There are eight parts of speech in the English language. Think of each part of speech like a category or placeholder. Each part of speech defines how a particular functions in a sentence.
1. Nouns A noun is a person, place, thing or idea. Example: cat, dog, grass
2. Pronouns A pronoun is any substitute for a noun or noun phrase. Example: Jack took his bike to school.
3. Adjectives An adjective is a qualifier of a noun or pronoun. Example: The white cat only eats tuna.
4. Adverbs An adverb is a qualifier of an adjective, verb, clause, sentence or another adverb. Example: The white cat is very fat.
5. Interjections An interjection is an exclamation. Example: Incredible! I got an A!
6. Prepositions A preposition indicates location. Example: The cat is on the table.
7. Conjunctions A conjunction connects parts of a sentence. Example: I want to eat ice cream, but I know I should eat salad.
8. Verbs A verb refers to any action, occurrence, or state of being in a sentence. Example: He walks fast.
Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 2 The Noun
The noun is the name of: 1. A person: President Barack Obama; Lady Gaga; Matt Applegate 2. A place: Long Island; Mount Rushmore; New York City 3. A thing: table, cat, chair 4. A quality: anger, bravery, attractiveness 5. An activity: running, eating, shopping 6. A concept: Communism, Anarchism, Capitalism 7. A condition: peace, war
Types of Nouns
1. Common: A common noun names general items. Examples: coffee shop, human, chair, cat, etc.
2. Proper: A proper names specific items. Examples: Big-Mac, Jimmy Fallon, Audre Lorde, etc.
3. Abstract: The name of a non-tangible thing or an idea. Examples: Bravery, deceit, curiosity, etc.
4. Concrete: A concrete noun is something one can sense (as in with ones five senses). Examples: cat, sunshine, bitterness
5. General: A general noun is the broad term for naming all the members of a group. Examples: human, fruit, vegetable
6. Specific: A specific noun names a particular member of a group. Examples: African American, strawberry, broccoli
7. Collective: A collective noun names a group composed of members. Examples: navy, jury, team
Case Nouns and pronouns both have case. There are three cases in the English language. Case is a category into which one puts a noun depending on its function in a sentence.
1. Subjective (Nominative) Case Used for a noun or pronoun that is the subject of a verb (The cat ran up the wall.) Used for direct address (Rosalie, come here.) Used for an appositive (an appositive is a noun or noun phrase that renames another right beside it) of a sentence (My cat, Rosco, lost weight). Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 3 And for predicate nominative, or, the noun following a linking verb that restates or stands for the subject (At the end of the tournament, Lebron James was the scoring leader.)
2. Objective Case Used as the direct object of a verb (I want a new car.) Used as the indirect object of a verb (Give Harold a dog treat.) Used as the object of a preposition (Give the treat back to Harold.) Used as the appositive of an infinitive (Give the treat to my dog, Harold.) Used as the subject of an infinitive (They need Mary to get the drinks from the car.) Used as an objective complement (The United Sates elected Barack Obama President).
3. Possessive (Genitive) Case Shows ownership (That is Matts laptop.) The possessive case is the only case that changes the form of the word. Singular plural: Matt = Matts, President Obama = President Obamas, etc. Plural possessive: the Jeffersons = the Jeffersons, classes = classes
Gender of Nouns Nouns display one of three genders in the English language. The gender reflects the sex of the entity.
Nouns can be either singular or plural. Plural nouns are typically formed by adding an s to the singular form, e.g., cat = cats, rat = rats, etc.
There are a few exceptions to the rule. 1. Nouns ending in (s, z, sh, ch, x) form their plural by adding es to the singular form. Examples: bush = bushes, arch = arches, etc.
2. Nouns ending in a consonant + y change the y to an i and add es to to form their plural. Examples: city = cities, country = countries, etc. Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 4 The Pronoun
The pronoun is a word that functions as a substitute for a noun or another pronoun. The noun for which the pronoun is a substitute is called the antecedent of the pronoun. Example: Shelly asked if Shelly could have some ice / Shelly asked if she could have come ice.
