Tech Calving

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Technote 1 Jan 2000

Technote 1
Environmental exposure
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Reduce exposure to
environmental
mastitis bacteria
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TECHNOTE
Environmental mastitis refers to intramammary infections caused by organisms
that survive in the cows surroundings including in soil, manure, bedding, calving
pads, water, or on body sites of the cow other than the mammary gland. Infection
of the udder with these organisms is often opportunistic, taking advantage of
circumstances that favour environmental contamination and changes in the
mammary glands susceptibility to infection. There are many bacteria in the
environment and some have biological characteristics that enable them to multiply
within the udder.
Most cases of environmental mastitis occur within a few weeks of calving, when
the cows natural defence mechanisms are low and their udders have been in
contact with mud and manure during calving. However, exposure of teat ends to
environmental bacteria can occur at any time: before heifers have their first calf,
during calving, at milking time or in paddocks during the lactation or dry periods.
During lactation, factors that predispose cows to infection with environmental
bacteria include milking udders that are wet or dirty, or administering
intramammary infusions if the teat orifice is not sterile. During the early and late
dry periods, absence of the keratin plug in the teat canal may make cows highly
suseptible to infection.
Bacteria that commonly cause environmental mastitis are Streptococcus uberis
or Escherichia coli. Other environmental organisms causing mastitis include other
coliform bacteria (Klebsiella species, Enterobacter aerogenes), Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Bacillus cereus, Arcanobacterium (formerly Actinomyces or
Corynebacterium) pyogenes, Serratia species, Nocardia species, Candida (yeast)
and Protheca (algae). Characteristics of some of these bacteria are described in
the following tables.
Strep uberis usually responds to treatment but some cases can be difficult to
cure. Coliforms do much of their damage through toxins released after the bacteria
die. Pseudomonas is virtually impossible to treat and cows that survive must be
culled.
Streptococcus dysgalactiae has characteristics of environmental and cow-
associated causes of mastitis and it is not easy to categorise. In Australia, Strep
dysgalactiae is commonly seen in heifers before they start lactation. The bacteria
can be isolated from the environment and from sites on the animal such as the
mouth, udder and vagina. Infection can occur between milking from Strep
dysgalactiae in the cows environment or it may be spread between cows at
milking. Flies can physically spread the bacteria.
Technote 14.3 and 14.4 discuss
Strep uberis and blanket Dry Cow
Treatment.
Mastitis is divided into two types

cow-associated and
environmental. The bacteria
causing cow-associated mastitis
usually reside in udder tissue
and on teat skin and are most
commonly spread at milking. The
bacteria causing environmental
mastitis survive in the cows
environment and, although
milking may facilitate their entry
through the teat canal, the
environment is the primary
source of infection.
Technote 5 describes characteristics
of common cow-associated
mastitis bacteria.
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Technote 1
Technote 1
Reservoir of infection
Spread
Cow susceptibility
Clinical signs
Characteristics of the common environmental mastitis pathogens
Characteristic Strep uberis Escherichia coli*
The bacteria is widespread in the
environment.
In rare cases, udders of chronically infected
cows are a reservoir of infection and their
milk may contaminate milking equipment.
Contamination of teat surfaces occurs in the
environment.
Infection can occur at any time, including
during milking.
Clinical cases are common in heifers and
cows before and during calving, and in high-
producing cows in early lactation. Downer
cows with milk fever paresis may be at
higher risk.
Susceptibility is increased in cows with
selenium or Vitamin E deficiency especially in
the two weeks either side of calving.
Most infections are mild and have watery
milk with small flakes.
The bacteria can cause a sudden and severe
toxaemia where cows develop a high
temperature and may become recumbent
and die. Milk from these cases can be a
yellow, watery secretion with white flakes
that can turn bloody (brown) later.
Coliforms do not usually invade udder tissue
toxins cause the damage. Quarters often
return to part production in the same
lactation and full production the following
lactation.
The bacteria can be isolated from the
environment, faeces and many sites on cows
especially the abdominal skin.
Some cows pass large numbers in their
faeces.
The udders of chronic, subclinically infected
cows are a potential reservoir and their milk
may contaminate milking equipment.
Contamination of teat surfaces occurs in the
environment.
Infection can occur at any time, including
during milking.
Infection most frequently occurs in the first
two weeks of the dry period, and during the
calving period and early lactation, especially
if there is teat end damage or oedema.
In the early dry and calving periods, changes
in udder secretions, the lack of flushing at
milking, and the absence of the keratin plug
in the teat canal make the cows highly
susceptible to infection.
Infection with Corynebacterium bovis may
make quarters more susceptible to Strep
uberis (Hogan et al 1988).
About 50% of clinical cases have an
enlarged, inflamed quarter and changes in
the milk. In about 40% of cases changes are
visible only in the milk. In about 10% of
cases the cows develop a fever and go off
their feed.
Research indicates significant differences
between the ability of various strains of the
bacteria to infect the udder. Some strains are
protected by bacterial capsules, some invade
mammary tissue and may resist natural
defence mechanisms and the action of
antibiotics.
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Bacterial shedding in milk
Cell counts (ICCC)
Milk quality
Management during outbreaks
* Escherichia coli infection is often called coliform mastitis, which can also be caused by the less common but related bacteria Klebsiella spp and Enterobacter
aerogenes.
Most infections are short-lived but a small
percentage become chronic (Hogan and
Smith 1997).
Most infected cows have ICCC higher than
500,000 cells/mL.
Bacteria are not usually found in vat milk
unless there is a high prevalence of infection
in the herd.
Most isolations from vats are likely to be from
bacteria on teat surfaces rather than from
udder infections.
Strep uberis can multiply in vat milk
refrigerated at 10C.
Manage calving cows to minimise exposure
to contamination. If possible, use sand rather
than organic materials for calving pads.
Begin milking and disinfecting teats of cows
tight with milk prior to calving, especially
those leaking milk.
Improve pre-milking hygiene and consider
pre-dipping teats before milking.
Examine milking machine functions
(especially pulsation, liner length and
vacuum).
Use blanket long-acting Dry Cow Treatment
at the next dry period to prevent new
infections.
Bacteria are shed in the first 6-12 hours of
clinical signs, and are reduced thereafter.
Most infections are of short duration more
than 50% last less than 10 days. Some
(1-2%) continue for more than 100 days.
Severe cases are nearly always culture
positive. Other cases are often culture
negative because the cows have already
eliminated the bacteria.
ICCC rapidly increase following infection and
persist for about two weeks, after which the
bacteria are eliminated.
In chronic cases ICCC tend to be high (about
500,000 cells/mL) although they can
fluctuate.
Clinical and chronic coliform cases do not
contribute significantly to vat milk
contamination.
Most isolations from vats are likely to be from
bacteria on teat surfaces rather than from
udder infections.
Manage calving cows to minimise exposure
to contamination. If possible, use sand rather
than organic materials for calving pads.
Begin milking and disinfecting teats of cows
tight with milk prior to calving, especially
those leaking milk.
Improve pre-milking hygiene and consider
pre-dipping teats before milking.
Overseas, vaccination with J-5 vaccine in the
dry and early lactational periods reduces the
incidence and severity of many of the
coliform infections. This vaccine is not
registered for use in Australia.
Characteristic Strep uberis Escherichia coli*
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Technote 1
Technote 1
Characteristic Pseudomonas Arcanobacterium Bacillus cereus Nocardia species
aeruginosa pyogenes
Characteristics of some less common environmental mastitis pathogens
Reservoir of infection
Spread
Cow susceptibility
Clinical signs
Bacterial shedding
in milk
The bacteria is common in
the environment in
places such as water
sources and ponds. It can
colonise water hose and
hot water systems and is
resistant to some
sanitisers.
Infection may be
introduced into the udder
with intramammary
treatments if teat ends are
not dried or prepared
aseptically.
Spread is from
contaminated water
either in the environment
or water used to wash
udders.
Cows are susceptible
during milking and
whenever udder infusion
takes place.
Cases range from mild to a
severe acute form with
septicemia and death.
