J.

Hessner
AKADEMIET FOR DE TEKNISKE VIDENSKABER
GEOTEKNISK INSTITUT
THE DANISH GEOTECHNICAL INSTITUTE
BULLETIN No. 12
J. BRINCH HANSEN
THE ULTIMATE RESISTANCE OF RIGID PILES
AGAINST TRANSVERSAL FORCES
N. H. CHRISTENSEN
MODEL TESTS WITH TRANSVERSALLY LOADED
RIGID PILES IN SAND
COPENHAGEN 1961
w w w g e o d k
AKADEMIET FOR DE TEKNISKE VIDENSKABER
GEOTEKNISK INSTITUT
THE DANISH GEOTECHNICAL INSTITUTE
BULLETIN No. 12
J. BRINCH HANSEN
THE ULTIMATE RESISTANCE OF RIGID PILES
AGAINST TRANSVERSAL FORCES
N. H. CHRISTENSEN
MODEL TESTS WI TH TRANSVERSALLY LOADED
RIGID PILES IN SAND
COPENHAGEN 1961
w w w g e o d k
S. L. MLLERS BOGTRYKKERI , KBENHAVN
w w w g e o d k
Table of Contents
The Ultimate Resistance of Rigid Piles against Transversal Forces 5
by J. Brinch Hansen, Professor, dr. techn., D. G. I.
1. Introduction 5
2. Pressure at Ground Surface 6
3. Pressure at Moderate Depth 6
4. Pressure at Great Depth 7
5. Pressure at Arbitrary Depth 7
6. Calculation of a Pile 8
7. Example 9
Model Tests with Transversally Loaded Rigid Piles in Sand 10
by N. H. Christensen, Civil Engineer, D. G. I.
1. Introduction 10
2. Extent of Test Series 10
3. Testing Technique , 11
4. Direct Test Results 12
5. Computation of Theoretical Values 14
6. Comparison between Theory and Experiment 14
7. Summary 16
w w w g e o d k
THE ULTIMATE RESISTANCE OF RIGID PILES
AGAINST TRANSVERSAL FOCRES
by J. Brinch Hansen, Professor, dr. techn., DCI.
1. Introduction
As shown in fig. 1 we consider a vertical pile with a
cross section B X L and a driving depth D
m
. It is
subjected to a horizontal force H (perpendicular to
the sides with width B) acting at a height A above the
ground surface.
The ground surface may be loaded with a surcharge
p (corresponding f. inst. to the effective weight of a
p
I j i mi i i i -
C(f
i
A
lUJi
<^V/W
Dm

