Comprehensive Review of IB Topics 4 and 14

Topic 4: Standard Level Bonding

-4.1: Ionic Bonding
- 4.1.1: Describe the ionic bond as an electronic attraction between oppositely charged
ions
- This is the force experienced by oppositely charged particles, its magnitude is
proportional to the magnitude of the charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them
- As charge increases, force increases
- As distance increases, force decreases
- Ions are charged particles and attract each other to form giant ionic lattices in
which each particle is surrounded by oppositely charged particles
- 4.1.2: Describe how ions can be formed as a result of electron transfer.
- Metals atoms lose electrons in their outer shell and give them to the outer shell
of non metals.
- The new atoms are ions with positive or negative charges
- NaCl: Sodium gives up an electron and and Chlorine gains an electron. Sodium,
now having a positive charged becomes a cation and Chlorine, with its negative
charge, becomes an anion.
- Ionic Bonding Summary
- Metal atoms react with non-metal atoms
- Transfer of electrons from the metal to the non-metal atoms
- Ions with full outer shells are formed
- Oppositely charged ions are attracted together into a giant structure by
electrostatic attraction
- 4.1.3: Deduce which ions will be formed when elements in groups 1, 2, and 3 lose
electrons
- Metal atoms from groups 1, 2, and 3 lose all their electrons to have full outer
electron shells, since each loss of an electron corresponds to an increase in
positive charge:
- Group 1 metals form single positive ions
- Group 2 metals form double positive ions
- Group 3 metals form triple positive ions
- *Does not apply to transition metals
- 4.1.4: Deduce which ions will be formed when elements in groups 6 and 7 gain
electrons
- Atoms in group 6 form ions with a double negative charge and atoms in group 7
form ions with a single negative charge.
- When non-metals loose electrons, they get an -ide added to their name, for
example, oxygen becomes a oxide ion and uorine becomes a uoride ion.
- 4.1.5: State that transition metals can form more than one ion. Include examples such as
Fe
2+
and Fe
3+
- Transition metals dont follow the normal rules because they have electrons in
the d orbitals
- Iron ions
- In these two ions the Iron atoms have lost either two electrons (in the
case of Fe
2+
) or three electrons (in the case of Fe
3+
). This type of behavior
is possible for all of the transition metals. Iron II compounds (containing
Fe
2+
ions) are usually pale green in color whereas Iron III compounds
(containing Fe
3+
ions) are usually yellow, orange or red.
- Copper ions have the same kind of changes
- Copper II compounds (containing Cu
2+
ions) are blue or green and
soluble whereas copper I compounds (containing Cu
+
ions) are white and
insoluble.
- 4.1.6: Predict whether a compound of two elements would be ionic from the position of
the elements in the periodic table, or from their electronegativity values.
- Electronegativity
- Compounds in which the bonded atoms have a large electronegativity
difference for ionic compounds. Where the difference is slight, they are
covalent. There is no hard and fast value at which the change occurs.
Rather there is a greater and greater degree of covalency as the values
become closer together.
- Think about a spectrum of light, compounds arent actually ionic
or covalent or ionic, theyre a combination of the two, kind of
like resonance.
- However, theres still a kind of rule of thumb you can use to distinguish
between covalent and ionic using electronegativity
- Greater than 1.5 in difference is ionic
- Less than 1.5 is covalent
- Ionic compounds are usually between metals and nonmetals
- A better way to put it would be that elements who readily give up
electrons bond with elements who readily gain electrons
- 4.1.7: State the formula of common polyatomic ions formed by the non-metals in period
two and three. Examples include NO3
-
, OH
-
, SO4
2-
, CO3
2-
, PO4
3-
, NH4
+
, HCO3
-
.
- Literally just memorize your polyatomics I cant help you with that
- 4.1.8: Describe the lattice structure of ionic compounds. Students should be able to
describe the structure of sodium chloride and an example of an ionic lattice.
- Sodium Chloride
- Face-centered cubic lattice structure
- Its giant
- The lattice energies of ionic compounds are relatively large
- The bond between ions of opposite charge is strongest when the ions are
small (the closer together they are the stronger the force, we learned that
back up in 4.1.1)
- The ionic bond should also become stronger as the charge on the ions
becomes larger (again, 4.1.1)
- Topic 4.1 also discusses how to name ionic compounds but honestly Im not going to
review how to add ide to a word so just google it
- Overview of Ionic Bonding:
- They consist of charged ions that group together in large lattices, an example of
which is Sodium Chlorides face-centered cubic structure.
