Artificial intelligence

Lecture 1 Introduction to AI
1.1 The artificial intelligence as necessary complement.
The solution of problems by means of calculation in its traditional focus is viewed as
the implementation of a solving algorithm using some well-known programming
language. The objective of the implementation can be one of the following ones.
i !y wining time of solution of the problem
ii !y wining accuracy of the solution
iii to be able to solve problems of more dimension "it is not the same thing
for a human to multiply # matri$es order #$# that to multiply # matri$es
order 1%%%$1%%%& although the same algorithm is used.
It states that a well-known algorithm e$ists to solve the problem& independently of
its comple$ity. The ' following problems serve as e$ample
i Adding # order matrices #$#
ii (alculating the monthly salaries of the 1%%% workers of a company.
iii !y analy)ing the method of finite elements to design a bridge.
These ' problems have much in common* processing numerical data is made and
mainly it has an algorithm to carry out this process.
The solution of problems like the previous ones is to what we denominate
traditional computation.
+owever& all the problems that we have to solve do not have a known algorithm, let
us see the following e$amples*
i to -iagnose an illness starting from well-known symptoms and the
patient.s features.
ii to /ecogni)e a character.
iii to -esign a device for a given function.
The previous problems lack a well-known solution algorithm and they have other
characteristics in common. Among them* it is not only necessary to process
numeric information and the effectiveness of the solution depends on the human.s
capacity "physical capacity in the #nd problem "vision or knowledge of diverse
types& for e$ample& e$perience in the other problems.
Also& of these classes of problems lacking of solution 0algorithms0& in occasions the
dimension of a problem makes inapplicable a well-known algorithm to solve that
problem type. 1or e$ample& the traveling salesperson.s algorithm is applicable for
1% cities& but it is debatable its utility for a circuit of 1%%% cities.
The AI offers techni2ues to face the # classes of problems before mentioned& those
that its dimension makes it possible to use a well-known algorithm and those that
lack algorithm to solve them. 1or that reason we focus the IA as a complement of
the traditional computation.
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1.# -efinition of the term AI given by several authors.
In the year 1345& during a (ongress in -artmouth "6.7 it intended this term to
contain all the methods& technical and intents of simulating the human intellect in
the computer. It is attributed to 8ohn 9c(arthy the definition of the term.
Any uni2ue and rigorous definition that covers all the aspects that the term wants
to represent appropriately doesn.t e$ist up to now.
According to :childlt& an ;intelligent program< is one that shows a similar behavior
to the human when it faces a problem. It is not necessary that the program really
solves the problem in the same way like man.
Alan Turing is e$pressed similarly when e$pressing that 0if during the e$change
between a computer and the user this finally believes that it is e$changed with
another human& then it is said that the program is intelligent0
1or 1orsyth the AI is related with problems which have escaped from a
mathematical characteri)ation.
1or (ave the systems with AI use standard procedures that allow to modify the
processes without more than to modify the knowledge& that is to say& there is a
separation between the knowledge and the procedure that it uses that procedure.
This focus is clear when studying the =!:.
6laine /ich defines it in the following way. ;The AI is the study of how to achieve
that the computers make things that at the moment& people make better. A
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computer finds the roots of an e2uation a faster and with more accuracy than a
man, however& man recogni)es better a group of characters.
>e will present according to /usell and ?orving @ definitions& they vary around #
main dimensions. Those that appear in the upper part refer to mental processes
and the reasoning& as long as those of the lower part are based on the behavior. An
the other hand& the definitions of the left measure the desirable condition in
function of the human efficiency& while those of the right make it according to the
rationality
0The interesting task of
achieving that the computers
thinkB machines with mind in
their wide literal sense0
"+augeland& 13@4
;The automation of activities
that we link with processes of
the human thought& such
activities as taking of decisions&
resolution of problems&
learningB 0 "!ellman& 13C@
0The study of the mental abilities by
means of computational model0
"(harniak and 9c -ermott& 13@4
;The study of the calculations that
allow to perceive& to reason and to
act0 ">inston& 133#
0The art of creating machines
with capacity of carrying out
functions that carried out by
people re2uire of intelligence0
"=ur)weil& 133%
0The study of how to achieve
that the computers carry out
tasks that& at the moment& the
humans make better< "rich and
=night& 1331
0A study field that is focused to the
e$planation and emulation of the
intelligent behavior in function of
computational processes0 ":chalkoff&
133%
0The branch of the science of the
calculation that is in charge of the
automation of the intelligent behavior0
"Luger and :tubblefield& 133'
Independently of the diversity of definitions& the investigations in AI are carried out
with # pragmatic and concrete purposes*
i to Achieve that the computers e$ecute tasks that usually when they are
solved by humans we usually call intelligent0
ii to 7nderstand the principles that make the possible intelligence.