JJJJJ,
y/Xiy/y
Be
D
J
tvA
D
JJJ
Ds
J l
^ \
D,
mud layer). The soil proper has a cohesion c and a
friction angle <p. The effective unit weight is y above
the ground water table and / below.
At an arbitrary depth D below the ground surface
the effective overburden pressure is (see fig. 1):
q = p +
y
D
d
+
y
' D
s
(1)
We assume now that the pile is made so strong that
no yield hinge can develop in it. In the state of failure
it can therefore - elastic deformations being disregarded
in this connection - be assumed to rotate as a rigid
body about a point at a depth D
r
below the ground
surface.
Above the rotation centre passive earth pressures will
act on the right side of the pile and active on the left.
Below the rotation centre the situation is reversed.
For the resultant (passive minus active) pressure
per unit front area of the pile at the depth D we can
write the general expression:
e
D
= q K^ +; c K?
(2)
The corresponding pressure per unit length of the
pile in fig. 1 is Be
D
. For a cross section of another
shape an "equivalent" width B must be estimated or
- better - fixed by means of comparative model tests.
In the case of a group of parallel piles (fig. 2) B is
to be interpreted as the width of the group perpendi-
cular to the direction of the force H.
Pi
o
c
i
J
\H (
J
] (
3
3
s "\
H
Fig. 1. Sketch of pile. Fig. 2. Group of parallel piles.
w w w g e o d k
2. Pressure at ground surface
For D = 0 we must have ordinary passive and ac-
tive earth pressures on the pile, corresponding to the
usual plane case:
e
0
= qK + cK2 (3)
For K we insert here the difference between the
passive and active coefficients, corresponding to. a
rough wall which is being translated horizontally [ 1,
2 , 3 } :
K = e(*
n
+ V) tan <p
c o s
g,
t a n
(45
+
^
_
e
- ( | t t - ( p ) t a n < p
C O S
( p
t a n
( 4
5
o _ . l ( ^ ( 4)
As regards K we disregard - on the safe side - the
corresponding active pressure-term, because it might
lead to negative earth pressures on the active side of
the pile. For the passive pressure-term alone we get:
K
c
0
= [ e( i " + <P)
tan
<Pcosg?tan {45+i <p) - l ] c ot y (5)
Curves for K and K are indicated in fig. 3.
800 | | | ! | I I | | | | | | I | | | | i | 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1;
finn K F
000
1 1 Li
1 1 1 1 1 1 /
/
irn M H /
M
1-n M /
11 i IM11MI i 1111111 i 11 i 11 II II I II II Li 11 II I W i
" M M
nn M h M I r '
M
m 1 i M M !
:
/ 1 1 1
^ l 111111 M 11 M I I I I i (11111 1 M 11 M 111 1111/11 M 11
50
' J, LM /
K
c Y\ M
30 i LVT 1 / [
\\X\\ m
a LM 'Il ml 20
l-rT " M
in l -Kl K IA V
M -HT
q/
l UT
i- U-Hil M J-Hi 12
\ Pn \ r l UKKI
J-nT KI \\<\V\\
n H i yl o M-T1 L-n
1 ' m K U-rCUKW
c K I LVmTH^r
- mllm
J
[' fJ-rrn J-T 1
K
a
M \l\\jnf\T LUil in
. J I M IJJ-TTIT 1 iA\ 1111111 Lrll 1111II11111111111
iWrttTn ml MN
-oH Kl JUl l
/ m l
ir m L-rTM
Lrl rn 1 ' I
17 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 / I 1 1 1 K I 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Cf)
;:;[llLLLi^Mlllllllllllllllllllllllllllll
(
P,
- 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
, Fig. 3- Earth pressure coefficients at ground surface (0) and at
greath depth ( oo ) .
3. Pressure at moderate depth
In order to find the increase of the earth pressure
with depth (for reasonably small depths) we consider
the simplest possible case, viz. the passive Rankine state
(fig. 4) . .
Fig. 4. Earth wedge in the Rankine case.
We assume here that the earth wedge is bounded by
two vertical planes (distance B) , and that in these
planes shearing forces develop, corresponding to a nor-
mal pressure equal to the earth pressure at rest ( qK
0
) .
The shearing stress at a depth D below the surface will
then be:
rf = c + ( y D + p ) K
0
tan 99 (6)
We consider now a strip of earth with a width B
and a height dD, bounded by two failure planes
(fig. 4) . We assume that the direction of the failure
planes is the same as in the plane case; this is sufficient-
ly correct for reasonably small depths. Projecting all
acting forces on a plane making the angle cp with the
failure plane we get then an equation, which can be
brought on the following form:
e r =pt a n
2
( 4 5
0
+ i y )
+ 7Dt an2( 45 + 4-g))
+f
D
2 Ko sin q,
sin (45 + i<p) J
Ko sin q>
sin (45 + i cp) i
+ 2 c t a n ( 4 5
0
+ i g
P
) . [ l + ^ ' . ' 2 sin (45 + ^ ) J (7)
This equation has been developed for a smooth wall,
but as an approximation we shall use the factors in the
w w w g e o d k
brackets for our rough wall too, and apply them to the
resultant (passive minus active) pressures. Moreover,
as the surface load p is usually small, we shall for the
sake of simplicity - and on the safe side - use the
y-factor for p instead of the p-factor. Thus we get:
e = qK;
D
Ko sin q>
sin ( 4 5 + 105) J
+ cK 1 + ^ - 2 sin (45 + ^cp) (8)
4. Pressure at great depth
At great depths the rupture-lines will not go up to
the ground surface any more, but will instead go
horizontally around the pile [2, 3, 4} . We have then
again a plane case of failure, but the planes are now
horizontal.
In order to calculate the corresponding passive pres-
sure on the pile we shall consider the somewhat similar
case of a deep strip foundation. In a recent paper [5]
the author has proposed the following formulas for
this case:
b = i y B N
y
d
y
+ ( c + qt a ny) N
c
d
c
- f q (9)
B , 0.6 1
( 1 0 )
d
e
= 1 + 0 . 3 5 : ^ + ^
' tan
4
g5J
If these formulas shall be applied to the passive
pressure on our pile at great depths, the following
changes must be made. The first and the last term in
(9) are left out, and the effective vertical pressure (q)
in the second term is substituted by the horizontal pres-
sure at rest (qK
0
). Finally, in (10) we can put D = oo.
Thus we get:
e
00
= (c + qKo tan y) Ned? =q K +cK
c

