SPIRITUAL COHERENCE ACCORDING TO AL-GHAZALI:

THE CONCEPT OF HUMAN SOUL

By:
Mohammad Fazril Bin Mohd Saleh
International Islamic University Malaysia

Introduction
The discussion of the human soul, its existence, nature, ultimate objective and eternity, occupies a
highly important position in Islamic philosophy and forms its main focus. For the most part Muslim
philosophers agreed that the soul consists of non-rational and rational parts. The non-rational part
they divided into the plant and animal souls, the rational part into the practical and the theoretical
intellects. All believed that the non-rational part is linked essentially to the body, but some considered
the rational part as separate from the body by nature and others that all the parts of the soul are by
nature material.
However, as a student of Islamic Ethics, I try to understand the concept of human soul in the light of
Islamic worldview with special attention to metaphysical discussion by Imam Muhammad Ibn
Muhammad al-Ghazali. This paper will firstly discuss the biographical background of Imam al-Ghazali
as he is the figures whom I have taken his works as my subject matter. After that, as far as ethics is
concerned, to me it is ethical to discuss the worldview of Islam (The Worldview of Islam: Pre-
requisite to Understand Human Soul) as an entrance for further discussion on the topic of soul. Then,
the discussion goes deeper in the sub-topic The Concept of the Human Soul. Under this subtopic,
there are three main points: (1) Soul: the Spiritual Subtlety; (2) Soul (Nafs) and its Levels; and
(3) Soul and Its Faculties.

Biographical background

Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Ghazali (450-1111), widely known as Hujjat al-Islam (the
Proof of Islam), has always occupied a special position in the tradition of Islamic thought. Later
Muslim medieval historians say that Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Ghazali was born in
1058 or 1059 in Tabaran, Tus which is located 15 miles north of modern Meshed, North East Iran, yet
notes about his age in his letters and his autobiography indicate that he was born in 1055 or 1056.1

1


Al-Ghazali received his early education in his hometown of Tus together with his brother Ahmad
(c.10601123 or 1126) who became a famous preacher and Sufi scholar. Al-Ghazali went on to study
with the influential Asharite theologian, al-Juwayni (102885) at the Madrasah Nizamiyyah in
nearby Nishapur.[2] In 1091 Nizam al-Mulk appointed al-Ghazali to the prestigious Madrasah al-
Nizamiyyah in Baghdad.

He was undoubtedly the most influential intellectual of his time, when in 1095 he suddenly gave up
his posts in Baghdad and left the city. Under the influence of Sufi literature al-Ghazali had begun to
change his lifestyle two years before his departure. He realized that the high ethical standards of a
virtuous religious life are not compatible with being in the service of sultans, viziers, and caliphs.
Benefiting from the riches of the military and political elite implies complicity in their corrupt and
oppressive rule and will jeopardize one's prospect of redemption in the afterlife. When al-Ghazali left
Baghdad in 1095 he went to Damascus and Jerusalem and vowed at the tomb of Abraham in Hebron
never again to serve the political authorities or teach at state-sponsored schools. He continued to
teach, however, at small schools (zawiyah) that were financed by private donations.

After performing the pilgrimage in 1096, al-Ghazali returned via Damascus and Baghdad to his
hometown Tus, where he founded a small private school and a Sufi convent (khanqah). In 1106, at the
beginning of the 6th century in the Muslim calendar, al-Ghazali broke his vow and returned to
teaching at the state-sponsored Madrasah al-Nizamiyyah in Nishapur.). Al-Ghazl regarded himself
as one of the renewers (muhyi) of religion (man yujaddidu laha dinaha), who, according to a hadith,
will come every new century.[3] He continued to teach at his zawiya in Tus where he died in 1111.[4]

The Worldview of Islam: Pre-requisite to Understand Human Soul

Realizing the nature of existence and creatures, as well as nature of human being, are not only the
physical part but also the unseen, al-Ghazali has understood the worldview of Islam before starting to
express his idea in his works. Worldview of Islam is projected from within a certain metaphysical
system. Even though the term worldview of Islam was not come into existence yet at the time of al-
Ghazali, but actually it is the reality (haqiqah) itself.