Number of Pronouns Like nouns, pronouns can be either singular or plural.
Gender of Pronouns Like nouns, pronouns fall under the three primary gender categories: Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter.
Person Pronouns change their form depending on how they are used in a sentence. There are three forms or persons a pronoun can take. 1. First Person (I, us, we, our) 2. Second Person (you, your, yours, yourself) 3. Third Person (he, she, it, one, they, them)
Types of Pronouns 1. Personal Pronouns: refer specifically to the three persons (first, second, third) that a pronoun can take.
2. Impersonal Pronouns: refer to everything not human (it, they)
3. Relative Pronouns: refer to persons or things and relate a dependent clause to the rest of the sentence (that, what, which, who, etc.)
4. Demonstrative Pronouns: point to something (this, these, that, those)
Examples: Subjective: I want more. (Subject of the sentence) Possessive: That is his; this is mine. Objective: Whom did you see? (Direct object of the verb) Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 6 The Adjective Adjectives are words or phrases that modify or describe another word or phrase, typically a person or a thing, in a sentence. Adjectives typically appear before the noun they describe or modify.
Examples: 1. The cat is fat. 2. Brilliant words are not often uttered. 3. The pig that won the blue ribbon lived a long life.
Scale of Comparison Adjectives have three degrees of comparison. 1. Positive Adjectives: adjectives that describes one thing and offers no comparison. Examples: young, old, smart, etc.
2. Comparative Adjectives: adjectives that compares two things. Examples: older, younger, more beautiful, less beautiful Note: More or less correspond to the comparative degree if the adjective has more than two syllables.
3. Superlative Adjectives: adjectives that compare more than two things. Examples: oldest, youngest, most beautiful, least beautiful Note: Most or less correspond to the superlative degree if the adjective has more than two syllables.
Irregular Comparatives Good, better, best Well, better, best Nigh, near, next Bad, worse, worst Little, less, least
Absolute Adjectives There are a number of adjectives that are absolute in degree, meaning they do not fit into the scale of comparison above. Another way think about these adjectives is that there are no degrees in their use. Dead, pregnant, full, empty, unique, complete, perfect
The Adjective Clause An adjective clause is a group of words that functions as an adjective. Adjective clauses have meet three basic criteria. 1. Adjective clauses contain a subject and a verb. 2. Adjective clauses begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. 3. Adjective clauses answer questions like How many? What kind? or, Which one? Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 7 The Adverb An adverb is a word that describes a verb, adjective, or adverb. Most words that end in ly are adverbs, but not all. Examples: She walks quickly. (How does she walk?) The cat eats slowly. (How does the cat eat?) He drives an extremely old car. (How old is his car?)
Adverb Phrase An adverb phrase has two features. First, an adverb phrase must contain a subject and a verb. Second, an adverb phrase must modify the verb of a sentence. Example: When I graduate, Im shaving my head. I get the hiccups when I eat quickly.
Intensifiers Adverbs function as intensifiers. 1. Emphasizers: He really likes ice cream.
2. Amplifiers: I absolutely endorse Stacy for class president.
3. Downtoners: I almost quit my job today.
Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 8 The Interjection An interjection is a word that interrupts or precedes a sentence to express surprise or emotion.
Examples: Wow! I cant believe that just happened! Ouch! Indeed, the water was cold.
Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 9 Prepositions A preposition is placed before a noun or pronoun to show the noun or pronouns relationship to another word in the sentence.
Examples: Give the fish to the cat. To shows a relationship between give and cat.
The nightstand is beside the bed. Beside shows a relationship between nightstand and bed.
Common Prepositions In, of, between, beside, over, around, through, like, near, by, within, according to, among, above, off, with, without, after, against, past, from, beyond, into, behind.
The Prepositional Phrase A prepositional phrase is composed of: The preposition + its object and whatever modifies that object.
Examples: over the moon, into the unknown, etc.
Prepositional phrases can be used as both adjectives and adverbs. Examples: Adjective: The computer on the left is the newest. Adverb: The cat jumped off the ground.
Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 10 Conjunctions Conjunctions link words or parts of the sentence.
Coordinating Conjunctions There are six coordinating conjunctions in total: and, yet, but, or, nor, and for.
Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses of equal grammatical rank.
Examples: Leonardo Dicaprio and Jonah Hill starred in The Wolf of Wall Street. I like your style, yet I dislike your personality.
Subordinating Conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions connect and reduce the importance of one clause to another. The subordinate clause is always of lesser value than the main clause. There are many, and include: although, whereas, whether, because, after, before, since, until, when, where, while, though, if, than, as, unless, though, and why.
Examples: Although I ate all of the food, I wasnt full. I ate before the party.
Using And or But to begin a sentence Contrary to popular belief, it can be grammatically correct to begin a sentence by using and or but. However, a sentence beginning with and or but draws attention to itself because it underscores its transitional function (by using and or but at the beginning of a sentence, you are continuing a thought from the previous sentence that could be incomplete).
You should examine such sentences with two questions in mind: (1) Would the sentence or paragraph function just as well without the initial conjunction? (2) Should the sentence in question be connected to the previous sentence? If the initial conjunction still seems appropriate, use it. Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 11 The Verb Verbs express the idea of action or a state of being in a sentence. Verbs are the only essential word in a sentence.
Types of Verbs 1. Action Verbs: express a physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual action. Examples: The cat jumped off of the table. The rain fell lightly on the grass. We went bowling.
2. Linking Verbs: Linking verbs connect the subject of the verb to additional information about the subject. Linking verbs also show a state of existence. Examples: The cat is depressed. The President seemed tense. Pollution smells terrible.
3. Helping Verbs: Also called auxiliary verbs, helping verbs give more detail to the main verb in a sentence. Examples: The cat should have slept more. Would you pick me up? You may not skip class.
Verb Tenses Tense refers to the time at which the action or state of being of the verb was performed. Verbs have six tenses and each tense has its own sub-categories.
Simple Tenses 1. Present Tenses: the action occurs now. A. Simple Present: The cat eats. B. Emphatic Present: The cat does eat. C. Progressive Present: The cat is eating.
2. Past Tense: the action is completed. A. Simple Past: The cat ate. B. Emphatic Past: The cat did eat. C. Progressive Past: The cat was eating.
3. Future Tense: the action will occur later. A. Simple Future: The cat shall eat. B. Emphatic Future: The cat will eat. C. Future Progressive: The cat will be eating.
Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 12 Perfect Tenses Perfect means completed; these tenses identify action completed with respect to other actions. Perfect tenses use the helping verb to have.
1. Present Perfect: have, has + past participle. The action began in the past and ends now and may continue. John has helped me every Saturday for a month. (The action began a month ago and, as of now, he has helped me for one monthone months work is completed.
2. Past Perfect: had + past participle. (An action was completed in the past before another action occurred in the past.) The cat had had a stomachache before she fell off of the table. Will had drawn water from the well everyday before it went dry.
3. Future Perfect: shall, will have + past participle. (An action is completed in the future before another future action occurs.) The cat will have eaten thousands of fish before she turns fourteen.
The Voice of Verbs Voice is a property of action verbs. It identifies whether or not the subject acts.
1. Active Voice: the subject acts, acted, or will act. Examples: The cat ate fish. The woman dunked the basketball.
2. Passive Voice: the subject is, was, or will be acted upon. The passive voice consists of the verb to be plus the past participle. Examples: The fish were eaten by the cat. The basketball was dunked by the woman.
Mood Mood or as sometimes referred to, Mode, is the manner in which the speaker means a verb. The English language has three moods:
1. Indicative Mood: the speaker makes a statement or asks a question. Examples: I am prepared. She makes the best bread.
Forms: I ask, you ask, he asks, we ask, you ask, they ask I am, you are, he is, we are, you are, they are I was, you were, he was, we were, you were, they were Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 13 I asked, you asked, he asked, we asked, you asked, they asked
2. Imperative Mood: the speaker commands. Examples: Trust me. Do what I say.
3. Subjunctive Mood: the speaker states something that is hypothetical or speculative. Examples: If I were in your position, I would act differently. God save the Queen!