(11)
d' = 1.58 +4. 09 tan* q> (12)
N
c
is the usual bearing capacity factor, for which
the following formula is valid [2, 3, 5]:
N
c
=[ e
3 i : t a n
9
,
t ana( 45
0
+i g) ) - l ] cot gr ) (13)
For K
0
the following formula has been proposed
[6} :
Ko = 1 -si n cp (14)
The constants K" and Kq can now be calculated:
K ^ N c d ? (15)
K = K? K
0
tan p = Ncd?K
0
tan <p (16)
Curves for K" and K" are indicated in fig. 3.
5. Pressure at arbitrary depth
We need now two general formulas for the con-
stants K and Kf to be inserted in equation (2) in
80
60
50
A0
30
20
16
12
10
1.6
1.2
1.0 fc
08
06
05
04
1
K,
/
y

y
v v
V

V
/
Y
V
S
i

v^*
/
A
/
y
y-
-^
s '

y

~
y
s
7*

^^
^

y
^
-H
,

^
S
S

y -
^

^

^
- '

u

k
y
s
^J
"__
^
"*
h-
- 1
~-
t - ^
^
>,
'
^

-

i
-=
-^
'
^
- '
"Z-


; =
__
^=
,




,
r
--
^^
~
c =
_
=
-
'
1



- ^
p-
^
H

1
1

1 '



-
'
^^

=


_
^




^
"
~

=


_
^ ^
- " "

- \

-
^
*
'


_



i=-
"
-

=


_



==
^
Lk
35
i f)
2i3

20

15
Ifi
J)
I I I I
_K
r
.= Of or /
n
- 0
_
4 ' . T
_ _ _
i_
^
,
s
e -

B

D
'
3
>-

>
'

_
_
"I
'
'
__

.
1
,
'
:
J

'
J








=

"^
-""





. ^

___
^


-
' *
- *
F3B
H
1
^

r *
= i i
=*
\
R
' -.
???
81.4
3W
177
a9i
fiflR
nsn
193
Q82
order to give us the pressure e
D
at an arbitrary depth
D.
400
300
200
160
120
100
80
60
50
40
30
20
16
12
'
,
!
6
5
4
f
1
L
|~
p
"U-
H
1
E
vl
m
W
Wi
ill
i l
j
L
<c
/
/
XL
w
m
W
UA
V\
rr7
W
/
f\
i
/
^_
z

7
y
^
*?-.
/

"7
>. r
u
_
^
y -
^
*A
ZA
/
j
y -
f <
^

i
=
H
s
y

^1

^

E
=

i
j
,

^

i
~
=
=.
^


-
~

zz
=
.
^
=
-
<-

"
_
=
=
=


"
^-

~
=

=

=

.'
i
_i

^
=-
=


i
^
'

=
=
==
-


E
^^

4
^
l x
- ^
J

H?
M*
^
_j

r>
0
j - ^
0
k*
Oi

H*
go
05

" "




=
~~
=
'
U
p--
,






=
3
l
^
, H
i 1


Z^
s

" '
'
'
^

_



L Z
=

....