The worldview of Islam is the creed (aqidah) of Islam itself[5]. It projects the vision of the one reality
and truth. It encompasses both dunya and akhirah in which, as Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas (al-
Attas) put it:

the dunya-aspect must be related in a profound and inseparable way to the
akhirah-aspect and in which the akhlak aspect was ultimate and final significance.
The dunya aspect is seen as preparation for the dunya-aspect. Everything in Islam
is ultimately focused on the akhirah aspect without thereby implying any attitude
of neglect or being unmindful of the dunya aspect.[6]

The worldview of Islam is a fixed unchanging, final and absolute vision because it is grounded in and
derived from wahy.[7] This is not merely a theoretical claim, for Muslim historical experience has
shown that the fundamental element of the worldview such as the conception of God, of the nature of
man and of the psychology of the human soul, and the meaning of knowledge, of happiness, of virtue
and vices, and of prophethood have no change throughout the long ages of Islamic epoch.[8]

It is not a derivation of cultural and philosophical elements but it is one whose source is wahy,
confirmed by religion, affirmed by intellectual and intuitive principles.[9] This wahy is final and it is
not only confirms the truth of preceding revelations in their original forms, but includes their
substance, separating the truth from cultural creation and ethnic inventions.[10]

The worldview of Islam consist of [11]: (1) belief in the oneness of Allah; (2) belief that Allah is the
creator of this universe; (3) belief that Allah is the sustainer of the world; (4) belief in the unseen
realities and the life to come; (5) recognition of the Holy Prophet Muhammad as the Messenger of
Allah, and (6) belief in the angels of Allah and the authority that defines the truth as separate from
falsehood (Qur`an: Yunus: 32).[12] For Muslims, Islam represents a way of life guided by proper
knowledge and ethical principles outlined in The Holy Qur`an and exemplified in the practical life of
The Holy Prophet[13]. As explain by al-Attas: the man of Islam has with him The Qur`an which is
itself unchanged, unchanging, and unchangeable; it is a Speech of God revealed in complete and
final form.[14]

Islam is absolutely perfect. Unlike other religions which evolved through gradual development
throughout history, Islam begins with certainty and end with certainty. For instance, Christianity has
experienced hundreds of years of development by borrowing from many different cultural and
religious sources of ancient Greece, Rome, Egypt, Persia, the Jewish nation, and the European tribes,
and by submitting to the demands of historical changes.[15] The term Christian itself was given by
their enemy. Ways of worship and other religious rituals and duties cannot be claimed to have been
derived from thesunnah of Jesus, for all of them were derived from a mixture of their own cultural
tradition. The creed too are the product of creative efforts, additions and compromises and are further
established and refined producing their present characteristic features.[16]

On the other hand, Islam as the only truly revealed religion was already complete, fully developed and
perfected during the last time of the last Prophet SAW as confirmed by Allah in surah al-Maidah (5):
verse 3: this day have I perfected your religion for you, completed my favor upon you, and have
chosen for you Islam as your religion. Al-Attas argues that the name of the religion of Islam and its
adherents as Muslims as well as its form and substance were clearly given in the Holy Qur`an and not
by their enemy nor by historical development. In addition, the language and forms of worship and
other religious rituals and duty were known and established during the lifetime of the Holy Prophet
SAW.[17]

Preliminary to Comprehend Human Soul: The Nature of Man

Islam does not presuppose any inherent wickedness of human nature. Any negative representation of
mans basic nature as a source of evil and wickedness is clearly rejected. According to Islam, the
human being is born in the state of fitrah, the original inherent nature of the human being.[18] At
birth, the baby is totally innocent and is not responsible for the sin of his parents or any of his
ancestors. Environmental and other external influences keep on modifying his blueprint. The Holy
Prophet said: Every child is created in the state of fitrah, it is the parents, culture, and society that
make him a Christian, a Jew, or a fire-worshipper.

