Bioengineering Note

CIVIL ENGINEERING BIOENGINEERING
IV/I PREPARED BY: DKB

1
CHAPTER : 01
INTRODUCTION TO BIOENGINEERING
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Nepal is prone to natural as well as human induced hazards. Each year, several hundreds of lives
and properties worth of several millions of dollars is lost, and the soil ecosystem is also
disturbed. Earthquake, landslide, debris flow, glacier lake outburst flood (GOLF), avalanche and
cloud burst take toll of life, property and flooding in the Terai. When such hazards occur,
bridges, roads and power intakes located in the mountainous regions are destroyed. At the same
time landslides and debris flows not only take the fertile field and houses but also add to the
sediment load in the river, which in turn washes away the paddy fields located along the bank of
rivers in mountain areas. In the Terai area, many paddy fields are either eroded or submerged
with floodwater.
In this context, it is a big challenge for engineers and technicians to solve the problem of erosion
and slope stability. As it is too costly to construct heavy civil engineering structures and use high
technology for solving these problems the experience of past several years have shown that using
living plants can solve such types of problem. The use of living plants either alone or in
conjunction with small-scale civil engineering structures or non-living plant materials for the
purpose of reducing the shallow seated instability and controlling erosion on slopes of any
watershed can be named as Bioengineering. It is not a new technique for Nepal. The indigenous
methods similar to bioengineering are in practice for centuries.
1.2 IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS ON SLOPES
Materials roll down the slope
Water enters into slope or liquefy the slope material
Loose state of materials
Outward and downward movement of slope
Slip of overlying layer
Accumulation of water

2
INTRODUCTION TO BIO-ENGINEERING
The use of living plants either alone or in combination with small scale civil engineering
structures or non living plant material for the purpose of reducing the shallow seated
instability and controlling erosion on slope.
OR
The use of live, woody and herbaceous plants to repair slope failures and to increase slope
stability. Living plant material may be used alone or in combination with structural components
such as rock, wood, concrete, or geotextiles.

ENGINEERING FUNCTION TO BE PERFORMED FOR BOIENGINEERING
Catch Function
Armour Function
Reinforce Function
Support Function
Anchor Function
Drain Function

SCOPE OF BIO -ENGINEERING
Bioengineering can be applied in different fields:
slope stabilization on embankments and cut slopes, erosion control, water course and shoreline
protection, wind erosion control, noise reduction, traffic control, mining and reclamation,
construction sites, waste disposal and public health, reservoirs and dams, buildings, highways,
railways .
JUSTIFICATION CRITERIA FOR THE USE OF BIOENGINEERING
The use and application of bioengineering can be summarized as:
1. Reducing instability and erosion- by observation in the field.
2. Increasing the slopes factor safety- by measurement in the field.
3. Physical flexibility- by observation in the field.
4. Versatility in application- by observation of a range of applications in the field.
5. Only solving some problems- this may be difficult to evaluate.
6. Cost-effectiveness- by cost comparison.
7. Environmentally advantageous- by observation & comparison of sites in the field.
8. Socially advantageous- by discussion with road corridor inhabitants and
Extension groups

3
Advantages of bioengineering
Protects almost all slopes against erosion
Reduces the instance of shallow seated instability
Improves surface drainage and reduces slumping
Physical flexibility
Versatility in application
The only solution for some problems.
Cost effective
Environmentally advantageous
Socially advantageous

LIMITATIONS OF BIOENGINEERING
There are mainly four specific limitations of Bioengineering, that is, the aspects that are not dealt
in bioengineering.
1. Vegetation in relation to buildings:
- Damage due to water removal on shrinking clay soils.
- Root penetration on foundations and drains.
- Risk of toppling into buildings.
2. Vegetation in relation to water quantity:
- Choking of waterways with plant growth as result of eutrophication.
- The use of reed beds for land treatment of effluents and nutrient harvesting.
3. Vegetation growth on structure:
- Accelerates weathering and corrosion or causes adverse effects on the performance of
concrete and steel.
4. Needs of aftercare:
- Vegetation cannot perform its engineering function in its initial stage.
- It demands regular repair and maintenance.

CONCLUSION
Bioengineering is the appropriate and indigenous technique as well as a sustainable technology
for slope stabilization. In spite of its beneficial characteristics there are some limitations, which
should be considered in its design.
4
CHAPTER: 02
Site Investigation
2.1 Analysis of slope stability based on Minerals Types
INTRODUTION
Minerals are naturally occurring crystalline chemical compounds. Rocks are aggregations of minerals.
The mineral constituents of a rock may have very different chemical compositions and properties.
A fresh rock sample may contain the following mineral groups:
- dark minerals;
- light minerals (milky);
- white mica (platy, translucent);
- quartz (sugary, translucent but can be milky).

Rocks are affected by weathering. Weathering is defined as 'The physical and chemical alteration of rock
by the action of heat, water, and air'. Note that high temperature and high water content increase the rate
of weathering.

Feldspar
Fig 6.6, Rock Containing Dark and light Colored Minerals
Dark color minerals
Feldspar
Quartz
Mica
Light colored
Feldspar
5

The relative order of susceptibility to chemical alteration in the common mineral groups is as follows:
Dark minerals Least resistant to alteration
Light minerals
White mica
Quartz Most resistant to alteration

Rock resistance to weathering
The weakness of rock has direct relation with the minerals types. The rock resistance weathering as per
the minerals types is shown in following diagram.

Rock containing dark colored minerals
Dark colored igneous rock (Basalt)
Dark colored metamorphic rocks containing mainly
dark colored mica (gneiss, schist, phyllite, and slate)
Dark colored sedimentary rocks (mudstone, shale, siltstone)

Rock containing light colored minerals
(granite, gneiss, phyllite, marble)

Rock Containing Mica
(gniess, schist, phyllite, sandstone)

Rock Containing Quartz
(mainly quartzite and sandstone)

Weak
Strong
6
Slope stability as per Rock and Mineral types
The slope stability of rock can be interpreted as per the rock and mineral types found on slope. The slope
stability and soil formation sequence can be defined in the following manner.

Slope of Dark colored less compacted rocks

Slope of Light Colored Rocks

Slope of rock containing more mica
(gneiss, schist, phyllite, sandstone)

Slope of Quartz rich rock
(mainly quartzite and sandstone)

2.2 ANALYSIS OF SLOPE STABILITY BASED ON ORIENTATION AND
FRACTURE
Rock and Rock Fracture
Rocks of the earth crust are subject to a number of internal and external forces. These forces activate
during and after the formation of rocks. This interaction of rocks and the activate forces is responsible for
a variety of features and structures developed in the rocks. The size, shape and arrangement of layers in
rocks are resulted from a range of forces that might have acted on those rocks during or after their
formation. The layered, simple or complex bending, warping, fracturing and displacements along definite
planes, surfaces or zones formed by the action of internal and external forces within the rock are usually
termed as geological structures.
The rocks exhibit normally specific characters, features, and deformation or disposition patterns due to
which rock masses show some features or design called structures. The study of the arrangement and
significance of these features is termed as structural geology. It is a part of geotechtonics and in other
terms it deals with the structure, movements and the development of the upper envelopes of the earth.
Fractures are one of the major features of rocks. Most of the fractures are approximately parallel to each
other and constitute what is called a 'set. Most rocks contain several fracture sets. Rock strength is related
to the number and weakness of fractures. The presence of fractures is the main cause of failure of rock
slopes. Friction along the interfaces between the fractures blocks governs the shear strength of the rock.
Shear strength is reduced when contact along the interfaces is lost. Strong rocks have fewer fractures or
Weak gentle slope
Very stable peak and cliff
High Soil Formation
Less soil Formation
7
closed and cemented fractures. A highly weathered rock may fail through the rock body rather than along
the joints.
Notice the following features of the rock (Fig 6.11 and Fig 5.12):
- Bedding
- Orientation of structures
- Fracturing and jointing
The orientation of these planes controls the resistance of the rock block failure to gravitational forces.

Rock Fracture Measurement
Strike and dip
The strike is the direction of the line of intersection between a horizontal plane and the
geological plane (bedding plane, joints, foliation etc). The dip is the maximum angle of
inclination of the geological plane with respect to the horizontal plane measured on the vertical
Fig 6.12, Bedding and fracture
Bedding
Plane
Bedding
Plane
Bed
Bed
Bed
Bed
Bed
Joint

Joint
Figure : Rock
fractures and
bedding
8
plane. The direction of dip and strike of any inclined bed must lie at right angles to each other.
The strike and dip is illustrated in Figures.
The dip of bed has two components direction and magnitude. The direction of dip, also called dip
direction, is always right angle to the strike. A dip direction must be stipulated because a bed can
dip one of two directions perpendicular to strike. The amount of dip is the angle which varies
from 0
o
to 90
o
according to bed. The direction of dip is the geographical direction along which a
bed has maximum slope. In case of horizontal beds the dip is 0
o
and for a vertical bed the dip is
90
o
. The maximum slope with respect to the horizontal plane is also called true dip and the
direction is also called true dip direction. Similarly, any directions other than that of the true dip,
and are less than true dip is defined as apparent dip.
The representation of strike and dip in any geological map by the help of different symbols are
shown in below. The dip direction and dip amount of a linear structure are termed as trend and
plunge of the structures.

Figure: Strike and
dip

N

O
B
A
M
P
b.
E
F
G
H

N

O
B
A
M
P
a.
E
F
G
H

Siltstone

Sandstone

- AB is the strike
- MOP is the dip angle
- OM is the dip direction
- Line OP lies on
geological plane surface
- Line OM lies on
horizontal surface
- EFGH is the horizontal
surface
Legend
Fig :, strike and dip in strata ofdifferent
position
9

During data measurement of strike and dip and are referred in text mainly by two notations.
a. Strike notation
i. N55
o
W/35
o
S : Strike north 55
o
west and dip 35
o
due south
ii. 305
o
/35
o
S : Strike azimuth 305
o
and dip 35
o
due south.
b. Dip notation
i. 35
o
/S25
o
W : Dip 35
o
and dip direction 25
o
west of south
ii. 35
o
/205
o
: Dip 35
o
and dip direction has an azimuth of 205
o

"ii." can also be referred as 205
o
/35
o
i.e. dip direction 205
o
and dip amount 35
o
and widely used in
mathematical treatment of strike and dip.
There are a number of ways to determine the attitude of a structural or geological plane, and all are based
on field measurements of one kind to another. The most direct method is to hold the compass directly
against an exposed plane surface at outcrop, for strike, one edge of the open compass is placed against
plane and the compass rotated until it is horizontal. In general, for the measurement of strike, the compass
should be parallel to the strike line and for measurement of dip angle or dip amount the compass should
be vertical along the dip line . The trend given by its bearing or azimuth, this position gives the strike
direction. Similarly, dip is determined by placing one side of the compass box and lid directly against the
exposed plane perpendicular to the previously measured strike. The clinometer bubble is leveled and the
dip angle read.

Figure: Strike and dip plot of the Fig 5.4

Strike Line

G
eological C
om
pass
Inclined
Geological
Plane

D
i
p

L
i
n
e

Figure : Measurement techniques of Strike and dip

by Geological Compass

Figure : General view of Brunton Compass (Source: The Brunton Company, 1989)
10

Rock Joints (Fractures)
Joints are surface along which no lateral movement has occurred and are found in practically all rocks.
Commonly, they are found in joint sets, related by their orientation with respect to the stresses operating
in an area. Because joints are relatively open, they are commonly filled with minerals. the infilling tends
to reduce shearing resistance and along the joint surfaces.
A groups of joints which runs parallel to each other are termed a joint set whilst two or more joint sets
which intersect at a more or less constant angle are referred to as a joint system.
Joint Sets
Systematic sets should be distinguished from non-systematic sets when recording the discontinuities in
the field. Barton (1978) suggested that the number of sets of discontinuities at any particular location
could be described in the following manner
1. Massive, occasional random joints
2. One discontinuity set
3. One discontinuity set plus random
4. Two discontinuity sets
5. Two discontinuity sets plus random
6. Three-discontinuity sets
7. Three discontinuity sets plus random
8. Four or more discontinuity sets
9. Crushed rock, earth-like.

Fig 6.18, Joint System in the surroundings of a Tunnel Fig 6.19, One set of Joint
11

Fig 6.20, Joint in a Gneiss boulder and opening is 3 to 5 cm wide

Fig : Three set of joints Fig :Three set of joints in rock exposure

Fig : Wedge failure in rock exposure

Joints
Fig : Joints in rock exposures
12

Plane Failure Wedge Failure Toppling Failure
Fig : Various Types of slope failure due to Joints in rocks
Rock Behaviour: Surface
The rock mass (jointed rock) has typical failure characteristics according to low and high stress
conditions. Following figures are the examples of fractures and failure relationships.

Heavily Jointed
Massive
Jointed
Low Stress Condition
Massive
Jointed
Heavily
Jointed
High Stress Conditions
13

2.3 ANALYSIS OF SLOPE STABILITY BASED ON WEATHERING GRADE
INTRODUCTION
The mineral constituents of a rock may have very different chemical compositions and properties.
A fresh rock sample may contain the following mineral groups:
dark minerals;
light minerals (milky);
white mica (platy, translucent);
quartz (sugary, translucent but can be milky).

The rocks with such different minerals generally lead to weathering process and creates thick soil
formation above the bed rocks. Weathering is defined as 'The physical and chemical alteration of rock by
the action of heat, water, and air'. Weathering is an umbrella term for the processes which wear rock and
other materials down and break them apart. It happens because rocks and minerals which formed at one
set of conditions are not necessarily stable at other conditions; more correctly, the rocks and minerals are
not in equilibrium with the environment around them. Weathering is the process by which rocks and
minerals become equilibrated with their surroundings. High temperature and high water content increase
the rate of weathering.

A weathered rock sample will show some or all of the following features:
softness ( i.e. minerals can be rubbed off by hand);
discoloration;
loosening of grains;
intact white mica;
intact quartz.
Types of Weathering
There are generally three major kinds of weathering:
Chemical
Minerals making up a rock are chemically altered. They either transform to other minerals or
dissolve.
14
Physical/Mechanical
Rocks are fragmented through generally inorganic mechanisms, while the chemical composition
of the rocks' minerals does not change.
Biological
Living organisms can accelerate either of the previous two mechanisms.

Product of Weathering
Weathering of minerals creates more sophisticated minerals which play very active role in the slope
stability. Such minerals are very active towards water and start to swell in even low low amount of water.
Fig : gives list of weathering product of different minerals.

Weathering Phenomenon
All denudation starts with weathering. Any loose material is immediately affected by gravity, so we can
say that
Weathering + Gravity => Mass wasting
Physical weathering
Dark Colored Minerals
Light Colored Minerals
(Feldspar)
Quartz
Mica
Calcite
Clay Minerals and
Iron Oxide
Clay Minerals and
K, Na, Ca, ions
Quartz
Clay Minerals K ions
CaCO
3
ions
Fig. 6.8, List of weathering product
15
If a moving substance capable of transporting rock particles - a stream or consistent wind - is also present,
then erosion takes place
Weathering + Gravity + Moving fluid => Erosion
Because of weathering, all rock surfaces (except for the very steep, and very young, geologically
speaking) are covered by a layer of weathered material. Furthermore, presence of plants leads to
formation of soil.
As a result, natural surfaces are typically formed of several layers of materials

In Fig : From bottom to top we can see following pattern:
Bedrock - solid unaltered rock.
Regolith - layer of weathered rock.
o Residual regolith - weathered material derived directly from bedrock
underneath (unmoved or moved very little).
o Transported regolith (sediment) - weathered material moved and deposited by
erosion (running water, waves and currents, wind, ice) as well as by mass
wasting.
Soil - uppermost layer of regolith (1-3 m) enriched in organic matter
From this figure we can say that weathering is a vital factor of slope development and it has direct link
with slope stability.

16
In Figure below we can predict soil formation process due to weathering on a slope

Rock weathering grades
The weathering grade can be described in numbers and used as per following parameters

Weathering grade Description
1a Fresh rock. No visible sign of weathering.
1b Faintly weathered. Discoloration on major joint
surfaces.
2 Slightly weathered. Discoloration of all discontinuity
surfaces or throughout rock.
3 Moderately weathered. Up to 50% of rock material
decomposed and/or disintegrated to soil. Rock can be
a continuous mass, or core stones.
4 Highly weathered. More than 50% of rock material
decomposed or disintegrated to soil. Rock mass is
discontinuous.
Fig: Slope
development and
soil formation
17
5 Completely weathered. All rock material decomposed
and/or disintegrated to soil. Original mass structure
still largely intact.
6 Residual soil. All rock material converted to soil.
Mass structure and material fabric destroyed.