1
1
1 1



_
~

^

__
~r \
J



4
^
!
D
Lt 11
7 59
272
118
61.4
36.8
24.5
17.6
112
102
8.14
0 5 10 15
Fig. 5. Earth pressure coefficient for overburden
20
pressure.
5 10 15 20
Fig. 6. Earth pressure coefficient for cohesion.
w w w g e o d k
For D -*- 0 we must require that K
D
- ^ K
0
, and for
D - oo that K
D
K
00
. Also, for moderate depths,
the increase of the constants with depth should be
expressed by the brackets in equation (8). The simplest
empirical formulas, which fullfil all the above re-
quirements, are the following:
(17)
K? =
" q
Kq+ K
q
l + a
q
K
0
q
K
q
- Kq
-
D
B
KoS
sin (45
in go
+ i 9)
(18)
K?:
Kj + Kc" -etc
B
Or =
l + a
c
K
I)
B
2 sin (45 + ^ cp)
(19)
(20)
Kr-K
In fig. 5 and 6 are given curves for K and Kf re-
spectively as functions of cp and D : B. These curves,
together with the simple formula (2), enable a direct
and quick determination of the horizontal pressures on
the pile. The values at the arrows (right) correspond
to D = oo.
6. Calculation of a pile
Usually the height A of the force H above ground
level will be given. If the driving depth D
m
is also
given, the two unknown quantities are the depth D
r
of
the rotation centre and the ultimate value of the force
H. They are determined by means of the two equili-
brium conditions (horizontal projection and moment
equation). First, D, is fixed by trial in such a way, that
the two pressure areas will give equal moments about
the line of the force H. Then, this force is found as
the difference between the two pressure areas (fig. 7).
When the pile should be designed to resist a given
force H, the unknown quantities are the driving depth
D
m
and the depth D
r
of the rotation centre. B must
be estimated in advance. The necessary safety can be
introduced in the design either by multiplying the
force H by a "total" safety factor F, or by applying
"partial" coefficients of safety to H, q? and c [2, 3, 7,
8} . In the latter case the calculation is made with the
"nominal" quantities:
H
n
= H. f H = H- 1.5 (21)
t a n c p t z n c p
tangp
n
=
c = ^ =
1.2
T
c
-r5 W
The calculation now proceeds in the following way.
First, the depth D
0
, at which the transversal force is
zero, i. e. where the maximum moment occurs, is de-
termined by the condition that the pressure area above
this point should be equal to H
n
. The moment M
n
at
this point is then calculated, and for this the cross
section of the pile should be designed with nominal
stresses in the material. Finally, the driving depth and
the rotation centre are fixed - by trial - in such a way,
that the two additional pressure areas are numerically
equal and give a moment equal to M
n
.
If we have layered earth with different values of
y, c and cp in the different layers, q is always found
from (1), but in each layer the pertaining values of c
and cp are used for the calculation of the pressures in
this layer.
When the effective shear strength parameters c and
cp are used in the calculation, this corresponds, to the
long-term resistance. For the determination of the
short-term resistance, which will develop under im-
pact forces, the undrained parameters qi 0 and c =
c
u
must be used in fully saturated layers of clay or silt.
In sand layers the excess pore pressures dissipate usu-
ally so quickly, that - even for impact forces - only
the ordinary (long-term) parameters should be con-
sidered [2, 3, 9] .
Fig. 7. Earth pressure diagram for pile.
w w w g e o d k
7. Example
We shall here consider the following example of a
pile in gravel (fig. 8) , which has been treated pre-
viously by H. Blum [ 10} :
A = 5.0 m B = 1 . 3 m D
m ;
= 5 . 4 m
/ = 1.0t/m3 cp = 35 c = 0
For cp = 35 we find by means of fig. 5 the follow-
ing results at 6 equally spaced points of the driving
depth:
0 1.08 2.16
0 0.83 1.66
7.0 8.6 9.9
0 12 28
The corresponding pressure diagram is shown in
fig. 8. We try first the lowest fifth point as a possible
rotation centre. The moment equation about the force
line gives then:
AM = 12 1.08 6.08 + 28 1.08 7.16
+ 47 1.08 8.24 + 69 0.54 8.96
- 69 0.54 9.68 - 93 0.54 10.04 =
79 + 217 + 418 + 334 - 36l - 504 =
1048 - 865 = 183 tm
The rotation centre should then be raised about:
183
-~*H=24.0t
D
D : B
K
q
/ DE K,
3.24
2.49
11.2
47
4.32
3.32
12.3
69
5.40
4.15
13.3
93
Ah = = 0. 14m
2 69 9.32
At this point we find D = 4.18 m, D : B = 3.22, K
q
.
= 12.2 and / DBK
q
= 66 t/m
2
. Consequently, a more
accurate value of Ah is:
183
Ah = = 0.147 m
2 67.5 9-25
The ultimate value of the force H is then:
H = 12 1.08 + 28 1.08 + 47 1.08
- 9 3 - 0 . 5 4 - 2 - 6 7 . 5 - 0 . 1 4 7 =
13.0 + 30.2 + 50.8 - 50.2 - 19.8 = 24.0 /
For comparison it can be mentioned that Blum finds
H = 27 t in this case.
Fig. 8. Example of pile calculation.
References.
[1]. J. Brinch Hansen: Earth pressure calculation. Teknisk Forlag, Copenhagen 1953.
[2]. H. Lundgren and J. Brinch Hansen: Geoteknik. Teknisk Forlag, Copenhagen 1958.
[3]. J. Brinch Hansen and H. Lundgren: Hauptprobleme der Bodenmechanik. Springer-Verlag,
Berlin I960.
[4]. J. Brinch Hansen: The stabilizing effect of piles in clay. CN-Post No. 3, Nov. 1948.
[5]. J. Brinch Hansen: A general formula for bearing capacity. Ingeniren, International Edi-
tion, June 1961 and Geoteknisk Institut, Bulletin No. 11, Copenhagen 1961.