Islam is the first religion to declare man as the most superior of the creatures and the masterpiece of
the Creator. According to Islam, man is potentially capable of rising higher than the angels. That is
why Allah has commanded angels to bow down before Adam. But, at the same time, he is equally
capable of sinking lower than the animals.[19] The Holy Quran says: "We have indeed created man in
the best shape, then We reduced him (to be) the lowest of the low, except those who believe and do
righteous deeds: for they shall have a reward unfailing." Surah Al-Tin (95): verse 46.


These verses indicate that Allah has given man the purest and best nature while mans duty is to
preserve the pattern on which God has made him. However, when he neglects his duty and goes in the
wrong way, he will be reduced to the lowest possible position.[20] The Holy Quran asserts that
inclination and attraction towards faith and virtue and repulsion from disobedience and corruption
exists in mans nature. But God has endeared to you faith and has beautified it in your hearts and
has made disbelief and lewdness and rebellion hateful to you. Surah al-Hujurat (49): verse 7.

To sum up the point, man comes into the world with a pure and wholesome nature, whereas sin and
corruption in human being are merely accidental and violation of his original nature. The role of
prophets and the scriptures is just to help human nature to flow in its true channel and to guide
human nature to its ultimate goal of eternal felicity. This Quranic theory of human nature also implies
the fact that if man consciously decides to submit himself to the will of Allah, he experiences no
conflict in his personality, mentions in Surah Yunus (10): verse 62: Behold! Verily on the friends of
Allah there is no fear, nor shall they grieve, while, on the other hand, if he misused his freedom of
choice by denying God and not submitting to His will, would be in a state of inner conflict and his
personality gets disintegrated.[21]

Man has been given the freedom of choice to do good or evil. This freewill gives him independence of
intention, choice and action in various situations of moral conflict. Man is the only creature in this
universe that has been given choice and discretion which accompany him through his life span. Man
has also been granted potentialities to acquire knowledge of how everything else in the universe
functions as well as the knowledge required for his felicity. Allah says in Surah al-Baqarah (2): verse
33: He said, O Adam, Tell them their natures, When he had told them, Allah said, Did I not tell
you that I know the secrets of heaven and earth. And I know what you revealed and what you
conceal?

This knowledge along with the faculty of reason and intellect, are mans primary guide that
distinguishes him from other animals and help him recognize the path of his ultimate
felicity.[22] Mans hopes are often related to various comforts and joys of physical and worldly kind
while Islam does not deprive him of these. Islam, however, redirects him from false and transitory
joys and values to real values and everlasting joys. The Holy Quran says: This life of the world is just
a pastime and a game. And, indeed, the home of the Hereafter is the real life, if they know. Surah al-
Ankabut (29): verse 64.


While speaking about the nature of man, Quran uses words like nafs, ruh, qalb, aql. Spirit is
transcendent and the center of mans being. Whereas soul (nafs), in its downward or corporeal
tendency, is attached to the body and in its upward or spiritual tendency, is attached to the spirit (al-
ruh). In order to understand the Islamic concept of human psyche and nature, one must understand
these terms and their relationship to each other. These basic terms are used at many places in al-
Ghazalis works and will be touched in the next sub-topic.

The Concept of the Human Soul

i. Soul: The Spiritual Subtlety

The philosophers including al-Ghazali agreed that, while the soul is in the body, its non-rational part
is to manage the body, its practical intellect is to manage worldly affairs, including those of the body,
and its theoretical intellect is to know the eternal aspects of the universe.[23] They thought that the
ultimate end or happiness of the soul depends on its ability to separate itself from the demands of the
body and to focus on grasping the eternal aspects of the universe. All believed that the non-rational
soul comes into being and unavoidably perishes.[24]

Man is not only consists of body, but also soul. He is at once physical being and spirit like mentions in
surah al-Hijr (15); verse 29: when I have fashioned him (in due proportion) and breathed into him
of My Spirit, fall you down in obeisance unto him. Man has been given the ability to perceive
knowledge of the universe pertaining to the essences of things sensible (mahsusat) and intelligible
(ma`qulat).