`

Conclusion
Form this discussion, we can say

Rock type and slope failure
A slope can be considered as rocky when even sparse outcrops of rock appear either directly at ground
surface, within rivulets, or pointing out through a rather thin soil, which has originated from the
underlying rock. For rocky slopes, stability greatly depends on the structure of the rock and on the
geometrical relations between this structure and the slope. This is true at least for slopes with an incline
greater than 38
o
- 45
o
degree, and is qualified by a variety of factors in equatorial and subtropical regions,
where the weathering of rock is frequently deep and characterized by open fractures and laminations. In
More chemical weathering More soil formation More chance of slope
failure related to soil
More physical weathering More rock fragment
formation
More chance of slope
failure related to rock

Fig , Typical Weathering Profile
18
these regions, the transition from sound rock to proper soil is gradual and the entire cover is tied in with
rock and its structure. For these reasons, equatorial and subtropical slope failures are chiefly ruled by rock
mechanics in the mountainous areas.
Except for simple cases, however (e.g. a layer of hard rock sliding on clayey rock), slope stability
calculations are highly complex and often too theoretical for practical use. A new method for evaluating
the risks of slope failure adapted to work in remote areas, was therefore tested during field work in Nepal.
The method is laid out below.
On slopes with inclines less than 38
o
- 45
o
degree water runoff is rather slow, and percolation through the
rock increases and travel is deeper. Consequently, weathering becomes an important factor and thick
layers of soil can be built up. Rock structure ceases to determine slope stability, and failures are then ruled
by laws of soil mechanics. The same is true for slopes covered with thick allogenic material (debris, old
landslides or rock-slides), morainic material and alluvium, although underlying rock structure sometimes
continues to influence slope stability. When these soils are thin, however, stability may nevertheless be
directly determined by rock structure.
Under similar conditions, the surface areas of rock-slides and debris slides increase as the number of
types of geological planes (laminations and fractures) and structural wedges increase. It can, therefore, be
assumed that the risks of slope failure indirectly rise with the number of geological planes and structural
wedges. Other characteristics are also~ important, however, and should be described in detail. In all, the
main factors responsible for the failure of rocky slopes are:
a) Structural
b) Lithological and mineralogical
c) Hydrological
d) Morphological
The Structural Factor
Several rules can be stated concerning rock structure.
The risk of slope failure rises as the number at types of geologic planes increases.
The intersecting geological Planes from a structural wedge which is capable of leading to slope failure
provided the inclination of the intersection is less than or equal to that of the slope. For slope failure to
occur, the axis of intersection must parallel the direction of the slope, at least when only one critical
wedge exists (see Fig below).
19

No slide is theoretically possible when the incline of intersection is greater than the incline of the slope. A
lateral or very lateral wedge is usually unable to create a slope failure.
The Lithological Factor
Weathering, which is finally the root cause~-of landslides, depends chiefly on the lithological nature of
the mother-rock. Logically, the types of rocks least subject to weathering are those constituted by hard
minerals and by minerals non-reactive to acids. Quartzite is frequently the least weathered of rocks,
precisely for this reason. On the other hand, mans, calcschist and alternating layers of clay-origin rocks
mixed with carbonate rocks are logically among those most prone to weathering, due to the dissolution of
m calcite and clay minerals. Rocks of clay origin not only weather easily because of their lithological
nature, but also because they are often fissile -i.e. they have a high number of cleavages. When bearing
carbonaceous matter, these rocks weather even more readily. Gneiss and granite are subject to weathering
under subtropical conditions because of the feldspars and ferromagnesium silicates they contain. When
gneisses are interbedded with schist the potential of sliding is considerably increased.
A statistical analysis, conducted along roads in the Mahabarat area, appears representative of rocks
throughout the foothills of Nepal, and similar conditions may be found in other mountainous areas under
tropical and subtropical conditions, from the results of the study a Lithological Coefficient for the
Potential to Slide (LCPS) is obtained (Table).
Table : Slide potential of Rock of Nepalese Mountains (source Krahenbunl J. and Wagner A., 1983)
Group Rock type of Nepal Lithological slide potential
I
Slate, phyllite and schist, closely
interbedded respected with calc-slate, calc
schist, lime stone, dolomite and dolomitic
quartzite.
Very High (LCPS 16)
II
Slates, phyllites and schists
High (LCPS 10)
III
Slates, phyllites and schists closely
Medium (LCPS 5-10)

40
o

40
o

F
r
e
e
d
o
m

o
f

M
o
v
e
m
e
n
t

o
f

w
e
d
g
e

1
8
0
o

d
i
p

4
0
o

i
n

c
o
n
n
e
c
t
i
o
n

w
i
t
h

c
u
t
s

(
r
o
a
d

a
n
d

r
i
v
e
r
)

Slope 200
o
/40
o

I
n
t
e
r
s
e
c
t
i
o
n

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

b
e
d

a
n
d

f
r
a
c
t
u
r
e

1
8
0
o
/
4
0
o

30
o

50
o

F
r
e
e
d
o
m

o
f

M
o
v
e
m
e
n
t

o
f

w
e
d
g
e

1
8
0
o

d
i
p

4
0
o

i
n

c
o
n
n
e
c
t
i
o
n

w
i
t
h

c
u
t
s

(
r
o
a
d

a
n
d

r
i
v
e
r
)

Slope 130
o
/50
o

I
n
t
e
r
s
e
c
t
i
o
n

b
e
t
w
e
e
n

b
e
d

a
n
d

f
r
a
c
t
u
r
e

1
3
5
o
/
3
0
o

Slope 240
o
/40
o

60
o

40
o

No freedom of
movement
20
interbedded respect with quartzite and
gneiss
IV Gneiss Medium to Low (LCPS 1 5)
V Quartzite Low (LCPS 1)
VI Massive Lime stone and dolomite Very Low (LCPS 0 1)
The lithological slide potential can be increased or decreased by the presence of minerals subject to
weathering. By giving off sulphuric acid, pyrite (FeS
2
) is able to greatly increase the weathering even of
quartzite, which can be considerably weakened in the process. Chlorite acts in much the same way,
though less obviously, by oxidation. The presence of calcite in quartzite can be the determining factor for
instability when inter-bedded with rocks of clay origin. In this case, the dissolution of calcite allows later
to become more easily trapped by quartzite. Due to the presence of clayey layers, water pockets are then
constituted, and these can create disastrous mass movements of rock. The presence of sericite, a kind of
hydrous mica, can increase the potential to slide, as other micas seldom do. Graphite (carbon) can also
increase the potential to slide, while carbonaceous matter (frequently containing pyrite) can, as stated
above, increase the weathering of rock.
The Hydrological Factor
The presence of water, whether as rivulets adjacent to, or as springs and seepages within weathered rock,
obviously increases the potential of the occurrence of a slide. The quantifiable role played by the water
factor is nevertheless difficult to analyze because rivu1ets, springs and seepages are~ often far from
perennial, and thus may not be visible at the time surveys are carried out in tropical and subtropical
climates. Nevertheless water plays a determining role at the time of occurrence of a slope failure.
The shape of a slope is very important for assessing the Influence of water. Because they act as natural
collectors, combs and concave slopes are in this sense more subject to slope failures than are crests and
convex slopes.
Rocks with open cracks and fractures, as well as those showing signs of karstic dissolution, easily collect
water. Where these rocks are inter-bedded with layers of impermeable rock, especially in structural
patterns prone to trapping water, major perennial or intermittent seepages or springs may appear. Large
pockets of water may also accumulate within karsts. These conditions can rapidly deteriorate and lead to
slope failure.

Fig Hydrological Factor
for failure
21
The Morphological Factor
The incline of a slope is an important factor where the stability of rocky slopes is concerned. Experiences
shown that about 80% of debris-slides and rockslides take place on hill slopes ranging from 30
o
to 65
o
,
with a peak between 35
o
and 45
o
. Slides on originally rocky slopes with inclines less than 30
o
, at least
subtropical areas are generally controlled by soil mechanics. Above 65
o
, rock-falls occur.
As stated above in relation to water, the shape of a slope is also an important morphological factor for
instability evaluation.
The forecasting of potential landslides according to Rock Fractures
The factors with highest provability of leading to large debris or rock- slides (slumps excepted) car be
summarized by the presence of
a structural slope
an incline of slope between 45
o
and 55
o
(other inclines should nevertheless not be excluded)
more than 3 - 4 geologic planes. The planes are open.
several structural wedges, arranged in a fan. At least one central or centro - lateral wedge is
needed for a slide to occur. If the total of central and centro - lateral wedges is greater than the
total of lateral and very lateral wedges, the slide will tend to be narrow and long. If the inverse is
true, the slide will be broader.
rocks of clay origin closely interbedded with carbonate rocks and with or without detrital rocks
(sandstones, quartzite end conglomerates)
rocks of clay origin or of clay and detrital origin closely inter-bedded
subsidiary minerals such as pyrite or graphite as well as chlorite and sericite
springs or seepages
a concave topography, as a more or less pronounced coomb.
On the other hand, highly stable rocky slopes can be recognized by the combined presence of
a structural slope
not more than 2-3 geologic planes. The planes are closed, without fillings or coatings
no structural wedges, or exclusively lateral and very lateral wedges, or one centro-lateral or
lateral wedge
unweathered or slightly weathered rock, including quartzite, massive limestone, dolomite and
marble, as well as gneiss, phyllite and schist
an area free of water and unconnected with rivulets, springs or seepages
convex topography, humps, crests or ridges.
22
There are of course a great variety of intermediate conditions existing between these two extremes. The
above rules are immediately applicable for surveys of zones of limited extension such as bridge sites and
any constructions of limited size.

2.6 INTRODUCTION TO MASS MOVEMENTS AND ITS CLASSIFICATION
Slope Processes: mass movement and erosion
Mass movement is a sudden, catastrophic, periodic removal of material toward down slope. It occurs due
to failure in mass of slope. It can be surficial or deep-seated. It is often called slope instability, mass
wasting. Erosion is a gradual, semi-continuous process. It is usually superficial, not deep-seated. It
occurs because of loss of strength in the material. Erosion is generally called hill slope processes or soil
erosion.
Hill slope evolution
Three end members have been proposed as general models for slope evolution: slope decline
(Fig, A, B and C), slope replacement (Fig, E and F), and parallel retreat (Fig .D). It is possible to
relate these end members with the diffusion. Slope decline is a solution to the diffusion equation
with zero slope at the drainage divide and a fixed elevation at the base level.
Parallel retreat is nothing more than the wave equation for weathering-limited slopes. Slope
replacement is a mixture of the wave equation and talus accumulation.

A
B
C
D
E
F
Fig: Hill slope evolution processes
23

CLASSIFICATION OF MASS MOVEMENTS
There are many classification schemes for mass movement (landslides) proposed by different
authors like Campbell (1951), Hutchison (1968, 1969, 1977), Crozier (1973) and Varnes (1958,
1978).
Hutchinsons classification considers movement criteria including depth, direction and sequence
of movement with respect to the initial failure. (Varnes 1978) Classification is based on nature of
source material and the type of movement involved
Types of Landslide/mass movement according to Varnes
The types of landslide proposed by Varnes (1978) is the most commonly used in the world. It was also
adopted by Landslide Committee, Highway Research Board, Washington, D.C. It divides landslides into
falls, topples, slides, lateral spreads and flows. Wherever two or more types of movements are involved,
the slides are termed as complex. Varnes (1978) has divided the material prone to landslides into classes,
e.g. rock and soil. The soil is again divided into debris and earth.
Falls
Falls are abrupt movements of the slope material that becomes detached from steep slopes or cliffs.
Movement occurs by free-fall, bouncing, and rolling. Depending on the type of materials involved, the
result is a rock fall, soil fall, debris fall, earth fall, boulder fall, and so on. Typical slope angle of
occurrence of falls is from 45-90 degrees and all types of falls are promoted by undercutting, differential
weathering, excavation, or stream erosion.
Topples
A topple is a block or serial of block that tilts or rotates forward on a pivot or hinge point and then
separates from the main mass, falling to the slope below, and subsequently bouncing or rolling down the
slope.
Table : Types of Landslide (Varnes, 1978)
Type of movement Type of material
Engineering soils Bedrock
Predominantly fine Predominantly coarse
Falls Earth fall Debris fall Rock fall
Topples Earth topple Debris topple Rock topple
24
Slide
s
Rotational Few Units Earth slump Debris slump Rock slump

Translational Few units
Many units
Earth block slide
Earth slide
Debris block slide
Debris slide
Rock block
slide
Rock slide
Lateral spreads Earth spread Debris spread Rock spread
Flows Earth flow Debris flow Rock flow
(Soil creep) (Deep creep)
Complex Combination of two or more principal types of movement
Slides
Although many types of slope movement are included in the general term landslide, the more restrictive
use of the term refers to movements of soil or rock along a distinct surface of rupture, which separates the
slide material from more stable underlying material. The two major types of landslides are rotational
slides and translational slides.
Rotational slides
These slides refer to a failure, which involves sliding movement on a circular or near circular surface of
failure. They generally occur on slopes of homogeneous clay, deep weathered and fractured rocks and
soil. The movement is more or less rotational about an axis that is parallel to the contour of the slope.
Such slides are characterised by a scarp at the head, which may be nearly vertical. These slides may be
single rotational, multiple rotational or successive rotational types, accordingly they may have a single
surface of rupture, multiple surface of rupture. A slump is an example of a small rotational slide.
Translational slides
These are non-rotational block slides involving mass movements on more or less planar surfaces. The
translational slides are controlled by weak surface such as beddings, joints, foliations, faults and shear
zones. The slides material involved may range from unconsolidated soils to extensive slabs of the rock
and debris. Block slides are transitional slides in which the sliding mass consists of a single unit or a few
closely related units of rock block that moves down slope. Translational slide may progress over great
distance if conditions are right.
Lateral spreads
Lateral spreads are a result of the nearly horizontal movement of unconsolidated materials and are
distinctive because they usually occur on very gentle slopes. The failure is caused by
liquefaction, the process whereby saturated, loose, cohesionless sediments (usually sands and
silts) are transformed from a solid into a liquefied state, or plastic flow of subjacent material.
25
Failure is usually triggered by rapid ground motion such as that experienced during an
earthquake, or by slow chemical changes in the pore water and mineral constituents.
Flows
There are several types of flows and a short description of them is given below.
a. Creep
Creep is the imperceptibly slow, steady downward movement of slope-forming soil or rock.
Creep is indicated by curved tree trunks, bent fences or retaining walls, tilted poles or fences, and
small ripples or terracettes.
b. Debris flow
A debris flow is a form of rapid mass movement in which loose soils, rocks, and organic matter
combine with entrained air and water to form a slurry that then flows downslope. Debris flow
areas are usually associated with steep ravines where there are some active landslides. Individual
debris flow areas can usually be identified by the presence of debris fans at the termini of the
drainage basins. In general, the following conditions are important for formation of a debris
flow:
- Slopes with 20-45 degrees
- Saturated loose rock and soil materials with high content of clay minerals
- High intensity and duration of rainfall
c. Debris avalanche
A debris avalanche is a variety of very rapid to extremely rapid slide-debris flow process.
d. Earth flow
Earth flow has a characteristic hourglass shape. A bowl or depression forms at the head where
the unstable material collects and flows out. The central area is narrow and usually becomes
wider as it reaches the valley floor. Earth flows generally occur in fine-grained materials or clay-
bearing rock on moderate slopes and with saturated conditions. However, dry flows of granular
material are also possible
e. Mudflow
A mudflow is an earth flow that consists of material that is wet enough to flow rapidly and that
contains at least 50 per cent sand-, silt- and clay-sized particles.

Complex movements
A complex movement is a combination of two or more types of movements mentioned above.
Generally huge-scale movements are complex, such as rock fall, rock/debris avalanches.
The characteristic features of the types of landslides are simply illustrated in Fig.
26

2.7 INTRODUCTION TO LANDSLIDES

Fig. 3.2, Types of Slope Movement (after Varnes 1978)
27
Landslide zones
A landslide has distinct parts. Recognizing and assessing these individually helps us understand the
character of the landslide, in particular, its severity.
A landslide has four zones:
- zone of cracking (above the slide and sometimes around its sides)
- zone of failure (the head scar (crown) and failure surface which may occupy only a
relatively small area at the top of the slide)
- zone of transport (a damaged slope, scarred by the passage of debris on its way down
slope, this part of the slope may be stable, and may recover on its own)
- debris pile (the detached, mobile material).
We describe the stability of a slope in terms of the factor of safety. Factor of safety 1 means that the slope
is at the dividing line between being stable or unstable. If the factor of safety is more than 1 the slope is
stable. If it falls below 1 it will be unstable.

Fig:, Parts of Landslides
Fig Landslide scenario
28

Fig: Soil Creep

Fig: Planar rock slide
Fig: Fall

Fig: Topple

Fig: Rotational slide
Figure: Soil creep, tilted trees

29

2.8 CAUSES AND MECHANISM OF SLOEPE FAILURE
CAUSES OF FAILURE
Landslides can be triggered by both natural and man-made changes in the environment
conditions. The geologic history of an area, as well as activities associated with human
occupation, directly determines, or contributes to the conditions that lead to slope failure. The
causes of landslide can be inherent, such as weaknesses in the composition or structure of the
rock or soil; variable, such as heavy rain, snowmelt, and changes in ground-water level;
transient, such as seismic or volcanic activities; or due to new environmental conditions, such as
those imposed by construction activities (Varnes and the IAEG, 1984). Among these factors,
rainfall, earthquake and human activities are important trigger factors.
Monsoon Rainstorm
The Himalayas are affected by the monsoon, as are other parts of South Asia in general. Due to
the recurring of the Summer Monsoon near the Bay of Bengal towards northwest, there is a
general decrease in rainfall from East to West. Thus while Eastern Himalayas (Assam) have
about eight months of rainy season (March-October), the Central Himalayas (Bhutan, Sikkim,
Nepal and Kumaon) have only four months of rainy season (June-September) and in the Western
Fig: Rotational slide