[6]. A. W. Bishop: Test requirements for measuring the coefficient of earth pressure at rest. Proc.
Conf. Earth Pressures, Vol. I, Brussels 1958.
[7]. J. Brinch Hansen: Brudstadieberegning og partialsikkerheder i geoteknikken. Ingeniren, 11-5-
1956 and Geoteknisk Institut, Bulletin No. 1, Copenhagen 1956.
[8]. J. Brinch Hansen: Definition und Grosse des Sicherheitsgrades im Erd- und Grundbau. Bau-
ingenieur 1959, Heft 3.
[9]. J. Brinch Hansen: Om jordarternes forskydningsstyrke. Korttids- og langtidsstabilitet. Inge-
niren, 15-6-1958 and Geoteknisk Institut, Bulletin No. 3, Copenhagen 1958.
[10]. H. Blum: Wirtschaftliche Dalbenformen und deren Berechnung. Bautechnik 1932, Heft 5.
w w w g e o d k
MODEL TESTS WI TH TRANSVERSALLY LOADED
RIGID PILES IN SAND
by N. H. Christensen, Civil Engineer, DGI
1. Introduction
The present paper deals with a series of tests car-
ried out on wooden model piles in sand to determine
their resistance against transversal forces. The ultimate
transversal load was determined for different pile
depths, heights of load application, densities of sand,
and methods of placing the pile.
The purpose of the tests was to investigate the vali-
dity of the theory set forward by Professor Brinch
Hansen in the preceding paper, which gives the trans-
versal failure load on a pile as a function of the pile
geometry and the friction angle of the sand.
2. Extent of Test Series
The total number of tests was 26. All piles had a
square cross section of 5 cm X 5 cm. The parameters
varying from test to test were the following (see fig. 1):
The depth D of the pile below the horizontal sand
surface was either D = 25 cm (symbol s for short pile)
or D = 50 cm (symbol / for long pile).
The height A of the horizontal load above the sand
S.
5hr
^
': .'lw: ' .
:
: v .
''J"- ;
U
M
A=22.5
0-25 *
sh
All di men si on s are cm
surface was either A = 22.5 cm (symbol for higher
force line) or A = 5 cm (symbol / for lower force
line).
The pile was either driven into the sand with an
ordinary hammer (symbol^) or was "preplaced" (sym-
bol / ' ) , i. e. placed in position before the sand was fil-
led into the box.
-UH
X
. . i .
D=25 '
Si
r ^
A=22.5
D=50 . *
ki
D-50
lh It
?ig. 1. Position of dial gauges on piles. Pile dimensions and height of transversal force in the four test types.
10
w w w g e o d k
The sand was either loosely deposited or densely
packed in the test box.
After tests had been made for a number of the 16
possible combinations, it proved necessary to modify
the definition of failure, and for this reason 8 tests
were doubled. However, it was found later that for
such of the first tests which had not reached failure
according to the new definition, a relatively accurate
failure load could yet be found by extrapolation. Final-
ly, one more test was repeated twice because of its sur-
prisingly great ultimate load; the results of the two dup-
licate tests (No. 25 and 26) turned out to be more con-
sistent with the other tests. On the basis of this the
original test (No. 3 ) , the result of which is shown in
fig. 9, is disregarded in the final conclusions.
3. Testing Technique
Apart from the placing of the sand and the piles in
the box, the tests were all carried out in the same way.
3.1 The Box and the Sand.
The sand box had a base of 1 m X 1 m and a height
of 0.7 m. With this size it was possible, with due re-
gard to the extension of the ruptures in the sand, to
conduct four pile tests for each time the box was filled
up.
The sand was the so-called ' Gl2-sand' which is used
for most experiments on sand in this laboratory; its pro-
perties are therefore well known, and a homogenous
test medium is ensured.
A grain-size distribution curve for the Gl2-sand is
shown in fig. 2.
As already mentioned, two different densities were
used. When the sand was deposited by means of a
sieve, the void ratio e in the box would assume values
from 0.64 to 0.71. Void ratios between 0.53 and 0.56
were obtained when the sand after sieving was com-
pacted thoroughly in layers of 10 cm thickness.
3.2 The PUes.
In fig. 1 are shown the different pile dimensions
used. The piles were made of wood, and the part below
1UU7 .
807.
607.
407.
207,
07.
_ ^ .
J
f
I
\
0.02 Q06 a i 0.2 0.6 1.0
Fig. 2. Grain-size distribution of the G 12-sand.
zo
mm
the sand surface was covered with sandpaper to ensure
complete roughness. Eye bolts were screwed in at the
points of application of the loading force.
3.3 The Gauges.
The measurements taken during the tests comprised
the horizontal deflections at two points of the pile, the
vertical deflection of the pile top, and the horizontal
force acting on the pile. The deflections were measured
by three ordinary dial gauges, and the horizontal force
by means of a proving ring provided with a dial gauge.
The position of the gauges is shown in fig. 1.
3.4 Running the Test.
It will be seen from fig. 1 that the two employed
lines of action of the transversal force on the pile were
the same lines as those in which the horizontal deflec-
tions were measured.
The horizontal load on the pile was provided by an
electromotor working through a gearbox, a spindle,
and the above-mentioned proving ring. This arrange-