Secretion varies, but may
be a brown serum.
Affected cows do not
respond to treatment
registered for use in cattle.
If infection occurs at Dry
Cow Treatment, clinical
signs may not be seen
until the next calving.
Generally low numbers of
bacteria are shed, with
intermittent shedding in
chronic cases.
the environment.
Occasional individual
cases may be associated
with teat or udder injury.
This bacteria is one of a
mix of bacteria causing
summer mastitis
described in Europe and
possibly spread by biting
flies.
Dry cows and heifers prior
to first calving are
susceptible to infection.
Infection commonly
causes a severe mastitis.
Typically the cow is sick,
the quarter is hard, the
teat is often very swollen,
and secretions consist of
thick pus with a putrid
smell.
Function may be
permanently lost in
affected quarters and teat
obstruction following
inflammation is common.
Cases are usually clinical
and large numbers of
bacteria are passed in the
secretion.
the environment and
forms heat- and
chemical-resistant spores.
Infection may be
with intramammary
aseptically.
Mastitis has been
associated with feeding
brewers grain
containing spores.
Susceptible during udder
therapy.
Mild to peracute forms.
Haemorrhage and
gangrene can occur.
If infection occurs at Dry
Cow Treatment, clinical
signs may not be seen
until next calving.
Cases are usually clinical.
The bacteria is common
in soil.
It can also survive in
chlorhexidine teat
disinfectant.
Infection may be
with intramammary
aseptically.
Spread can be by
contaminated water used
to wash udders or in
contaminated teat
disinfectant. Spread from
cow to cow at milking is
possible.
Infection occurs
sporadically.
Although cows are
sometimes sick, infection
is rarely fatal.
Affected quarters are
usually swollen or hard
with lumps. Secretions are
grey and viscid with small
(1 mm) white flecks.
Lumps may rupture and
discharge to the surface.
Infected cows do not
respond to treatment.
WARNING: Take care
when handling infected
cows as Nocardia species
can cause respiratory
infections in people.
Bacteria in fresh milk may
not survive refrigeration or
freezing of sample.
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Cell counts
Milk quality
Management during
outbreaks
Cell counts are generally
>500,000 cells/mL in
chronic infections.
Milk supply can be
contaminated by water
sources. This bacteria may
cause milk spoilage.
It is important to assess
the intramammary
technique being used and
management of cows
immediately after
treatment.
respond to available
antibiotics.
Culture of water sources is
often unrewarding, while
changing water hose
rubberware is often useful.
Water supply for teat
disinfectants should be
heated to 70C or above
and cooled before use.
Identification of infected
quarters may require
repeated culture.
Positive cows should be
culled.
with very high cell counts.
and their milk is excluded
from the vat.
In countries where
summer mastitis is
common, careful
management during the
dry period (e.g. locating
cows in low risk
paddocks) is essential. It
can occur in areas with
hot, humid summers (e.g.
on the north coast of New
South Wales).
Consider blanket Dry Cow
Treatment if this is a herd
problem.
Fly control is also very
helpful.
Cases are often clinical.
Bacteria can be recovered
from the bulk tank. This
represents a potential milk
quality hazard because the
organism may not be
killed by pasteurisation.
the intramammary
management of cows
immediately after
treatment.
respond to available
antibiotics.
Culture of water sources is
often unrewarding.
Assess the sterility of teat
disinfectant.
Infected cows should be
culled.
WARNING: Human
infections are possible.
the intramammary
management of cows
immediately after
treatment.
Characteristic Pseudomonas Arcanobacterium Bacillus cereus Nocardia species
aeruginosa pyogenes
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Technote 1
Technote 1
1.1 Calve on clean, dry pasture or a clean,
dry calving pad.
The udder is very susceptible to infection at calving, and many infections detected
in early lactation are established at calving (Hogan and Smith 1998).
The ideal place for cows to calve is a clean, sheltered, dry area. The ideal situation
is a paddock with a good cover of grass, not irrigated or contaminated with
milking shed or feed pad effluent, on an elevated site that is not wet, boggy or
poorly-drained. Unfortunately, such areas are rare on most Australian dairy farms
and most farm managers choose to use calving paddocks where the cows can
easily be supervised or calving pads, especially in areas of high rainfall during
the calving period.
Calving paddocks can work if they are large enough so that grass cover is
maintained. However, it is common for small areas, which perhaps provide shelter,
to be overused and become boggy. The only practical solution is to fence off
such areas until they regenerate. If electric fences are shifted across a paddock at
regular intervals, clean areas can be provided for new batches of calving cows. It
is important to avoid back-grazing (where cows have access to recently
contaminated areas in addition to their new area). Some planning is needed to
create access lanes and allow for access to drinking water in each strip-grazing
area, for example by using mobile troughs. When cows are calving on grass it is
also important to ensure that preventative measures for metabolic diseases have
been taken.
Calving pads can be a successful alternative for wet conditions. Drainage is
probably the most important factor and can be supplied by providing sufficient
fall on the pad (of about 3-4%), or by installing underground slotted polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) pipe drainage on flat sites (Davison and Andrews 1997).
Usually some bedding material is provided to make the cows more comfortable.
Organic bedding materials (straw, rice hulls, shavings or sawdust) support higher
bacterial populations than non-organic materials (washed sand or ground
limestone). The particle size is also important. The surface area for bacterial
growth and the chance of bacterial attachment and colonisation is increased in
finely chopped or ground organic material. For this reason, long straw is generally
better than finely chopped straw and shavings are better than sawdust (Hogan
and Smith 1998).
Sawdust and other wood products tend to harbour the coliform bacteria and straw
may contain large numbers of environmental streptococci, such as Strep uberis
(Bramley 1982, Smith and Hogan 1997). Sawdust may have high pathogen
(Klebsiella species) counts even when fresh (Hogan et al 1989). Kiln-dried
sawdust is less of a problem. Sawdust can be used satisfactorily provided it is
stored dry and managed correctly (Blowey and Edmonson 1995). Pathogen counts
are much lower when contaminated sawdust is removed and replaced with fresh
sawdust daily rather than weekly (Bramley 1992). Sawdust should not be used as
bedding if it cannot be kept dry.
Confidence High
Local observations of the importance of
hygiene in calving areas are consistent
with overseas research and experience.
Research priority Moderate
Further information on what constitutes a
successful calving pad surface, including
measurement of pathogen counts, could
be useful.
If possible heifers should be

calved separately from the adult
herd. Heifers are more likely to
be bullied and be forced to calve
in the less suitable areas of
the calving paddock or
calving pad.
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All bedding materials (organic and inorganic) will support high pathogen counts
after becoming contaminated with manure (Blowey and Edmonson 1995). The
area must be kept well drained and contaminated material removed and replaced
on a regular basis. Pathogen counts will be high before the bedding looks soiled,
and chemical disinfection (agricultural or hydrated lime, formalin, etc) of
contaminated bedding is not effective (Hogan and Smith 1998).
The recommendations that no more than two pats of manure are present per
square metre and no water is visible in foot prints are crude estimates designed
to focus farmers attention at least on gross contamination, given the lack of
other more sophisticated monitoring techniques. Checking for fresh liquid manure,
rather than dried pats, gives an indication of recent faecal contamination.
Practical and economic factors influence the surfaces available for calving cows
and must be individually assessed for each farm.
Options for surface types, in
preferred order (highest to
lowest) are:
clean, grassed paddock with
no surface water;
well-drained inorganic material,
such as sand;
well-drained organic material;
or
poorly drained calving
paddock (a last resort).
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Technote 1
Technote 1
1.2 Be alert to the number of cases of mastitis
occurring, especially in freshly calved heifers. This
is an indicator of the state of the paddock.
Mastitis in freshly calved heifers (first calvers) may result from infection that
has occurred during their development since puberty or in the few weeks
immediately before calving.
Heifers may be particularly susceptible to infection during the calving period.
This is because they tend to spend longer calving, especially on the ground, and
they often suffer from some degree of udder oedema that may reduce the ability
of the teat and udder tissues to resist bacterial challenge (Slettbakk et al 1995).