However, Allah says that man also given limited knowledge of certain things such as the spirit, of his
true and real self or soul: They ask you concerning the spirit. Say: The Spirit by command of my
Lord: of knowledge it is only a little that is communicated to you. surah al-Isra` (17): verse 85. But,
by means of this knowledge, man is able to arrive at the knowledge about God and his absolute
Oneness.[25] Al-Ghazali has dedicated his entire life to search for this knowledge in order to arrive to
satisfactory and happiness.

According to al-Ghazali, there are four inter-related terms used in the Quran and Hadith of the
Prophet, which are used in relation to the soul; heart (qalb), soul or self (nafs), spirit (ruh), and
intellect (aql).[26] Each of them conveys two meanings which are physical and spiritual meanings. Al-
Attas has beautifully elaborated this notion:

the terms heart (qalb), soul or self (nafs), spirit (ruh), and intellect (aql) used in
relation to the soul each conveys two meanings; the one reffering to the material or
physical aspect of man, or to the body; and the other to the non-material, imaginal
and intelligential or spiritual aspect, or to the soul of man. In general and from the
ethical point of view, the first meaning denotes the aspect from which originates
the blameworthy qualities in man, and they are the animal powers which in spite of
their being beneficial to man in some respects, are in conflict with the intellectuals
powers. The attachment of blameworthiness to the animal powers inherent in the
physical aspect of man should not be confused with the idea of denigration of the
human body, which is indeed against the teachings of Islam. The human being is
created in the best of moulds, but without true faith and good works he is worse
than the lowly beasts. It is against these non-beneficial aspects of the animal
powers that the Holy Prophet urged us when he alluded to the greater struggle
(Jihad) of man, for they are the enemy within. The second meaning refers to the
reality of man and to his essence. To this meaning refers the well known Prophetic
tradition: whosoever knows his self knows his Lord.[27]

Those four terms used with reference to the meaning in relation to the soul of the man, they are all
indicating the indivisible, identical entity, a spiritual substance which is the reality of man.[28] These
four terms actually are not differ one another rather they are the same and al-Ghazali called it as al-
Latifah al-Ruhaniyah (spiritual subtlety).[29] Al-Latifah al-Ruhaniyah or spiritual subtlety is a thing
which is created, that means it is a kind of creature but it is immortal, not measured in terms of extent
in space and time, or of quantity. It is conscious of itself and is the locus of the intelligible, and
according to al-Attas: and the way to know it is only through intellect and by means of observing
the activities that originate in it.[30]

Al-Ghazali then explained the significant of various names given to refer to Al-Latifah al-
Ruhaniyahor spiritual subtlety because of its accidental modes or states (ahwal). Al-Attas then
elaborated and paraphrased al-Ghazalis explanation:

Thus when it is involved in intellection and apprehension it is called intellect;
when it governs the body it is called soul; when it is engaged in receiving
intuitive illumination it is called heart; and when it reverts to its own world of
abstract entities it is called spirit. Indeed, it is in reality always engaged in
manifesting itself in all its states.[31]

At the very beginning, man has already know the Reality of God and His Oneness as mentions in the
Holy Qur`an, surah al-Araf (7), verse 172:

When your Lord drew forth from the children of Adam from their loins
their descendants, and made them testify concerning themselves, (saying) Am I
not your Lord?, they said Indeed, we do testify

The aforesaid verse refers to the agreement (al-mithaq/ al-ahd) between man and God in the worlds
of dominion (al-malakut). Man has recognized and acknowledged that God is his true Lord (al-Rabb)
and object of worship (al-Ilah),[32] therefore man has made a covenant with God and it determine
mans purpose, attitude and action with respect to his self and his relation to God. Al-Attas elaborated
it clearly: This binding and determining of man to a covenant with God and to a precise nature in
regard to his purpose, attitude and action, is the binding and determining of religion (al-din) which
entails true submission.[33]