ment ensured a suitably low and steady deformation
rate, varying in the different tests from 5 to 15 cm per
hour in the force line.
While the pile was moving, continuous readings
were made of all gauges. This could be done by one
man, as the slow deformations permitted all readings
in a set of four to be regarded as simultaneous.
In the first tests the pile was vertical at the start, and
the test was stopped when an inclination of 1 : 10-1 : 5
had been reached. In the later tests the pile was placed
with a negative inclination (backwards) of 1 : 10, and
would pass through the vertical position during the
test which was stopped at a positive inclination of about
1 : 10.
Furthermore, during the later tests the sand surface
was continually readjusted so that it remained plane
and horizontal; this was not the case in the first tests.
But it seems that this circumstance has had no signifi-
cant influence on the test results.
3.5 Void Ratio Determinations.
When filling the box it was not easy, and not neces-
sary either, to obtain exactly the void ratio aimed at.
11
w w w g e o d k
Roughly speaking, the tests were meant to be conduc-
ted at only two different densities, but minor varia-
tions in these were, of course, quite acceptable as long
as the void ratio e was determined for each test with
the best possible accuracy. This was necessary as the
ultimate load on the pile increased greatly with the
friction angle of the sand.
The void ratio determinations were made by means
of an ordinary vacuum-cleaner. A cylindrical tube is
pressed down into the sand, and from the interior of
this a known volume of intact sand is removed into a
bottle for weighing by the use of two mouth-pieces of
different lengths. This method has proved very reliable
in dry sand, provided that the method is calibrated by
performing it on reference sand fillings, obtained by
pouring a known weight of sand into a small box with
a known volume.
In each filling of the model box there would gene-
rally be two piles placed beforehand, and two to be
driven into the sand. As the pile driving probably af-
fects the void ratio distribution in the box, the tests on
the preplaced piles, and the determination of void ra-
tios for these tests, had to be carried out before the
driving of the other two piles. These void ratio deter-
minations could therefore only be made in the surface
layer of the sand.
After the driving and the tests on the driven piles,
void ratio determinations were made for these latter
tests, and in this case it was possible, and more de-
sirable too, to determine void ratios in a deeper layer
of the sand as well as at the surface.
Thus for each filling of the box 12 to 15 void ratio
determinations were made, about one third distributed
in the sand surface around the "preplaced" piles, one
third in the surface around the driven piles, and the
rest around the driven piles at about mid-depth of the
longer piles.
This procedure made it possible to determine a void
ratio for each test pile as a weighted mean of a number
of void ratios at different distances from the pile, al-
though the deviations of void ratios in one filling of
the box were generally not so great that any careful
estimate of weights was called for.
The value of e found for each test is given in table I.
4. Direct Test Results
10 12 14 kg
23 cm
Fig. 3. Test no. 13 (si p): load-deflection curve, with variation of
D
r
(depth of rotation centre). The deformation tan v is the an-
gular deflection.
During each test between 60 and 80 sets of dial
readings were taken. It was found that the rotation
centre of the pile usually moved little during the test,
2Acm
Fig. 4. Test no. 25 (r/W): load-deflection curve, with variation
.f O
r
.
12
w w w g e o d k
apart from certain deviations at the start. The inclina-
tion tanv of the pile relative to its starting position was
therefore chosen to represent the deformations; it was
determined by the two horizontal deflections measured.
The transversal force H on the pile is determined by
the deformation of the proving ring. On this basis a
load-deflection curve (tanr, H) could be drawn for
each test.
The depth D
r
of the rotation centre is determined as
D
r
=
dtanv
-. A
where
H
is the deflection measured in the force line;
a (tanf, D
r
)-curve could thus be plotted in the same
graph.
In the calculations carried out on the basis of the
theory (see section 5) the theoretical value D
rt
of D
r
at failure was determined for each test, and compared
with the experimental values. The experimental values
of D
r
were most often found to be slightly smaller
than the theoretical values. It must be noted, however,
that the experimental determinations of D
r
in the
manner described are probably less accurate than those
of the failure loads H; and D
r
may be more influenced
by an uneven distribution of e in the box than H is.
Examples of load-deflection curves are shown in
figs. 3-6.
Most of the tests showed no definite ultimate value
of H; it was therefore necessary in these tests to define
the failure load as the load corresponding to a certain
deformation. When a number of different test types
had been tried out it was found that tan^ = 0.2 was a
suitable failure deformation.
