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During that time, other nondestructive test techniques such
as ultrasonics and radiography became well established and
eddy current testing played a secondary role, in the
aircraft industry. Recent requirements -- for
heat exchanger tube inspection in the nuclear industry --
have contributed significantly to further development of ET
as a fast, accurate and reproducible nondestructive test
technique.
Until recently, eddy current testing was a technology where
the basic wre known only to researchers, anda
"bl ack box" approach to inspection was often followed . The
authors' objective in compiling this manual is to draw upon
research, laboratory and industrial inspection experience to
bridge that gap and thereby permit the full potential of eddy
current testing to be realized.
2 .1
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CHAPTER 2 - EDDY CURRENT FUNDAMENTALS
BASIC EQUIPMENT
Basic eddy current test equipment consists of an alternating
current source (oscillator), a probe containing a coil
connected to the current source, and a voltmeter which
measur es the voltage change across t he coi l , as shown in
F i gu ,re 2 1
OSCILLATOR
VOLTMETER
CURRENT t PRO BE
1
PROBE
MOVEMENT
CRACK
TEST PLATE
Fig. 2.1 : Eddy Current Test Equipment
The oscillator must be capable of generating a time varying
(usually s inusoidal) current at frequencies ranging from
about 1 kHz (1000 cycles per second) to about 2 MHz
(2,000,000 cycles per second) . Oscillators which operate at
higher or lower frequencies, or with pulsed currents are used
for specialized applications.
The coil within the probe is ~ insulated copper wire wound
onto a suitable fo rm. The wire diameter, the number of turns
and coil dimensions are all variables which must be
determined in order to obtain the desired inspection results.
Coil variables are discussed in later chapters.
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Depending upon the type of inspection, an eddy current probe
can consist of a single test coil, an excitation coil with a
separate receive coil, or an excitation coil with a
Hall-effect sensing detector, as shown in Figure 2:2.
VOLTHETER VOLTMETER
OSCILLATOR OSCILLATOR
/
TEST ARTICLE
COIL
EXCITATION
COIL
SENSJNG
COIL
//1
/
EXCITATION
COIL
VOLTMETER
OSC!LLATOR
TEST ARTICLE
HALL
DETECTOR
<A> <B> SEND-RECEIVE (C) MAGNETIC REACTION
Fig. 2.2: Eddy Current Inspection Systems
The voltmeter measures changes in voltage across the coil
which result from changes in the electrical conditions and
properties of the eondueting tested and/or changes
in relative posi ti on between the coil and the material
tested. This voltage change consists of an amplitude
variation and a phase variation relative to the current
passing through the coi! . The reason for amplitude and phase
changes in this voltage is discussed in Chap ter 3.
2.2 GENERATION OF EDDY CURRENTS
2.2.1 Introduction
In this section the tapie of the magnetic field surrounding a
coil carrying current is introduced together with the
mechanism by which eddy cur r ents are induce and how t h ey are
measured .
2 . 2 . 2 Magnetic Field Around A Coil
Oersted discovered that whenever
current, a magnetic field exists.
directed along a wire, a magnetic
direction that if your ri ght-hand
direction of current, your curled

there is an electric
Consider elect ri c current
field is created in such a
thumb points in the
fingers point in the
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direction of the magnetic field.
rule".
This is the "right-hand
Associated with a magnetic field is magnetic flux density.
It has the same direction as the magnetic field and its
magnitude depends upon position and current. It is therefore
a field vector quantity and is given the symbol B. Its units
in the SI system is the tesla (T) or webers per square metre
(Wb/m2).
The B-field distribution around a long straight wire is shown
in Figure 2.3(a). In Figure 2.3(b) the B- field in the axial
direction of a single turn is shown as a function of radius.
As more windings are added, each carrying the same current,
the flux density rapidly increases and its associated
distribution is altered.
B B
'
r

1
l


(a) Straight Wire (b) Single Turn Coil
Ftowing page
Fig. 2 .3: Magnetic Flux Distribution
Flux density vares linearly with electric current in the
coil, i.e., if coil current doubles, flux density doubles
everywhere. The total magnetic flux, $
0
, contained within
the loop is the product of B and area of the coil. The unit
in the SI system magnetic flux is the weber (Wb).
r
(
-8-
2.2.3 Equations Governing Geneiation of Eddy Currents
In any electrical current flow is governed by Ohm's
Law and is equal to the driving (primary circuit) ' voltage
divided by primary circuit impedance.
I
p
V / Z
p p
( 2.1)
The eddy current coil is part of the primary circuit. The
eurrent passing throuih the coil normal.ly varies sinusoidally
with time and is given by:
I I sin(wt)
p o
(2. 2)
where 1
0
is the peak current value in the circuit and w
(omega) is the frequency in radians/s (w equals 2rrf when f
is frequency in hertz).
From Oersted's discovery, a magnetic flux exists around
a coil carrying current (see Figure 2.4) proportional to the
number of turns in the coil (Np) and the current tip)
a: N I
p p
( 2.3)
PROBE
(pt'imary
circuit)
SAMPLE
(.secondary
circuit)
Fig. 2.4: Coi! Carrying Alternating Current Adjacent
To a Test Sample

