state of being unable to move just after falling asleep or just before waking up
- associated with anxiety or terror
- 5-10 minutes
- brain slows about 50%, may experience hypnagogic images ~ bizarre dream-like images that go in and out
on consciousness
- hypnic myoclonia ~ sudden jerks of your limbs in light sleep
Stage 2:
-20-30 mins, theta waves
- bursts of electrical activity called sleep spindles of about 12-14 cycles/second and sharply rising and falling
waves called K-complexes occur
- heart rate slows, body temperature decreases, muscles relax, no eye movement
- spend 65% of sleep in this stage
Stages 3 and 4:
- after 10-30 minutes, light sleep becomes deeper slow-wave sleep and we can observe delta waves (1-2
cycles/second)
- children spend 40% of their time in deep sleep -need this sleep to function probably- makes you rested

Stage 5:
- paradoxical or REM sleep
- after 15-30 minutes, we return to stage 2
- brain is active while the body is inactive
- most vivid dreaming occurs- weird symbolic dreams occur here
Stages of Sleep and Dreaming
Difference b/w REM and Non-REM dreams
REM dreams Non-REM dreams
More dreams occur during REM than non-REM
Emotional, illogical
Prone to plot shifts
Biologically crucial
Shorter dreams
More thought-like
Repetitive
Concerned with daily tasks
Lucid Dreaming
- to be aware that you are dreaming
- become aware of this when you recognize that something is completely bizarre
- LaBerge says it is learnable
- opens up the possibility of controlling our dreams
Sleep and wake may not be as distinct as once thought
May help with nightmares, but not other problems

E) Sleep Disorders
- 1 in 3 Canadians get insufficient sleep
- worlds worst industrial accidents occurred in late evening (Chernobyl, Exxon)
Parasomnias:
~ insomnia, apnea, REM sleep disorder
~ narcolepsy/cataplexy
~ somnambulism (sleepwalking)
Insomnia ~ (0-15% of people) difficulty falling and staying asleep
- depression, pain, and various medical conditions can onset this
- restless legs syndrome ~ urge to move our legs or other body parts, often while attempting to sleep
- sleeping pills and rebound insomnia

Narcolepsy ~ disorder character- brought on by really intense emotions
- characterized by the rapid and often unexpected onset of sleep -
- lasts from a few seconds to a few minutes, less frequently up to an hour
- cataplexy ~ a complete loss of muscle tone lack of orexin production
- also seen in other animals, dogs, goats when they get scared, fall asleep, narcoleptics goats were used on sheep
farms when coyotes come, they would be scared and fall asleep, sheep (more expensive) saved, goats killed

Sleep Apnea ~ disorder caused by a blockage of the airway during sleep, resulting in daytime fatigue
- multiple awakenings due to the inability to breathe (none are recalled)

Night Terrors ~ sudden waking episodes characterized by screaming, perspiring, and confusion followed by a
return to deep sleep
- take place during NREM in children (stages )

Sleepwalking ~ (15-30 % of children and 3-5% of adults) walking while fully asleep
- often involves little activity}
usually occurs during non-REM sleep (not dreaming)
May include complex behaviours (e.g., climbing out windows, driving)
Most common in children


F) Theories and Psychology of Dreams
Freud and Wish Fulfillment: The Dream Protection Theory
- dreams are the guardians of sleep
- during sleep, the ego (mental sensor) is less able to repress sexual and aggressive instincts
- the dream work(sensor) contains these instincts by turning them into symbols that represent wish fulfillment
- dream itself is known as manifest content and the true meaning is the latent content
Metaphor of the iceberg in psychoanalysis iceberg =psyche, tip of iceberg is consciousness, water-level =
precociousness, and down below = unconsciousness (represents animalistic urges must be repressed, submerged
in order to avoid disturbing the psyche)
We have a dream sensor, almost like a defense mechanism (sublimation desire/impulse for cutting people up,
ego : become a surgeon, id, ego and superego are happy, balanced psyche) takes horrible things and changes it
to something acceptable
Ex; wanna kill father, dream sensor uses metaphors to transform that kill an old man instead of your father (can
be decoded by an analyst)
Dreams were a way to fulfilling these impulses