/egrettably the name AI instead of helping to clarify the purposes and methods of
this new field of calculation has been problematic. 1irst& because if the human
intelligence still far from being understood& how to speak of an artificial one.
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mental processes and the reasoning
based on the behavior
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:econd& because that term evokes a distant future and suggests methods and
technical not very useful. Third& because the term AI outlines a competition with
man.
1.' -efinition starting from problems solution by means of search.
The laboratory of AI of the 7niversity of :tanford classified the computational fields
of work according to the type of information and the type of method to process it&
according to the following table*
Drocessing Types ?umeric :ymbolic
Algorithmic Traditional :cientific
(alculation
9anagement
+euristic ?umeric :imulations that
re2uire to reduce possible
states
AI
This focus although neither can be taken as a definition& allows locating the domain
of problems that fall in the field of AI. The 2uadrant that the AI occupies is opposed
to the algorithmic and numeric but has wide frontier with the fields that possess
heuristic and not numeric strong components.
The AI approaches problems little structured& where it is not known the best
method to solve it. It is necessary to discover some solution. This is the reason of
the heuristic word& whoEs meaning associates to search. 1or that reason& in the AI
0is not calculated a solution0 but rather ;a solution is looked for<. The essence of
heuristic is contrary to that of the algorithm in the sense that it is a road to look for
the new thing& while the algorithm is a road to already carry out the well-known. It
is understood by this way that the primary paradigm for the solution of problems in
AI is the search of the solution guided by heuristic for reducing the combinatorial
e$plosion of all the possible solution that are presented in most of the real
problems.
The search is based on the knowledge. Ane of the few definitive results that has
taken place in all the research areas in AI& is that the intelligence re2uires
knowledge.
A techni2ue of AI is a method that e$ploits knowledge. This should be represented
so that*
i it (aptures generali)ations
ii it can be understood.
iii it can be easily modified
iv It can be used in many situations
v it can be used to help overcoming their own e$tension
This last 2uality condition is related with another desirable characteristic of the
systems of AI* the possibility self-learning.
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The programs of AI use ' important techni2ues*
i) Search
ii) Use of knowledge.
iii) Abstraction (to separate the important thing of what is not).
1.F -efinition starting from the fields of application of the AI
Another form of defining the AI is enumerated the applications of its techni2ues
Derception - Gision
- :peaking
Task of the daily life ?atural Language H 7nderstanding
- Ieneration
- Translation
- (ommon sense
- /obotics
1ormal tasks - Iames
- 9athematics
Tasks of 6$perts - 6ngineering - -esign
- -etection of flaws
- Dlanning
- 9edical diagnosis
- 1inancial analysis
1.4 1ields of the application of AI
1. Problem Solving and Planning* This deals with systematic refinement of
goal hierarchy& plan revision mechanisms and a focused search of important
goals J1'K.
#. Expert Systems* This deals with knowledge processing and comple$
decision-making problems J1FH15K.
'. at!ral "ang!age Processing* Areas such as automatic te$t generation&
te$t processing& machine translation& speech synthesis and analysis& grammar
and style analysis of te$t etc. come under this category J1CK.
F. #obotics* This deals with the controlling of robots to manipulate or grasp
objects and using information from sensors to guide actions etc. J1@K.
4. $omp!ter %ision* This topic deals with intelligent visualisation& scene
analysis& image understanding and processing and motion derivation J5K.
5. "earning* This topic deals with research and development in different
forms of machine learning J13K.
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C. &enetic Algorithms* These are adaptive algorithms which have inherent
learning capability. They are used in search& machine learning and optimisation
J3H1%K.
@. e!ral etworks* This topic deals with simulation of learning in the
human brain by combining pattern recognition tasks& deductive reasoning and
numerical computations J11K.
1.5 +istorical evolution
The initial works inside the field of the AI were directed to emulate the process of
human thinking. An outstanding e$ample was the intent of ?ewell& :haw and :imon
of creating a Ieneral of Droblems :olving ID:. As well as the success reached at
the end of the decade of the 4%th and beginnings of the years 5%th for /osemblatt
when creating the ;Derceptrons<
In both cases other authors took charge of demonstrating the limitations of both
intents. In 13C' Iodel demonstrated that it was impossible the mathematical
representation for the reasoning process which annulled the possibility to create& at
least presently& a ID: like the one thought by ?ewell& :haw and :imon. 9irsky and
Dapert in the years 5%th showed these limitations for the operation of a simple
Derceptron.
+owever in America the works in AI followed another direction. It thought about
that although a universal theory of the intelligence doesn.t e$ist if it was possible to
create speciali)ed intelligence. This& together to the change of the conception by
means of which was given more importance to the role of the knowledge than to
potent methods of problems solution& took to the reactivation of the works in this
field.
At the moment the increment of interests is due to several reasons among those
are.
- success of 6$pert :ystem
- the 8apanese project of computers of 4th generation
- The integration of technical of AI to e$istent applications& etc.