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Faraday's Law states a voltage (Vs) is created or induced in
a region of space when there is a changing magnetic field.
When we apply this to our coil,
where
d<P

dt
V
S
:: -
p dt
is the rate of change in 9 with time.
p
( 2. 4)
Since coil current varies sinusoidally with total
magnetic flux in the coil also varies sinusoidally,
= <P sin(wt)
o
where is the magnetic flux corresponding to 1
0

The induced voltage as described by equation 2.4
V = - N w<P cos(wt)
S p O
results in
( 2. 5)
which also varies periodically with time. If we bring the
coil clase to a test sample, Ohm's Law states that if there
is a driving voltage (V
5
) and the sample's impedance is
finite, current will flow,
I
S
V / Z
S S
( 2. 6)
where . I
5
is current flowing through the sample, V
5
is
induced voltage and Z
5
is the sample's impedance
or opposition to the flow of current.
These induced currents are known as eddy currents because of
their circulatory paths. They, in turn, generate their own
magnetic field according to Lenz's Law, which opposes the
primary field,
a: - I
S
( 2 7)
and ( 2. 8)
where <P E is the equilibrium magnetic flux the
coil in the presence of a test sample .
The flow of eddy currents results in resistive (Ohmic) losses
and a decrease in magnetic flux. This is reflected as a
decrease in probe impedance. In equation form,
and
z a: tf,
"' E
V = ZI
p
( 2. 9)
(2.10)
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Equation 2.9 indicates a coil's impedance is a function of
the magnetic field surrounding it and in turn the magnetic
field is governed by irlduced current in the specimep
(equations 2.8 and 2.7). The relations between probe
impedance and sample properties will be derived in Chapter 3.
To summarize, flux is set up by passing alternating current
through the test coi!. When this coil is brought close to a
conductive sample, eddy currents are induced. In addition,
the magnetic flux associated with the eddy currents oppose the
coil's magnetic flux, thereby decreasing net flux. This
results in a change in coi! impedance and voltage drop. It is
the opposition between the primary (coi!) and secondary (eddy
current) fields that provides the basis for extracting
information during eddy current testing.
It should be noted that if a sample is ferromagnetic,
equation 2.9 still applies but the magnetic flux is
strengthened despite opposing eddy current effects. The high
magnetic permeability of ferromagnetic materials
distinguishes them from non-ferromagnetic materials and
strongly influences eddy current test parameters.
Ferromagnetic speciaen inspection is discussed in Chapter 9
and unless specified tbe rest of the manual is restricted to
non-ferromagnetic materials.
2.3 FUNDAMENTAL OF EDDY CURRENT FLOW
Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating
in planes perpendicular to the aagnetic flux. They normall y
travel parallel to the coil's winding and parallel to the
surface. Eddy current flow is limited the area of the
inducing magnetic field.
Test frequency determines depth of into the
specimen; as frequency is penetration decreases and
the eddy current distribution becomes denser near the
specimen's surface. Test frequency also affects the
sensitivity to changes in material properties and defects.
Figure 2.5(a) shows the algebraic relationships and Figure
2.5(b) the oscilloscope display of eddy current and magnetic
field distribution with depth into the specimen. Both the
eddy currents and magnetic flux get veaker vith depth because
of Mskin effect. In addition to this attenuation, the eddy
currents lag in phase vith depth. Eddy currents' phase lag
is the key parameter that makes eddy current testing a useful
NDT method. The parameters skin depth and phase lag are
discussed in the next section.
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1 </>
COl L 4>= <P. sin(wt)
I =-I ssin(wt}
i(wtl
1=-ls(x}sin(wt/3)
(lhi(wt l r-:..---"7.L----......-
(a)
( b)
Fig. 2.5: Eddy Current and Magnetic Flux Distribution
With Depth Into a Conductor
2.4 SKIN EFFECT
Eddy currents induced by a changing magnetic field concentrate
near the surface adjacent to the excitation coil. The depth
of penetration decreases with test frequency and is a function
of electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability of the
specimen. This phenomenon is known as the skin effect and is
analogous to the situation in terrestrial heat conduction where
daily surface temperature fluctuations are appreciable
the earth's surface. Skin effect arises as follows: the eddy
currents flowing in the test object at any depth produce
magnetic fields which oppose the primary field, thus reducing
net magnetic flux and causing a decrease in current flow as
depth increases. Alternatively, eddy currents near the surf ace
can be viewed as shielding the coi l's magnetic field thereby
weakening the magnetic field at greater depths and reducing
induced currents.
The equation for flow of induced currents is
'i/ 2J = OJJ cU
at
(2.11)
where J is curre nt density, o is conductivity, u is magnetic
permeability and is a differential ope rat or
of second orde r.