Fig : Debris Flow, Matatirtha

30
Himalayas (Kashmir), the Summer monsoon is active only for two months (July-August)
(Chalise, 1994).
Monsoon rainstorms initiate many landslide each year in the Himalaya region. During heavy
rainstorm, loose/unconsolidated deposits, and strongly weathered and fractured sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks become saturated and with an increase of precipitation and raise of ground
water level. As a result, these materials are especially prone to sliding when slopes are steep.
Rainstorms, therefore, are recognized as important landslide triggers in the Hindu Kush-
Himalayan region.
The relationship between rainfall and incidence of landslide has been studied by many scientists
in China, India and Nepal. (Li and Li, 1985, Dhital et al, 1993, Joshi, 1997). The studies carried
out in China show that
If cumulative precipitation amounts to 50 mm to 100 mm in one day, and daily precipitation is
more than 50 mm, somewhat small-scale and shallow debris-landslide will occur;
When cumulative precipitation, within two days amounts to 150 to 200 mm, and daily
precipitation is about 100 mm, the number of landslides has a tendency to increase with
precipitation; and
When cumulative precipitation exceeds 250 mm in two days, and has an average intensity of
more than 8 mm per hour in one day, the number of large and vast landslides increases abruptly.
Studying the relation between rainfall and landslides in China has also showed that under the
same rainfall conditions, the landslides triggered have many differences in their quantity, size
and density due to the different geological and topographical conditions. Therefore, the
landslides have obvious regional characteristics. For a given region, the conditions of geology
and topography are the decisive factors under which a landslide can be induced.
The principal geological factors impacting on landslide process are the type of bedrock, crack
and structure, soft band, the thickness of weathering zone, the thickness and the grain
composition of the soil (the surface deposits). The impact of topographical conditions are
represented in two respects. On the one hand, there are the regional cut depth, cut density and the
erosion basis plane. On the other hand, there are impacts of the gradient and the form of slope
and water convergent area on the upper part of the slope.
Earthquakes
The Himalaya mountain belt represents a type example of an orogen formed due to collision of
two continents viz., the Asia and the India. The mountain lies in a major global seismic belt
where earthquakes of magnitude 4.5 to 5.5 occur every year. In the region of Himalaya bounded
by latitude 22N to 38N and longitude 72E to 98E, over 600 earthquakes of magnitude 5 and
above have occurred during the period of 1950 to 1990. Till date four very major (great)
earthquakes of magnitude more than 8 have been recorded in the Himalaya or adjacent regions.
31
These are the Great Assam earthquake of 1897, Kangra earthquake of 1905, Bihar-Nepal
earthquake of 1933 and the Assam earthquake of 1950 (Thakur et. al. 1999).
Earthquakes not only trigger landslides, but over time, the tectonic activity causing them, can
create steep and potentially unstable slopes. It is recognized that significant numbers of
landslides occur only when earthquake magnitudes are greater than 6. In the mountain areas,
large-scale landslide triggered by earthquakes can block rivers and form lakes.
Apart from the characteristics of earthquakes themselves (i.e., seismic accelerations, continuous
time of shock, focal depths, and angle and direction of the approach of seismic waves etc.),
environmental factors, such as geology, landform and drainage, play an important role in the
formation of landslide induced by earthquakes.
The influence of geology is reflected in both geologic structure and lithologic character. The
landslides triggered by the Songpan earthquake (Aug. 16, 1976, M = 7.2), in northwestern
Sichuan Province, can be taken as an example. The earthquake induced more than 170 slumps,
slides, and falls, which occurred predominantly along the active tectonic faults in the strong
seismic region (Fig. 1). On slopes consisting of loosened limestone and igneous rocks, the falls
occurred readily, but on the slopes consisting of claystone, shale, and phyllite, the falls were few
in number.
Surface water
Erosion, or soaking of surface to cause shallow sliding. Effects of water infiltrating from surface.
Causes shallow failures.
Various surface treatments, according to material type.
Grass planting with or without the combination of jute netting and mulch for soils. Revetments
for steep toe slopes in soil and soft rock. Surface renderings for rock slopes without noticeable
ground water presence.
Groundwater
Ground water causes increased pore water pressure at depth. Failure plane is deeper than in
surface water failure. Ideally, remove ground water by drainage.
Weathering
Rock shear strength is reduced by weathering. Rock strength is reduced as constituent minerals
are broken down into weathering products and clay minerals. Physical bonds between rock
constituents are weakened or broken. The rock can fail along weakened fracture planes or
through its body. It is progressive process where cyclic failure possible and difficult to stabilize.
32
Undercutting
Slope is undercut by a flowing stream or by the opening up of a road cutting. Incision (down
cutting) or lateral scour by streams is a major cause of slope failure. The initial failure can work
rapidly up slope. Stream bank and stream bed protection required. May be too late to save slope
from progressive failure of up slope.
Addition of weight
Weight added usually by the dumping of spoil or landslide debris. Remove extra material and re-
vegetate slope.
FAILURE MECHANISM
Erosion
Removal of particles from the surface by flowing water is called erosion. An arbitrary depth limit
of 25 mm has been adopted for erosion. This depth refers only to the initial removal of particles
and is used to distinguish erosion from mass movements. If particles are continually washed
away, the surface will be progressively lowered, giving rise to the forms of erosion described in
'a' to 'c'3 below. For example, a gully 2 m deep can be developed by the steady removal of
particles from its sides to a depth of no more than 25 mm at a time. The process, which causes
this, is still erosion.
Sheet erosion
Water flows over surface in an even film, not in channels.
Vegetation stabilisation should be adequate.
Rill erosion and gully erosion to less than 2 m depth
Scour by water flow in channels.
Gullies begin as very shallow, narrow incisions in the slope (rills). An arbitrary depth limit of 2
m has been set for gullies as erosion features. If a gully is deeper than 2 m, its sides fail in ways
similar to a normal hill slope. Hill slope protection measures are then appropriate.
Check dams to stabilise gully floor. Vegetation to stabilise gully head.
Piping
Removal of fines along an underground channel.
Percolating ground water in permeable fine soils of low plasticity can remove fines along fissure
to a point where an underground stream is formed. The roof of this stream cavern can enlarge
upwards towards the surface and eventually collapse to create an open, elongated chasm or pit.
33
Difficult to stabilise unless underground waterways are exposed and treated as gullies. Even this
will not stop piping in lateral channels. A deep interceptor drain can be considered.

Slide within soil or along soil/rock interface
Any mass movement of soil or debris down slope.
Includes translational slides of soils or debris, rotational slumps, and flows. The plane of failure
can be:
- within a soil or debris mass;
- along the interface between soil and weathered rock;
- the uppermost layer of weathered rock itself (in which case the failure plane would be in
rock;
- between soil and a rock plane in unweathered rock.
Translational slides are the most common form of slide in Nepal. In these a 'slab' of material of
more or less uniform thickness slides off the surface. Translational slides are typically
rectangular in plan, with a straight head scar and straight sides running parallel down slope. They
are frequently quite shallow, i.e. one meter deep or less. They can be caused by ground water
pore pressure along a slide plane or by weathering or undercutting of the slope. They can be
shallow or deep, according to the structure of the superficial layers.
A slump is a rotational movement of material, forming a spoon-shaped scar on the hillside,
which is roughly circular in plan. The debris forms a bulge near the toe.
Slumps are commonly caused by high ground water pore pressures deep in the hillside, and the
slip circle usually goes several metres deep.
:
34
In practice in Nepal, deciding if there is a rotational or a translational mode of failure is usually
extremely difficult. Many slides are a compound of the two types, in which a rotational
component at the head degenerates into a translational component below. This is because coarse,
non-plastic debris masses cannot sustain a circular slip plane except at the crown.
Deciding which mode is dominant is useful because rotational failures indicate a deep failure
plane and may therefore be more difficult to stabilise than a translational slide.
Flows are caused by liquefaction of material, usually by the action of heavy rainfall upon a
permeable soil surface. The soil literally flows down the slope. The failure plane is usually
shallow, sometimes only a few centimetres deep. However, the fluid mass is very difficult to
control or stop. Deep flows, which can travel a long way, are very destructive and potentially
pose a high risk to life and property.
For slides less than 100 mm deep, vegetation and/or bolsters should hold slope. Fences may
become undercut by liquefaction.For slides 100 - 250 mm deep, diagonal vegetation may be
sufficient to preserve rill system, provided maturity is reached. Support slope at base with gabion
wall.
Plane failure in rock
Any mass movement whose failure plane or planes is controlled principally by fracture planes in
rock, and whose debris consists chiefly of rock fragments.
The weathering grade of the rock is 1 - 4 (the rock rings when struck with a hammer). Failure
types commonly include plane failure, wedge failure, and toppling (rockfall).
Standard rock mechanics procedure are the solutions.
Disintegration
A special type of rock failure, found in massive or sparsely-jointed permeable, weatherable
rocks, e.g. porous sandstones, and in dense soils and unconsolidated materials that stand in a
vertical or near-vertical face. Upon landing, the material breaks up into a pile of loose debris,
consisting mostly of loose rock mineral particles e.g. sand containing a few boulders of
weathering grade 4 or 5. All traces of rock structure or stratification are destroyed in the fall.
For this reason the mechanism is distinguished from a fall of hard rock, which is considered a
plane failure. Cause is weathering. Saturation and weathering cause the rock to fail by planar or
arc-like shearing throughout the mass. Sometimes this is partially controlled by weakly
developed joint planes.
Strictly, the mechanism is a 'fall', but the form of failure is distinctive. The mechanism is typical
of thick beds of soft Siwaliks sandstone and terrace deposits. It is very difficult to cure.
It is very difficult to stabilize. Cut back to a stable angle, which is determined by shear strength
of, saturated and weathered material.
35
Differential Weathering
Weathering of rock layers whose susceptibility to weathering is strongly contrasting. This failure
occurs typically in alternating thin beds of hard and soft rock e.g. sandstone and mudstone or
siltstone. These formations are characteristic of the Middle Siwalik rocks of Nepal.
The cause is a combination of weathering of the soft rock layers and plane failure of the hard
rock layers. The soft rocks weather back from the face to leave the hard rocks sticking out.
Eventually the hard rocks overhang so far that they break off along vertical fractures. The
process then starts again and the whole face retreats. This mechanism is very common in Nepal.

Surface water Weathering
Toe Under
cutting
Addition of
Weight
Plane
failure
Disintegration
Differential weathering
Ground water
Fig 4.2, Causes and Mechanism of
Failure
Piping and collapse
36
2.9 INTRODUCTION TO LANDSLIDE MAPPING
This procedure will help you map an unstable site and observe all its significant features. The
procedure is given in logical order but you do not have to follow this order in every case. An
advantage of observing the site in a methodical way is that there will be less risk of missing an
important feature. The column on the right suggests the action you should take.

The basis of the site record is a drawing of the site. A simple sketch will do. It does not have to
be to scale. Its purpose is to help you to understand the geometric relationships between features
of the landslide. It also enables you to record concisely your measurements and where you took
them from. Any notes you make can also go on the drawing, but if they are lengthy, or if you
wish to describe some detail of the slide by additional drawings and notes, these are best
recorded separately in your notebook. It is good practice to make all your drawings and notes in
one notebook. In this way pages do not get lost and records are kept in sequence.

Steps in a suggested procedure
Draw,
measure or
describe
Step 1 Geomorphic situation Draw
Look at the general locality and situation of the site:
- make a note of the exact location so that you can direct others to the site
if necessary;
- see if it is in a part of the landscape where instability would be
expected;
- see if the orientation of the rocks, outcropping on the hillside around the
site, indicate that the cause of the failure may be due to rock structure,
either as planes of weakness or movement of water along fractures;
- look at other sites in the area, they may have a similar geomorphic
situation and a similar life progression.
Draw
37

Draw,
measure or
describe
Step 2 Sketch the site from the road or other good observation point:

- concentrate on getting the general proportions correct;

- estimate the length from top to bottom. Record this on the drawing;
- estimate the width across the base. Record this.
Draw
Step 3 Look for the landslide zones: Draw

- scar;
- transport;
- debris.

Note that you cannot yet see whether there is a zone of cracking above the
scar. You do not have to record these zones on the drawing, but the
completed drawing should be sufficiently well illustrated and labelled to
let another person recognise which zones are present and where they are.
Draw
Step 4 Examine the material forming the original hill slope:
- debris;
- soft rock;
- hard rock;
- alternating hard and soft rocks.
All of these could be present on one landslide. The drawing should show
where they are.
Describe,
draw
38

Draw,
measure or
describe
Step 5 Sketch a slope profile of the site from top to bottom. Angles do not have
to be real, but should indicate relative steepness.
This can be augmented with more detail (e.g. with slope measurements)
as you walk up the slide.
Note that slopes >35 tend to be unstable unless of solid rock.
Draw
Step 6 Sketch the surface water drainage:
- streams;
- any springs that may be visible from where you are standing.
Draw
Step 7 Sketch areas of rock outcrop Draw
Step 8 Landmarks:
- note any obvious landmarks on the site, such as prominent trees. This
will help you to keep your bearings as you walk over and around the
site.
Draw
Step 9 Walkover survey Walk up the centre of the slide to the crown (head of
scar). Measure the angles of major slope units. If the slope is too steep or
dangerous walk around the edge, looking into the scar.
Measure
39

Draw,
measure or
describe
Step 10 Rock
Visit each rock outcrop. Measure any relevant rock planes or observe how
the planes relate to the slope and failure planes.

Make sure that the rocks observed are true outcrops (attached to solid
rock beneath) and not simply large boulders partly buried on the slope.
Note:
- uniformity or layering (bedding) of the rock units;
- degree of weathering (hardness) of the rocks;
- degree of fracturing, especially any open fractures;
- signs of water movement along fractures.

Measure

Describe
Step 11 Debris and slope
Indicate the area of the slide that is occupied by debris:
- location and extent of landslide debris;
- composition of debris;
- wetness of debris;
- depth of debris / depth of failure plane;
- location, orientation and size of any cracks in the debris or on the slope;
- any back-tilted slopes, where water may collect. (The presence of these
indicates a );
- tilted trees. These can indicate tilted ground;
- disrupted engineering structures, e.g. masonry surface drains;
- points of ground water seepage.
Describe,
draw
40

Draw,
measure or
describe
Step 12 Margins and top
Look for:
-cracks in the ground. Cracks are most frequent above the head of a slide, but they often occur also around the sides. The presence of cracks shows that the ground is under tension and that it will probably fail, and soon. Note the location, dimensions and orientation of the cracks. This information tells you where, and in which
direction, the ground is under tension. The area of cracking tells you the
area over which failure is about to take place;
- streams, springs, irrigation canals or drainage structures, especially
masonry drainage ditches. These features may be sending water into the
slide. They may either have caused it in the first place, or they may be
contributing to further failure. Irrigation canals and masonry drainage
ditches should be inspected closely for any signs of cracking and
leakage;
- irregular topography, not due to rock outcrops. This may indicate the
presence of an old landslide, in which case you will have to survey the
whole of this, too.
Continue up the slope above the landslide until there is no further
evidence of instability. This may mean walking at least fifty metres
higher than the landslide scar, and much further if necessary.
Draw
Step 13 Base of the slide Describe the features and ground conditions at the base. Describe
Step 14 Causes and mechanisms of instability

Describe
Step 15 History and life progression of slide Describe
Step 16 Severity of instability
Fill in the scores on the Score Sheet for assessing severity of slope
instability.

INTRODUCTION TO GULLY MAPPING
The steps used for the landslide mapping can be equally used in gully mapping but more
emphasis should be to size, water flow, gradient, gully materials, bank erosion, gully head
location, and morphology of mouth.
41
In addition to above mentioned rules while mapping gully proper location of check dam
construction is also necessary and following consideration must be taken into account:
In a gully like below suitable site selection for check dam construction is a prime concern for
mapping. The favourable site, which is generally called as Nick Point, should be identified
during gully mapping. The debris deposit as well as probable modification of channel
morphology area generally consider in identification of Nick Point. The details of point , B and
C are given below.

Location A is a 'nick point' in the gully floor, a point where the floor drops down suddenly after a
relatively gentle gradient. A checkdam positioned here will hold up material for a long way
upstream and further reduce the gradient. This particular nick point is composed of material
which is softer than the sandstone bed. The slope below the checkdam would need to be very
well protected with an apron to prevent scour of the nick point and undermining of the
checkdam. The higher the checkdam, the greater is the need for scour prevention.
Location B is a deposit of debris lying in the bed of the gully. Flowing water will move this
downstream. A checkdam placed at the front of this debris pile will prevent it from moving
further. This will have the effect of reducing the gradient of the gully floor and protecting it from
scour. The danger then is that the stream will wander sideways and scour the bank, as discussed
under the gully cross section, below.
Location C is an outcrop of a harder bed of rock in the gully floor, producing another nick point.
A checkdam can be built here for the same reason as at location A. However, an alternative
would be to take advantage of the presence of a good foundation and simply armour the nick
point against scour with a masonry lining on the gully floor.

A

B

C

42
CHAPTER: 03
BASIC ASPECT OF VEGETATION
Aspect
Aspect is the orientation of a site relative to the sun. In fact, this category relates to more than
just aspect. It covers the environmental dryness of each individual site. The entire site moisture
regime must be considered, although aspect is often the dominant factor in determining the site
moisture. Other major factors are:
Altitude;
Rain shadow effect;
Topographical location;
Stoniness;
Soil moisture holding capacity; and
Winds and ex-monsoon rains.
Plant Community:
A plant community is an established group of plant living more or less in balance with each other
and their environment. The group can be natural or managed. The community is usually
dominated by the main species of trees, but also contains lower plants such as shrubs, grasses
and herbs. An ideal plant community for bio-engineering contains a carefully planned variety of
different plants which together meet the engineering needs of site. The following things are to be
considered for managing plant communities in bio-engineering:
Where possible, mixture of plants should be used in the initial planting. If relied on
only one species this may fail, and there may by a complete loss of planted material.
It should be started with pioneer species. For example, with a damp and north facing
slope utis and some under storey grasses should be introduced.
A balance of plant species in the community should be planned. Generally grasses,
shrubs and trees should be included (but the exact balance is determined by the
engineering requirements of the site).
Dominant plants such as utis must be replaced or thinned out within five to ten years.
Otherwise the under storey plants will be overshadowed and eradicated completely,
allowing erosion to start under the tree canopy.
The plants should be thinned out properly to maintain a balance.
Weeds should be cleared to reduce competition.
Gaps should be re-planted.

43
PLANT STRUCTURE:

BASIC REQUIREMENT OF PLANT :
Water:
Water is necessary for proper germination of seeds.
Plants need water for growth.

44
Light :

Green plants need sunlight in to make their own food.
Nutrient: Plants need the minerals found in soil for healthy growth.
Warmth: Only grow well in the right conditions.
Temperatures that are too cold or too hot may affect how the plant grows.

PLANT PROPAGATION:
Plant propagation is the process of artificially or naturally propagating (distributing
or spreading) plants .
TYPES OF PLANT PROPAGATION:
Sexual propagationinvolves the exchange of genetic material between parents to produce a
new generation.
Asexual propagationdoes not involve exchange of genetic material, so it almost always
produces plants that are identical to a single parent.
Sexual Propagation offers the following advantages:
It is usually the only method of producing new varieties or cultivars.
It is often the cheapest and easiest method to produce large numbers of plants.
It can be a way to avoid certain plant diseases.
It may be the only way to propagate some species.
Collection and Methods:
Purchasing seed is the most common method used by gardeners.
Gardeners also collect seeds.
Seeds may also be harvested from healthy plants.
After harvesting seeds, they must be properly stored.
The germination of seeds is the next important step.
Some seeds require scarification in order to germinate.
Stratification involves exposing some seeds to lower temperatures and moisture.
Sowing seeds indoors is the easiest and cheapest way to grow certain plants.
Growing media is the material in which plants are grown.
45
There are many types of containers used for starting seedlings.
The correct timing of sowing seeds is an important step in indoor seed starting.
There are many factors in the care of seedlings started indoors.
Seeds may also be sown directly into the garden.
Spores are a type of seed produced by certain plants like ferns.