And the purpose of human life in this world is to submit to God as states in Surah al-Dzariyat (51):
verse 56: I have only created Jinns and men, that they may serve me. and mans obligation is to
oblige (taah) God which is in line with his fitrah, mentions in Surah al-Rum (30) verse 30, So, set
your face steadily and truly to the faith: Allahs handiwork according to the pattern on which He has
made mankind: no change in the work by Allah: that is the standard religion; but most among
mankind understand not..

ii. Soul (Nafs) and its Levels

Nafs (pl. Anfus or Nufus) lexically means soul, the psyche, the ego, self, life, person, heart or mind.
Tajul Uroos writes that this word is used normally to denote the total personality of a person. It also
means knowledge and intellect.[34] It is used for a person as well. It is further used to express
greatness, superiority, courage, resolution, and punishment.[35]


The term Nafs has different uses in the Holy Quran as well, and in most cases, according to
Mohyuddin Hashimi, it means the human being in reality, his self and his person (see surah ali
Imran (3): 61; surah Yusuf (12): verse 54). It also means the human soul (see surah al-
Anam (6):93; surah Qaf (50): verse 16). The nafs is a basic element in the cosmology of existence. Al-
Ghazali mentions the two dimensions of al-nafs: the upward dimension and the downward
dimension. The upward dimension is the uppermost limit of psyche which connects it the spirit,
whereas the downward dimension is represented by the sensory faculties which connect it to the
body.[36]

According to the Sufi understanding, nafs is the source the negative power of anger and sexual
appetite in a human being which blinds his intellect. Sufis take "nafs" as the comprehensive word for
all the evil attributes of a person. That is why they emphasize on doing battle with it and to break and
inactivate it as it is referred to in the Hadith of the Holy Prophet (PBUH): Your worst enemy is your
nafs which lies between your sides.[37]

The nafs needs to be nourished and developed in the Divine guidance. The nafs starts its career in an
undeveloped form but equipped with immense potentialities of corruption as well as the development
and getting closer to the Most Perfect Self, Allah (SWT), whose attributes serve as an objective
standard for the human self. According to Mohiyuddin Hashimi, although some scholars have
classified the nafs up to seven stages, the Quran has described three 3 main types of nafs which are:
(1) Nafs ammarah bi al-su, (the self urging evil); (2) Nafs al-lawwamah, (the blaming self); (3) Nafs
al-mutmainnah, (the Self at Peace).

1) Nafs ammarah bi al-su, (the self urging evil)
This nafs surrenders itself to lusts and allows itself to be seduced by the devil. This is the raw self of an
untrained person. Al-Nafs al-Ammarah has Shaytan as its ally who falsely promises him great
rewards and gains and always invites him and attracts the soul to do evil. He presents falsehood to
him in a form that he accepts and admires it. By its very nature, Al-Nafs al-Ammarah directs its owner
towards every wrong action. Allah says: Surely the human self urges evil. Surah Yusuf (12): verse
53.


Al-Nafs al-Ammarah paralyzes the cognitive process of human being. Describing this fatal effect of
Al-Nafs al-Ammarah, the Holy Quran says: They have hearts wherewith they do not understand;
have eyes wherewith they do not see; have ears wherewith they do not hear. These are like cattle
no, but they are worse! These are the neglectful. Surah al-Araf (7): verse 179. Al-Ghazali has
mentioned the following negative tendencies of this nafs naming them with spiritual diseases:
(1) Nifaq (hypocrisy); (2) Pride and arrogance; (3) Hawa or desire; (4) Self-beholding; (5) Greediness;
(6) Negligence; (7) Restlessness; and (8)Riya`. These are the most harmful tendencies of al-nafs and
greatest barriers to the growth of man. When these dominate the self, man loses his insight and his
total energies are diverted towards unnecessary activities. As a result, he starts believing deception as
truth, fiction as reality and self-glorification as his highest goal in life.