Challenges to Theory/Evidence Against It:
- if wish fulfillment was true, than dreams should be positive ex; dreams about catching train and anxiety, but
does that mean you have a wish to be anxious all the time? Doesnt make sense
- said that most dreams are of a sexual nature, however only 10% of dreams are sexual sex is the fuel in
Freudian psychoanalysis, not very prevalent in dreams
- dreams are relatively straight-forward, every-day activities (not disguised)
- post trauma nightmares
Activation-Synthesis Theory
~ theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain than attempts
to weave into a story
- nerve cells in the pons are activated, send incomplete signals to the forebrain that tries to piece the incomplete
bits of information together (disorganized chaos)
- dramatic shifts in brain activity could explain why our dreams are so bizarre
- + Acetylcholine (pons) levels spike before dreaming, amygdala moderates aggressive behaviour
- Serotonin, norepinephrine, prefrontal cortex
- But severe damage to the forebrain can eliminate dreaming, even when the pons is intact
- Dreams are fairly consistent over time (not random)
Neurocognitive Theory
- who we are determines what we dream about dreams are a meaningful product of our cognitive capacities,
which shape what we dream about
- complex dreams are cognitive achievements
- adults are more consciously aware so they recall many more of their dreams than children- children dreams =
simple, lacking movement. Adult dreams = bizarre, complex
Why do we dream? We still dont know; Memories?
1. Dreams are often concerned with everyday preoccupations, and they recur (may or may not be wish
fulfillment)
- great deal of emotional experiences behind dreams
2. Acetylcholine turns on REM sleep
3. The forebrain plays an important role in dreaming

Hallucinations ~ ability to create realistic perceptual experiences in the absence of any external stimuli.
- can include auditory, smell, taste, touch
Brain activates in the same way for hallucinations as for real sensory experiences - NOT MISPERCEPTION,
PERCIEVING THINGS THAT ARE NOT THERE
Relatively normal experience
10-35% of people report having had at least one
Alien Abductions - abductees report a history of sleep paralysis, changes of brain waves
State of being unable to move just after falling asleep or right before waking up
Often associated with anxiety/terror, feeling vibrations, or feeling like there is a menacing
presence in the room


Out of Body Experience (OBE) ~ sense of our consciousness leaving our body
- even though participants report being able to see or hear whats occurring in a faraway place, the accounts are
inaccurate
- most people believe that OBEs are related to a persons ability to fantasize and extraordinarily absorbed in
experiences
-no scientific evidence to support

Near-Death Experience (NDE)
-Dr Raymond Moody had patient die and come back to life report a tunnel and light- started an in depth look
into NDE
- out of body experiences reported by people whove nearly died or thought they were going to die
- difficulty describing the experience in words, hearing yourself pronounced dead, bright light, experiencing a
realm in which all knowledge exists
- differ from culture to culture, suggesting that they have more to do with what we believe the afterlife holds ex;
jewish would see Jehovah - people projecting own expectations, perhaps repeating what theyve heard?
- may be due to changes in the chemistry of the brain as a result of physical traumas
- can be caused by electrical stimulation of the brains temporal lobes, lack of oxygen to the brain in rapid
acceleration during fighter flight training, psychedelic and anesthetic drugs

Dj vu Experiences ~ feeling of reliving an experience thats new
- 10-30 second illusions are most likely to be reported by people who remember their dreams, travel frequently,
are young, have a post-secondary education, have higher income, etc.
- may be a vision from a past life not falsifiable
- could be triggered by small seizures in the front temporal lobe or excess dopamine
- dual processing theory ~ input from separate neural pathways that process sensory information is slightly out of
sync
- could also be related to situations in which were mentally or physically distracted and dont consciously register
something were seeing

Mystical Experience ~ feelings of unity or oneness with the world

Meditation
~ set of ritualized practices that train attention and awareness
Wide range of positive effects (increased empathy, alertness, blood flow, immune function, etc.)
Correlation vs. causation? Does meditation change brain activity or do people with certain
brain signaling patterns seek out meditation?

Types of Meditation
- western countries practice meditation to reduce stress
- non-western countries use it to achieve insight and spiritual growth
- can cause heightened creativity, alertness, empathy, and self-esteem and decreases anxiety, interpersonal
problems, and depression
- increase in delta waves, a brain wave associated with relaxation

Hypnosis ~ set of techniques that provides people with suggestions for alterations in their perceptions, thoughts,
feelings, and behaviours

G) Theories of Hypnosis:
Sociocognitive Theory ~ approach to hypnosis based on peoples attitudes, beliefs, and expectations
- high suggestible are much more likely to respond to suggestions during hypnosis than are low suggestible
- peoples expectations of how theyll respond to hypnosis also have an effect

Dissociation Model ~ approach to explaining hypnosis based on a separation between personality functions that
are normally well integrated
- Ernest Hilgard a division of consciousness in which attention, effort, and planning are carried out without
awareness
- hidden observer is the dissociated, unhypnotized part of the person

H) Drugs and Consciousness
Psychoactive Drugs ~ chemicals similar to those found naturally in our brains that alter consciousness by
changing chemical processes in neurons