- Properties
- High melting points: The giant structure needs a lot of energy to free the
ions from their positions
- Soluble in water: The ions are highly attractive for the polar water
molecules, which can form cages around the ions and carry them off.
- Brittle: Stress on the crystal can bring ions of the same charge into close
proximity, breaking the crystal structure along cleavage planes.
- Electrical conductors: Only when aqueous or molten.
- 4.2: Covalent Bonding
- 4.2.1: Describe the covalent bond as the electrostatic attraction between a pair of
electrons and the positively charged nuclei. Single and multiple bonds should be
considered. Examples should include O2, N2, CO2, HCN, C2H4 (ethene) and C2H2
(ethyne).
- Covalent bonds form when electron clouds overlap and electrons become
attracted to two different atomic nuclei. This holds the two atoms together,
allowing them to effectively share a certain number of electrons
- When the atoms form a bond they become lower in energy and the
system becomes more stable
- The energy saved by moving to a more stable situation is released as heat
- Covalent bonds form between non-metals
- 4.2.2: Describe how the covalent bond is formed as a result of electron sharing. Dative
covalent bonds are required. Examples include Co, NH4
+
, and H3O
+
- Dative covalent bonds form when both electrons for bonding come from the
same atom.
- 4.2.3: Deduce the Lewis (electron dot) structure of molecules and ions for up to four
electron pairs on each atom. A pair of electrons can be represented by dots and crosses
or by a line.
- Octet Rule
- Most atoms tend to have eight electrons in their outer shell
- Electron Sharing: to form a single covalent bond one electron is provided
by each of the bonding atoms making a shared pair (except in dative
bonds)
- Electrons can form more than one bond in a bonding domain to achieve a
stable outer shell of electrons (known as double and triple bonds)
- Formal charge and resonance are important in determining lewis structure
- 4.2.4: State and explain the relationship between number of bonds, bond length, and
bond strength. The comparison should include bond lengths and bond strengths of: two
carbon atoms joined by a single, double, or triple bond, and the bonds between the
carbon and the two oxygen atoms in the carboxyl group of a carboxylic acid.
- Bond Strength
- A single bond is a shared pair of electrons that is attracted to both nuclei
of the bonded atoms.
- The bonding electrons draw the atoms closer together but as the
atoms get very close they experience repulsive forces from the
other non-bonding electrons and from the two nuclei themselves.
Because of this the atoms nd an optimum position where the
repulsion and attraction equal each other. This optimum position
is bond length.
- The relationship between bond length and strength isnt exact, but a few
general rules apply.
- As bond length increased bond energy usually decreases
- As atoms get larger they are held further apart by inter-electron
repulsion, the attractive force between the bonding electron pair
and the nuclei is consequently weaker (as distance increases bond
strength decreases)
- Bond length and strength correlate inversely, as one decreases the other
increases
- Triple bonds are shortest and strongest
- Single bonds are weakest and longest
- Double bonds are in between
- The Carboxylate Group
- Carbon bonds to two different oxygen atoms, RCOOH. One oxygen is
bonded to hydrogen, one isnt. The oxygen bonded to both carbon and
hydrogen is bonded to carbon with a single bond, the other oxygen is
bonded to carbon with a double bond. Therefor, the oxygen bonded to
hydrogen is weaker and longer.
- 4.2.5: Predict whether a compound of two elements would be covalent from the relative
electronegativity values or from their positions in the periodic table.
- When electronegativity difference is below 1.5, bonds are usually covalent
- On the periodic table, elements that form covalent compounds will likely be
close to one another.
- 4.2.6: Predict the relative polarity of bonds based on electronegativity values.
- From the previous section you can see that a direct comparison of bonds may be
done using the electronegativity difference between the atoms in the bonds.