Purchasing Seed:
Its best to purchase seed for the current year.
Packages generally provide germination rates.
65% to 80% of seeds will germinate.
Of that number, 60% to 75% will produce seedlings.
Seed catalogs are very helpful in providing information on bloom time, germination
requirements, cultural requirements and disease resistance.
Bottom line, read packages carefully to purchase only the plants that meet your needs.

ASEXUAL PROPAGATION:
Asexual propagation methods include cuttings, layering, division, grafting, budding and tissue
culture.
Leaf Cuttings and Leaf-bud Cuttings
Stem Cuttings
Root Cuttings
Division
Layering
o Tip Layering
o Air Layering
Grafting
Bulbs, Corms, Rhizomes, Tubers, Stolons

46
CHAPTER: 04
ROLE OF VEGETATION
Introduction
Any structure is constructed to fulfill a concrete function. This means, any structure has to fulfill
its engineering as well as other functions. As described earlier in Bioengineering, small-scale
civil engineering (inert) and vegetative structures are used. Generally, these structures are used
for fulfillment of the following six engineering functions.
Engineering function:
It is the mechanical function performed by different parts of vegetation. Engineering functions
performed by vegetation are as follows:
a) Catch function
Loose materials have the tendency of rolling down the slope because of gravity as well as
erosion. Constructing any structure, which could catch the rolling down materials, can control
this tendency.
b) Armour function
Some slopes are very water sensitive. It means, they start moving or are liquefied easily when
they intercept water or there may be the case of high rate infiltration, which later causes shear
failure. Therefore, such types of slope should be covered so that the water could be diverted
easily. It is called the armoring function.
c) Reinforcing function
Because of presence of voids, the soil may not compact and it may need bonding of the grains.
The structure constructed for this purpose fulfils the reinforcement function.
d) Support function
On the slope with length more than 15m, the lateral earth pressure causes the outward and
downward movement of the slope material. Constructing any retaining types of structure can
control this tendency. They fulfill the support function.
e)Anchor function
If there is a case of failure of overlaying layers with respect to stable underlying strata, the upper
strata can be pinned up with the underlying ones. This activity fulfills the anchor function.
f) Drain function
Water is the main problem leading to instabilities on slopes. It could be the surface water or the
ground water. Therefore, the water should be diverted safely from the slopes.
47

48

Engineering and Hydrological Function of Plant

Figure: Hydrological functions of plant
Cloud
Rain
Interception
Evaporation
Store
Leaf drip
Pool formation
Infiltration
Water Uptake
Figure: Engineering functions of plant
Catch Armour
Reinforce
Support
Anchor
49
1. Engineering Function:
Bioengineering systems and civil engineering systems have similar functions. In other words, functions
performed by civil engineering system can be achieved by bioengineering systems. The following task
describes the various functions that could be achieved either by civil engineering structures or by
bioengineering measures.

Engineering
function
Civil engineering system Bioengineering system
Catch Catch wall, catch fence Shrubs, bamboo (any stems)
Armour Revetment, surface rendering Grass carpet (dense, fibrous roots)
Reinforce Reinforced earth, soil nailing Densely-rooting grasses and trees
Anchor Rock anchors Deeply-rooting trees (long, strong roots)
Support Toe wall, prop wall Shrubs, large trees (deep, dense root systems
forming a soil cylinder)
Drain Gabion drains Plants are not currently used

Further more; there are two benefits of vegetation that are not obtained by civil engineering. These are:
Environmental improvement: a cover of vegetation encourages other plants and
animals to live on the slope
Limiting the lateral extent of instability: the rooting system of trees can interrupt the
shear plane and stop it spreading further in the current phase of active instability.
2.Hydrological effects of vegetation:
Plants are basic producers and provide food to the whole living world. In addition, they play important
role in hydrological cycle and improves general environment of the surrounding. The effects in
hydrological condition in and around a slope by plants are described in the following points.
- Interception: rain strikes the leaves before striking the ground;
- Evaporation: water may evaporate from the leaf surfaces;
- Storage: water is held on the leaves and the stem for sometime before it eventually reaches the
ground;
- Leaf drip: accumulated water can drip off the leaves and fall to the ground;
- Pool formation: water running over the ground surface may be trapped by stems and run-off
prevented, pools will form on the surface;
- Infiltration: the ground is roughened and loosened by stems and roots, enabling water to infiltrate
more easily;
- Water uptake: water is taken into the plant through the roots and returned to the atmosphere by the
process of transpiration, which is the release of water through the leaves.
50
3. Mechanical Functions:
a. Roots bind soil and permeate the soil resulting in
- Trapping of material moving down the slope;
- Restraints of soil movement reducing erosion.
- Effect: good.
b. Tall growth of trees so that weight may surcharge the slope, increasing normal and down
slope force components.
- Effect: advantage in lower slope position but disadvantage for upper and middle slope
positions.
c. Vegetation exposed to wind, dynamic forces are transmitted into the slope.
- Effect: good.
d. Stem and leaves cover the ground surface so that impact of traffic is absorbed.
- Effect: bad.

4.Hydrological Function:
a. Foliage intercepts rainfall causing reduction in the kinetic energy of raindrops and thus
erosive.
- Effect: good.
b. Roots permeate the soil leading to opening up of surface and increased infiltration.
Effect: depends on site condition.
Role of vegetation:
Modification of surface water regime
Interception
Surface water runoff
Infiltration
Subsurface drainage
Surface protection
Rain drop impacts
Surface water erosion
51
Mechanical role
Soil insulation
Soil restraint
Modification of soil water properties
Evapotranspiration
Soil moisture balance
Soil moisture depletion
Soil weight reduction
Modification of soil mechanical properties
Root reinforcement of soil
Anchorage, arching, buttressing
Modification of air flow
Change in the direction
Change in the velocity
Change in the contents
Change in the impacts

52
Soil strength and stability analysis :

53
S= t
R
[sin+cos tan]
S-the shear strength increase
-the angle of internal friction of the soil
- the angle of shear distortion in the shear zone
t
R-
mobilized tensile stress of root fibers per unit area of soil
t
R =
T
R
(A
R
/A), = tan
-1
(x/z)

S= T
R
(A
R
/A) [sin+cos tan]
S= 1.2T
R
(A
R
/A)
L
min
= T
R
D/4
b

b
= z
*
(1-sin) tan
D- root diameter,
T
R
the root tensile strength,
b
the limiting bond
- coefficient of friction between the root fiber and soil

A
a n
R i i
A
A

=
i
a
i
n
i
a
i
n
i
T
R
T

=
54

Root strength:

Tr-root tensile strength
o D- root diameter
o n and m empirical constants for a given tree species
o n = 29.1-87, m=(-0.76)-(-0.45)
Strength loss with time following cutting
T
rt
= T
ro
e
-bt

o T
ro
-Tensile strength of root wood sampled from live trees
o T
rt
-Tensile strength of roots sampled from stumps cut t months before sampling
o b- probability of decay
o t- age of stump (time between felling and sampling)
o e-
b
expression of the strength decay rate
t
0.5
=log 0.5/log e
-b

o t
0.5
-the root strength half life after felling

m
nD
r
T =
55

Quantification of soil arching:

clear B-spacing between trees
H
z
-vertical thickness of yielding soil stratum

K
o
-coefficient of lateral earth pressure at rest
- unit weight of soil
p- average lateral earth pressure in openings between piles trees on a slope
d- diameter of the embeded section of the tree
m =B/Hz, n=x/B
X-row to row distance between trees
| |
| | | | | |
tan cos 2
) cos 2 ( ) tan tan cos sin ( cos
* ) ( 5 . 0
1 1
2
o
o z
z z o r
k
c m c K m m H
p
H pB B D H K P
+
=
+ =
56

Maximum allowable critical distance between tree piles

|
| | |
|
cos
) tan (tan cos
2
tan ) 1 (
1
'
'
1
'
'
z
o o z
crit
H
c
c
K K H
B

+ +
=
57
Root strength

58
EFFECT OF LOGGING

59
EFFECT OF CANOPY:

60

61
Hydrologicaleffect:

62
HYDRAULIC ROLE:
Mannings equation
V=R
2/3
*S
1/2
/n
V-velocity of the flow
R-hydraulic radius
S- slope of the energy line
n-Mannings roughness coefficient
Alternate friction factor
Darcy-Weisbach f=8*g*n
2
/R
1/3

Chezy C=R
0.167
/n and C= (8*g/f)
1/2

Surface type n
Bare smooth soil 0.01
5-10 t/ha of straw mulch 0.07
Grass 0.2-0.4

o Depth of flow n
o Shallow 0.25-0.3
o Up to oscillation 0.4
o Begins to submerge 0.01

63
Universal soil loss equation:
A=R*K*LS*C*P
A-computed soil loss
R-rainfall factor
K- soil erodibility value
L- slope length factor
S- steepness factor
C-vegetation factor
P- erosion control practice factor
Tensile strength of pinus radiata roots at different elapsed timee after felling:
R Ro oo ot t c cl la as ss s M Me ea an n t te en ns si il le e s st tr re en ng gt th h, , M Mp pa a M Me ea an n r ro oo ot t d di ia am me et te er r, , m mm m
L Li iv vi in ng g t tr re ee es s 1 17 7. .6 6 5 5. .3 3
C Cu ut t 3 3 m mo on nt th hs s 1 14 4. .4 4 5 5. .6 6
C Cu ut t 9 9 m mo on nt th hs s 1 12 2. .3 3 6 6. .2 2
C Cu ut t 1 14 4 m mo on nt th hs s 1 11 1. .0 0 6 6. .8 8
C Cu ut t 2 29 9 m mo on nt th hs s 3 3. .3 3 8 8. .3 3

64
MECHANICAL EFFECT:
Soil reinforcement:
For Loretta grass ( lolium perenne)
C=10.54+8.63 log RD ---for sandy clay loam soil
C =11.14+9.9 log RD ---for clay soil
Role of organic matter
Root wedging
Arching and buttressing
Surcharging
WIND LOADING:
D= (0.5
*
a*
u
2
*
CD
*
cos
2

*
b)
*
l
D drag force

a
- density of the air
CD-the bulk drag coefficient of the vegetation
b-transverse width of the crown
u- wind velocity ,m/sec

65
STABILITY ANALYSIS

Factor of safety without vegetation

Factor of safety with vegetation

C`R-enhanced effective cohesion due to reinforcement by roots
W- surcharge due to weight of vegetation
T-tensile root force acting at the base of the slip plane
D-wind loading force parallel to the slope
- angle between roots
h
w-
vertical height of GWT above the slip plane

| |
| |
cos sin z
`} tan cos ) h - z ( {C`
F
2
w w
+
=
| |
u | u |
cos D} sin w) z {(
Tcos ` tan } Sin T cos W] ) h - z ( {[ ) C` (C`
2
w R
+ +
+ + + + +
=
w
F
66
CHAPTER : 05
PLANT SPECIES SELECTION
Factors governing distribution of vegetation in nepal
Plant type selection is a skilled job in bioengineering. There are more than 10000 plants in
Nepal. About 6000 plants are easily available in all part of country. But there are only few and
selected plants recommended for bioengineering. In Nepal, the vegetation bands are broadly
related to altitude. The main factors, which govern the distribution of vegetation, are:
- Altitude
- Aspect
- Rainfall and its distribution
Geology and soils (relatively minor scale
Distributions of plants in Nepal:
Despite of very small country with an average width of 120 km from north to south .Nepal is
very rich in biodiversity .The basic factors that lead to the special distribution of plant are as
follow as.
A) Ecological zone
B) Altitudinal variation
Depending upon the altitudinal variations different six vegetation zones are separated
1) Tropical zone
2) Subtropical zone
3) Lower temperate zone
4) Upper temperate zone
5) Sub alpine zone
6) Alpine zone
c) Availability of moisture
- Moisture loving plant like dhode
- Draught resisting like babiyo, khar
d) Consideration of land mass meeting
e) Maintenance of plant community
f) Prefer local species
g) Availability
h) Persistence
67
i) Growth characteristics
j) Community participation
k) Draught factor
Vegetative zone:-
Although the classification of vegetation types is based on primarily on altitude but we dont
think that the altitudinal zones describe are rigid. Where two vegetation zones are meeting there
is transitional zone where species from both zones occurs.
Tropical zone:- It lies in upper boundary about 1000m.There is available Sal forest, other
riparian forest, grass land and asana land.

Subtropical zone:- It lies in the range of 1000-2000m in west and 1000-1700min the east. There
is available khotesalla, chilaune, katus, utis riparian forest.
Lower temperate zone:- The range of this zone is 2000-2700m in west and 1700-2400m in the
east .Kashrus, gobre salla, lower temperate mixed broadleaf forest and banjh is the main plant
which is available in this area.
Upper temperate zone:- The range of this area is 2700-3000m in the west and 2400-2800m in
the east. The main plants which are available in this zone are banjh, gurans, upper temperate
coniferous forest and upper temperate broadleaf forest.
Sub alpine zone:- 3000-4200m in west and above 3000m in east is range of this zone. Basically
forest species are found growing in the cool desert area having a rainfall of less than
300mm/year.Small spiny shrubs are found in Mustang, Dolpa areas species include gurans,
gobre salla and dhupi.
Alpine zone:-This zone lies in above snow line. This area includes the species of gurans, dhupi,
thorny plant and shrubby species.
LOCAL SPECIES
We can only produce a list of the locally available species in an area by carefully examining it.
These are some of the local species that are found within the Kurintar area:
Trees: Sal, bhalyo, banjh, kavro, simali.
Shrubs: Paineti, asuro, dhanyero, areri, dhusun
Grasses: Sito, muse kharuki, kans.

68
Some grass species found on roadside slopes in Nepal

Altitude(m)

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
Wet Dry
Phurke Sito Amliso Setaria Muse kharuki Napier Khar Dhonde Kans Babiyo

69

Selection of Plant Species for Bioengineering
Site

Site Site environmental
requirements conditions

Engineering functions Availability of material
required including ease of propagation
Choice of Human
vegetative techniques factors

General plant Structural Range of Final choice
types which characteristics possible species ofspecies
suitable required

70

SELECTION OF SPECIES BASED ON DROUGHT FACTOR
Depending upon the drought factor, an appropriate species can be selected from the list provided
in the Bioengineering Road Site Handbook, page 130-143.
71
a Slope angle: Slope Score
< 30 1
30 - 34 2
35 - 39 3
40 - 44 4
45 - 49 5
> 49 6
b Stoniness: Fines Score
> 25% 1
20 - 25% 2
15 - 19% 3
10 - 14% 4
5 - 9% 5
< 5% 6
c Altitude: Altitude Score
> 2500 m 1
2000 - 2500 m 2
1500 - 1950m 3
1000 - 1450 m 4
500 - 950 m 5
< 500 m 6

d Aspect: Aspect Score
North 0
Northeast 2
72
Northwest 4
East 6
West 8
Southeast 10
Southwest 10
South 12

e Annual rainfall: Rainfall Score
> 2500 mm 1
2000 - 2490 mm 2
1500 - 1990 mm 3
1000 - 1490 mm 4
500 - 990 mm 6
< 500 mm 8
Highway slope site drought factor Classes:
Score Class Definition
< 6 I Cool, moist sites
6 - 11 II Damp sites
12 - 17 III Moderately dry sites
18 - 23 IV Warm, dry sites
24 - 30 V Very hot and dry sites
> 30 VI Very severely hot and dry sites

73
Horizontal Grass Planting Horizontal Grass Planting on risers
Horizontal Grass Planting on bunds
CHAPTER :06
VEGETATIVE STABILIZATION TECHNIQUES
INTRODUCTION
The structures constructed for the purpose of slope stabilization and protection work with the
use of living plants or plant materials are named as vegetative engineering systems. There are
mainly three systems:
Bioengineering systems developed from the use of seed
Bioengineering systems developed from the use of seedlings
Bioengineering systems developed from the use of live cuttings
VEGETATIVE SYSTEMS
The systems used in bioengineering are as follows:
Grass seeding or broadcasting,
Horizontal lines of grass planting;
Diagonal lines of grass planting;
Down ward lines of grass planting
Chevron lines of grass planting
Herring bone lines of grass planting
Random pattern of grass planting
Shrub planting
Tree planting
Palisades;
Brush layering
Fascines,
Live check dam;
Vegetated riprap;
Live staking
Bamboo planting

74

Diagonal Lines of Grass Planting

Tree/Shrub Planting
Mulch

Pit
Palisade
Bruss Layering Brush Layering
75
IMPLEMENTATION OF VEGETATIVE SYSTEMS
DIRECT SEEDING (GRASS AND SHRUBS)
Grass Seeding
The process is described in following points:
1) Prepare the site well in advance of the date of sowing. Remove all irregularities likely to
allow slumps or gullies and clean loose debris away.
2) Immediately before sowing, scarify the surface of the slope. This means scratching the
surface or carrying out basic cultivation to give a loose surface into which the germinating
grass seeds can send their roots.
3) Spread the seeds or grass seed heads liberally over the slope. Ideally, the whole surface
should be very lightly covered in seed material. An application rate of 25 gms per square
meter is normal.
4) Cover the seeds completely with a layer of mulch, made from cut herbs such as Eupatorium
adenophorum (banmara), or with hessian sheeting. Vegetation mulch is preferable.
Shrub and tree seeding
The process includes:
1) Clear all loose debris from the site, in advance of showing program.
2) Make a small hole, a little bigger than the seed, using a planting bar.
3) Push the seed right into the hole and cover it with soil; or, if it is in a rocky crevice, check
that it is right out of direct sunlight. Make sure that the seed coat is not damaged in this
process,
4) Seeds are normally shown at a rate of one every 25cm, center to center.
PLANTING GRASS LINES
The Process Involves the Following
1) Prepare the site well in advance of planting. Remove all debris and either remove or fill in
surface irregularities so that there is nowhere for erosion to start. If the site is on backfill
material, it should be thoroughly compacted, preferably when wet.
2) Always start grass planting at the top of the slope and work downwards.
3) Mark out the lines with string using a tape measure. Make sure they run exactly as required
by the specification, whether it is contour, diagonal or downslope.
4) Split the grass plants out to give the maximum planting material. Trim off long roots and cut
the shoots off about 10cm above ground level. Wrap the plants in damp hessian to keep them
moist until they are planted.
5) With a planting bar, make hole just big enough for the roots. Place the grass into the hole,
taking care not to tangle the roots or have them curved back to the surface. Fill the soil
around them, firming it gently with your fingers.
76
6) If compost or manure is available, scatter a few handfuls around the grasses. If the site is
very stony, this is important for improving early growth. You may have to incorporate it into
the surface material to prevent it being washed off.
7) It looks rather dry and there is no prospect of rain for a day or two, consider watering the
plants by a Jar

