Flow over body

October 29, 2013

Slide 1 Objective
The Objectives of this lecture is as follows. First
1. Have an intuitive understanding of the various physical phenomena such as drag, friction
and pressure drag, drag reduction, and lift.
2. Calculate the drag force associated with ow over common geometries.
3. Understand the eects of ow regime on the drag coecients associated with ow over
cylinders and spheres
4. Understand the fundamentals of ow over airfoils, and calculate the drag and lift forces
acting on airfoils.
Slide 2 External Flow
Bodies and vehicles in motion, or with ow over them, experience uid-dynamic forces
and moments. Examples include: aircraft, automobiles, buildings, ships, submarines, turboma-
chines. These problems are often classied as External Flows. Fuel economy, speed, acceleration,
maneuverability, stability, and control are directly related to the aerodynamic/hydrodynamic
forces and moments. General 6DOF motion of vehicles is described by 6 equations for the lin-
ear (surge, heave, sway) and angular (roll, pitch, yaw) momentum.
Slide 3 Fluid Dynamic Forces and Moments
Ships in waves present one of the most dicult 6DOF problems. Airplane in level steady
ight: drag = thrust and lift = weight.
Slide 4 Drag and Lift
Fluid dynamic forces are due to pressure and viscous forces acting on the body surface. Drag:
component parallel to ow direction. Lift: component normal to ow direction.
Slide 5 Drag and Lift
Lift and drag forces can be found by integrating pressure and wall-shear stress
F
D
=

A
dF
D
=

A
(pcos +
w
sin)dA (1)
F
L
=

A
dF
L
=

A
(psin +
w
cos)dA (2)
Slide 6 Drag and Lift
In addition to geometry, lift FL and drag FD forces are a function of density and velocity
V. Dimensional analysis gives 2 dimensionless parameters: lift and drag coecients.
C
L
=
F
L
1
2
V
2
A
; C
D
=
F
D
1
2
V
2
A
1
Area A can be frontal area (drag applications), planform area (wing aerodynamics), or wetted-
surface area (ship hydrodynamics).
Slide 7 Example: Automobile Drag
Drag force FD = 1/2V
2
(CDA) will be 10 times larger for Scion XB Source is large CD
and large projected area Power consumption P = FDV = 1/2V
3
(CDA) for both scales with
V3!
Slide 7 Drag and Lift
For applications such as tapered wings, CL and CD may be a function of span location. For
these applications, a local CL,x and CD,x are introduced and the total lift and drag is determined
by integration over the span L
C
L
=
1
L

L
0
C
L,x
dx; C
L
=
1
L

L
0
C
D,x
dx
Slide 8 Lofting a Tapered Wing
Slide 9 Friction and Pressure Drag
Fluid dynamic forces are comprised of pressure and friction eects. Often useful to decom-
pose,
FD = FD,friction + FD,pressure
C
D
= C
D
,friction + C
D
,pressure
This forms the basis of ship model testing where it is assumed that
C
D
,pressure = f(Fr)
C
D
,friction = f(Re)
Slide 10 Streamlining
Streamlining reduces drag by reducing FD,pressure, at the cost of increasing wetted surface
area and FD,friction. Goal is to eliminate ow separation and minimize total drag FD Also
improves structural acoustics since separation and vortex shedding can excite structural modes.
Slide 11 Streamlining via Active Flow Control
Pneumatic controls for blowing air from slots: reduces drag, improves fuel economy for heavy
trucks (Dr. Robert Englar, Georgia Tech Research Institute).
Slide 12 C
D
of Common Geometries
For many geometries, total drag C
D
is constant for Re > 10
4
C
D
can be very dependent upon
orientation of body. As a crude approximation, superposition can be used to add C
D
from var-
ious components of a system to obtain overall drag. However, there is no mathematical reason
(e.g., linear PDEs) for the success of doing this.
Slide 13 Flat Plate Drag
2
Drag on at plate is solely due to friction created by laminar, transitional, and turbulent
boundary layers.
Slide 14 Flat Plate Drag
Local friction coecient Laminar: Turbulent: Average friction coecient
Laminar: Turbulent:
For some cases, plate is long enough for turbulent ow, but not long enough to neglect lam-
inar portion
Slide 15 Effect of Roughness
Similar to Moody Chart for pipe ow Laminar ow unaected by roughness Turbulent ow
signicantly aected: Cf can increase by 7x for a given Re
Slide 16 Cylinder and Sphere Drag
Flow is strong function of Re. Wake narrows for turbulent ow since TBL (turbulent bound-
ary layer) is more resistant to separation due to adverse pressure gradient.
Slide 17 Lift
Lift is the net force (due to pressure and viscous forces) perpendicular to ow direction. Lift
coecient.
C
L
=
F
L
1
2
V
2
A
A=bc is the planform area
Slide 17 Computing Lift
Potential-ow approximation gives accurate CL for angles of attack below stall: boundary
layer can be neglected. Thin-foil theory: superposition of uniform stream and vortices on mean
camber line. Kutta condition required at trailing edge: xes stagnation pt at TE.
Slide 18 Effect of Angle of Attack
Thin-foil theory shows that CL = 2 for <
stall
. Therefore, lift increases linearly with
? Objective for most applications is to achieve maximum CL/CD ratio. CD determined from
wind-tunnel or CFD (BLE or NSE). CL/CD increases (up to order 100) until stall.
Slide 19 Effect of Foil Shape
Thickness and camber inuences pressure distribution (and load distribution) and location
of ow separation.
Slide 20 Effect of Foil Shape
Figures from NPS airfoil java applet. Color contours of pressure eld Streamlines through
velocity eld Plot of surface pressure Camber and thickness shown to have large impact on ow
3
eld.
Slide 21 End Effects of Wing Tips
Tip vortex created by leakage of ow from high-pressure side to low-pressure side of wing.
Tip vortices from heavy aircraft persist far downstream and pose danger to light aircraft. Also
sets takeo and landing separation at busy airports.
Slide 22 End Effects of Wing Tips
Tip eects can be reduced by attaching endplates or winglets. Trade-o between reducing
induced drag and increasing friction drag. Wing-tip feathers on some birds serve the same func-
tion.
Slide 23 Lift Generated by Spinning
Superposition of Uniform stream + Doublet + Vortex
Slide 24 Lift Generated by Spinning
CL strongly depends on rate of rotation. The eect of rate of rotation on CD is small.
Baseball, golf, soccer, tennis players utilize spin. Lift generated by rotation is called The Magnus
Eect.
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