In a few of the tests, H reached a maximum for a
smaller value of t&nv and then decreased with further
deformation (see fig. 3); for these tests the failure
load was defined as the maximum value of H. This
shape of load-deflection curve was mostly found for
small void ratios and short piles.
The failure loads, determined by these definitions,
are given in table I.
16 24 32 40 48 56 kg
16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 cm 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 cm
Fig. 5. Test no. 22 ( l i d) : load-deflection curve, with variation Fig. 6. Test no. 19 ( I hp) : load-deflection curve, with variation
of D, . of D, .
13
w w w g e o d k
Test
No.
1
3
25
26
10
11
2
17
4
18
9
21
12
22
6
8
13
15
5
19
7
20
14
23
16
24
Test
Type
shp
shd
shd
shd
sip
sld
Ihp
Ihp
Ihd
Ibd
Up
Up
Ud
Ud
shp
shd
sip
sld
Ihp
Ihp
Ihd
Ihd
Up
Up
Ud
Ud
Void
ratio
e
0.654
0.635
0.689
0.712
0.695
0.640
0.650
0.675
0.637
0.635
0.693
0.673
0.640
0.626
0.542
0.541
0.557
0.532
0.551
0.548
0.541
0.547
0.558
0.554
0.546
0.553
TABT.F, I.
qjpj
(from fig. 9)
37!8
386
364
35?5
36?2
384
.380
370
38 5
38^6
36 3
370
384
39! 0
42^8
42^9
421
43!3
42^4
42^5
429
426
420
422
42^6
423
Ultimate
load
H(kg)*)
4.18
6.45
3.80
3.80
6.30
8.25
(26.0)
26.8
(34.5)
32.3
(35.0)
39.3
(44.0)
44.5
9.95
10.2
13.8
16.3
(60.0)
50.2
(59.0)
53.5
72.0
70.5
78.3
73.4
By <
dm2
)
5.21
7.96
4.84
4.91
8.06
10.2
32.4
33.9
42.6
39.9
46.0
49.6
52.0
54.6
11.6
11.9
16.0
18.9
70.2
58.7
68.6
62.5
83.7
82.7
91.0
86.0
f
(experimen-
tal value)
i l l
426
368
36f9
36^4
3 9! 3
36^4
37!0
39?8
39?0
367
376
38^2
38!8
4 5 !
45^8
44!o
45
0
.4
44! 5
43 ! l
44!4
43!6
43!3
43!2
44!0
43!5
coiq,
1.295
1.089
1.338
1.331
1.356
1.221
1.356
1.328
1.202
1.236
1.344
1.298
1.270
1.244
0.976
0.971
1.034
0.986
1.016
1.070
1.022
1.049
1.061
1.065
1.035
1.053
*) Values in parenthesis were found by extrapolation.
5. Computation of Theoretical Values
The theory set forward by Professor Brinch Hansen
in the preceding paper gives the horizontal failure
load on a vertical pile in sand as a function of the pile
geometry, the angle of internal friction and the unit
weight of the sand. The present test series comprises,
as regards pile geometry, four different types, viz. sb,
si, lh, and // as defined i fig. 1, whereas the variations
of the friction angle and the unit weight are more or
less irregular.
The computations necessary for an adaptation of the
theory to the present experiments consisted of a theo-
retical determination of HJBy (where H is the transver-
sal failure load, B the width of the pile, and y the unit
weight of the sand) as a function of the friction angle
cp, for the four different cases of geometry. These com-
putations were carried out for four values of cp: 30,
35, 40, and 45, and in analogy with the example
in the preceding paper.
The results are shown as the curves sh, si, lh, and //
in the {cp, HI By) -diagram in fig. 7. Concerning the
points indicated, see later.
The theoretical value D
r t
of D
r
, the depth of the
rotation centre, was determined by the calculations as a
function of cp for each test type. D
r l
differed only
little from 0.8 D. The results are shown as the curves
in the (9?, D
r t
)-diagram in fig. 8. The points marked
in fig. 8 are the experimental values of D
r
plotted
against the qp-values of the tests as given in fig. 9.
6. Comparison Between Theory and Experiment
The test results as given in table I consist of 26 sets
of values of the void ratio e and the failure load H.
The actual friction angle cp of the G 12-sand used in
the tests can be found as a function of the void ratio e;
but the relation {e, cp) has proved to be different for
different types of tests. As an example the friction
angle 9? that determines the active earth pressure on a
model wall, in a condition of plane deformations, is
14
w w w g e o d k
dm
^(\r\
60
cn
UU
OU
40
i n
on
zu
^c
10
17
1Z
10
o
o
c
b
0
/
4
s
J
2S
H
BY
/
X
s
s '
y
s -
s
\y
I h
/
'
S
J'
x
^
^
^ ^
^
^
^
y*
s *
s
s *
^
^
V
^
D ^
ir
S
| X
^
K'
^
* i
^
s *
S
\
| >
i
V
>
V
i
i
i
i
s
Y
s
.
s
s
s
1
y
s
^
y
/
i
^
s
A
s
S
S
j \
w
A
i
r
t
i ,
^
i
i
y
/
/
X
1
s'
/
/
s
/
J
s
(D
H
30 35 40 45
Fig. 7. Relation between friction angle q> and failure load i l , as
given by the theory for the four test types sh, si, lh, and //.
Experimental results (with symbols as in fig. 9) assuming q, in
the present tests to be given by the relation (e, cp) valid for plane
active earth pressure tests.
found [ 1} to be about 4
0
- 5 greater than cp found in
triaxial tests [ 2, 3 ] for the same void ratio (provided
that <p is determined by the straight line envelope to
the Mohr circles).
On the basis of this knowledge the best way to
interprete the results of the present experiments will be
to determine the friction angles cp which, according to
the theory, correspond to the experimental failure loads,
and to compare the qs-values obtained in this way (as a
function of e) with the results of other test types, e. g.
triaxial and active earth pressure tests.
As e and H are known, H/By is easily computed, and
the corresponding "experimental" value of cp is found
by means of the curves in fig. 7. The results are given
in table I, as well as in fig. 9.
cm
40
30
20
10
n
u
r