PLANTING SHRUB AND TREE SEEDLINGS RAISED IN POLYPOTS
The process is described in following points:
1) Prepare the site well in advance of planting. Remove all debris and remove or fill surface
irregularities. If the site is on backfill material, thoroughly compact it, preferably when it is wet. Cut
all weeds.
2) If possible, dig pits for the shrubs or trees well in advance of the planting program, but refill them the
same day.
3) When the ground is wet enough to support reasonable growth, plant out these seedlings. The bigger
the hole made, the better it is for plant; but there must be a compromise between helping the plant and
avoiding excessive disturbance to the slope.
4) Carefully remove the polypot by slicing it down the side with a razor blade to tear it carefully alone
the join. Take care not to cut the roots.
5) Plant the seedling in the pit, filling the soil carefully around the cylinder of roots and soil from the
polypot. Ensure there are no cavities. Firm the soil all around the seedling with gentle foot pressure.
6) If available, mix a few handfuls of well- rotted compost with the soil around the roots when you are
back filling the hole.
7) Remove any weeds around the plant; add mulch so that it does not touch the stem.
PLANTING LINES OF HARDWOOD CUTTINGS (PALISADES OR LIVE STAKING)
The process involves
1) Well in advance of the plating operation, trim and clean the site removing irregularities and loose
debris.
2) With string mark out the lines to be planted.
3) Always start at the top of the slope and work downwards.
4) Using a pointed bar, make a hole in the slope that is bigger than the cutting and deep enough to take
at least two thirds of its length.
5) Carefully place the cutting in the hole; preferably so that at least two thirds is buried firm the soil
around it, taking care not to damage the bark. Ideally, only one node of the cutting or about the top
3cm should protrude from the soil. On steep, unstable sites, however, a greater protrusion helps to
raise the delicate new shoots above the zone of moving debris and to trap more debris.
BRUSH LAYERING
The process includes the following steps:
1) Using string mark the lines to be planted, starting 50cm from the base of the slope.
2) Always brush layer from the bottom of the slope, and works upward.
3) Form a small terrace, with a 20% fall back into the slope. The terrace should be 40cm wide. If you are
brush layering a gravel-filled road embankment slope you should by a 5cm thick layer of soil along
this terrace to improve rooting conditions.
77
4) Lay the first layer of cuttings along the terrace, with 5cm interval between the cuttings. Leave at least
one bud and up to 1/3 of the cuttings sticking beyond the terrace edge and the rest inside. The branch
growing tips should point towards the outside of the terrace.
5) Lay a 2cm thick layer of soil in between the cuttings to provide loose cushion.
6) Lay a second layer of cuttings on the top of this, staggered with the first layer. On a gravel-filled
embankment slope, lay an 8cm layer of soil over the cuttings before you do any backfilling.
7) Partly backfill the terrace with the excavated materials. This should not more than 5cm thick.
8) Mark a line 1metre above the first brush layer and set the string for the next layer.
9) Follow steps 3 to 7. As the next terrace is cut, always fill the lower bench with the material excavated
from above and compact it reasonably well by gentle foot pressure.
FASCINES
The process involves the following points:
1) Well in advance of planting, prepare the site. Clear all loose material and protrusions and firmly infill
depression.
2) Mark on the slope the lines were fascines are to be installed. Supervise workers carefully to ensure
that the lines follow the contour or desired angle precisely.
3) Always construct fascines from the bottom of the slope and work upwards.
4) Dig about 5 meters of trench at a time, carrying out Step 5 at the same time. This ensures that the soil
in the trench is exposed only for a short period, retaining residual soil moisture. The trench should be
about 20cm deep and 20cm wide.
5) Lay the cuttings together, filling the trench and with their ends overlapping so that they form a single
cable right across the slope. Four cuttings per bundle are normal, but sue eight per bundle if there is a
lot of material available or if the site is very critical.
6) The fascines can be bound as first laying strings across the trench and then tying it when the cuttings
are in place install them. This helps to keep the cuttings together during backfilling but is not
essential.
7) Backfill the trench as soon as possible, lightly covering the cuttings, and tamp the soil down firmly
around it.
8) If the slope angle is more than 25
0
, you should peg the fascine. Hammering a large cutting into the
slope immediately below the fascine can do this. Use one peg per 50cm run fascines.
PLANTING BAMBOO CULMS CUTTINGS
The process involves the following points:
1) Keep the root ball wrapped in wet hessian until you are ready to plant it, so that it does not dry out.
2) Remove all the loose debris from the site and carry out any other site preparation well in advance of
the planting day.
3) Dig a sufficiently large hole and plant the cutting in it.
4) Carefully backfill the hole, making sure that buds are not damaged to the base of the cutting. Firm the
soil.
5) Place a layer of mulch over the disturbed soil and the surrounding area.
6) Water thoroughly.
7) Do not place bamboo cuttings closer than 2m apart across the slope or 5m up and down it.
78
LIVE CHECK DAMS
The process involves the following steps:
1) Choose the location for the live check dam so that the maximum effect can be achieved.
2) Make a hole deep and big enough to insert vertical hardwood cuttings of the largest size available
(truncheon cuttings of up to 2 meters in length are best). Use a crowbar if necessary to extend the
hole.
3) Insert the vertical cuttings by carefully pushing them into the hole and firming the soil around them.
Try not to damage the bark. They should protrude about 30cm above the ground surface.
4) Place fascines or long hardwood cuttings on the uphill side of the vertical stakes.
5) Key these horizontal members into the wall of the gully.
6) Backfill around the check dam and compact the soils with foot pressure.

79
DESIGN ASPECTS OF VEGETATIVE ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
System Functions Method of operation Applications and site requirements Time to maturity Limitations
Horizontal line grass
planting
Catches, reinforces, supports Dense line retards surface water flow
Dry, slope <45, erodible, cut slope
2 seasons Thin line easily broken
Diagonal line grass
planting
Catches, reinforces, some support Dense line guides water along the line Wet, permeable, fine, cut slopes 2 seasons Rills break through
Grass seeding Catches, reinforces, supports Dense grass, mat, rooting system
Consolidated debris slopes <45
3 seasons Can cause liquefaction, young plants get washed
away or dried
Palisades Catches, reinforces, supports Dense line above and below the ground
retards surface and shallow water flow
Slope <30, dry, erodible and
consolidated debris
2 seasons Causes small slumps, requires many cuttings, high
mortality
Brush layering Catches, reinforces, supports Dense line, strong buried branches retard
surface and shallow ground water flow
Slope <45, dry, erodible and
consolidated debris
One season if
planted early and
watered
Destructive to slopes during the excavation,
requires many cuttings
Fascines Catches, supports, drains Woody bundle, dense stems, porous, can
drain soil if laid down slope
Consolidated debris slopes, <45
3 seasons Destructive to slopes, requires many cuttings,
slow to develop, high mortality
Shrub planting Transpires, catches, armours,
reinforces, anchors, supports
Bunchy leaves, multiple stems, lateral
roots, root cylinder, tap roots
Any slopes < 45.
At least 4 seasons
Tree planting Transpires, armours, reinforces,
anchors, supports
Lateral and near vertical rooting systems,
root cylinder
Any debris slopes <45, gully side
slopes
At least 5 seasons Top heavy on steep slopes, leaf drip, canopy
shades smaller plants
Bamboo planting Transpires, catches, armours,
reinforces, supports
Dense poles, massive rooting systems,
dense leaves, grows all year
Slope <30, base of slope, erodible
slopes, preferably wet places
At least 5 seasons Source plant damage, delicate, requires nursery
space, heavy to transport

80

CHAPTER : 07
SMALL SCALE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
To solve the problems on slopes different types of civil engineering structures can be considered
in bioengineering. Only the small-scale civil engineering structures are taken into account. Some
of such small-scale structures are as follows.
Wattle fence
Checkdam
Jute net
Wire netting
Wire fence
Rendering
Revetment wall
Slope cover
Dentition
Stone pitch
Prop wall
Bolster
Toe wall
French drain
Unbound masonry ditch
Bound masonry ditch
Unlined earth ditch
Bound masonry ditch
81
CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES

Wattle Fence

82

Gabion panel
placing
Gabion panel filled
with stones
Wooden
peg
Figure: Bolster Construction

check dam
French Drain

83

The main civil engineering structures used for slope stabilization and erosion control in
conjunction with bio-engineering are as follows:
a. Toe wall: - Toe walls are constructed to protect the base of a slope from undermining or
other damage, such as grazing by animals.
b. Retaining wall: - Retaining wall is wall built to resist the pressure of earth filling or backing,
deposited behind it after it is built. The main function of the wall is to support the slope. It also
prevents the toe cutting.
c. Dentition wall: - It any structure constructed on the slope where there are small fissures,
patches. Its main function is to armour.
d. Prop wall: - It is structure constructed where there is underlying of soft and hard rock. It is
used to prevent differential weathering of soft rock and to support hard rock.
e. Check dam: - Check dam are constructed to prevent the down-cutting of runoff water in
gullies. They ease the gradient of the gully bed by providing periodic steps of fully strengthened
material.
f. Wire bolsters: - Wire bolsters cylinders are laid in shallow trenches across the slope. They
prevent surface scour and gullying by reinforcing and fulfilling intermittent armouring
functions and provide shallow support.
g. Stone pitching: - Stone pitching is used to armour a slope. This gives a strong covering. It is
freely drained and will withstand considerable water velocity.
h. Surface and Subsurface drains: - Surface drains are used to remove surface water quickly
and efficiently. Surface drains include horizontal drain, cascade, etc. And the subsurface drains
are used to remove ground water quickly and efficiently. These are usually restricted to civil
engineering structures.
i. Jute netting: - A locally made geo-textile of woven jute netting is placed on the slope. It has
three main functions.
i. Protection of the surface allowing seed to hold and germinate.
ii. Improvement of the microclimate on the slope surface by holding moisture and
increasing infiltration.
iii. As it decays, to act as mulch for the vegetation established.
j. Wattle fence: - Low fence of bamboo or other plant material are built along the contour to
trap debris moving down the slope and to prevent surface scour are known as wattle fence.
After a certain period, terrace is formed.
Jute Netting
Materials and equipment:
woven jute netting;
hardwood cutting from shrub or tree, 2 to 5 cm in diameter and 30 to 40 cm. long;
84
tools for cutting wood and jute;
iron bar for making hole; and
wooden mallet.
Method:
a trim to an even slope : make sure there are no small protrusions or depressions which
will interfere with the netting, remove protruding rocks if possible;
b peg the netting : starting at one end of site, peg the end of one roll of netting 30 cm above
the slope to be covered;
c slowly unroll the netting down the slope;
d peg the netting: allowing some slack in the netting, begin to peg it from the bottom
of the slope. Hammer hardwood cuttings or pegs through it at intervals of 50 to 100
cm leaving the cuttings protruding about 8 cm. While working on the slope never
hang on the netting - always stand on the pegs;
e cover the whole slope with netting : repeat the process, making sure that the vertical
edges of the net meet, until the whole slope is covered in netting;
f butt joint the strips : place a series of pegs down each side of the butt joint so that
the jute is held together as a continuous net;
g Carefully adjust the netting : if necessary adjust the netting in order to reduce the
tension and let it hug the surface closely. If it remains tight it will not lie right
against the slope surface;
h place additional pegs : add further pegs as necessary to ensure complete surface
contact;
i trim lower edges : cut the netting strips to the length required.
Advantages:
it provides rapid cover for the slope surface;
even on the harshest sites the young seedlings are protected from run-off and drought
untilthey become established; jute netting is easily produced locally.

Disadvantages:
it can only be used in limited places because it has a high moisture holding capacity;
netting has a short life span unless it is bituminised, and even then it will last for no more
than 3 years.
Gabion Wire Bolsters
Gabion bolster panels are normally 5 m x 1 m. Where larger bolsters are required 5 m x 2 m
panels can be woven. They are made on a conventional gabion-weaving frame but with a much
smaller mesh than usual. Heavy coated 10 swg wire is used for the border and 12 swg for the
mesh.
Materials and equipment:
woven gabion panels;
85
Gabion Wire Bolsters 12 mm mild steel rod cut into 2 m lengths;
boulders;
tools for digging trenches and for working with gabion wire; and
hammers.
Method:
a trim the slope : first trim the slope to be treated to an even slope with no small
protrusions or depressions, which will interfere with the bolsters. Remove
protruding rocks if possible;
b mark out a contour : starting about 2 metres from the bottom of the slope, mark out a
contour line across the slope with the aid of a spirit level;
c dig a trench along the line : the trench should be about 30 cm wide and 30 cm deep;
d lay a gabion bolster panel lengthways along the trench : make sure the edge of the
panel on the lower side is flush with the edge of the trench;
e fill the bolster with stones larger than the mesh size;
f fold the upper edge of panel over the stones and join it to the lower panel edge.
Leave a 10 cm flap from the upper edge extending over the lower edge;
g join abutting bolsters across lope : form the bolsters into a continuous line across the
slope and close the extreme ends with wire;
h backfill: backfill the material around the bolsters, compact it and clean away surplus
debris;
i peg with steel bars: drive mild steel bars into the ground at right angles to the slope
every 2 metres along the bolsters. Position them immediately below and touching
the bolsters, and drive them in far enough so that they cannot be pulled out by hand;
j cover remaining site: repeat steps 'b' to 'i' 2 m higher up the slope and repeat again
until the area is covered;
k starting from the top of the slope, clean away surplus debris and make sure that
backfill is complete and firm.
Advantages:
provide very strong and durable surface scour checks;
stronger and longer-lasting than wattle fences; and
freely drained and so little moisture is accumulated on the slope.
Disadvantages:
relatively expensive to install; and
contour bolsters give rise to an increase of infiltration, which can cause slumping on some
slopes.
86
Key Features of Small Check Dams
Check dams are often poorly constructed and either fail or require remedial work. You should
give attention to the following points:
build sound foundations on a good base;
key dam well into gully sides;
include weep holes to drain water from behind wall and reduce hydrostatic pressure;
make a notch and slope top of dam towards centre so water does not scour sides;
point top of wall with cement mortar; and shape to get counterbalance moment.

CIVIL ENGINEERING WORKS
An appropriate type of a small-scale structure depends upon their function and site requirement
including position to stabilize. The following table explains the functions, applications, life
span and limitations of a few small-scale structures.
Function Application Position Life span Site
requiremen
ts
Limitations
Catch
Wattle
fence

Cheap easy to
install

Mid slope

1 season

Stakes can
be driven

Weak
Undermining
Very small amount of
material
Jute net
Unbitumin
ised
Cheap
Sandy soil
> 30
0
slope
Top &
mid slope
1-2
seasons

Smooth
plane slope
Homogeneo
us materials
Shrinks
Not on fine plastic soils
Not on cobble size soil
Cannot be used in
riling soil
Bituminise
d
Jute
netting
Sandy soil
> 30
0
slope
Top &
mid slope
5 years + Smooth
plane slope
Homogeneo
us materials
Weak, light in weight
and requires many pegs
Small amount & size of
material
Wire
netting
Hard rock slope Up & mid
slope
20 years + Stakes can
be driven
Not on fine plastic soils
Not on cobble size soil
Wire fence > 30
0
slope Mid slope 10 20
years
Good
foundation
Cannot be used in
riling soil Expensive
87
Difficult to install
Not on soft rock
Checkdam Small gullies Gullies
Mid &
down
slope
25 years + Need to be
well keyed
Expensive
Small amounts retained
Armour
Slope
cover

Permeable slope
Any slope

Top &
mid slope

1 3
seasons

Temporary measure
Wind damage
Installation difficult for
large area
Damaged by debris &
swift water
Stone
pitching
Erodible soil
slope
River
banks
Gully
base &
floor
25 years +
Rendering Non-weatherable
fractured rock
Coarse
consolidated
material
Up to 90
0
slope
Usually at
toe
25 years + Smooth face No resistance to any
stress
Revetment
wall
Debris slope
> 50
0
slope
25 years + Foundation
needed
Space
needed for
shape

Dentition Alternate rock
slope
30
0
- > 50
0
slope
Usually
mid slope
25 years +
88
Homogeneous
slope

Function Application Position Life span Site
requirement
s
Limitations
Support
Toe wall

Debris slope

Base

25 years +

Required
shape

Mass movement <
250mm
Bolster Debris slope
Up to 50
0
slope
Mid slope 25 years + Not too
coarse &
rocky soil
Specialized
skills &
materials
Can be undetermined
Prop wall Alternate rock
layers
Irregular shape
Mid slope 25 years + Foundation
bed
Hard bed
not too
fractured
Mass movement <
250mm
Drain
Unlined
earth ditch

Consolidated
debris
Slope > 15
0

Top slope

Impermeabl
e soil

Easily evoked
Unbound
masonry
drain
Consolidated
debris
Slope < 50
0

Any 25 years +
in theory
Must be
neatly built
Easily damaged
Bound
masonry
drain
Consolidated
debris
Slope < 50
0

Any 25 years + Good
foundation
Non flexible
Cracks & leaks
89
French
drain
(surface
gravel
drain)
Consolidated
debris
Wet sites
(ground water
and surface
water)
Slope < 500
Any 25 years + Maximum depth 2m
Difficult to install when
depth > 1m
Expensive

INTERACTION BETWEEN PLANTS AND CIVIL ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
In slope stabilisation we may have a choice whether to use:
-civil engineering on its own;
-vegetative engineering alone;
- a combination of the two.
As soil conservation officers, we need to understand the principles underlying the relationship
between vegetative engineering systems and civil engineering systems.