Field observations indicate a greater tendency of animals with oedematous teats
to develop Strep uberis infections.
Clinical mastitis was observed at calving in 8% of first-calf heifers in a study of
11 herds in New Zealand (Pankey et al 1996). Environmental streptococci were
isolated from 68% of these clinical cases.
The warning index of three or more cases in the last 50 calvings is an estimate
based on the average incidence of clinical cases observed in the first month of
lactation. Data on the incidence during the calving period (two weeks before and
two weeks after calving) would allow this index to be refined, but it serves as a
reasonable guide. It is probably of more relevance in seasonal herds where
relatively large numbers of calvings occur over a short period (and 50 calvings
may occur in as little as 1-2 days).
If this index is exceeded a reassessment of the calving environment and
management should be made. It is often useful to have an independent adviser
help with this to obtain the benefit of a fresh pair of eyes. It is also worth noting
that sometimes a high incidence of mastitis occurs at calving, even though the
environment appears clean and dry. These may be infections that occurred at an
earlier time (for example at drying-off) and then became clinical at calving.
Confidence Moderate
This recommendation assumes that most
heifers enter springer mobs with a low
prevalence of infection.
Research priority Low
Analysis of the timing of clinical cases of
mastitis, as part of the milk recording
statistics, would provide better benchmark
information on new infection rates.
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Technote 5.2 describes how to
check milk from all quarters of
freshly calved cows.
1.3 Bring cows into the shed as soon as possible to
milk out and check certainly within 24 hours of
calving.
In 1996 Pankey et al noted that many over-conditioned heifers leaked milk
prior to calving and had a higher prevalence of mastitis. They believed preferential
treatment of heifers during the calving period may reduce the incidence of new
infections and suggested several factors to aid mastitis control in heifers including:
minimising exposure to muddy conditions;
milking them out as soon as possible after calving; and
applying an effective teat sanitiser after every milking.
In the past, preventive management of milk fever (a sudden reduction in the
calcium level in the blood) sometimes involved leaving milk in the udder of
fresh cows. This practice is now discredited because it predisposes to mastitis
(OShea 1987). Rather than treating milk fever by incomplete milking, it should
be controlled by managing the diet before and at calving to manipulate calcium
availability in this period.
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Technote 1
Technote 1
1.4 Take special care with induced cows.
Long-acting corticosteroids (such as dexamethasone) are widely used to induce
parturition in dairy cattle in parts of Australia. They can impair secretion of
proteins that are critical to normal cellular and humoral immune responses
(Nonnecke et al 1997), an effect that is strongly linked with changes in the
composition of the white blood cells. The ability of cows to respond to stressors
may be reduced by the use of long-acting corticosteroids to induce premature
calving.
Browning et al (1990) describe a collapse syndrome associated with the use of
dexamethasone for inducing calving. It appeared to result from gram-negative
endotoxaemia associated with subclinical infections as three of the seven cows
in this study had peracute Escherichia coli mastitis confirmed at post-mortem
examination.
Immune suppression resulting from the use of long-acting corticosteroids to
induce parturition is still profound at the time of parturition. Steps must be taken
to minimise exposure of induced cows to mastitis-causing pathogens at this time.
Confidence High
Field experience in Australia shows that
induced cows are more susceptible to
Escherichia coli infection.
To minimise the risk of environmental mastitis in induced cows,
practitioners recommend the following procedures:
Maintain cows in clean, well-drained paddocks (the best calving area
available on the farm) from the time they receive their first injection to
induce parturition until after they have calved.
Milk cows once the udder is tight with milk. Induced cows often bag-up
tightly before calving and may drip milk. Machine milking is
recommended once the udder gets tight with milk, even though the cow
may not yet have calved. If shes dripping milk, she should be milking.
Watch udders carefully for signs of mastitis. Some cases can be rapid
and severe with few initial changes or abnormalities in the milk (e.g.
water milk, clots or flecks).
Monitor induced cows very closely for signs of systemic illness. Cows
may become acutely ill with an Escherichia coli mastitis endotoxaemia,
even though visible changes in the udder may be limited and the
secretion from the affected quarter is difficult to differentiate from
colostrum.
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1.5 Take care with pre-milking preparation of udders.
Technote 5 describes good milking technique and the importance of
consistent routine.
Key papers
Blowey R, Edmondson P. The environment and mastitis. In: Mastitis control in dairy herds, Chapter
8, Farming Press Books, Ipswich, United Kingdom, 1995:103-118.
Bramley AJ. Bovine Medicine. Blackwell Science Publications, Oxford, United Kingdom, 1992.
Bramley AJ. Sources of Streptococcus uberis in the dairy herd. I. Isolation from bovine faeces and
from straw bedding of cattle. J Dairy Res 1982;49:369-373.
Browning JW, Slee KJ, Malmo J, Brightling P. A collapse syndrome associated with gram-negative
infection in cows treated with dexamethasone to induce parturition. Aust Vet J 1990;67:28-29.
Davison TM, Andrews RJ. Feed pads down under. Department of Primary Industries, Mutdapilly
Research Station, Queensland, 1997.
Hogan JS, Smith KL, Hoblet KH et al. Bacterial counts in bedding materials used on nine commercial
dairies. J Dairy Sci 1989;72:250-258.
Hogan JS, Smith KL. Occurrence of clinical and subclinical environmental streptoccal mastitis. In:
Proceedings of the symposium on udder health management for environmental streptococci,
Ontario Veterinary College, Canada, 1997;36-41.
Hogan JS, Smith KL. Risk factors associated with environmental mastitis. In: Proceedings of the
37th National Mastitis Council Annual Meeting, St Louis, Missouri, 1998:9397.
Hogan JS, Smith KL, Todhunter DA, Schoenberger PS. Rate of environmental mastitis in quarters
infected with Corynebacterium bovis and Staphylococcus species. J Dairy Sci 1988;71:2520-
2525.
Nonnecke BJ, Burton JL, Kehrli ME. Associations between function and composition of blood
mononuclear leukocyte populations from Holstein bulls treated with dexamethasone. J Dairy
Sci 1997;80:2403-2410.
OShea J. Machine milking factors affecting mastitis. In: Machine milking and mastitis, Bulletin of
the International Dairy Federation No. 215, Brussels, Belgium, 1987:25-27.
Pankey JW, Pankey PB, Barker RM, Williamson JH, Woolford MW. The prevalence of mastitis in
primiparous heifers in eleven Waikato dairy herds. NZ Vet J 1996;44:41-44.
Slettbakk T, Jorstad A, Farver TB, Holmes JC. Impact of milking characteristics and morphology of
udder and teats on clinical mastitis in first- and second-lactation Norwegian cattle. Prev Vet Med
1995;24:235-244.
Smith KL, Hogan JS. Risk factors for environmental streptococcal intramammary infections. In:
Proceedings of the symposium on udder health management for environmental streptococci,
Ontario Veterinary College, Canada, 1997;42-50.
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2
TECHNOTE
Take care with two-year-old
and freshly calved cows
It takes about two weeks for most heifers to establish a quiet, reliable response to
milking. To maximise production and minimise risk of injury to milkers and
animals, milking staff must be patient and as gentle as possible during this period.
Extra labour may be required for the calving period in seasonal herds.
2.1 Consider training heifers in the milking area
before calving.
&
2.2 Take your time moving and milking two-year-old
cows and freshly calved cows dont rush.
Technote 5.1 describes how to ensure cows enter the milking shed
willingly.
2.3 Attend to two-year-old cows with severe udder
oedema (also known as flag).
Udder oedema is a swelling that occurs under the skin of the udder, and sometimes
along the belly, in cows prior to calving. It mostly occurs in heifers at their first
calving, but can occur at subsequent calvings, and is commonly observed during
late pregnancy and early lactation.
In severely affected animals, milking is a painful process, milk let-down is poor,
and susceptibility to infection is increased (Slettbakk et al 1995). Field experience
suggests that animals with severe oedema are more likely to rupture suspensory
ligaments of the udder causing permanent damage, known by farmers as dropped
udder or blown bag.