- It is safe to say that the C-F bond (electronegativity difference = 1.5) has a
greater dipole than the C-Br bond (electronegativity difference = 0.3)
- Large dipoles form between Fluorine, Nitrogen, and Oxygen bonded to
other atoms
- 4.2.7: Predict the shape and bond angles for species with four, three, and two negative
charge centers on the central atoms using the valence shell electron pair repulsion
theory (VSEPR). Examples should include CH4, NH3, H2O, NH4
+
, H3O
+
, BF3, C2H4,
SO2, C2H2, and CO2.
- Two Electron Domains
- Two bonding, zero nonbonding: Linear, 180
- One bonding, one nonbonding: Linear, 180
- Three Electron Domains
- Three bonding, zero nonbonding: Trigonal Planar, 120
- Two bonding, one nonbonding: Bent, 118
- One bonding, two nonbonding: Linear, 180
- Four Electron Domains
- Four bonding, zero nonbonding: Tetrahedral, 109.5
- Three bonding, one nonbonding: Trigonal Pyramid, 107.3
- Two bonding, two nonbonding: Bent, 104.5
- One bonding, three nonbonding: Linear, 118
- 4.2.8: Predict whether a molecule is polar from its molecular shape and bond polarities
- Bond polarity is caused by a difference in electronegativity between two bonded
atoms. Most bonds are polar, but in reality only those with an electronegativity
of at least one unit show any effect.
- Resolution of dipoles:
- Dipoles are vector quantities in that they have both magnitude and
direction. If the resolution of all vector dipoles in a molecule leaves an
overall dipole in any specic direction then the molecule is polar (an
example is water, where oxygen pulls electrons more feverishly than the
hydrogens)
- Polar molecules attract one another increasing the degree of intermolecular force
experienced. This meaning that they have higher boiling points than expected
from purely van der Waals forces.
- Symmetrical molecules have dipoles that cancel out. Geometries that are
symmetrical are:
- Linear (when two atoms pull on the central atom), Trigonal Planar,
Tetrahedral
- Asymmetrical geometries:
- Linear (with only two atoms, with one being more electronegative), bent
118, trigonal pyramid, bent 104.5
- 4.2.9: Describe and compare the structure and bonding in the three allotropes of carbon.
- Diamond
- Properties
- Hard: Many strong network covalent bonds hold the structure
together
- Brittle: All of the bonds are directional and stress will tend to
break the structure (in a malleable substance, such as a metal, the
bonding is non-directional and can still act if the particles are
displaced with respect to one another).
- Insulator: All of the valence electrons are used in bonding. The
bonds are sigma and the electrons are located between the two
carbon nuclei being bonded together. None of the electrons are
free to more, meaning it cant conduct electricity.
- Insoluble: There are only very weak Van der Waals attractions
between the carbon atoms and the water molecules whereas the
carbon atoms are bonded very tightly to one another
- Very high melting point: Many strong covalent bonds holding the
structure together, it requires massive amounts of energy to pull it
apart.
- Each carbon in a diamond crystal is bonded to four other carbon atoms
and makes a giant macromolecular array (lattice). As each carbon has
four single bonds it is sp
3
hybridized and has tetrahedral bond angles of
109 degrees.
- Graphite
- Again the carbon atoms are bonded together to make a giant structure,
but in this case all of the carbons are bonded to only three neighbors and
are consequently sp
2
hybridized. As the sp
2
hybridization results in
planar structures, there are giant two dimensional layers of carbon atoms
and each layer is only weakly linked to the next layer by van der Waals
forces.
- Properties
- Soft/Slippery: Many strong covalent bonds hold the structure
together, but only in two dimensions. The relatively weak van der
Waals forces between two dimensional layers are able to easily
slide off one another.
- Brittle: All of the bonds are directional within a layer of graphite,
and stress across a layer will tend to break them.
- Conductor: Only three of the valence electrons are used in sigma
bonds, the other electron is in a p orbital which overlaps with
neighboring p orbitals, making giant molecular pi orbitals that
extend over the whole of each layer. Electrons are free to move
within the delocalized pi orbitals, causing electricity to ow
freely.
- Insoluble in waster: There are only very weak van der Waals
attractions between the carbon atoms and the water molecules,
whereas carbon atoms are bonded tightly to one another.
- Super high melting point: Many strong covalent bonds hold
together the layers of graphite, lots of energy is needed to break
the bonds.