RELATIVE STRENGTH OF STRUCTURES OVER TIME.
The strength of a structure at different stages of its life can be related to its maximum strength.
This can be described as a percentage of the maximum strength.

90

Life span of vegetative structures

100
%

80

Relative

60

strength

40

of

20

structure

0

0 1 2 3
Years
4 5 6 7

91

Life span of small civil engineering structures

100
%

80

Relative

60

strength

40

of

20

structure

0

0 1 2 3

Years
4 5 6 7

92

Combined life span.

From above graph we can conclude that the civil engineering system get its early strength
but as the time elapses, reduces its strength. At the same time when we use bio engineering
system properly the strength increases up to limit although early strength is zero.
Combined life span:
As the relative strength of engineering structures decreases, the relative strength of plant structures
increases. Note that these graphs relate to the performance of each type of structure separately. They do
not compare the actual strength of the civil engineering structures compared with the strength of the
vegetative engineering structures.

Jute net and grass can both be used to perform a catching function. In the beginning the fine soil
retaining capacity of the jute net is very high and each small square behaves as mini check dam.
With time the jute decays which weakens the net and consequently its soil retaining capacity
decreases. Ultimately the net will fail to carry out any retaining function. The grass slips grow
up with time and start to retain soil on the slope due to the development of root and shoot
systems. When grass is fully grown, it stays at 100% relative strength. As the relative strength
of the jute net declines the relative strength of the grass increases. The soil retaining function of
the jute net is handed over to the grass.

100

80

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Year
% of
Relative
Strength of
Structure
Civil Engineering Structures
Vegetation System
93
Physical relationships between civil and vegetative engineering structures:
Various relationships may exist between the functions of civil and vegetative engineering
structures, e.g.:
- toe wall below bamboo- structure protects plant;
- plants around end of toe wall - plant protects structure;
- trees above toe wall - plant improves performance of structure;
- fence with young plants below - plant replaces structure.
These are the four ways in which civil and vegetative engineering structures can be used
together.

Compatibility of engineering structures:
In the last example the function of the civil engineering, structure is handed over to the plants.
If this is to happen the engineering functions of the two structures must be the same.

94

CHAPTER : 08
OPTIMAL TECHNIQUE
SELECTION OF OPTIMAL TECHNIQUE
Choice of stabilisation techniques
Choosing stabilisation techniques is a complicated process, which is not fully understood. There
are many variables, most of which cannot be measured in the field. These notes give a practical
analysis to reach an optimum course of action. Do not consider this information definitive.
Always remember the most important part of the analysis is attention to detail.
EROSION PROCESSES ACTIVE ON SITE
First look at the site and its surroundings. There is no such thing as a simple text book
landslide. Each site has a variety of processes at work. You must identify them before you start
any remedial work. The site may contain one or more type of erosion such as:
- surface erosion, such as rilling and gullying;
- planer slide, on a shallow slip plane parallel to the surface (translational landslide);
- shear failure, on a deep, curved slip plane (rotational failure);
- slumping of material when very wet, through low particle cohesion;
- falling of debris due to failure of the supporting material.
Secondly, there are both internal and external factors affecting the site. These include:
- Internal factors: small fault lines causing differential erosion in parts of the site;
small slip planes additional to the main failure mechanism;
seasonal springs within the site;
- External factors: gullies which may discharge on to the site;
landslides which may supply debris on to the site;
rivers which may undercut the toe.

The next stage involves establishing whether the cycle of erosion has reached a stage at which it
can be stabilised. If it has not, leave the site until after the next monsoon and do not carry out
any further work at this stage.
95

INITIAL ASSESSMENT OF TREATMENT NEEDS
If it looks as if stabilisation of the site is feasible, you can continue the process of decision
making. A further series of questions given below helps to simplify the problems.
Question Action if the answer is yes
Is the site very long, steep and in danger of a
massive failure below the surface?
Use retaining walls to break the slope into
smaller, more stable lengths.
Is the foot of the slope undermined, threatening the
whole slope above?
Consider building toe walls.
Is there a distinct overhang or are there large
boulders supported by a soft, eroding band?
Consider building prop walls.
Is the slope made up mostly of hard rock, so that
planting nursery stock would be impossible?
Consider direct seeding as an option.
Is the slope rough, covered in loose debris or does it
have any locally very steep or overhanging
sections, however small?
It must be trimmed.

Slope segments
Once you have answered these questions, you can move on to a more detailed examination of
the slope segments. A slope segment can be defined as a length of slope with a uniform angle
and homogeneous material that is likely to erode in a uniform manner. The most
straightforward way to approach the choice of stabilization technique is to split sites into
segments of slopes. The assumption is that each segment can be treated using the same
technique or techniques. But first, there are two important questions to answer.

Question Action if answer is yes
Is the slope segment longer than 15 metres? There may be a risk of serious surface erosion.
Therefore some kind of physical scour check should
be used, such as wire bolsters.
Is the slope made up of poorly drained There is a danger of shallow slumping. Techniques
used on this sort of material must be designed to
96
material, with a relatively high clay content? drain rather than accumulate moisture.
Guidelines for applying bioengineering techniques
The diagram entitled Guidelines for applying bioengineering techniques to all slopes, is an
attempt to define the techniques to be used on different sites. Many factors determine the
optimum technique or combination of techniques, but only the most important have been
included here for the sake of simplicity. The following notes explain the five columns.
Slope angle
This is the primary distinction, as it is used to identify the sites which need only mild soil
conservation treatment, i.e., those less than 30
o
. A slope steeper than 45
o
has seriously steep
angle and will present greater erosion problems.
Slope length
The length of 15 metres is partly arbitrary but represents a good dividing figure between big
and small sites. Slope segments longer than 15 metres are open to greater risks in terms of
both gullying and deep-seated failures.
Aspect
Aspect is the orientation of a site relative to the sun. In fact, this category relates to more than
just aspect. It covers the environmental dryness of each individual site. The entire site moisture
regime must be considered, although aspect is often the dominant factor in determining the site
moisture. Other major factors are:
- Altitude;
- Rain shadow effect;
- Topographical location;
- Stoniness;
- Soil moisture holding capacity; and
- Winds and ex-monsoon rains.
Material drainage
This column relates to the internal porosity of soils and the likelihood of their reaching
saturation and losing cohesion, thereby starting to flow. Those materials, which have poor
internal drainage, tend to have high content of clay relative to sand and silt in the fine fraction.
They tend to be prone to shallow slumping if too much moisture accumulates. Stabilisation
requires some kind of drainage in addition to protection.
Optimal techniques
One or more techniques are given which are known to be successful on general sites of each
type. However, the general picture may not cover every case and so this flow chart cannot be
considered fully comprehensive. Some local variations may be needed, the engineer needs to
determine this on site.
97

GUIDELINES FOR SELECTION OF OPTIMAL TECHNIQUES
Slope
angle
Slope
length
Aspect Material
drainage
Optimal technique
START

N, NE
(NW,E)
Good Diagonal grass lines
S, SW (SE,W) Good Contour grass lines
>15
metres
N, NE
(NW,E)
Poor 1 Downslope grass lines and strengthened
rills or
2 Chevron grass lines and strengthened
rills
S, SW (SE,W) Poor Diagonal grass lines
>45
0
Any Good Jute netting and planted grass
<15
metres
N, NE
(NW,E)
Poor 1 Downslope grass lines or
2 Diagonal grass lines

S,SW (SE,W)

Poor
1 Jute netting and planted grass or
2 Contour grass lines or
3 Diagonal grass lines

>15
metres

Any

Good
1 Horizontal bolster cylinders and tree
planting or
2 Downslope grass lines and strengthened
rills or
3 Grass seeding, mulch and wide mesh
jute netting
Poor Herringbone bolster cylinders and tree
planting
3045
0

Good
1 Brush layering with woody cutting or
2 Contour grass lines or
98
<15 Any 3 Grass seeding, mulch and wide mesh
jute netting
metres Poor 1 Diagonal grass lines or
2 Herringbone fascines and tree planting
or
3 Herringbone bolster cylinders and tree
planting
<30
0
Any
Any
Good 1 Contour strips of grass and trees or
2 Tree planting
Poor 1 Diagonal lines of grass and trees or
2 Tree planting
Any Any Any rocky material Direct seeding of shrubs or small trees

Notes: 'Any rocky material' is defined as material into which rooted plants cannot be planted
but seeds can be inserted in holes made with a steel bar.
A chevron pattern is like this: <<<<<
A herringbone pattern is like this: (like the bones of a fish)

99
CHAPTER : 09
NURSERY
What is a nursery:
It is a factory that produces the plant and plant materials of required quality when required, how
much required and at an affordable cost.
Main Component of the Nursery:
General: Compound wall or fence
Office: Chowkidars hut, Vehicle access, working area, path ways
Storage: store for soil, sand, Compost, Pesticide
Water: Water tank and accessories , Drainage system Beds: Seed bed,
Stool cutting , Bare root plant , Grass, Bamboo, Standout bed for polypot , shades for bed .
MATERIAL CHECKLIST:
Soil, sand, seed
Compost fertilizer
Fungicide, insecticide
Heavy gauge poly bags for storage
Shed material (bamboo, hessian)
Wire, nails, string, wire mesh
Seed bed level
Pen, pencil
Poly pot 4 *7
Heavy gauge polythene sheeting
Water proof marker, register, soap etc.
EQUIMENT CHECKLIST
Kuto, Kodalo, Kodali
Chhupi
Hasia, Khukuri
Khanti, Shovel
100
Secateur/Scissors
Tin trunk with padlock
tray
Measuring tape
Doko
Watering can
Flit gun sprayer
paper punch
Plant carrying tray
First aid kit
Safety equipment kit
Soil and sand sieves

Factors to be considered for the selection of a nursery site:
The number of plants of each species to be produced each year;
The type and size of plants;
The location of the planting sites to be supplied;
The expected life of the nursery.
The site is chosen at least six months before the first seed is to be sown.
Land ownership
As far as possible, the nursery should be established in own land;
Legal provisions should be carried out for the rented land.
Water supply
A guaranteed supply of 1,000 litres (1 m
3
) of water per day is needed for a nursery of
20,000 plants watered with a watering can. Surface irrigation requires considerably
more.
The water right should be registered in the water resource committee.

101
General location:
1. The site should be as close as possible to the centre of the area to which plants will be
supplied and near to the road.
2. Aspect is very important. North facing slopes are cooler and more humid and are better
for nurseries at lower elevations, whereas nurseries above 1200 m are better on warmer
southern slopes
3. A slope of 2-3 % is necessary to allow water to drain off without causing erosion.
Availability of materials and labour:
1. Deep loamy soil, if possible with good content of organic matter (2 %), on a well-drained
site.
2. A nursery with a target of 20,000 usable plants would fill 25,000 pots. For (4" 7") pots,
this would require 12.25 m
3
of potting mixture. For a 2:1:1 soil:sand:compost mixture
,about 6.2 m
3
of soil and 3.1 m
3
of sand are required.
3. It should be near to the peoples access so that they could go to work and come back to
their place in the evening.
SPACING NURSERIES:
Nurseries should be established at intervals according to need.
Each climatic area where work is to be carried out should be represented by at least
one nursery;
Ideally plants are produced in a nursery immediately next to their eventual
destination although this cannot be achieved in every case.
On some mountain roads crossing much unstable terrain and a wide variety of climatic zones,
one nursery per 10 km may be necessary. Elsewhere a distance of 25 km between nurseries may
be adequate.
Nurseries need to be as close as possible to the sites they will serve.
The location must be technically suitable.
The final selection should be based on evaluating the relative advantages, and
disadvantages of three or more possible sites.
Permanent nurseries with a production capacity of less than 100,000 grass slips, or
25,000 shrub or tree seedlings, are not usually economically viable
Small nurseries can be better than one large one
102
Advantages of a small nursery:
the risk is spread during the planting season: blockages of the road which disrupt
transport are less likely to jeopardise the planting programme;
the dangers of drought, disease or poor management in one nursery will affect only part
of the total stock;
transport of stock from nursery to site is minimised which saves money and reduces
stress damage to the plants;
nurseries in each climatic zone allow a wider range of plants to be produced;
each nursery requires a trained foremen (Naike), this allows a greater transfer of skills
which is a development objective;
nurseries act as a focus for work in the local community.
TYPES OF BEDS:
Grass Slip bed
Beds for sowing tree or shrub seeds
Stand out beds for polypots
Beds for bare root seedling and stumps
Stool beds for cutting
Beds for bamboo culm cutting

103

NUMBER OF PLANTS PER PLANTING DRILL
Rhizome 1/ drill Amliso, Nigalo etc.
Grass slip 2/drill Babio, Kans etc.
Stem cutting 1/dril Napier, narkat etc
Stolon 1 or 2/drill Dubo
Calculation of Nursery Area:
Calculate the required space to produce
o 500,000 grass slips
o 18,000 shrub/tree plants in 4*7 polypot

Calculation of the space for grass bed:
Divide the required number of slips by number of plants to be developed in nursery
from a slip ( here 5)
500000/5=100000
Divide it by the number of plants to be planted in 1 m
2
( here 100)
100000/100=1000 m
2

Calculation of the space for tree/shrub seedlings:
Add 25% to the required number
18000+25% of 18000=22500
Divide it by the number of plants that can accommodate in 1 m
2
(here 128nos.)
22500/128=176 m
2

Add 50% to this area for stocking and respacing
176+88=264 m
2

TOTAL LAND REQUIRED:
Add all required land area
Nursery altitude Species Slips first planted Number to plant
Terai to 1200 m Amliso
Any other grasses
February
February
April/May
Final site number/3
Final site number/7
Final site number/3
Above 1200 m Any grasses February/March Final site number/3

104
1000+264=1264 m
2

Add space for seed bed, bamboo bed if required.
Multiply it by 1.5 if the land is unterraced and by 3 if it is terraced

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF THE PHYSICAL COMPONENTS OF NURSERIES
Compound wall or fence
Nursery store, Office and Chaukidars hut
Other structures
Water supply
Drainage
Nursery beds
Pathways
Other

Component Design features Reasons for design
Compound wall
or fence
Secure against all animals
Strong and long lasting
Built using local materials
Simple but effective gate
To protect the nursery adequately
As cheap as possible
Effective
Show people it is private
Nursery store/
office/
Chowkidar's hut
Secure against all
unwelcome people
Strong and long lasting
Big enough for all its
functions
Built suing local materials
Good quality so the
chowkidar will be happy to
stay there
Efficient layout
To look after tools, seeds, etc. safely
To give the chowkidar a reasonable
place to stay
As cheap as possible to be effective
105
Vehicle access
and turning area
Beside safest and easiest
road access point
Adequate space for turning
and unloading (if space is
limited, vehicles may reverse
in)
Easy transport of goods in and out of
the nursery
Soil/sand store Adequate size for storing all
soil and sand
Space for working in during
set weather (optional)
As cheap as possible to be effective
Working area Big enough for all operations
Big enough for more
labourers to work in at peak
times
Hard, well drained surface
If possible, shaded by a large
tree
To enable efficient performance of all
operations

Water tank and
accessories
At highest part of nursery
Permanent good water source
Well built tank
Tank of large capacity
Good taps
Hose pipes reaching every bed
in the nursery
Water is most essential for
plants
It must be guaranteed at all
times of the year
Water must be easily available
in all parts of nursery
106
Drainage system Must prevent erosion in the
nursery
Must prevent erosion in the
nursery
Keep paths and working areas
hard and dry
To keep
the
nursery
in good
condition
all year
round
As cheap as possible to be
effective
Pathways to all parts of
the nursery
Well made so they last a long
time
Drained so they are good
during rains
To allow easy access
effective
Compost bays Strong and long lasting
Big enough for all the
nursery's needs
Built using local materials
To provide compost for the
nursery on an annual basis
effective

107
CHAPTER:10
MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION
Bioengineering programming work is very important as the activities directly depend on the
seasonal characteristics. In the other hand financial obligation regulates the implementation of
the work. The HMG/N financial system is clear that the fiscal year starts from Shrawan which
is the prime time for bioengineering activities. Every institution must have a system, which
regulates its expenditure. However, often it seems to hinder technical operations. We must
know how to work within the system if we are to carry out bioengineering works effectively.
A better programming ensures efficiency, effectiveness and economy by utilizing scarce
resources as minimum as possible and by producing as more output as possible. Programming
is the advance planning. Scheduling is an important task in the process of programming. There
are various types of schedules. Some of them are:

- Construction schedule
- Equipment schedule
- Material schedule
- Labour schedule
- Financial schedule
CONSTRUCTION SCHEDULE
Before preparing a construction schedule various operations involved in the construction
project like estimation of quantity, abstract of cost etc. are to be calculated. It shows the clear
picture of the project. An example of construction schedule is given below:
Project No. Year .

Name of the Project . Location .

S.
No
.

Activities Quantity Unit Rate per
week
Total time
required
Baishakh
1 2 3 4
e a e a e a e a
108

note: e = estimated a= actual
EQUIPMENT SCHEDULE
It shows the complete list of equipment required for the project on different dates and also their
duration. It helps planning the equipment required for the project in advance.

Project No. Year .

Name of the Project: Location ...

S.
No.
Equipment Total nos.
Required
Baishakh Jestha Ashadh
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 bulldozer

MATERIAL SCHEDULE
In order to deliver materials to the site well in advance and not far in advance or delaying
material schedule is prepared.