Oedema largely results from compromised fluid drainage from the udder and the
surrounding areas. A small amount of oedema is a normal (physiological)
occurrence as the blood supply to the udder increases and changes during the
periparturient period.
Confidence High
Severe oedema can result in long-term
structural damage to suspensory
ligaments of the udder.
page 2
Technote 2
Technote 2
Fresh cows
In most cases the oedema disappears within a day or two of calving but, in severe
cases, it can interfere with milking. Once milking is started, the volume of the
udder is reduced and oedema fluid is usually cleared.
Veterinary advice should be sought if cows are very uncomfortable.
Diuretics used prior to calving are less effective possibly because of the large
volume of foetal fluids present.
Factors that may lead to numbers of animals with udder oedema or increased
severity of cases include excessive feeding immediately prior to calving, excessive
dietary sodium or potassium, overfat heifers, and a hereditary predisposition to
oedema. Advice on heifer nutrition should be sought to ensure diet does not
contribute to severe flagging.
2.4 Ensure all quarters of all cows are milked out.
Technote 5.8 describes under milking.
Key papers
Slettbakk T, Jorstad A, Farver TB, Holmes JC. Impact of milking characteristics and morphology of
udder and teats on clinical mastitis in first- and second-lactation Norwegian cattle. Prev Vet Med
1995;24:235-244.
Prior to calving, options for treating cows and heifers with oedema include:
milk them out, save the colostrum for their calves, and commence
regular milking; or
induce calving (especially if natural calving is not expected for some
time), making alternative arrangements to provide colostrum to the calf.
After calving, treatment of oedema involves frequent milking and the use of
either:
injected diuretics; or
oral combinations of diuretic and dexamethasone.
page 1
Technote 3 Jan 2000
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Technote 3
Vat check
3
TECHNOTE
Check that milk is
suitable to go in the vat
For milk quality reasons, all cows must have their colostrum milk withheld from
the vat for at least eight milkings after calving. Colostrum may be present for
longer in induced cows, and milk should be withheld from the vat for at least 10
milkings.
Antibiotic withholding periods for milk, cull cow and calf meat need to be
observed for cows that received Dry Cow Treatment (DCT).
3.1 Ensure each cow has exceeded her Dry Cow
Treatment Minimum Dry Period before putting her
milk in the vat or selling her calf.
Dry Cow Treatments are antibiotic preparations that are infused into each quarter
of the udder immediately after the last milking of a cows lactation. The
formulations are designed to remain in the udder in concentrations high enough
to kill mastitis bacteria for relatively long periods (20-70 days depending on the
product used).
Withholding periods
Generally, withholding periods refer to the minimum period of time that must
elapse between the last treatment of an animal with a veterinary medicine and
the supply of products (meat or milk) from those animals for food consumption.
After treatment with a medicine, the length of time that meat must be withheld is
usually longer than the withholding period for milk.
When using intramammary Dry Cow Treatments in the herd, there are two
principles relating to withholding milk that must be well understood:
All Dry Cow Treatments are registered with a specified Minimum Dry Period
after treatment. This is the minimum time that must elapse between
administration of the treatment and calving.
As well as a Minimum Dry Period, all Dry Cow Treatments have recommended
withholding periods for milk.
Confidence High
The Minimum Dry Period for Dry Cow
Treatment is a stipulated requirement to
satisfy international and domestic
standards for food purity.
Assessment of antibiotic residue in calves
may warrant research.
page 2
Technote 3
Technote 3
Vat check
For milk:
The withholding period for milk refers to the time that must elapse after calving
(rather than after treatment) before milk is supplied for processing.
A different withholding period for milk applies if the cow calves before the
Minimum Dry Period has elapsed (see table following page).
For cull cow meat:
The withholding period for meat applies from the date that the cow is treated
with Dry Cow Treatment.
For bobby calf meat:
There is no meat withholding period specified for calves born after the
Minimum Dry Period although at least four days must elapse between their
birth and slaughter for welfare reasons.
Calves born before the Minimum Dry Period has elapsed are subject to the
same meat withholding period stated on the label for the cow. The withholding
period starts from the date that the cow was treated if the calf has not sucked or
from the date of the calfs last suckle, if it has sucked.
The likelihood of antibiotic residue in bobby calf meat depends on (1) the
absorption of antibiotic from the mothers bloodstream (Rangel-Lugo et al 1998)
and (2) the intake of antibiotic from colostrum. Limited information is available
on antibiotic residues in calves born to cows given Dry Cow Treatment. To protect
the $2.6 billion Australian beef industry, withholding periods for calves are
interpreted conservatively to minimise the risk of residue because there is no
substantial set of research data on Dry Cow Treatment residues in calves. The
safety net gives rise to markedly different actions for bobby calves born before
the Minimum Dry Period according to whether or not they have suckled, however
there is no information on whether these actions are necessary from a biological
point of view. For calves born after the Minimum Dry Period has elapsed, the
cows colostrum will only contain traces of antibiotic (if any) and absorption of
most Dry Cow Treatment antibiotics from the calf s gut is relatively poor.
Remember:
If cows calve early or a decision to cull them during the dry period is
made, the date of treatment and the withholding period of the particular
product must be known.
Recommended withholding periods for milk and calf meat are longer if
cows calve before expiry of the Minimum Dry Period.
Ensure that the dry cow paddock is well away from the milking herd so
that cows given Dry Cow Treatment cannot accidently rejoin the milking
herd.
Dry cows should be clearly marked.
If there is any possibility that milk may contain antibiotic residue, it
should be withheld from the vat.
Farmers should not restrict the

colostrum intake of calves during
the first 12 hours after birth
despite the possibility of having
to keep some calves for a longer
period before sale. Health
and survival rates are
significantly depressed in
colostrum-depleted calves.
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Technote 3
Vat check
Advisers should check the NRA
web-site for up-to-date
information on registered Dry
Cow Treatment products:
www.dpie.gov.au/nra
Technote 14.5 describes the active
ingredients and spectrum of activity
for these products.
Technote 4.10 describes tests for
antibiotic residue.
When Dry Cow Treatments are used according to directions on the label and the
appropriate Minimum Dry Period and withholding periods are observed, antibiotic
residues will not exceed Australian Maximum Residue Limits. (Organisations
responsible for food safety, such as the National Regulatory Authority in Australia,
set Maximum Residue Limits and they may vary from country to country.)
Each product has its own specified withholding periods.
Recommendations to minimise the risk of antibiotic residues in meat or milk
after use of Dry Cow Treatment are given in the Countdown Downunder Farm
Guidelines for Mastitis Control Fact Sheet D and advisers should emphasise
these to their clients. A table of recommended withholding periods for Dry Cow
Treatments is repeated below, including some minor updates (current for October
1999).
Recommended withholding periods for milk and meat (days) following use of each Dry Cow Treatment
(October 1999). Withholding period WHP; Dry Cow Treatment DCT; Minimum Dry Period MDP.
CULL COW MEAT MDP MILK CALF MEAT
WHP after date WHP after date In cows that calve
of DCT of calving BEFORE the MDP
For cows that For cows that For calves that For calves that do
calve BEFORE calve AFTER suckle WHP not suckle WHP
the MDP the MDP after the calfs after date of
last suckle dams DCT
Ampiclox Dry Cow 30 30 10 96 hours* or 30* 30*
8 milkings
Cepravin Dry Cow 21 56 Test after 96 hours or 21* 21*
4 days* 8 milkings
Elaclox DC 30* 30* 21 * 96 hours or 30* 30*
8 milkings
Elaclox DC Xtra 30 35 21 * 96 hours or 30* 30*
8 milkings
Noroclox Dry Cow 30 30 30 96 hours* 30* 30*
Orbenin Dry Cow 30 30 21 96 hours or 30* 30*
8 milkings
Orbenin Enduro 30 35 21 * 96 hours or 30* 30*
8 milkings
Figures with an asterisk are not from material approved by the National Registration Authority, but provided by the pharmaceutical companies as consistent with
NRA-approved withholding periods for other products. Contact the manufacturer or a veterinarian for further information.
page 4
Technote 3
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Vat check
Confidence High
Exclusion of colostrum from the vat is
motivated by factory standards for milk
quality and is reflected in milk payments.