1

a
T
D

a
+

0

V
O
X
n_
UT
si
sh
o
<>
&
o
A
V
- X

<p
35 40 45
Fig. 8. Relation between friction angle q) and depth D
r
of rotation
point as given by the theory for the four test types sh, st, lh, and //.
Experimental results (with symbols as in fig. 9) , cp being de-
termined (by the curves in fig. 7) as the value that corresponds
theoretically to the failure load in the test.
Fig. 9 represents the main results of the test series.
sTo compare with the experimental values {e, cot cp), in-
dicated by points, two lines are shown, giving the rela-
tion {e, cotcp) as found from triaxial tests and active
earth pressure tests on the same sand. Apart from a
possible small scale effect, the pile geometry and the
manner in which the pile was placed have apparently
had no significant influence on the test results as pre-
sented in fig. 9. This means that Professor Brinch Han-
sen's theory of ultimate horizontal loads on rigid, ver-
tical piles is confirmed, in so far as the present test
series has yielded a relation {e, cotcp) that conforms
well to the one found for the active earth pressure tests
on the Gl2-sand. The differences in cp are only 0
o
- 2
o
,
and are practically always on the safe side.
The 99^-values corresponding to the void ratio in
each pile test, i. e. the values cp = cp
t
i determined by
the relation {e, cot 93) found for the active earth pres-
sure tests, are given in table I. If cp
t
i is regarded as the
' true' friction angle, another comparison between the
present experiments and the theory becomes possible.
The experimental results may then be plotted in a (93
1

HJBy)-diagram to compare with the theoretical curves;
this has been done in fig. 7.
15
w w w g e o d k
oshd vl hd
shp Ai hp
xsl d o l l d
+sl p al t p
0.52 0.5/i 0.56 0.58 0.60 0fi2 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.70 0.72
Fig. 9. Correlation of void ratio e and friction angle q> in pile tests, cp being determined (by the curves in fig. 7) as the value that
corresponds theoretically to the failure load in the test.
7. Summary
26 model tests have been carried out on wooden
piles in dry sand to determine their resistance against
horizontal loads. The parameters varying from test to
test were the pile depth, the height of the horizontal
load, the density of the sand, and the way the pile was /
placed in the sand. The test results were used for draw-
ing up load-deflection curves.
Computations were carried out in accordance with
the theory set forward in the preceding paper. These
were, for each test, a determination of the friction
angle that would, according to the theory, give the
same ultimate load as found in the test. These friction
angles are plotted (fig. 9) against the void ratio of the
sand as the main results of the present test series.
It is seen that the "experimental" friction angle cp is
significantly influenced only by the void ratio of the
sand. The values of 93 are only slightly greater (0
o
-2
o
)
than those found in active earth pressure tests, and
their dependence on the void ratio conforms well to
those earlier tests.
The present model tests can therefore be regarded as
a reasonable confirmation of the theory, indicating that
it is usually a little on the safe side to use this theory,
provided that cp is taken as corresponding to a case of
plane strain.
Kefe
eferences
[1]. N. H. Christensen: Model Tests on Plane Active Earth Pressures in Sand. Geoteknik Institut,
Bulletin No. 10, Copenhagen 1961.
[2]. Bent Hansen and D. Odgaard: Bearing Capacity Tests on Circular Plates on Sand. Geoteknisk
Institut, Bulletin No. 8, Copenhagen i960.
[3]. Bent Hansen: The Beating Capacity of Sand, Tested by Loading Circular Plates. Proc 5th Int
Conf Soil Mech Found Engn, Vol I pp 665-668, Paris 1961.
16
w w w g e o d k