Project No. Year:

Name of the project: Location:

S
No
.
Description of materials Total quantity Baishakh Jestha Ashadh
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
109
1 Cement

LABOUR SCHEDULE
On the basis of construction schedule labour schedule is prepared. It shows the required types
of labour, their numbers and period of involvement.
Project No. Year:


S.
No
.
Classification of labours Total
nos.
Baishakh Jestha Ashadh
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 Carpenters

FINANCIAL SCHEDULE
It is important to prepare the financial schedule for the proper planning of the financial
activities. In the absence of the schedule there will be the dilemma of both the expenditures and
receipt. As per the budget allocation practice in Nepal, the whole budget for the year is
disbursed in three four monthly segments. The financial programming, hence, has to be
prepared accordingly.

FINANCIAL PROGRAMMING AS PER BUDGET ALLOCATION
Project No. Year:

S.
No.
Particulars Total
Quantity
Total
Amount
Work for
the Year
I II III Remar
ks
Q A % Q A % Q A % Q A %
110

FINANCIAL PROGRAMMING AS PER EXPENDITURE REQUIREMENT
Project No. Year:

Week after
starting
Construction
Activities
Expenditure per
week
Cumulative
Expenditure
Remarks

BAR CHART
It is a simple and easily understood tool used for construction planning and controlling. It is a
graphical representation of various activities showing the duration, starting and the completion
dates of the construction projects. On a chart by means of the horizontal bars different activities
are represented. The length of each bar indicates the duration required for the completion of the
operation. By using an extra dark bar parallel to the bar already shown on the chart progress of
the activity also can be noted down.

An example of a bar chart for construction of Check dams in a gully

S.
No.
Description of work Baishakh Jestha Aashadh Shrawan
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
111
1

2

3

4
Site Clearance

Earth Work in
Excavation

Random Rubble
Masonry

Bio Engineering
Activities

112
BIOENGINEERING PROGRAMMING WORKS ( ANNUAL CALENDAR)
Month Main activities Comments/other works
Shrawan
Jul-Aug
Site plantation works: all grass slips and seedlings; all shrub
and tree seedlings and hardwood cutting; all remaining direct
seeding
Observation of newly planted sites and maintenance as
required
Site plantation starts this
month in the Mid and Far
Western Regions
Bhadra
Aug-
Sep
required
Budget release expected
now; start detailed
programming
Aswin
Sep-Oct
required
Conduct post-monsoon survey of roadside slopes, prioritise
problem areas and begin planning for remedial works
Make initial assessment and order for jute netting (jute
harvesting season)
Carry out coppicing and pollarding of large trees
Jute net weaving takes place
all year round but timely
ordering ensures the best
quality fibres and lower
prices
Kartik
Nov-
Nov
Preparation for seed collection: final establishment of
quantities required and planning of seed sources
Compost and mulch making

Mangsir
Nov-
Dec
Seed collection, treatment and storage
Preparation for physical site works; planning, programming,
contracting etc.
This is the main seed
collection period for grasses
and some shrubs and trees,
but the seeds of some
species ripen at other times
Poush
Dec-Jan
Begin to prepare nurseries for operations in the spring
Preparation for physical site works; planning, programming,
contracting, etc.
Existing nurseries should be
in good order all year round
but will still require beds to
be cultivated, polypots to be
filled, etc.
Magh
Jan-Feb
Preparation of nurseries for operations in the spring
Low altitude nurseries start seed sowing
Site works : slope trimming, start of construction of civil

113
works, etc.
Carry out pruning and thinning of large trees
Phalgun
Feb-Mar
Main period for starting nursery production
Sowing of seeds
Site works : slope trimming, civil works construction, etc.

Chaitra
Mar-
Apr
Nursery operations in full swing
Site works: slope trimming, civil works construction, etc.

Baishak
h
Apr-
May
Site works: slope trimming, civil works construction, etc.
Application of jute netting on site

Jestha
May-
Jun
Final physical site works
Final preparation of materials for site planting
Direct sowing of shrub and tree seeds on site
Direct sowing of grass seeds on gentle slopes or under mulch

Ashadh
Jun-Jul
Nursery operations continue
Site plantation works: all grass slips and seedlings; all shrub
and tree seedlings and hardwood cuttings; all remaining direct
seeding
Site plantation works start
this month in most parts of
the Eastern, Central and
Western Regions

114
BIO-ENGINEERING: GENERAL WORKS ANNUAL PROGRAMME
FISCAL YEAR:
No Work activity Shrawa
n
Bhadra Aswin Kartik Mangsi
r
Poush Magh Falgun Chaitr
a
Baisha
k
Jestha Ashad
1 Complete 2057/58 site planting
2 Seed collection: grasses
other species
3 Seed treatment
4 Seed storage
5 Site assessment
6 Planning civil/site preparation
works

7 Tendering and arranging
contracts

8 Implementing civil works
9 Planning bio-engineering needs
10 Bio-eng stock production
11 Final site preparation
115
12 Placement of jute netting
13 Bio-engineering site works:
grass seed sowing on site
shrub seed sowing on site
brush layering
grass planting
tree/shrub planting
14 Programming for FY ..
15 Protection
16 Monitoring
17 Maintenance

116
The HMG/N financial system is clear and logical. Every institution must have a system, which
regulates its expenditure. However, often it seems to hinder technical operations. We must
know how to work within the system if we are to carry out bioengineering works effectively.
RESTRICTIONS ON BIOENGINEERING WORKS IMPOSED BY THE NG FISCAL
YEAR
There are many difficulties for bioengineers and the main ones are those, which affect the
annual programming of bioengineering works and the management of contracting. They are as
follows:

the Fiscal Year ends in the middle of our main working period (i.e. the rainy season);
unspent budgets are frozen;
programmes have to be made well in advance and it may be difficult to alter them later;
any changes in either the programme or the site location require a lot of file chasing in
Kathmandu;
at the end of the FY, there is much work to be done completing the accounts; this distracts
from technical work;
funds for the new FY are often not released by the Ministry of Finance for several months
due to delays in approval of the work programmes by the National Planning Commission;
the quotation system for employing local contractors is restricted by HMGN regulations;
and
civil engineering works are generally finished at the very last moment in the Fiscal Year,
not leaving any time for bioengineering works.
WAYS OF WORKING WITHIN THE NG SYSTEM TO REDUCE FINANCIAL
PROBLEMS
There are several ways of overcoming these problems.
1 If a budget has been proposed for bioengineering works in the Fiscal Year just
started, up to one sixth of the annual budget may be used per month for the works.
This needs to be requested by the Project Manager.
2 If you are using contractors for the site works, contract packages can be arranged so
that there is a defects and liabilities period of six or twelve months after the end of
the Fiscal Year. If the contractor does not complete the works, then he will forfeit
the retention money or performance bond.
3 In exceptional cases, you can apply to the Director General for use of money from
the Project's Deposit Account.
4 In dire circumstances, you can apply for emergency funds (or again, from the
Deposit Account). This would normally be for works resulting from a landslide or
erosion of a serious nature, which has occurred unexpectedly during the monsoon,
i.e. soon after the start of the new FY.
117
SUMMARY ANNUAL CALENDAR OF BIOENGINEERING WORKS
Month Main activities Comments/other works
Shrawa
n
Jul-Aug
Site plantation works: all grass slips and seedlings;
all shrub and tree seedlings and hardwood cutting; all
remaining direct seeding
Observation of newly planted sites and maintenance
as required
Site plantation starts this
month in the Mid and Far
Western Regions
Bhadra
Aug-
Sep
as required
Budget release expected
now; start detailed
programming
Aswin
Sep-Oct
as required
Conduct post-monsoon survey of roadside slopes,
prioritise problem areas and begin planning for
remedial works
Make initial assessment and order for jute netting
(jute harvesting season)
Carry out coppicing and pollarding of large trees
Jute net weaving takes
place all year round but
timely ordering ensures
the best quality fibres and
lower prices
Kartik
Nov-
Nov
Preparation for seed collection: final establishment of
quantities required and planning of seed sources

Mangsi
r
Nov-
Dec
Preparation for physical site works; planning,
programming, contracting etc.
This is the main seed
collection period for
grasses and some shrubs
and trees, but the seeds of
some species ripen at other
times
Poush
Dec-Jan
Begin to prepare nurseries for operations in the
spring
Preparation for physical site works; planning,
programming, contracting, etc.
Existing nurseries should
be in good order all year
round but will still require
beds to be cultivated,
polypots to be filled, etc.
Magh Preparation of nurseries for operations in the spring
118
Jan-Feb Low altitude nurseries start seed sowing
Site works : slope trimming, start of construction of
civil works, etc.
Phalgun
Feb-
Mar
Main period for starting nursery production
Sowing of seeds
Site works : slope trimming, civil works construction,
etc.

Chaitra
Mar-
Apr
Site works: slope trimming, civil works construction,
etc.

Baishak
h
Apr-
May
Site works: slope trimming, civil works construction,
etc.
Application of jute netting on site

Jestha
May-
Jun
Final physical site works
Final preparation of materials for site planting
Direct sowing of shrub and tree seeds on site
Direct sowing of grass seeds on gentle slopes or
under mulch

Ashadh
Jun-Jul
Nursery operations continue
Site plantation works: all grass slips and seedlings;
all shrub and tree seedlings and hardwood cuttings;
all remaining direct seeding
Site plantation works start
this month in most parts of
the Eastern, Central and
Western Regions

119
BIOENGINEERING: GENERAL WORKS ANNUAL PROGRAMME
No Work activity FISCAL YEAR : 2056/57
Shrawa
n
Bhadr
a
Aswi
n
Karti
k
Mangs
ir
Poush Magh Phalgu
n
Chaitr
a
Baishak
h
Jesth
a
Ashadh
1 Complete 2051/52 site planting
2 Seed collection: grass other
species

3 Seed treatment
4 Seed storage
5 Site assessment
6 Planning vivil/site preparation
works

7 Tendering and arranging
contracts

8 Implementing civil/preparation
works

9 Planning bioengineering needs
10 Bio-eng stock production (in
nursery)

11 Final site preparation
120
12 Placement of jute netting
13 Bioengineering site works;
grass seed sowing on site
shrub seed sowing on site
brush layering
grass planting
tree/shrub planting

14 Programming for FY 2053/54
Routine activities
15 Protection
16 Monitoring
17 Maintenance

121

BIOENGINEERING: LOW ALTITUDE NURSERY ANNUAL PROGRAMME
No Work activity FISCAL YEAR : 2052/53
Shrawan Bhadr
a
Aswi
n
Karti
k
Mangs
ir
Poush Magh Phalgu
n
Chaitr
a
Baishak
h
Jesth
a
Ashadh
1 Seed collection : grasses
other species

2 Soil and sand collection
3 Compost : making
turning

4 Purchase of polypots and other
items

5 General preparation of nurseries
6 Polypot filling
7 Shade repairing
8 Grass tock : plant out
respace

9 Seedlings : seed sowing
122
pricking out
respacing
root pruning
10 Prepare stock to leave nursery
Routine activities
12 Weeding
13 Protecting
14 General maintenance

123
NURSERY ACTIVITY CALENDAR BY FISCAL YEAR

Activity
Shra
wan

Bh
ad
ra

As
wi
n

Ka
rtik

Ma
ngs
ir

Po
us
h

M
a
g
h

Ph
alg
un

Ch
aitr
a

Bais
akh
h

Jes
tha

Ash
adh
Nursery
consstruction
Complete by end of Mangsir
Soil and sand
collection

Order new supplies
Making compost
Turning compost As required
Bed preparation
Prepare potting
mixes

Filling polypots
Check material
sources

Plant material
collection

Transplanting
Re-spacing As required
Check seed sources
Seed collection * * * *
Seed treatment * * * *
Seed sowing
Pricking out As
required

124
Root pruning As required
Spacing out As required
Weeding
Maintain water
supply

Watering As required
Shading of young
plants
As
required

Protection of the
nursery

Record keeping
General maintenance Regular checks and repairs made
Pest and disease
control
Daily checks and action taken when necessary
Uplifting and
preparing
As required
Transporting As required
Site planting works Depends on
rain
Depends on
rain

* Main seed collection period only; other seeds are collected at other times of the year.

This is an example only and a specific calendar must be made for every nursery.
Bioengineering Norms and specificaton
Rate analysis norms are standard formats that include the quantity of materials, numbers of
different categories of labours required for completion of unit item of work. In order to
standardize the analysis of rates for various items of work among various departments and
offices, the norms are prepared and recommended by the government.
Sequence of rate analysis norms forbio-engineering works
Collection and preparation of seed
Collection
125
Collection of grass and hardwood
methods

cuttings for vegetative propagation
Nursery operation and management (bed preparation) Nursery operation
(seed sowing and transplanting; planting hardwood cuttings) and management
Preparation of raised materials for extraction from the nursery
compost and mulch production
Direct seeding on site
Planting grass cuttings on site
Planting shrub and tree seedlings and cuttings on site Bio- engineering
Vegetative palisade construction,
brush layering and fascines
Jute netting works Small civil
Fabrication of gabion bolster cylinders engineering
Bamboo tree guards - Tree guards
Example of specifications given in the'Work description' column
Planting rooted grass slips on slopes 45 - 60 including preparation of slips on site.
Operation includes digging planting hole to a max. of 5 cm depth with metal rod or
hardwood peg, depending on nature of soil. The planting drills should be spaced 10 cm
apart.

126
WORK NORMS FOR BIO-ENGINEERING WORKS OF RURAL ROADS

S.

Respec
tive
For Hill Area For Terai/Plain
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
Description Unit Unskill
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
61. 18-1

Collection and preparation of seeds

a. Collection of grass seeds from sources
within 1 km of the road, including separating
and preparing seed for storage, and drying
seed in the sun.

b. Collection of large shrub seeds (e.g.
bhujetro) from sources within 1 km of the
road including seed preparation for storage
after drying.

c. Collection of medium-sized shrub seeds (e.g.

1 kg

1 kg

1.50

0.45

1.50

0.45

Sealed bag = 1
no.

Khukuri

Khukuri

127

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
keraukose) from sources within 1 km of the
road, including seed preparation for storage
after drying.

d. Collection of medium-sized shrub and tree
seeds (e.g. areri, khayer, ghobre and rani
salla, sisau) from sources within 1 km of the
road, including seed preparation for storage
after drying.

e. Collection of small shrub and tree seeds
(e.g. dhanyero, dhusun, tilka, utis) from
sources within 1 km of the road, including
seed preparation for storage after drying.

1 kg

1 kg

1 kg
0.75

0.95

2.50
0.75

0.95

2.50
Sealed bag = 1
no.

Sealed bag = 1
no.

Sealed bag = 1
no.

Nanglo

Nanglo

Nanglo

128

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks

62. 18-2

Collection of grass and hardwood
cuttings for vegetative propagation

a. Collection of grass clumps (e.g. amliso,
kans, khar) from sources within 1 km of the
road, to make slips for multiplication in the
nursery.

b. Collection of cuttings of small bamboos (e.g.
padang bans, tite nigalo bans), suitable for
traditional planting, from sources within 1 km
of the road. Material minimum 10 cm of
rooted rhizome and 90 cm of culm.

1000
slips

1000
nos.

1.50

3.00

1.50

3.00

Adequate
supply of
appropriate
clumps.
Hessian jute =
5 m
2

Adequate
supply of
appropriate

Kodalo

Kodalo
Khukuri
129

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks

bamboos.
Hessian jute =
10 m
2

c. Collection of hardwood cuttings (e.g. assuro,
bains, kanda phul, namdi phul, saruwa,
simali) from sources within 1 km of the road.
Material minimum 30 cm in length and 2 cm
in diameter.

1000
nos.

0.85 0.85 Adequate
supply of
appropriate
bushes.
Hessian jute =
5 m
2

Khukuri
130

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
63. 18-3

Nursery operation and management
(bed preparation)

a. Construction of seed beds for tree seedlings,
including materials for beds and shades.
Bed is 1 m wide x 17 cm high and made up
of: 5 cm of washed gravel, 5 cm of unsieved
forest soil, 5 cm of 1:3 mix of sieved forest
soil and washed sand, 2 cm of washed,
sieved and sterilised sand.

b. Construction of stand out beds for tree
seedlings in polypots, including materials for

5 m
2

5 m
2

2.00

6.00

1.50

2.00

6.00

1.50

Bamboo
= 9
nos.
Polythene
= 9 m
2
Bricks = 96
nos.
Gravel = 0.25
m
3

Unsieved soil =
0.10 m
3

Line string

Khanti
Shovel
Pick axe
Screen mesh

Khanti
131

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
beds and shades. Bed is 100 cm wide x 15
cm high, with a 5 cm layer of gravel placed
above the compacted ground.

c. Construction of beds for grass seeds, grass
slips (i.e. vegetative propagation) and tree
stool cuttings, including materials and
hessian cover. Bed is 100 cm wide x 25 cm
high and made up of: 5 cm of washed gravel
placed above the ground, 5 cm of 1:1 mix of
sieved soil and compost, and topped with 15
cm of 3:1 mix of sieved forest topsoil and
washed sand.

d. Construction of beds for propagation of

5 m
2

1.50

1.00

1.50

1.00
= 13 m
Binding wire =
3 kg

Bamboo
= 15
nos.
Bricks = 96
nos.
Gravel = 0.25
m
3

Line string
= 13 m
Binding wire =
Shovel
Pick axe

Shovel
Pick axe

132

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
bamboo culm cuttings, including materials
and hessian cover. Bed is 100 cm wide x 30
cm high. The ground below the bed is dug to
a depth of 30 cm. Bed is made with 10 cm
unsieved soil and 20 cm sieved soil. A bund
10 cm high is formed around the edge.

5 m
2

2.00

2.00
3 kg

Gravel = 0.38
m
3

Forest soil
= 1.46
m
3

Compost
= 0.38
m
3

Washed sand=
0.46 m
3

Hessian cover
= 10 m
2

Shovel
Pick axe
Khukuri
Log saw

133

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks

Gravel = 0.38
m
3

Forest soil
= 1.46
m
3

Compost
= 0.38
m
3

Bamboo
= 6 nos.
Hessian cover
= 25 m
2

134

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks

64. 18-4 Nursery operation and management
(seed sowing and transplanting;
planting hardwood cuttings)

135

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks

a. Tree seed sowing @ 10 g per m
2
(medium-
sized seeds) or 2 g per m
2
(very fine seeds)
into seed beds including pre-sowing seed
treatment.

b. Preparing potting mix and filling polypots,
including all material for container seedlings.
[Note 1 kg of 200 gauge polypots (4 x 7 laid

5 m
2

1000
nos.