3.2 Ensure that milk from the colostrum phase
(first eight milkings) is not included in the vat
(at least 10 milkings for induced cows).
Colostrum or first-milk is thick, yellow, and sticky and contains very high
levels of blood proteins (immunoglobulins, particularly IgG1) that help protect
newborn calves against disease.
These immunoglobulins are actively transported from the cows blood into the
mammary secretion during the eight weeks prior to calving. The first colostrum
can have an IgG1 concentration more than 100 times greater than normal milk.
Following each milking, the pool of IgG1 in the udder is steadily lowered until
depleted.
Colostrum also contains high numbers of somatic cells. The high influx of white
blood cells into the udder at this time is generally not due to mastitis (bacterial
infection) but is a response to some tissue damage as lactation begins. These
cells have associated high levels of enzymes that can degrade milk solids.
Colostrum has a significant effect on the processing efficiency of all dairy
products when levels are greater than 0.3% IgG1.
Because the concentration is so high in first-milk, the milk of only two cows in
the first 48 hours of lactation may be sufficient to raise the level of the
consignment above 0.3% IgG1 even when it is diluted with milk from 100
normal cows.
Changes in product quality which occur at greater than 0.3% IgG1 include:
Butter a darker colour, off flavours and downgrading.
Casein decreases in yield due to changes in curd characteristics and poor
setting.
Cheese increases in setting times, poor set, decreases in yield due to lower
casein levels, off flavours, shorter shelf life due to high moisture retention
by globular proteins, and body defects.
Condensed milk graininess.
Cottage cheese agglutination of starter bacteria.
Milk powders increases in drying times due to high moisture retention in
globular proteins, and difficulties in achieving a standard product.
Pasteurised milk cream plugs.
UHT milk shorter shelf life and deposit.
Whey poor crystallisation due to altered composition.
Milk from the colostrum mob
of cows is a good source of
nutrient for replacement
heifers.
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Technote 3
Vat check
There are also significant cleaning problems associated with processing colostral
milk in the factory. It requires more frequent and more comprehensive cleaning
of all heat transfer surfaces, increases the down-time on factory dryers and
evaporators, and increases chemical usage.
Reducing colostrum levels in milk has made very significant improvements in
processing milk to manufactured products. For example, after Bonlac Foods Ltd
introduced colostrum testing and included colostrum in their milk quality payment
scheme in 1993, farm level compliance markedly increased and products could
be made to export specification 23 weeks earlier than was previoulsy possible.
Depletion of colostrum in milk after calving
IgG1 levels of up to 15% in the first colostrum fall to minimum levels of 0.15%
by about eight days after calving. Levels of 0.3% and less are usually attained
after eight complete milkings. Cows milked prior to calving after receiving
induction therapy also have high levels of IgG1, and levels dont fall to under
0.3% until after at least 10 full milkings (Auldist et al 1993).
Example of IgG1 concentrations in milk after calving (Rogers
et al 1992)
In the past, farmers have visually appraised milk colour to ascertain when the
colostrum phase has finished. This is not sufficiently reliable because milk that
has lost its initial yellow-brown colour and looks white may still contain
unacceptably high levels of colostrum. The converse may also be true. Milk from
some cows or herds may be coloured for reasons such as high levels of beta-
carotene in pastures or because the milk comes from Jerseys rather than Friesians.
Key papers
Auldist MJ, Coats S, Rogers GL, McDowell GH. Characteristics of mammary secretion during
early lactation from naturally-calving dairy cows and cows induced to calve prematurely. Aust J
Dairy Technol 1993;44:49-52.
Rangel-Lugo M, Payne M, Webb AI, Riviere JE, Craigmill A. Prevention of antibiotic residues in
veal calves fed colostrum. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1998;213:40-42.
Rogers G, Coats S, Auldist M. Raw milk quality and product quality. In: Dairy Research Foundation
dairy symposium proceedings, Camden, July 1992:16-27.
You cannot assess milk quality by
visual appraisal. It is more
appropriate to withhold milk for
the recommended number of
milkings and to ensure that
udders are being
completely milked out.
page 6
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Technote 3
Vat check
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page 1
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Technote 4
Fresh cow clinicals
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4
TECHNOTE
Rapidly find, treat and
record clinical cases
in fresh cows
Clinical cases of mastitis are costly and severely disrupt the flow of milking.
Cases that are missed can markedly increase the Bulk Milk Cell Count (BMCC)
because they produce very high numbers of somatic cells in their milk.
The number of clinical cases detected within a herd is a function of the intensity
of observation, and advisers therefore need to be aware of how different operators
detect mastitis. People who forestrip are likely to identify many more cases than
those relying solely on observing a swollen quarter.
Early detection and treatment of all quarters with clinical mastitis reduces the
risk of severe and intractable cases developing, and reduces the likelihood of
infection being passed to other cows.
The Countdown Downunder warning level of five cases per 100 cows in the
first month of lactation is based on diagnosis of mastitis following observations
of heat, swelling, pain, abnormal walking, poor milkout, or intense observation
following discovery of clots on the milk filter. This is typical of dairies in Australia
where there is minimal pre-milking teat handling by the operator. In contrast,
farmers who routinely forestrip will commonly identify cows with abnormalities
in the first squirt of milk, followed by milk that is visibly normal. These cows
should not be counted towards the warning level or treated as clinical cases.
The cost of a clinical case of mastitis
The likely cost of each clinical case during early lactation is estimated to average
$146 (see table over page). This assumes a milk price of 25 cents per litre, a
labour cost of $20 per hour, and a reduction in milk yield of 3% (Gunn et al
1998). The risk factors for mortality, culling and vat contamination are estimates
based on general experience.
Technote 10 details how to rapidly
detect and treat clinical cases in
lactating cows.
Countdown Downunder
considers a cow to have clinical
mastitis and require treatment
when there is observable
abnormality of the milk
(wateriness or clots) that
persists for more than three
squirts of milk.
page 2
Technote 4
Technote 4
Fresh cow clinicals
Cost of treatment $
Intramammary antibiotics = 10
Vet visit and drugs @ $80 for 1 in 15 cases = 5
Extra time in the shed 10 min/milking for 6 milkings @ $20/hr = 20
Discarded milk
7 days of 20 L/day @ 25 cents/L = 35
Decreased yield for remainder of lactation
For cases in early lactation (calving to 30 days) estimated 3%
reduction in 300 day yield of 5,000 L is 170 L @ 25 cents = 43
Risk of mortality
1 in 200 cases, cow value $800 = 4
Risk of culling
7 in 100 cases, replacement cost $400 = 28
Risk of contamination of vat
2,000 L in 1 in 1,000 cases = 1
Total = $146
Calculating the cost of a clinical case in the first month of lactation
This cost would be higher for mastitis cases occurring in mid-lactation, as Gunn
et al (1998) estimated that the 300-day yield of pasture-fed cows with clinical
mastitis was:
3.4% lower than cows without mastitis if it occurred in early lactation (calving
to 30 days);
7.7% lower if the mastitis in mid (peak) lactation (31 to 100 days post
calving); and
2.0% lower for cases occurring in late lactation (101 or more days post
calving).
Using these figures, clinical mastitis in a herd of 150 cows is estimated to cost
about $1,800 in the first 100 days of lactation. This is based on quarter infection
rates observed in Gippsland of 0.072 (72 clinically affected quarters per 1,000
cows) in the first 30 days after calving and 0.007 (seven clinically affected quarters
per 1,000 cows) between days 31 and 100 (Gunn et al 1999).
page 3
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4.1 Look for swollen quarters and check for heat and
pain in all freshly calved cows.
The signs and techniques used to detect clinical mastitis are the same throughout
lactation.
