Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SUBMITTED TO
YEAR 2008-09
BY
TARUN KUMAR DUBEY
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that
TARUN KR. DUBEY
students of Bachelor of Engineering(MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING) VII semester has submitted a project
report on UTILIZATION OF WASTE HEAT IN
AUTOMOBILES under the guidance of PROF.
S.S.GAUTAM for the partial fulfillment of the VII Semester
of Bachelor of Engineering(Mechanical Engineering) and
submitted a satisfactory report of the project. This work has
not been submitted in part or full to this or any other
university for the award of any degree or diploma to the best
of my knowledge.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With extreme happiness we would like to thank all the
helping hands which helped us to complete the project been
taken by us.
A special thanks is given to our guide Mr.
K.N.SHRIVASTAV who constantly supported us to complete
our project in the best way possible.
Contents
1. Introduction to Project.
2. Engine.
3. Engine operation.
4. Thermoelectric Effect.
7. Thomson effect.
8. Figure of merit.
9. Types of thermocouple.
If you have a lot of heat, then you can do what Power plants do
you can use the heat to generate steam, and use the steam to spin a
turbine. The turbine can drive a generator, which produces
electricity. This setup is very common, but it requires a fair
amount of equipment and space.
ENGINE
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the
combuston of fuel and an oxidizer (typically air) occurs in a
confined space called a combustion chamber. This exothermic
reaction creates gases at high tempreture and, pressure which
are permitted to expand. Internal combustion engines are
defined by the useful work that is performed by the expanding
hot gases acting directly to cause the movement of solid parts of
the engine.
Basic process
Internal combustion engines have 4 basic steps:
• Intake
• Compression
• Combustion/Expansion
The mixture is burnt, almost invariably a deflagration, although
a few systems involve detonation. The hot mixture is expanded,
pressing on and moving parts of the engine and performing
useful work.
• Exhaust
Many engines overlap these steps in time, jet engines do all steps
simultaneously at different parts of the engines. Some internal
combustion engines have extra steps.
Combustion
All internal combustion engines depend on the exothermic
chemical process ofcombustion: the reaction of afuel, typically
with oxygen from the air—although other oxidizers such as
nitrous oxide may be employed. The combustion process typically
results in the production of a great quantity of heat, as well as
the production of steam and carbon dioxide and other chemicals
at very high temperature; the temperature reached is determined
by the chemical make up of the fuel and oxidisers .
• Energy effeciency
• fuel/propellant consumption (brake specific fuel
consumtion for shaft engines, thrust specific fuel
consumption for jet engines)
• power to weight ratio
• thrust to weight ratio
• torque curves(for shaft engines)
Energy Efficiency
Once ignited and burnt, the combustion products—hot gases—
have more available thermal energy than the original
compressed fuel-air mixture (which had higherchemical energy).
The available energy is manifested as high tempreture and
pressure that can be translated into work by the engine. In a
reciprocating engine, the high-pressure gases inside the
cylinders drive the engine's pistons.
Once the available energy has been removed, the remaining hot
gases are vented (often by opening a valve or exposing the
exhaust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its previous
position (top dead center, or TDC). The piston can then proceed
to the next phase of its cycle, which varies between engines. Any
heat that isn't translated into work is normally considered a
waste product and is removed from the engine either by an air or
liquid cooling system.
Seebeck effect
The See beck effect is the conversion
of temperature differences directly
into electricity.
Seebeck discovered that a
compass needle would be deflected
when a closed loop was formed of
two metals joined in two places with
a temperature difference between
the junctions. This is because the
metals respond differently to the
temperature difference, which
creates a current loop, which
produces a magnetic field. Seebeck,
however, at this time did not
recognize there was an electric
current involved, so he called the
phenomenon the thermomagnetic
effect, thinking that the two metals
became magnetically polarized by the
temperature gradient. The Danish
physicist Hans Christia Ørsted played
a vital role in explaining and
conceiving the term
"thermoelectricity".
Thermopower
The thermopower, or thermoelectric
power, or Seebeck coefficient of a
material measure the magnitude of
an induced thermoelectric voltage in
response to a temperature difference
across that material. The
thermopower has units of (V / K),
though in practice it is more common
to use microvolts per kelvin. Values
in the hundreds of μV/K, negative or
positive, are typical of good
thermoelectric materials. The term
thermopower is a misnomer since it
measures the voltage or electric field
induced in response to a temperature
difference, not the electric power. An
applied temperature difference
causes charged carriers in the
material, whether they are electrons
or holes, to diffuse from the hot side
to the cold side, similar to a classical
gas that expands when heated.
Mobile charged carriers migrating to
the cold side leave behind their
oppositely charged and immobile
nuclei at the hot side thus giving rise
to a thermoelectric voltage
(thermoelectric refers to the fact that
the voltage is created by a
temperature difference). Since a
separation of charges also creates an
electric potential, the buildup of
The thermopower of a
material, represented by S (or
sometimes by α), depends on the
material's temperature and crystal
structure. Typically metals have small
thermopowers because most have
half-filled bands. Electrons (negative
charges) and holes (positive charges)
both contribute to the induced
thermoelectric voltage thus canceling
each other's contribution to that
voltage and making it small. In
contrast, semiconductors can be
doped with an excess amount of
electrons or holes and thus can have
large positive or negative values of
the thermopower depending on the
charge of the excess carriers. The
sign of the thermopower can
determine which charged carriers
dominate the electric transport in
both metals and semiconductors.