Forms: I ask, you ask, he ask, we ask, you ask, they ask I be, you be, he be, we be, you be, they be I were, you were, he were, we were, you were, they were I asked, you asked, he asked, we asked, you asked, they asked
Verbals: The Infinitive The English language has three verbals. Verbals are words formed from a verb but function as a different part of speech. The three verbals are the infinitve, participle, and gerund.
The Infinitive: the pure form of the verb, the form that appears in the dictionary. The infinitive is typically preceded by the word to.
The infinitive has tense and voice: Present tense, Active voice: to call Present tense, Passive voice: to be called Present Perfect tense, Active voice: to have called Present Perfect tense, Passive voice: to have been called
The infinitive remains a verb and so may have a subject (always in the objective case), an object or complement, and adverb modifiers. The infinitive, its subject, object, and modifiers are called the infinitive phrase. Example: The cat wanted me to rub her belly at once. Subject = me Inifinitive = to rub Object = belly Adverb = at once
The Participle The participle is always an adjective. There are two participles: 1. Present Participle: always ends in ing Active Voice: passing Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 14 Passive Voice: being passed
2. Past Participle: usually ends in ed or-t. Active Voice: earned Passive Voice: had earned Perfect Tense Active Voice: having earned Perfect Tense Passive Voice: having been earned
Participles remain verbs and can take adverb modifiers and objects; the participle, its modifiers, and any objects or complements are called the participle phrase. The cat, eating her fish quietly, had it all to herself. Participle: eating Adverb: quietly Object: fish
The Gerund The gerund is the simplest form of verbal. The gerund always ends in ing. The gerund is always a noun.
Gerunds remain verbs, can take adverbial modifiers, and can take objects: Example: Labeling the can clearly is easy. Gerund Phrase: Labeling the can clearly Gerund: Labeling Object: can Adverb: clearly
Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 15 The Phrase A phrase is a group of two or more words that does not contain a subject and a verb. Remember, phrases do not ever form a complete sentence.
Prepositional Phrase A prepositional phrase is a preposition + its object. Examples: On the road In the tank Over the moon By the nightstand With kindness Beside the table
Prepositional phrases can be adjectives. Examples: The cat on the table is mine. The ant with wings is the largest.
Prepositional phrases can be adverbs. Examples: I began my job with trepidation. Shannon went to an appointment.
Infinitive Phrase An infinite phrase is an infinitive + its modifier + its object. Examples: To walk briskly (modifier) To take aspirin (object) To laugh out loud (modifier) To be a cat (object)
Infinitive phrases may be nouns. Examples: I want to eat pizza. (The thing I want) To be humble means to put others before you. (Each phrase is the name of something.)
Infinitive phrases may be adjectives. Examples: I have a desire to fly without a plane. (describes desire) The computer to buy for school is here. (describes computer)
Infinitive phrases may be adverbs. Examples: The cat went to eat fish. (tells us why the cat went) Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 16 The cat was excited to eat the tuna. (tells us why the cat was excited)
Participial Phrase A participle phrase is a participle + its object + its modifier. Examples: Eating an apple loudly Conceptualizing a problem on the fly Dancing in the street Forged in the fire
All participial phrases are adjectives. Examples: The cat, eating the tuna, is fat. Dancing in the street, the couple laughed.
Gerund Phrase A gerund phrase is a gerund + its object + its modifier. Examples: Reading a text effectively Eating the tuna Playing basketball well Roasting a pig
All gerund phrases are nouns. Examples: The cat hates walking on a leash. (the thing the cat hates) Eating vegetables is a delight. (the name of the activity)
Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 17 The Clause A clause is a group of words containing a statement (a subject + a predicate).
The subject is the topic of the statement. The predicate is the assertion or point made about the subject. Examples:
1. Amber (subject) called her friend (predicate). 2. You (subject) are confused (predicate). 3. The tuna (subject) was eaten by the cat (predicate). 4. I (subject) do not like clauses (predicate).