All freshly calved cows should be visually inspected for swollen quarters during
the first two weeks after calving. Cows at high risk of mastitis should continue to
be closely examined as the lactation progresses. These include cows that:
have not milked out;
have had a clinical episode of mastitis within the last month; or
have recently had high Individual Cow Cell Counts (ICCC).
Cows that have swollen or painful quarters may appear lame and this may be
the first indication of a mastitis problem.
People who put cups on and take cups off should be inspecting every cow for
swollen quarters at every milking. When viewed from behind, the two hind-
quarters should be examined for size and symmetry. In cows that have just calved,
it can be difficult to pick swollen quarters and the best policy is to compare the
suspect quarter with other quarters. In thorough inspections, forequarters can be
viewed by lifting the hindquarters.
Freshly calved cows with suspect quarters by gross observation should have their
udders palpated and foremilk checked.
Suspect udders should be palpated when they are empty after milking. The teat is
palpated with the finger tips by gently rolling it between the thumb and first two
fingers, and glandular tissue is palpated superficially and deeply with the flat of
the hand and fingers (Donovan et al 1992). The udder tissue of acute cases may
be hot, swollen or painful. In acute or chronic clinical mastitis cases with less
obvious changes, a thorough examination is required to assess the consistency of
udder tissue. Chronic changes usually manifest as fibrosis, which can be felt as
firmness that is local (from pea to fist size) or diffuse (giving the quarter a firmer
feel than its opposite number and usually a more nodular surface). Long-standing
infections can ultimately result in atrophy (shrinking) of the mammary tissue as
it becomes non-functional.
Foremilk inspections are used to detect wateriness of the milk, a few clots or
flecks, or more obvious abnormalities such as flakes, discolourations and
bloodstains. Milking staff may see strings of mastitis material hanging from
teat-ends. These are viscous debris (inflammatory products) that are expressed
during milking and may therefore be more obvious to the cups-off operator.
Confidence High
Heat, pain, and swelling are classic
signs of tissue inflammation.
Technote 5.2 describes foremilk
stripping.
page 4
Technote 4
Technote 4
Fresh cow clinicals
4.2 Check milk from all quarters of freshly calved
cows every day while they are in the colostrum
phase (first 8 milkings, or 10 milkings for induced
cows).
Technote 5.2 discusses foremilk stripping of cows during their colostrum
phase.
Confidence Moderate
Forestripping is the single most effective
way to detect clinicals.
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Confidence High
Culture is the definitive method of
identifying mastitis pathogens in herds
its cost is minor when compared to
potential gains from incorporating the
information into mastitis control
programs.
4.3 Consider collecting milk samples for culture to
identify the bacteria involved.
The general principles of collecting milk samples for culture discussed in this
section are applicable to diagnosis of both clinical and subclinical mastitis, and
also as part of investigation of problems in herds.
Milk cultures are recommended whenever a herd problem emerges, namely when
there are more clinical cases than is acceptable or when cell counts are rising.
Virtually all mastitis is caused by bacterial infection. Milk cultures indicate the
type of bacteria in the herd (e.g. Staph aureus, Strep agalactiae or Strep uberis)
so that appropriate management strategies can be developed. A number of milk
samples are required to give a representative picture of what is happening in the
herd (see below).
Culture costs vary from approximately $6 to $20 per sample depending on the
number submitted at the same time, transport costs, etc.
Cultures of milk samples from clinical cases
It is not possible to determine the organisms responsible for a case of mastitis
without culturing a clean milk sample.
Cultures from cases of clinical mastitis can provide useful information on:
Pathogen identification. This allows veterinarians and other advisers to use
their knowledge of the epidemiology of the organisms to suggest possible
sources of the infection and useful control measures for the herd.
Antibiotic sensitivity testing of the isolated organisms. These tests are only
considered as a guide to the likely treatment efficacy in live animals because
bacterial kill rates on sterile plates in a laboratory do not necessarily translate
to curative treatment in inflammed udder tissue.
It is a good insurance policy to encourage farmers to take samples from all quarters
with clinical mastitis although they wont necessarily be submitted for culture.
These should be collected before treatment (because the presence of antibiotics
in samples make it difficult to grow bacteria) and stored frozen. The samples can
be submitted to a laboratory if:
a cow fails to respond to treatment;
there is concern about the type of bacteria causing the mastitis; or
there are a higher number of mastitis cases than expected (e.g. more than three
clinical cases in the past 50 calvings, more than five clinical cases per 100
cows in the first month of lactation, or more than two cases per 100 cows per
month in subsequent months of lactation).
Sampling strategy
Aseptic technique must be used to collect milk samples from the type of cases
causing concern, prior to administration of any treatment. For example, if the
concern is an outbreak of clinical mastitis in freshly calved cows, the samples
should be taken from these clinical cases. Bacteria isolated from high cell count
cows in the herd at the same time may not necessarily be relevant to the clinical
mastitis outbreak. Samples from cases that have recurred or failed to cure may
also be unrepresentative of the overall problem.
Alternative methods for identifying
bacteria used overseas and in
research are described in the
Bacterial identification FAQ sheet.
In practice, it is only currently
possible to determine the
bacteria causing mastitis by
doing a milk culture.
page 6
Technote 4
Technote 4
Fresh cow clinicals
The Vat milk tests FAQ sheet
describes bulk tank milk cultures.
Advisers are encouraged to
copy and distribute Fact Sheet
A of the Countdown
Downunder Farm Guidelines
for Mastitis Control to clients.
It is essential for advisers to
ensure the milkers sampling
technique is satisfactory a
physical demonstration is often
very helpful.
On most farms it is the milking
staff who collect milk
samples from clinical
cases.
The number of milk samples to be examined depends on the number of cases of
mastitis occurring and the reason for the sampling. For most herd problems
preferably 10 samples (and a minimum of five) are needed to get a reasonably
reliable indication of the mastitis causing organisms in the herd. For large herds
(more than 200 cows), it is preferable to have 20 samples. Between 10-40% of
samples may return a result of no growth (see below).
If a herd problem appears to recur some time later (certainly if more than 12
months later), it is worth collecting another set of samples because herd profiles
can and do change.
Recurring individual cases of clinical mastitis may have been superinfected
with other bacteria such as Nocardia species or Pseudomonas introduced during
the previous treatment infusion. This will only be detected if subsequent milk
samples are cultured.
Sample collection
The main problems associated with milk culturing occur when samples are
collected and transported. If correct procedures are not followed, milk samples
can become contaminated with bacteria from water, mud or faeces, or from skin
(milkers hands or cows). These environmental bacteria can multiply in the milk
sample and confuse the test result. Sterile sample collection and delivery of cool
samples to a laboratory within 24 hours, or immediately freezing the samples
after collection and then later submission, avoids these problems.
Fact Sheet A in the Countdown Downunder Farm Guidelines for Mastitis Control
gives a detailed description of how to aseptically collect milk samples.
A milk sample should be considered contaminated if three or more colony types
are isolated from a quarter. The organism causing mastitis cannot be identified
in contaminated samples. Contamination is often a result of poor sample collection
technique, a dirty environment or dirty animals. Teat injuries, wet teats or udders,
and hands contaminated with milk or water are common causes of contaminated
milk samples. Where possible, advisers should not arrange to take milk samples
on wet days or too soon after wet weather.
Storage and handling of milk samples
Most bacteria that cause mastitis survive refrigeration for several days or freezing
for several weeks. Nocardia species are an exception to this general rule, as
storage of samples for only a few hours or freezing can reduce the likelihood of
isolating these organisms. The survival of Staph aureus, Strep agalactiae, Strep
dysgalactiae and Strep uberis was not impaired in milk samples that were stored
in a commercial freezer at 20
o
C for up to 16 weeks (Schukken et al 1989).
Other studies have found a variable effect on streptococci, especially Strep
dysgalactiae (Luedecke et al 1972, Murdough et al 1996).
The survival of Escherichia coli and Arcanobacterium pyogenes can also decrease
during freezing, with recovery rates for both pathogens decreasing by about 20%
in samples frozen for four weeks (Schukken et al 1989).