The Depressant Drugs: Alcohol and the Sedative-Hypnotics
- these drugs depress the effects of the central nervous system
- sedative ~ drugs that exert a calming effect
- hypnotic ~ drug that exerts a sleep-inducing effect

Alcohol:
- small amounts can promote feelings of relaxation, elevate mood, etc.
- large amounts, when your BAC is 0.05 to 0.10, brain centers become depressed, impaired concentration,
walking, and muscular coordination
- women have a higher BAC because of higher fat content (alcohol is not soluble in fat) and less water (to dilute
alcohol)
- drug experiment in which researchers tell participants whether they are receiving or not receiving a drug, and
then either give it to them or not to test the effect of expectancies- placebo
- withdrawal ~ unpleasant effects of reducing or stopping consumption of a drug that users had consumed
habitually
- delirium ~ disorientation, confusion, visual hallucinations, and memory problems, sometimes resulting from
alcohol withdrawal
- alcohol hallucinosis ~ auditory hallucinations, sometimes accompanied by paranoid beliefs, resulting from
alcohol withdrawal

The Stimulant Drugs: Tobacco, Cocaine, and Amphetamines
- Stimulants ~ drugs that increase activity in the central nervous system, including heart rate, respiration, and
blood pressure
Tobacco:
- nicotine reaches the brain about 10 seconds after its inhaled and reaches the rest of your organs shortly after
- relaxes and alerts you
- can enhance positive emotional reactions and minimize negative emotional reactions
Cocaine:
- most powerful natural stimulant enhanced mental/physical capacity, stimulation, decrease in hunger,
indifference to pain, diminished fatigue (fade with 30 minutes)
- increases activity of dopamine and serotonin
Amphetmines
- first pattern occasion doses to postpone fatigue, elevate mood while performing an unpleasant task, cram for a
test, experience well-being
- second pattern obtain from doctor, use to get high, depression will occur if usage is interrupted
- third pattern street users, inject large doses intravenously to get an extreme rush

The Opiate Narcotic Drugs: Heroin, Morphine, and Codeine
- Narcotics ~ drugs that relieve pain and induce sleep
- Hallucinogenic ~ causing dramatic alterations of perception, mood, and thought
Heroin:
- intense high last about 3-4, if another dose is not taken within 4-6 hours, withdrawal symptoms will occur

The Psychedelic Drugs: Marijuana, LSD, and Ecstacy
Marijuana:
- most frequently used illegal drug in Canada (main ingredient is THC)
- experience a high feeling within a few minutes
- short-term effects sense of time slowing down, enhanced sense of touch, increased hearing, hunger
- long-term effects disturbances in short-term memory, exaggerated emotions, and an altered sense of self
- can last 2-3 hours THC courses through the bloodstream to the brain, where it stimulates cannabinoid
receptors ~ control pleasure, perception, memory, and coordinated body movements ~ increased heart rate, red
eyes, dry mouth
- low achievement, decreased productivity, and loss of motivation are related to marijuana usage
- marijuana may trigger schizophrenia, and it is a gateway drug
LSD:
- interferes with the neurotransmitter serotonin
- can produce an exciting, mystical feelings or one of panic and paranoid delusions
- flashbacks sometimes occur

Ecstacy:
- has both stimulant and hallucinogenic properties
- produces cascades of serotonin in the brain, which increases self-confidence, well-being, and produces high
amounts of empathy for others
- can cause high blood pressure, depression, nausea, blurred vision, liver problems, and possibly memory loss and
damage to neurons that use seretonin

Sleepwalking:
- impaired arousal in first third of night
- typical of stage 3 or 4 sleep
- varied duration
- occurs in 15-30% of healthy children
- starts at 6-12 yrs; peaks at 12, ends at 15
- genetic and social antecedents

Treatment & Intervention:
- provide a safe environment
- avoid deep-sleep factors (fatigue)
- dont waken, but guide back to bed
- hides dangerous objects and car keys

Hypnosis:
- a person responds to suggestions by another for alterations of perceptions, thinking, and behavior
- originated in 17
th
century with a Viennese doctor named Anton Mesmer

Theories:
- Charcot believed that the mind splits into different levels of consciousness Dissociation
- Ernest Hilgard believed that although you report no pain, some other part can - Neodissociation

Effects:
1. Cognitive
- Relingers pseudo-memories
2. Social
- posthypnotic suggestions
3. Perceptual
- believe water in ammonia (vise versa)
- valuable in surgery or birthing for pain relief

Objections:
- critics maintain hypnosis is nothing more than suggestion/motivation:
~ cooperation of pain analgesics
~ age-regression studies
Spiegel et al. (1985)
~ hypnotized subjects viewed a TV image with a suggested box blotted out
~ similar blot-out occurred on occipital cortex