- Fullerenes
- These are small molecules of carbon in which the giant structure is
closed over into spheres of atoms or tubes. The smallest fullerene has 60
carbon atoms arranged in pentagons and hexagons.
- The bonding has delocalized pi molecular orbitals extending throughout
the structure and the carbon atoms are a mixture of sp
2
and sp
3
hybridized orbitals.
- Properties
- Soft/Slippery: Few covalent bonds holding the molecules
together but only weak van der Waals forces between molecules.
- Brittle: Soft weak crystals typical of covalent substances
- Insulator (mostly): No movement of electrons available from one
molecule to the next. The exception could be the formation of
nanotubes that are capable of conducting electricity along their
length because of occasional pi bonds.
- Insoluble in water: There are only very weak van der Waals
attractions between the carbon atoms and the water molecules,
whereas carbon atoms are bonded tightly to one another.
- Low melting point solids: Typical of covalent crystals where only
van der Waals interactions have to be broken for melting.
- 4.2.10: Describe the structure and bonding in silicon and silicon dioxide
- These are giant covalent structures, with the bonding covalent from atom to
atom in a never ending array. The bond angles at each silicon atom is 109
(tetrahedral). The oxygen atoms act as bridges between all the silicon atoms.
- 4.3: Intermolecular Forces
- 4.3.1: Describe the types of intermolecular forces (attractions between molecules that
have temporary dipoles, permanent dipoles, or hydrogen bonding) and explain how they
arise from the structural features of molecules.
- Van der Waals forces
- Temporary dipoles caused by the random movement of electrons around
an atom
- The temporary dipoles cause chain reactions that travel through the
structure
- Cause temporary partial negatives and partial positives
- Factors affecting van der Waals forces
- More molecular mass, or more electrons, means higher van der
Waals forces
- Increased surface area means increased van der Waals forces
- 4.3.2: Describe and explain how intermolecular forces affect boiling points of
substances. The hydrogen bond can be illustrated by comparing physical properties of:
H2O and H2S, HF and HCl, NH3 and PH3, CH3OCH3 and C2H5OH, C3H8, CH3CHO and
C2H5OH.
- Hydrogen bonding causes the highest boiling point, followed by dipole dipole,
followed by van der Waals.
- 4.4: Metallic Bonding
- 4.4.1: Describe the metallic bond as the electrostatic attraction between a lattice of
positive ions and delocalized electrons.
- Atoms cannot exist on their own as they are too unstable under normal
conditions (except the noble gases which already have stable valence shells)
- Metal atoms have outer shells in which the electrons can be easily lost (as we
see when they form cations in ionic bonds)
- However, in the absence of anything to give electrons to, the metal atoms
agglomerate and share the electrons between them. This gives rise to a
giant lattice of ions held together by delocalized electrons, aka metallic
bonding.
- The delocalized electrons are electrostatically attracted to the positive ions and
hold the whole structure together. This force of attraction is dependent on the
magnitude of the positive charged ions and the number of electrons in the
delocalized orbital. It is then attenuated by the size of the ions themselves, so
large ions create a weaker force.
- 4.4.2: Explain the electrical conductivity and malleability of metals.
- Conductivity: The delocalized electrons are free to move throughout the metal
structure. If a potential difference is applied across the metal, electrons can ow
into the metal and out the other side. Metal is therefor a conductor.
- Malleability: The forces of electrostatic attraction within the metal lattice are
non-directional. Distortion of the lattice does not affect the force of attraction to
any great extent and so the metal can bend without breaking.
- 4.5: Physical Properties
- 4.5.1: Compare and explain the properties of substances resulting form different types
of bonding. Examples should include melting points, boiling points, volatility, electrical
conductivity, and solubility in non-polar and polar solvents.
- Ionic Compounds
- High melting points
- Low volatility
- Conductive in aqueous or molten states (have to make electrons free to
move)
- Easily dissolved in polar substances, insoluble in non-polar substances
- Covalent Compounds (excluding network covalent)
- Low melting points
- High volatility
- No freely moving particles, do not conduct electricity
- Solubility depends on the polarity of the covalent compound
- Network Covalent
- Giant covalent structures, such as silicon dioxide, have extremely high
melting points and low solubility in all solvents. They are non-volatile
and conductivity depends on the availability of electrons in the valence
shell (graphite can conduct electrons, diamond cant).