In a survey of the causes of clinical mastitis in East Gippsland, (Alison Gunn
personal communication) there was a significant relationship between the
proportion of samples from which no growth was obtained and the number of
page 7
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days of storage (mostly in domestic freezers). She recommended that farm
operators should be encouraged to submit frozen milk samples for culture within
a month of collection.
Freezing may increase the detection of coagulase negative staphylococci
(Schukken et al 1989) and possibly Staph aureus. The proposed mechanism for
this increase is the release of intracellular bacteria after the destruction of
leucocytes during the freeze-thaw process. Samples found to have negative growth
when cultured fresh may become positive after freezing.
Inappropriate storage and handling on-farm will significantly reduce the chance
of obtaining a meaningful culture result. It is not unusual to see samples sitting
in the dairy for hours without refrigeration or on the dashboard of the car on
Friday afternoon on the way to the veterinary clinic for submission to the
laboratory. It is essential for advisers to ensure the farm procedure for storing
and handling samples is satisfactory a physical demonstration is often very
helpful.
Laboratory techniques
Techniques used in laboratories must be appropriate to achieve reliable isolation
and identification of pathogens. This involves consideration of:
Methods of sample preparation, including warming and mixing especially
after freezing.
Possible pre-incubation in growth media.
The choice of culture media.
The methods of inoculating plates to ensure suitable combinations of
inoculum volume and surface area are used. Different combinations may be
optimal for different circumstances. For example, larger loop sizes holding
25 L or 50 L would be appropriate for milk samples from clinical cases
containing less than 200 bacteria/mL, as the standard 10 L loop is likely to
result in a culture with two or less colonies.
Incubation temperature and times.
Procedures for follow-up of samples with no growth, including tests for
inhibitory substances, and examinations for other organisms.
Procedures and tests for identifying pathogens from the primary culture.
Procedures for antibiotic sensitivity testing.
At present in Australia there appear to be significant differences between
laboratories in techniques for bacterial isolation, characterisation and antibiotic
resistance testing, and there is no standard recording protocol. In addition to
major laboratories, the number of small, local laboratories is increasing and many
of these are not using established quality assurance procedures. One objective of
Countdown Downunder is to establish uniform laboratory testing and reporting
procedures and to facilitate agreement by all laboratories to use them.
A bacteriology guide for bovine mastitis is published in the Australian Standard
Diagnostic Techniques for Animal Diseases (Claxton and Ryan 1993). Although
this requires some updating, it provides a good start. In 1999, the National Mastitis
Council in the United States released a revised edition of its Laboratory Handbook
on Bovine Mastitis. The handbook details microbiological diagnostic procedures
that differentiate mastitis pathogens (National Mastitis Council 1999). Details
can be obtained at its website at www.nmconline.org.
page 8
Technote 4
Technote 4
Fresh cow clinicals
Reasons for milk samples yielding no growth after culture
Clinical cases of mastitis from which no growth is obtained are both common
and frustrating. Many published surveys of clinical mastitis report 10-40% of
samples with no pathogen isolated. Probably the most common reason for no
growth is a decline in the number of bacteria in the sample, by the time it reaches
the laboratory, due to poor storage and handling. Other reasons include:
By the time the milk sample is collected, the infection has been eliminated by
host defence mechanisms. This is suggested particularly in the case of
coli-form infections. Zorah et al (1993) found that 51% of no growth
samples from clinical cases in Queensland were ELISA positive to Escherichia
coli antigens.
Bacteria are present in too low a concentration to be detected by the laboratory
culture technique used. For example, the inoculum size used on culture plates
may be inadequate.
Antibiotic treatment of the quarter before sample collection has interfered with
the ability to culture the infective organism. When submitting milk samples
from cows that are not responding to treatment or are repeat cases, it should be
noted on the laboratory submission form if they have received antibiotics within
seven days of sampling.
Contamination of the sample with disinfectant at the time of collection has
interfered with the ability to culture the infective bacteria.
The pathogen may not grow under normal culture conditions. For example,
standard bacterial culture conditions are unsuitable for the detection of
obligate anaerobes, mycoplasma and fungi.
The clinical signs of mastitis are due to non-bacterial causes such as toxic
substances.
Isolated bacteria may not be reported because they are not considered to be
major mastitis pathogens. For example, coagulase negative staphylococci are
traditionally considered minor pathogens although they have been reported to
cause clinical mastitis (Timms and Schultz 1987).
Antibiotic susceptibility testing
The disc-diffusion antibiotic sensitivity test (Kirby-Bauer method) is most
commonly used in veterinary laboratories. The disc-diffusion method involves
inoculating an agar plate with a standard inoculum, adding discs containing
standardised quantities of antibiotics, incubating for 18 hours and measuring the
zones of inhibition. In disc-diffusion tests, isolates are reported as susceptible,
intermediate or resistant to the antibiotics that were tested. Many of the discs in
use were designed in human laboratories and some drugs listed on the antibiotic
sensitivity report may not be registered for use in cattle.
The fact that an antibiotic is found to inhibit growth in the laboratory does not
necessarily mean that it will be successful in curing infections from the udder.
However, antibiotic sensitivity testing does give an indication of which drugs are
NOT likely to be effective (Ziv 1997).
Antibiotic sensitivity tests show
which drugs are not likely to be
effective. Just because an
antibiotic is effective at killing
bacteria on agar plates in the
laboratory does not mean it
will have the same success
in the cow.
page 9
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4.4 Select the antibiotic to be used consult your
veterinarian.
The goal of treatment is to cure the infection (bacteriological cure), return the
affected mammary glands to normal milk production (clinical cure), and minimise
pain and suffering of the cow. Ideally, the treatment period should be as short as
possible and there must be no risk of antibiotic residues entering the milk vat.
Staphs or Streps cause more than 80% of clinical mastitis cases in Australia.
Antibiotics are the basis of most treatment regimens and are administered by
infusion into the affected quarter (intramammary route) or by intravenous,
intramuscular or subcutaneous injection (parenteral or systemic routes).
Other support therapies such as oral or intravenous fluids and anti-inflammatories
may be used in very severe cases. Frequent stripping out and use of oxytocin to
aid milk let-down are important adjuncts. Farmers should always be encouraged
to remove milk from mastitic quarters, despite the fact that antibiotics have been
administered.
Most cases of clinical mastitis are treated without the benefit of bacteriological
examination of the milk before treatment is commenced. The treatment selected
is based on the severity of the mastitis, the history of the farm (including previous
milk culture results and responses to treatment), and the field experience of the
farmer and the prescribing veterinarian. In herd with clinical mastitis problems,
milk samples should be submitted for culture to establish the farm profile of
mastitis-causing organisms and develop appropriate treatment and control
protocols.
Treatment should always be administered according to the directions given on
the label and by the prescribing veterinarian. Recommended withholding periods
must be observed for milk and meat.
Intramammary antibiotics
Intramammary treatment is practical and effective for cases where the
inflammatory response does not occlude the teat canal or cistern.
Intramammary formulations should have the following qualities:
The formulation should cause minimal irritation to the udder.
The active ingredient must be effective against the bacteria.
The active ingredient must distribute well through the mammary gland
and persist in sufficient concentrations to effect a cure in localised areas of
infection.
The antibiotic should exhibit a low degree of binding to milk and udder
proteins.
The antibiotic should have a low degree of ionisation in the udder in this
form they are better retained in the udder.
In general, a smaller amount of active ingredient is required to achieve therapeutic
concentrations when intramammary products are given compared to systemic
doses. However, the inflammatory process in affected glands may impede
distribution of antibiotics.
Confidence High
Antibiotics are legally restricted drugs
that must be prescribed by a
veterinarian.
Although comparative efficacy data for
many product formulations is not readily
available, there are appropriate
antibiotics for the common pathogens.
Only use products registered
for administration to food
producing animals. Drugs such
as phenylbutazone and
gentamicin MUST NOT be
used.
page 10
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A conflict exists between the duration of treatment (in many cases, longer
treatment is associated with improved cure rates) and the desire to minimise the
period over which milk must be withheld from the vat. All treatments have
specified minimum treatment courses that should be adhered to.