Predicates Predicates consist of the verb and its complement.
1. Action verbs: The verb may stand alone. Example: Tim sang.
The verb may take an adverb. Example: Tim sang softly.
The verb may take a direct object. Example: Sandra ate the apple.
The verb may take an indirect object. Example: Give the cat some tuna. (Direct object = tuna; indirect object = cat).
The verb may take an objective complement (a word which completes the object). Example: You made the cad sad.
2. Copulative Verbs Copulative verbs cannot take objects. Copulative verbs show no action, and therefore cannot be affected by an action.
The verb can take an adjective. Example: Matt is happy.
The verb can take a noun or pronoun. Example: It is he.
Independent Clauses An independent clause is a clause that can stand alone as a sentence. Example: When the sun set, we walked to the beach.
Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 18 Dependent Clauses A dependent clause cannot stand on its own, even though it contains both a subject and a verb. Example: When the sun set, we walked to the beach.
Placing a relative pronoun or a subordinate conjunction in front of the clause forms a dependent clause: 1. Relative Pronoun: who, whom, whose, which, what, that 2. Subordinate Conjunction: how, when, where, why, if, because, since, though, although, unless, after, before, whence, while, until, as, etc.
The Sentence A sentence is a group of words that contains at least one independent clause. There are three different kinds of complete sentences.
1. The Simple Sentence: simple sentences only contain an independent clause. Example: The cat cleaned her fur.
2. The Compound Sentence: compound sentences contain at least two independent clauses but no dependent clauses. Example: The cat cleaned her fur, but she is still dirty.
3. The Complex Sentence: complex sentences contain an independent and a dependent clause. Example: When the cat cleans her fur, she always misses a spot.
The Sentence Fragment A sentence fragment is a group of words that is punctuated like a sentence, but does not contain either a subject of a verb. Example: Running to the store. The cat with the brown patches.
Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 19 Punctuation Punctuation refers to the grammatical marks used to separate sentences and their elements and to clarify meaning. Punctuation can also be used tone.
End Punctuation There are several grammatical marks that are used to conclude a sentence. These are the period (.), the question mark (?), and the exclamation point (!).
A period is concludes a sentence with seriousness, factual content, or no emotion. Example: The cat is fat.
A question mark concludes a sentence by ending a question or a statement of doubt. Example: Is everything OK?
An exclamation point concludes a sentence with strong emotion or by stating a command. Example: Go to work!
The Comma The comma (,) signifies a brief pause. It can be used in a variety of ways.
1. Commas are used to separate clauses in a compound sentence when the clauses are connected by a coordinating conjunction (and, yet, but, or, nor, for). Example: The cat is whiny, but loveable. The car is cramped, and only has two doors, but it drives well.
2. Commas are used to separate items in a series. Example: The apartment is large, affordable, clean, and in an accessible location.
3. Commas are used to separate nonrestrictive modifiers from the reset of the sentence (a nonrestrictive modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is not essential to the sentence). Example: My cat, which I love dearly, is pathetic.
4. Commas are used to separate appositives from the rest of the sentence (appositives are alternate ways of making a point already made in a sentence). Example: My cat, the pathetic animal, sleeps all day.
5. Commas are used to separate parenthetical elements from the rest of the sentence (a parenthetical element interrupts the sentence to add a word of explanation). Example: Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 20 Your grammar text, scheduled in the coming weeks, will be challenging.
6. Commas are used to separate introductory remarks. Example: Therefore, you all should study for your grammar exam.
7. Commas are used to separate items in a date or address from the first item. Example: Molloy College is located in Rockville Centre, New York.
8. Commas are used to separate address from the rest of the sentence. Example: Rosalie, come over here.
9. Commas are used to introduce a short quotation or to separate an interruption from the rest of the quotation. Example: The student asked, Why do I have to take a grammar exam?
10. Commas are used to prevent misreading. Example: Confusing: Lets eat Grandma! Clear: Lets eat, Grandma!
Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 21 The Semicolon Semicolons indicate a pause longer than a comma, but shorter than the pause enacted by a period. Semicolons have two primary uses.
1. Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses in a compound sentence. Example: We want freedom; we believe it is deserved.
2. Use a semicolon to separate items in a series when one or more of those items contains a comma. Example: I went to Columbus, Ohio; Sacramento, California; and Binghamton, New York.
Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 22 The Apostrophe The apostrophe indicates the omission of a letter.
1. Possessive Case: Singular nouns and pronouns form their possessive cases with the apostrophe + s. Example: Cat = Cats Ted Cruz = Ted Cruzs
Singular pronouns that form their possessive with the apostrophe are the indefinite pronouns only (someone, anyone, everybody, another, etc.). Example: Someone = someones
Plural nouns ending is s form their possessive cases by adding an apostrophe only. Example: Girls = Girls Albatross = Albatross
2. Contractions: A contraction is the union of two words in which one or more letters are omitted in the new word. The omission is marked by an apostrophe. Example: Cannot = Cant Would not = Wouldnt
3. Plural of Letters & Numbers: the plural of letters and numbers is formed with an apostrophe. Example: Crazy 8s Ts and Cs are common consonants.
Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 23 Quotation Marks Quotation marks set off an exact reproduction of a persons words or spoken language. Example: Jackson said, I am sad. Adure Lorde wrote: Poetry is not only a dream and vision; it is the skeleton architecture of our lives. It lays the foundations for a future of change, a bridge across our fears of what has never been before.
1. Punctuation of Quotes: Introduce a quotation with a comma is the quotation is short. Introduce a quotation with a colon is the quotation is long. Periods and commas are placed inside quotation marks. Colons, semicolons, and dashes are placed outside of quotation marks. Question marks and exclamation points are placed inside quotation marks if they are part of the quotation, if not, then they are placed outside of the quotation marks.
2. Alterations of Quotes: quotations cannot be altered without clear indication of the alteration to the reader. Example: The man said, Why should I to Obama? The man said, Why should I listen to [President] Obama?
Adure Lorde wrote: Poetry is not only a dream and vision; it is the skeleton architecture of our lives. It lays the foundations for a future of change, a bridge across our fears of what has never been before.
Adure Lorde wrote: Poetry is not only a dream and vision [. . .] It lays the foundations for a future of change, a bridge across our fears of what has never been before.
Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 24 Underlining, Italics, and Quotation Marks for Titles Underline or Italicize the title of a complete work. Quote the title of any work that is part of a larger work. Example: The Oxford English Dictionary The Book of the Grotesque is a short story that appears in Sherwood Andersons Winesburg, Ohio.
Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 25 The Colon, Dash, and Hyphen The colon (:) introduces a series, a list, or a long quotation. The dash (--) is used to indicate the separation of a parenthetical remark or a sharp turn of thought in a sentence. The hyphen (-) is used to join two or more words into a single new word. Example: This is the order I would like you to read these examples: the colon, the dash, and then the hyphen.
I want my foodregardless if it is readyhot. (a parenthetical remark) Take the pancake mixor would you rather make waffles? (a sharp turn of thought)
Run-of-the-mill Cat-like
Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 26 Parentheses and Brackets Parentheses separate extraneous comments or explanatory remarks from the rest of the sentence. They are stronger separators than commas and dashes. Example: HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is the base language of data visualization.
Brackets are not interchangeable with parentheses. Brackets are used exclusively to indicate that something has been inserted into the direct quotation of another writers words. Example: Jackson said: I am sad [sad, not depressed] because I dont have a cat.
Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 27 The Ellipsis An ellipsis consists of three evenly spaced periods (. . .). It denotes that something has been omitted from a quotation. Example:
Quotation: We must develop and maintain the capacity to forgive. He who is devoid of the power to forgive is devoid of the power to love. There is some good in the worst of us and some evil in the best of us. When we discover this, we are less prone to hate our enemies. Martin Luther King Jr.
Quotation with an ellipsis: We must develop and maintain the capacity to forgive. [. . .] There is some good in the worst of us and some evil in the best of us. When we discover this, we are less prone to hate our enemies. Martin Luther King Jr.