2. Nafs al-lawwamah, (the blaming self)
The second level of nafs is nafs al-lawwama, the blameworthy self which blames its owner for his own
shortcomings. At this level, nafs is in a state of constant awareness, self-observation and self-criticism.
It recognizes his shortcomings, his wrong actions, his disobedience and the neglect of his duties. It is
referred to it in Surah Al-Qiyamah when Allah says:"And I do call to witness the Nafs that
blames" surah al-Qiyamah (75): verse 2.

Nafs al-lawwamah is the one which cannot rest in one state. It often changes and alters, remembers
and forgets, submits and withdraws, loves and hates, rejoices and becomes sad, accepts and rejects,
obeys and rebels. Actually nafs, at this stage, is in the mid of its journey towards its growth and
perfection.[38]

3. Nafs al-mutmainnah, (the Self at Peace)
Nafs al-mutmainnah is the third and the highest stage of nafs. A person when advanced to this stage,
he achieves full rest and satisfaction while his personality gets equipped with the qualities of
quietness, mildness, tolerance, forgiveness, and understanding of all beings. This stage of nafs
ultimately leads to resolution of ones inner conflicts and attainment of harmony with God. His
personality is now dyed with His universal colour while his behavior reflects the Absolute being and
the Ultimate Reality.[39]


This is the soul to whom it is said at the time of death: O soul at peace, return to your Lord, well
pleased and well-pleasing. Enter with My servants, enter into My Garden. Surah al-Fajr (89): verse
27-30. Al-Qatadah says about this stage of nafs: "It is the soul of the believer, made calm by what
Allah has promised. Its owner is at rest and content with his knowledge of Allahs Names and
Attributes, and with what He has said about Himself and His Messenger (PBUH), and with what He
has said about the Hereafter. so much so that a believer can almost see them with his own eyes. So
he submits to the will of Allah and surrenders to Him contentedly, never dissatisfied or complaining,
and with his faith never wavering. He does not rejoice at his gains, nor do his sufferings make him
despair."[40]

iii. Soul and Its Faculties

According to Muslim philosophers, the soul possesses faculties or powers (quwa) and these powers
can be classified into three different souls respectively: (1) the vegetative (al-nabatiyyah), (2) the
animal (al-hayawaniyah), and (3) the human/ rational (al-natiqah).[41] The vegetative soul has the
ability of nutrition, growth and reproduction. These abilities also possess by animal and man. While
the animal soul are also possesses by man. But the uniqueness of man that makes him different from
other creature is the rational soul. Therefore, man is a rational animal (al hayawan al-
natiq). Natiq which signifies rationality refers to an inner faculty which man possesses that
formulates meaning (dhu nutq).[42] The real nature of aql is that it is a spiritual substance by which
the rational soul (al-nafs al-natiqah) recognizes and distinguishes truth from falsehood.[43]

Conclusion

From my reading and searching, I could find that man has a dual nature; he is both body and soul.
That means he is at once physical being and spirit. To understand the notion of soul according to
Islamic perspective, it is appropriate to know first the fundamental of the truth and reality. That is
why, the understanding of the worldview of Islam is very important before discussing the concept of
human soul.

As stated before, according to al-Ghazali, soul is a spiritual subtlety (al-Latifah al-Ruhaniyah) which
is created but immortal. It is the true reflection of man as the soul is the one who have made an
agreement with God in the world of Dominion. Human soul have several levels, which determine the
levels of man itself in front of God and they are al-nafs al-amarah bi al-su`, al-nafs al-lawwamah,
and the highest soul is al-nafs al-mutmainnah.


Meanwhile, souls, as been discussed by philosophers can be classified into three categories; the
vegetative (al-nabatiyyah), the animal soul (al-Haiyawaniyah) and the rational soul (al-Natiqah).
Those three types of soul are possesses by man and only man is equipped with the rational soul that
make him different from other creatures.