Topic 14: Higher Level Bonding
- 14.1: Shapes of molecules and ions
- 14.1.1: Predict the shape and bond angles for species with ve and six electron domains
using the VSEPR theory. Examples should include PCl5, SF6, XeF4, and PF6
-
.
- Five Electron Domains
- Five bonding, zero nonbonding: Trigonal bipyramidal, 120 and 90
- Four bonding, one nonbonding: Seesaw, 120 and 90
- Three bonding, two nonbonding: T-Shaped, 90
- Two bonding, three nonbonding: Linear, 180
- One bonding, four nonbonding: Linear, 180
- Six Electron Domains
- Six bonding, zero nonbonding: Octahedral, 90
- Five bonding, one nonbonding: Square pyramidal, 90
- Four bonding, two nonbonding: Square planar, 90
- 14.2: Hybridization
- 14.2.1: Describe sigma and pi bonds. Treatment should be restricted to: sigma bonds
electron distribution has axial symmetry around the axis joining the two nuclei, pi bonds
resulting from the combination of parallel p orbitals, double bonds formed by a sigma
and a pi bonds, and triple bonds formed by a sigma and two pi bonds.
- An orbital is a region of space where an electron is likely to be
- Sigma Bonds: When two s orbitals overlap, the electrostatic forces of attraction
from the nucleus of one atom will attract the elections of the other atoms and
vice versa. This produces an overall forces that holds the two nuclei together.
- If two s orbitals directly overlap then the bond formed is linear between
the two nuclear centers and is therefore a sigma bond
- Sigma bonds are produced by any direct orbital overlap along the axis
joining the two nuclear centers together.
- Pi bonds: When a sigma bond is formed by direct orbital overlap it sometimes
brings two parallel p orbitals into close proximity, causing them to overlap
perpendicular to the axis of the nuclei.
- Pi bonds can only form in the presence of a sigma bond
- Double and triple bonds
- Double: a sigma and a pi
- Triple: a sigma and two pi
- Hybridization
- Hybridization occurs between orbitals to create an equal chance for
bonding around an atom. s and p orbitals combine to form sp, sp
2
, or
sp
3
orbitals.
- sp orbitals have triple bonds and therefore two pi bonds
- sp
2
orbitals have double bonds and therefore have one pi bond
- sp
3
orbitals have only single bonds
- 14.2.3: Identify and explain the relationships between Lewis structues, molecular
shapes, and types of hybridization. Students should consider examples from inorganic
as well as organic chemistry.
- Two Electron Domains means a linear geometry and sp hybridization, meaning
there is a triple bond bonding two atoms together, creating a sigma and two pi
bonds.
- Three Electron Domains means sp
2
hybridization, which can result in three
different geometries. Trigonal planar is sp
2
hybridized and has two single and
one double bond, creating three sigma and one pi bond (except in the case of
BF3, where Boron has a limited octet). Bent geometry can be sp
2
hybridized,
with the central atom having one lone pair, a double bond to one atom, and a
single bond to another. As in SO2, this results in two sigma bonds and a pi bond.
Three electron domains can also create a Linear geometry where the central
atom has two lone pairs and is double bonded to another atom. In this case the
sp
2
hybridization causes one pi and one sigma bond.
- Four electron domains meaning sp
3
hybridization. The geometry tetrahedral has
four sigma bonds and no pi bonds. The trigonal planar geometry has three sigma
bonds, and no pi bonds. The bent 104.5 geometry has two sigma and no pi
bonds. Four electron domain geometries lack pi bonds because they have no
pure p orbitals left.
- 14.3: Delocalization
- 14.3.1: Describe the delocalization of p electrons and explain how this can account for
the structure of some species. Examples should include NO3
-
, NO2
-
, CO3
2-
, O3, RCOO
-
,
and benzene.
- The molecule benzene is a ring structure with six carbon atoms arranged in a
circle. Each of the carbons is sp
2
hybridized and all of the p orbitals are oriented
at 90 to the plane of the ring. They all overlap to produce a circular molecular
orbital above and beneath the ring of carbon atoms.