0.04

10.00

0.04

10.00

Seed = 50 g

Polypot = 1050
nos.
Sand = 0.46
m
3

Bowl
Trowel

Sieve
Shovel
flat) = 464 bags; 200 gauge black polythene
is preferred.]
Soil = 0.70
m
3

Compost
= 0.23

136

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
m
3

c. Direct sowing of tree seeds into polypots
including seed treatment, by sowing one
seed in half the pots and two seeds in the
other half.

d. Pricking out young seedlings and
transplanting into polypots.

e. Pricking out tree seedlings and transplanting
into beds.
1000
nos.

100
nos.

1000
nos.

m
2
0.62

0.18

0.12

0.62

0.18

0.12

Seed = 1500
nos.
Wooden peg =
1 no.

Wooden peg =
1 no.

Wooden peg =
1 no.

Tray

137

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks

f. Transplanting grass slips into beds, from
clumps. Slips are planted at 10 cm centres
in rows 25 cm apart.

g. Planting of hardwood cuttings of minimum 30
cm length to 20 cm depth into prepared
beds. Cuttings spaced at 5 cm centres
within rows, with 20 cm between rows.

1000
nos.
0.12

0.60
0.12

0.60

Hessian jute =
0.30 m
2

Hardwood
cuttings
= 1000
nos.

Khukuri
Shovel

Khanti
65. 18-4.5 Preparation of raised materials for
extraction from the nursery

138

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks

a. Grass culm cutting production from nursery
stock; single or double node (e.g. napier).

b. Uprooting and preparing grass slips ready for
site planting from nursery seedlings

c. Uprooting and preparing grass slips ready for
site planting from nursery grass clumps
raised from slips by vegetative propagation.

1000
nos.

1000
nos.

1000
nos.

0.70

0.63

0.33

0.70

0.63

0.33

Hessian jute =
2.70 m
2

Hessian jute =
1.35 m
2

Hessian jute =
4.20 m
2

Khukuri

Fork
Pickaxe
Khukuri

Shovel
Khanti

139

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
66. 18-4.6 Compost and mulch production

a. Mulch production by collection and cutting of
weeds and other vegetation such as tite pati,
banmara, etc. within 1 km of the road, and
stacking along roadside.

b. Compost production by collection and cutting
of weeds and other vegetation such as tite
pati, banmara, etc. within 1 km of the road,
including fine cutting and filling compost pit.

c. Turning compost once per month.

1 m
3

1 m
3

1 m
3

1.20

1.20

0.10

1.20

1.20

0.10

Hasiya
Doko

Doko

Shovel
140

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
67. 18-6 Direct seeding on site (same as S. No.
19)

a. Broadcasting grass seeds on slopes < 40
0
,
seeding rate 25 g/m
2

b. Broadcasting grass seeds on slopes < 40
0
,
including cover with long mulch, seeding rate
25 g/m
2

c. Broadcasting grass seeds on slopes < 40
0
-
45
0
, including cover with long mulch and jute
netting of mesh size 300 mm x 500 mm.
Seeding rate 25 g/m
2
. Operation includes
pegging with suitable live pegs or hardwood

100
m
2

100
m
2

100
m
2

0.17

5.00

6.25

0.17

5.00

6.25

Seed = 2.50
kg

Seed = 2.50
kg
Mulch = 5.00
m
3

Seed = 2.50
kg
Mulch = 5.00

Khukuri
Mallet (wooden
hammer)

141

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
cuttings (e.g. simali) @ 1 m spacing, jute net
of 6.75 m x 1 m size.

d. Sowing shrub or tree seeds on all slopes, at
25 cm intervals, including digging planting
holes to 5 cm depth and covering with soil.
Two seeds per planting hole.

100
m
2

1.00

1.00

m
3

Jute net = 105
m
2

Live pegs
= 128
nos.

Seeds = 3200
nos.

Mild steel rod of
50 cm length
68. 18-6 Planting grass cuttings on site

a. Planting single node culm cuttings of grass
(e.g. napier) on fill slopes < 45
0
and

100

0.20

0.20

Grass cuttings
= 100

Mild steel rod
or hardwood
142

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
embankment slopes in plain areas.
Approximate length 15 - 20 cm, including
digging planting hole 10 - 20 cm depth using
a metal rod or hardwood peg.

b. Planting single node culm cuttings of grass
(e.g. napier) on hard cut slopes < 45
0
.

c. Planting single node culm cuttings of grass
(e.g. napier) on hard cut slopes > 45
0
.
nos.

100
nos.

100
nos.

0.35

0.50

0.35

0.50

nos.
Hessian jute
= 0.27
m
2

Grass cuttings
= 100
nos.
Hessian jute
= 0.27
m
2

Grass cuttings
peg of 50 cm
length

Mild steel rod
or hardwood
peg of 50 cm
length

Mild steel rod
or hardwood
peg of 50 cm
length

143

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks

d. Planting rooted grass slips on embankment
slopes in plain areas, at 10 cm spacing
within the row. The first row is 0.75 m from
the edge of the pavement and subsequent
rows are spaced at 1 m intervals down the
embankment.

e. Planting rooted grass slips on slopes < 45
0

including preparation of slips on site.
Operation includes digging planting holes to
a maximum of 5 cm depth with metal rod or
hardwood peg, depending on nature of soil.
The planting drills should be spaced 10 cm
apart.

1 m

1 m
2

0.02

0.20

0.02

0.20
= 100
nos.
Hessian jute
= 0.27
m
2

Grass slips
= 11
nos.
of
drills
Hessian jute
= 0.14
m
2

Line string
Mild steel rod
or hardwood
peg of 50 cm
length

Mild steel rod
or hardwood
peg of 50 cm
length
Khukuri

144

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
= 1 m

Grass slips
= 100
nos.
of
drills
Hessian jute
= 0.27
m
2

f. Planting rooted grass slips on slopes 45
0
-
60
0
including preparation of slips on site.
Operation includes digging planting holes to
a maximum of 5 cm depth with metal rod or
1 m
2

0.30

0.30

Grass slips
= 100
nos.
Mild steel rod
or hardwood
peg of 50 cm
145

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
hardwood peg, depending on nature of soil.
The planting drills should be spaced 10 cm
apart.

g. Planting rooted grass slips on slopes > 60
0

including
preparation of slips on site. Operation includes
digging planting holes to a maximum of 5 cm
depth with metal rod or hardwood peg,
depending on nature of soil. The planting
drills should be spaced 10 cm apart.

1 m
2

0.40

0.40
of
drills
Hessian jute
= 0.27
m
2

Grass slips
= 100
nos.
of
drills
Hessian jute
length
Khukuri

Mild steel rod
or hardwood
peg of 50 cm
length
Khukuri
146

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
= 0.27
m
2

69. 18-6 Planting shrub and tree seedlings
and cuttings on site

a. Planting containerised tree and shrub
seedlings, including pitting, transplanting,
composting and placing tree guards, on toe
of embankment slopes in plain areas, not
less than 8 m from the road centre line. Pit
size 30 cm diameter x 30 cm depth.
Compost volume of the volume of the pit,
mixed with original soil.

10
nos.

0.25

0.33

0.25

0.33

Container
Seedlings
= 10
nos.
Compost = 0.05
m
3

Tree guard
= 10
nos.

Khanti
Mallet (wooden
hammer)
Doko

Khanti
147

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
b. Planting containerised tree and shrub
composting and mulching, on slopes < 30
0
.
Pit size 30 cm diameter x 30 cm depth. Mix
compost with soil and backfill into pit, to of
pit volume.

c. Planting containerised tree and shrub
composting and mulching, on slopes 30
0
-
45
0
. Pit size 30 cm diameter x 30 cm depth.
Mix compost with soil and backfill into pit, to
of pit volume.

d. Planting rooted tree stump cuttings and bare
root seedlings, including pitting,
10
nos.

10
nos.

10

0.40

0.17

0.40

0.17

Green mulch
= 0.04
m
3

Seedlings
= 10
nos.
Compost = 0.05
m
3

Green mulch
= 0.04
m
3

Doko

Khanti
Doko

Khanti

148

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
transplanting, composting and mulching, on
slopes < 30
0
. Pit size 10 cm diameter x 20
cm depth. Compost volume of the volume
of the pit, mixed with original soil.

e. Planting rooted tree stump cuttings and bare
slopes 30
0
- 45
0
. Pit size 10 cm diameter x
20 cm depth. Compost volume of the
volume of the pit, mixed with original soil.

nos.

10
nos.

0.25

0.25

Seedlings
= 10
nos.
Compost = 0.05
m
3

Green mulch
= 0.04
m
3

Seedlings
= 10
nos.
Compost = 0.03

Khanti

149

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
m
3

Green mulch
= 0.04
m
3

Seedlings
= 10
nos.
Compost = 0.03
m
3

Green mulch
= 0.04
m
3

150

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks

f. Planting rooted tree stump cuttings and bare
10
nos.
0.33 0.33 Seedlings
= 10
nos.
Compost = 0.03
m
3

Khanti

slopes > 45
0
. Pit size 10 cm diameter x 20
cm depth. Compost volume of the volume
of the pit, mixed with original soil.

Green mulch
= 0.04
m
3

70. 18-6.7 Vegetative palisade construction,
brush layering and fascines

1000

Adequate

151

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
a. Collection of hardwood cuttings for planting
material (e.g. assuro, namdi phul, simali)
from sources within 1 km of road. Material to
be approx. 1 m in length and minimum 5 cm
in diameter.

b. Preparation and planting of live pegs of
selected species (e.g. assuro, namdi phul,
simali) of minimum 1 m length to 0.5 m depth
into hard ground. Pegs spaced at 5 cm
centres within rows, with 5 - 20 cm between
rows, and interwoven with vegetation.

c. Preparation and planting of live cuttings of
selected species (e.g. assuro, namdi phul,
simali) of minimum 1 m length to 0.5 m into
nos.

1 m

1 m

0.85

0.17

0.12

0.85

0.17

0.12

supply of
bushes.

Live pegs
= 20
nos.

Live pegs
= 20
Khukuri

Crow bar

Crow bar

152

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
soft debris. Pegs spaced at 5 cm centres
within rows, with 5 - 20 cm between rows,
and interwoven with vegetation.

d. Site preparation for fascine laying: earth
works in excavation of trench to 20 cm
depth.

e. Laying of live fascines, using live hardwood
cuttings of selected species (e.g. assuro,
namdi phul, simali) of minimum 1 m length,
placed in bundles to give 4 running metres of
cuttings per metre of fascine, including
backfilling of trench and careful compaction.

1 m

1 m

0.06

0.17

0.06

0.17
nos.

Hardwood
cuttings of at
least 1 m in
length = 4 m

Pick axe
Shovel

Khukuri
Shovel
153

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
71. 18-7 Jute netting works

a. For bare slopes and under planting with
slips. Spinning raw jute from 100% jute fibre
into yarn and weaving the yarn into netting.
Hand spun yarn 5 to 8 mm in diameter, width
of net 1.20 m, warp strands 27 nos. per 100
cm, weft strands 20 - 24 nos. per 100 cm,
mesh size 30 - 40 mm square and 1.25 kg/m
weight at 1.20 m widths. [Note. A tosro is
the weaving shuttle, normally made from a
split large bamboo culm.]

b. For holding mulch on slopes. Spinning raw
jute from 100% jute fibre into yarn and
weaving the yarn into netting. Hand spun

1 m
2

1 m
2

0.36

0.15

0.36

0.15

Raw jute = 1.25
kg

Raw jute = 0.26

Khukuri
Bamboo sticks
(10nos.)
Weaving frame
Tosro

Khukuri
154

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
yarn 3 to 5 mm diameter 1.20 m side and
11.2 m long. Mesh size 150 mm x 500 mm
rectangular mesh and 0.25 kg/m at 1.20 m
width. [Note. A tosro is the weaving shuttle,
normally made form a split large bamboo
culm.]
kg Bamboo sticks
(10nos.)
Weaving frame
Tosro
c. Placing 30 - 40 mm square mesh jute netting
on bare slopes (for later underplanting with
grass slips), including pegging with live
hardwood cuttings or split bamboo pegs and
loosening tension so that the net hugs the
slope throughout.

d. Placing 150 x 500 mm mesh jute netting to
hold mulch on slopes, including application
1 m
2

1 m
2

0.15

0.10
0.15

0.10
Woven jute net
= 1.00
m
2

Hardwood
cuttings or spilt
bamboo pegs
= 5.00
nos.

Cut mulch
MS rod of 50
cm length
Mallet (wooden
hammer)

MS rod of 50
155

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
of mulch and pegging with live hardwood
cuttings or split bamboo pegs and loosening
tension so that the net hugs the slope
throughout.

= 0.05
m
3

Woven jute net
= 1.00
m
2

Hardwood
cuttings or spilt
bamboo pegs
= 5.00
nos.

cm length
Mallet (wooden
hammer)
72. 18-8 Fabrication of gabion bolster
cylinders

a. Site preparation for 30 cm diameter bolster:

1 m

0.085

0.085

GI wire = 2.00

Pick axe
Shovel
156

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
earth works in excavation of trench.
b. Site preparation for 60 cm diameter bolster:
earth works in excavation of trench.
c. Manufacture of bolster panels: 70 x 100 mm
hexagonal mesh wire construction (10 SWG
frame and 12 SWG mesh).
d. Construction of 30 cm bolster cylinder:
placing, stretching wire mesh, filling with
boulders, closing and backfilling.
e. Construction of 60 cm bolster cylinder:
placing, stretching wire mesh, filling with
f. Construction of 30 cm bolster cylinder:
placing, stretching wire mesh over 20 gauge
black polythene sheeting, filling with

1 m

1 m
2

1 m

1 m

1 m

0.360

0.375

0.750

0.375

0.100

0.360

0.375

0.750

0.375

0.100
kg

Boulders = 0.09
m
3

Boulders = 0.36
m
3

Black polythene
= 0.40

Pick axe
Shovel

Gabion frame
and tools

Gabion tools
Doko

Gabion tools
Doko
157

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks
g. Construction of 60 cm bolster cylinder:
placing, stretching wire mesh over 20 gauge
black polythene sheeting, filling with
h. Anchoring bolster: 12 mm diameter MS re-
bar cut into 2 m lengths for anchorage and
placed at 1 m intervals.
i. Laying of terram paper (geotextile).

1 m

1 no.

1 m
2

0.750

0.050

0.050
0.750

0.050

0.050
m
2

Boulders = 0.09
m
3

Black polythene
= 0.80
m
2

Boulders = 0.36
m
3

MS rod = 2.00
m

Gabion tools
Doko

Gabion tools
Doko

Sledge hammer

Khukuri
158

S.

Respec
tive
Area

Materials/

Equipment/
Tools
No
.
Clause
of
Specifi
cations
ed
Labour
(person
day)
Skilled
Labour
(persond
ay)
Unskille
d
Labour
(personda
y)
Skilled
Labour
(personda
y)
Royalties Remarks

Terram paper
= 1.15
m
2

73. 18-9 Bamboo tree guards

a. Weaving bamboo tree guards using bamboo
poles as uprights: 1.60 m in height; and
weaving split bamboo with the outer wall
intact around the posts. Dimensions of the
guard are 0.60 m diameter x 1.30 m high.

1 no.

0.25

0.25

Bamboo
= 2.20
nos.

Khukuri

159
WORK SPECIFICATIONS
Specifications are required as
- governmental organisations need to standardise their works;
- we need to be precise about the specifications in all aspects of engineering works;
- we need to have sound information on which to base contracts.

Specification of the work specifies the nature and the class of the work, materials to be used in
the work, workmanship, etc. and is very important for the execution of the work. The cost of a
work depends much on the specifications. Specifications should be clear, and there should not be
any ambiguity anywhere. From the study of specifications one can easily understand the nature
of the work and what the work shall be.
While writing specification attempts should be made to express all the requirements of the work
clearly and in a concise form avoiding repetition. As far as possible, the clauses of the
specification should be arranged in the same order in which the work will be carried out. The
phrases shall be or should be are used while writing the specification.
Specifications depend on the nature of the work, the purpose for which the work is required,
strength of the materials, availability of the materials, etc.
Types of Specifications:
Specifications are of two types:
1. General specification or Brief Specification
2. Detailed Specification
General specification or Brief Specification
General specification gives the nature and class of the work and materials in general terms, to be
used in various parts of the work. It is a short description of different parts of the work
specifying materials, proportions, qualities, etc. General specifications give general idea of the
whole work or structure and are useful for preparing the estimate.
For example, 1:2:4 Plain cement concrete, Plastering with 1:4 Cement Sand mortar, Random
Rubble Stone Masonry with 1: 6 Cement sand mortar, etc. are general specifications for some
items of work.
160
Detailed Specification
The detailed specification is a detailed description and expresses the requirements in detail. The
detailed specification of an item of work specifies the qualities and quantities of materials, the
proportion of mortar, workmanship, the method of preparation and execution and the methods of
measurement. The detailed specifications of different items of work are prepared separately, and
describe what the work should be ands how they should be executed and constructed. The
detailed specifications are arranged as far as possible in the same sequence of order as the work
is carried out. The detailed specifications if prepared properly are very helpful for the execution
of the work.

SEASONAL PROGRAMMING OF BIOENGINEERING ACTIVITIES
Activity Througho
ut year
In dry
season
In winter Complete
before
monsoon
Weeding
Mulching
Trimming
Pruning
Grass cutting
Thinning
Slope trimming
Small slip clearance
Repair of palisade
Repair of fascines
Repair to brush layering
Repair of turfing
Vegetation enrichment
161
Cleaning subsoil drain
Cleaning surface drain
Repair of small engineering system
Fire protection
Protection of plants, planting sites
Protection from grazing and theft of
firewood and timber

References:
1. Roadsidebioengineernghandbook:
Jhon Howell
2. Mountain Risk Engineering Handbook
3. Bio-engineering notes and field report

Bioengineering Note

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CIVIL ENGINEERING BIOENGINEERING

IV/I PREPARED BY: DKB

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