[1] Metaphysics Research Lab, Al-Ghazali, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (UK: Stanford
University, 2007)
[2] Ibid.
[3] Narrated by Abu Daud dan al-Hakim from Abu Hurairah
[4] Metaphysics Research Lab, Al-Ghazali, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, (UK: Stanford
University, 2007)
[5] Omar Jah, Al-Balagh, Knowledge, Language, Thought & The Civilization of Islam, edi. by Wan
Mohd Nor Wan Daud and Muhd Zainy Uthman (Johor Bharu: UTM Press, 2010), pg. 83, hereinafter
cited as Al-Balagh
[6] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Islamic Weltanschauung: A Brief Overiew, Forum ISTAC al-
Hikmah, (Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1999), yr. 5 issue no.1, pg. 3
[7] Adi Setia Mohd Dom, Worldview of Islam Academy: The Concept, (Kuala Lumpur: HAKIM,
2010), pg. 7
[8] Ibid.
[9] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Prolegomena to The Metaphysics of Islam: An Exposition of
The Fundamental Elements of The Worldview of Islam, (Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1995), pg. 4,
hereinafter cited as Prolegomena
[10] Ibid. pg. 6
[11] Omar Jah, Al-Balagh, pg. 85
[12] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Prolegomena, pg. 78
[13] Israr Ahmad Khan, Qur`anic Studies: An Introduction, (Kuala Lumpur: Zaman Islam Media,
2000), pg. Introduction
[14] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Prolegomena, pg. 78
[15] Wan Mohd Nor Wan Daud, The Educational Philosophy & Practice of Syed Muhd Naquib al-
Attas, pg. 81
[16] Translated by Wan Mohd Nor Wan Daud from Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Risalah Untuk
Kaum Muslimin, (Petaling Jaya: ABIM, 1978), para. 30, pg. 109 in his book The Educational
Philosophy & Practice of Syed Muhd Naquib al-Attas (KL: ISTAC, 1998)
[17] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, Risalah Untuk Kaum Muslimin,(Petaling Jaya: ABIM, 1978),
para. 30, pg. 110-111, hereinafter cited as Risalah Untuk Kaum Muslimin
[18] Mohyuddin Hashimi, Islamic Concept of Human Nature,
http://www.hssrd.org/journal/fallsummer2003-2004/english/islamicconcept
[19] Ibid.
[20] Ibid.
[21] Ibid.
[22] Ibid.
[23] Shams C. Inati, Soul In Islamic Philosophy,
http//:www.islamicphilosophy.com/soulinislamicphilospohy
[24] Ibid.
[25] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, The Nature of Man and The Psychology of The Human Soul,
(Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1990), pg. 2
[26] Al-Ghazali, Ihya` Ulum al-Din, vol 3, pg. 3
[27] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, The Nature of Man and The Psychology of The Human Soul,
(Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1990), pg. 5
[28] Ibid. pg. 7
[29] Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali, Maarij al-Quds fi Madarij Marifat al-Nafs, (Beirut: Dar al-
Afaq al-Jadidah, 1978), pg. 15-18
[30] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, The Nature of Man and The Psychology of The Human Soul,
(Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1990), pg. 7
[31] Ibid. pg. 8
[32] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, The Nature of Man and The Psychology of The Human Soul,
(Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1990), pg. 2
[33] Ibid.
[34] Mohyuddin Hashimi, Islamic Concept of Human Nature,
http://www.hssrd.org/journal/fallsummer2003-2004/english/islamicconcept.htm
[35] Ibid.
[36] Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali, Maarij al-Quds fi Madarij Marifat al-Nafs, (Beirut: Dar al-
Afaq al-Jadidah, 1978), pg. 15-18
[37] Ibid.
[38] Ibid.
[39] Manzurul Haq, Concept of Personality Development in the Light of Islamic Thoughts. (Dakha:
The Bangladesh Journal of Psychology, 1984). vol. 7, pg. 118-128.
[40] Al-Tabari, Jami al-Bayan fi Tafsir al-Quran, vol. 13, pg. 1323
[41] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, The Nature of Man and The Psychology of The Human Soul,
(Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, 1990), pg. 8
[42] Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas, The Concept of Education in Islam, , (Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC,
1999) pg. 14
[43] Ibid.













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