Charge-carrier diffusion
Charge carriers in the materials
(electrons in metals, electrons and
holes in semiconductors, ions in ionic
conductors) will diffuse when one end
of a conductor is at a different
temperature than the other. Hot
carriers diffuse from the hot end to
the cold end, since there is a lower
density of hot carriers at the cold end
of the conductor. Cold carriers diffuse
from the cold end to the hot end for
the same reason.
where
ρ is the resistivity of the material
dT/dx is the temperature gradient along the
wire
μ is the Thomson coefficient.
The first term ρ J² is simply the Joule heating,
which is not reversible.
The second term is the Thomson heat, which
changes sign when J changes direction.
In metals such as zinc and copper, which have
a hotter end at a higher potential and a cooler
end at a lower potential, when current moves
from the hotter end to the colder end, it is
moving from a high
,
where σ is the electrical conductivity, λ is the
thermal conductivity, and S is the Seebeck
coefficient or thermopower (conventionally in
μV/K). This is more commonly expressed as the
dimensionless figure of merit ZT by multiplying
it with the average temperature ((T2 + T1) / 2).
Greater values of ZT indicate greater
thermodynamic efficiency, subject to certain
provisions, particularly the requirement that
the two materials of the couple have similar Z
values. ZT is therefore a very convenient figure
for comparing the potential efficiency of
devices using different materials. Values of
ZT=1 are considered good, and values of at
least the 3–4 range are considered to be
essential for thermoelectrics to compete with
mechanical generation and refrigeration in
efficiency. To date, the best reported ZT values
have been in the 2–3 range.
thermocouples
In electrical engineering and industry,
thermocouples are a widely used type of
temperature sensor and can also be
used as a means to convert thermal
potential difference into electric
potential difference. They are cheap
and interchangeable, have standard
connectors, and can measure a wide
range of temperatures. The main
limitation is accuracy; System errors of
less than one Kelvin (K) can be difficult
to achieve.[ [
Principle of operations
In 1821, the German–Estonian physicist
Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that when
any conductor (such as a metal) is subjected to
a thermal gradient, it will generate a voltage.
This is now known as the thermoelectric effect
or Seebeck effect. Any attempt to measure this
voltage necessarily involves connecting
another conductor to the "hot" end. This
additional conductor will then also experience
the temperature gradient, and develop a
voltage of its own which will oppose the
original. Fortunately, the magnitude of the
effect depends on the metal in use. Using a
dissimilar metal to complete the circuit creates
a circuit in which the two legs generate
different voltages, leaving a small difference in
voltage available for measurement. That
difference increases with temperature, and can
typically be between 1 and 70 microvolts per
degree Celsius (µV/°C) for the modern range of
available metal combinations. Certain
combinations have become popular as industry
standards, driven by cost, availability,
convenience, melting point, chemical
properties,
Voltage–temperature relationship
The relationship between the temperature
difference and the output voltage of a
thermocouple is nonlinear and is approximated
by polynomial:
The coefficients an are given for N from zero to
between five and nine.
To achieve accurate measurements the
equation is usually implemented in a digital
controller or stored in a look-up table.[4] Some
older devices use analog filters.
Types Of Thermocouple
Type E
Type J
Type K
Due to its reliability and accuracy, Type K is used extensively at
temperatures up to 1260°C (2300°F). It's good practice to protect
this type of thermocouple with a suitable metal or ceramic
protecting tube, especially in reducing atmospheres. In oxidizing
atmospheres, such as electric furnaces, tube protection is not
always necessary when other conditions are suitable; however, it
is recommended for cleanliness and general mechanical
protection. Type K will generally outlast Type J because the JP
(iron) wire rapidly oxidizes, especially at higher temperatures.
Type N
Type T
Types S, R and B
Thermopile
A thermopile is an electronic device that
converts thermal energy into electrical
energy. It is composed of thermocouples
connected usually in sfries, or less
commonly in parllel. Thermopiles do not
measure the absolute temperature, but
generate an output voltage proportional
to a local tempreture difference or
temperature gradient. Thermopiles are
the key component of the infrared
thermometers that are widely used by
medical professionals to measure body
temperature via the ear. They are also
used widely in heat flux sensors and gas
burner safety controls. The output of a
thermopile is usually in the range of tens
or hundreds of millivolts. As well as
increasing the signal level, the device
may be used to provide spatial
temperature averaging.
Basics of minor :
Advantages:
1. Increase in the efficiency of the engine.
2. Decrease in load appearance on engine.
3. Decrease in gross weight of an automobile.
4. Effective electronic and electrical system of an
automobile.
5. Increase in fuel efficiency of the engine.
Disadvantages:
1. Difficulties in utilizing low volts of charge
generated.
2. Proper metallic connections are required.
3. Complex connection of wires involved in engine