The development of the IA has followed two main lines& the symbolic one and the
sub-symbolical.
'he first one is characteri(ed to develop models that describe)
formali(e and implement aspects systemati(able of the knowledge in an
explicit way.
'he other one is based on the foc!ses non representational of
the A* like it is the case of the recognition pattern.
The calculation sub-symbolical is based on the use of analogical representations the
knowledge it is distributed among diverse components which are connected and
that they can work in parallel.
1inally it is necessary to mention one of the fundamental problems that face the AI
at the moment* the problem of the learning. The up-to-date ac2uisition of the
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knowledge is a main problem for which one doesn.t have an efficient solution at the
moment.
The main events in the history of the AI are*
13'5 Turing formali)es the notion of a computer of general purpose
13F4 Gon ?ewman elaborates the program design stored for digital seriates 6(9
"6lectronic (omputing 9achines .
13F5 6?IA(& first digital computer of general purpose
134% Turing describes its test for intelligent machines. :hanon speculates on the
pioneers of the computers chess players.
1344 !ernstein develops the 1st program to play chess.
1345 9c (arthy organi)es the conference of -armouth and it accentuates the term
AI
?ewell :haw and :imon the Logic develops Theorist& the first successful program
with AI 134C 9c (arthy the Lisp invents
?ewell& :haw and :imon begin the ambitious ID:
(homsky introduces the transformational grammatical to model the synta$ of the
natural languages
1354 1eigenbaum develops -endral& the first 6:"6$pert :ystem
1355 Luilliam invents the semantic nets
135C Irenblatt develops 9ac +ack the first program of competent chess.
13C% >inston gives to know the pioneer machine learning.
Learning structural descriptions from e$amples.
(olmeraver invents the Drolog
13C# 9ycin creates the first 6: practical
13CF 9insky publishes ;A framework for representing knowledge<
13C4 in the 9IT the LI:D machine is created
13@# are known a theory of the vision
It begins in 8apan the 4th generation
13@5 appear the connection systems machine.
1irst 13@C International conference on /?A.
9ir)ai summari)es the development of the AI identifying 4 peak stages and decline
of this discipline.
The first one is developed in the decade of the years 4%
th
& call it the -A/= :TAI6
and identify it with the neural networks. In this period the central idea was to make
intelligent machines imitating the brain. Two of the systems developed in this
direction were the Dandemonium and the Derceptron.
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The #
nd
was developed in the decade of the yearEs 5%
th
& call it :TAI6 A1 T+6
/6A:A? and it identified it with the automated logic. Two of the systems developed
in this stage were the Ieneral Droblem :olver "ID: that served of base for the
later development of a well-known planner as :T/ID:& both systems were analy)ed
later on and the :+/-L7 which was oriented& has facilitated the communication
man - machines.
The '
rd
was developed in the first decade of the years C%
th
& call it the /A9A?TI(
D6/IA- and it identified it as the engineering of the knowledge. To this stage it
distinguishes it the fact that it abandoned the objective of creating a general
intelligence and they went to the works starting from the observation of the fact
that humans are competent in their field due to the great 2uantity of speciali)ed
knowledge that they possess& The main result of this re-orientation was the
emergence of the 6:.
The F
th
stage was developed in the @%
Es
& call it D6/IA- A1 T+6 ILL7:T/ATIA? and it
identifies it with the automated learning "9achine Learning. The idea of
representing the knowledge e$plicitly as rules& sentences or other forms stimulated
the works but it also recogni)ed that the e$traction and the code of the knowledge
is a difficult and intense work. :o what becomes natural to think in terms of
automating the process of knowledge ac2uisition which takes it to the 9achine
Learning. :ome systems developed in this direction are the 67/I:I(A and the
>I:A/-.
The 4
th
stage was developed in the decade of the 3%Es& call it a stage of the IAT+I(
/6!I/T+ and it was identified with the emergence of the ?eural ?etworks.
After several decade of development of the symbolic paradigm to create =!:& it
returns to the recognition pattern.
Conclusions
In the course some of the technologies were studied for the construction of
intelligent programs.
0 9:D and 1/( for the solution of problems from the symbolic point.
0 =!: "?!: and :! in (ases
0 ?eural ?etworks
0 Ienetic algorithm.
0 9anagement of the uncertainty& etc
(onsulted bibliography*
0 Artificial Intelligence& A.9 Andrew &%%1.4'4& And& TA Dag 1-14
0 Artificial Intelligence and 7psets (& (histipher (habris (ap 1
0 IA& 6. /ich& (ap 1
0 AI to modern approach& :tuart /ussell& Deter ?orving& (ap 1
0 Applications of the IA
!ibliography
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;AI 6. /ich& 133F (ap 1 and ##
;Introduction to AI 1ra part& (ap 1
0AI& 6. /ich& 13@@& (ap 1
0AI to modern approach& :tuart /ussell& Deter ?orving& (ap 1
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