Dry Cow Treatment preparations should never be used in lactating cows.
Inadvertent use of Dry Cow Treatment would require milk to be discarded for
extended periods of time.
Systemic antibiotics
Acute mastitis cases may benefit from both intramammary and systemic
antibiotics. Peracute cases often require systemic antibiotics and anti-
inflammatory preparations, and possibly intravenous fluids. The prognosis for
peracute cases in cows with severe clinical signs (as indicated by body temperature,
dehydration, etc) is poor regardless of treatment.
Systemic antibiotics have the advantage that drug distribution is not impeded by
local inflammatory reactions in the udder. However, to be effective, systemic
antibiotic treatments must be absorbed from the injection site and pass from the
blood into the udder. Their major difficulty is penetration of the blood-milk
barrier.
Drugs move across the blood-milk barrier by passive diffusion of the non-ionised
parts of the molecule according to the principle of osmosis. This barrier is
penetrated by the non-ionized, lipid soluble, non-protein-bound drug fractions.
Weak acids (e.g. penicillin G) are almost completely ionised in blood and have
poor tissue penetration. On the other hand, penethamate hydroiodide achieves
concentrations in the milk that are 5-10 times higher than other penicillin salts
due to its basic and lipophilic properties. This treatment results in high levels of
penicillin in the udder because it is hydrolysed as it crosses into milk liberating
active benzyl penicillin.
Ampiclox LC
Cepravin LC
Lincocin Forte
Mastalone Blue
Orbenin LC
Special Formula 17900 Forte V
Intramammary products available for use in lactating cows in Australia (October 1999)
Product name Company Treatment course in Active ingredients
affected quarters
Ampicillin 75 mg, Cloxacillin (sodium
salt) 200 mg
Cefuroxamine sodium 250 mg
Lincomycin hydrochloride 200 mg,
Neomycin sulphate 200 mg
Oxytetracycline 185 mg, Oleandomycin
100 mg, Neomycin 100 mg
Cloxacillin (benzathine salt) 200 mg
Neomycin sulphate 150 mg, Novobiocin
100 mg, Dihydrostreptomycin 100 mg
One syringe every 12 hours for
three treatments
One syringe every 12 hours in each
of three successive milkings
One syringe, repeat at intervals not
less than 12 hours, do not administer
more than three consecutive doses
One syringe, repeat daily for
three days
One syringe every 48 hours for
three syringes
One plastet per quarter per day
repeated at 24-hour intervals for
three days
Jurox
Schering-Plough
Pharmacia & Upjohn
Pfizer
Pfizer
Pharmacia & Upjohn
Technote 4.10 shows the
recommended withholding periods
for meat and milk for these
intramammary products.
Milk-to-plasma ratios of some
antibiotics used to treat
mastitis (Anderson 1989)
Antibiotic Milk-to-plasma ratio
Trimethoprim 3.7
Lincomycin or Erythromycin 3.0
Tylosin 2.0
Tetracycline 0.7
Streptomycin 0.5
Ampicillin 0.25
Sulphadiazine 0.21
Penicillin G 0.15
page 11
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Allowing for antibiotic sensitivity patterns, antibiotics with high milk-to-plasma
ratios are most suitable for systemic administration.
Recent clinical reports and studies suggest that the combined systemic and
intramammary antibiotic treatment may result in a slightly but significantly higher
rate of bacteriological cure in the treatment of acute staphylococcal and
streptococcal mastitis (Ziv 1997).
Published cure rates of antibiotics
Very little information is available to assess the efficacy and cost-effectiveness
of treatment of clinical mastitis during lactation, and to compare products in
Australian conditions.
In a review of antibiotic treatment of clinical mastitis during lactation, Craven
(1987) reported average cure rates for each antibiotic from scientific papers that
stated the number of quarters treated and had rigorous bacteriological assessment.
From this data (see table below), it was not possible to draw firm conclusions
about the relative effectiveness of different products given the wide range of
cure rates for similar antibiotics. There was a consistently greater bacteriological
cure rate for treating Strep agalactiae infections than those due to Staph aureus,
although cure rates are low for both organisms treated with neomycin.
Two recent clinical trials compared antibiotic products in clinical cases on
commercial farms in Australia or New Zealand:
1. McDougall (1998) reported clinical cure rates of greater than 80% in 798
clinical quarters, predominantly due to Strep uberis, treated either with:
A course of high potency intramammary penicillin-dihydrostreptomycin
containing 1 g of procaine penicillin and 500 mg of dihydrostreptomycin.
This product is not available in Australia.
Two subcutaneous injections of penethamate hydriodide in aqueous solu-
tion of 10,000,000 IU followed by 5,000,000 IU 24 hours later. (This dose
and method of administration is not recommended by the manufacturer of
penethamate hydriodide in Australia. On the Australian label, the manu
facturer specifies daily intramuscular injection of 5,000,000 IU for cattle.)
2. Wraight (1998) compared cefuroxime (Cepravin LC, Schering Plough) with
cloxacillin (Orbenin LA, Pfizer Animal Health). Pathogenic bacteria were
isolated from 61% of pre-treatment samples, including Strep uberis (32%),
Staph aureus (18%) and Escherichia coli (7%). There was no significant
difference between treatments with overall clinical cure rates of 82% in 416
cases and bacteriological cures rates of 70%.
Efficacy of treatment with different antibiotics (Craven 1987)
Antibiotic Cure of Staph aureus Cure of Strep agalactiae
Mean (%) Range (%) Reports (no.) Mean (%) Range (%) Reports (no.)
Penicillin 32 0 87 12 84 50 100 11
Cloxacillin 41 21 84 14 92 40 100 8
Neomycin 27 25 36 2 27 27 1
Tetracycline 54 17 96 8
Erythromycin 63 51 76 2
Pen / Strep 39 21 78 5 91 91 1
page 12
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Fresh cow clinicals
Specific mastitis treatments
The causative bacteria is usually not known at the time of treatment of individual
cases so that the choice of treatment is based on the herd history, clinical
judgement, and results of recent milk cultures.
Specific antibiotic treatment is indicated when cultures have been performed
and the pathogen identity is suspected or confirmed. Some features of treatment
of clinical cases caused by common pathogens are listed below:
Strep agalactiae
Strep agalactiae is highly sensitive to most of the commonly used antibiotics,
and a high cure rate (>90%) can be expected using the correct antibiotic.
Treatment stops shedding of Strep agalactiae by cows with clinical mastitis.
Treatment should be part of a total mastitis control program.
Staph aureus
Bacteriological cure rate during lactation is low (about 30-60%) because Staph
aureus causes micro-abscesses in the udder, survives inside cells, and some
forms are resistant to commonly used antibiotics (e.g. strains with the enzyme
beta-lactamase are resistant to penicillin).
The best hope for successful treatment is in young cows with recent infections
(of less than two weeks duration).
Treatment of clinical mastitis may reduce Staph shedding, and result in milk
returning to clinical normality.
Strep uberis
Experience shows some cases readily respond to treatment and others are quite
refractory to treatment. Recent research has found that field strains of Strep
uberis are able to invade and live in epithelial cells, which may partially
explain why infections are refractory to treatment (Keefe and Leslie 1997).
Escherichia coli
Toxins produced by Escherichia coli cause the clinical signs of mastitis. In
many cases, bacterial numbers are falling when clinical signs appear.
Treatment aims to remove toxin by frequent stripping out and use of 30-60 IU
oxytocin, and to minimise the effects of toxin by using anti-inflammatory agents
and possibly intravenous fluids.
Systemic antibiotics are given when the cow is extremely ill or when
intramammary infusions are unlikely to diffuse through tissue because the udder
is greatly swollen.
Technote 1 gives a list of actions
that should be considered when
managing outbreaks of Strep uberis
or Escherichia coli.
Technote 5 gives a list of actions
that should be considered when
managing outbreaks of Strep
agalactiae or Staph aureus.
page 13
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Supportive treatment
Injection with the milk ejection hormone oxytocin may help remove milk and
debris from hard, sore quarters. Oxytocin is a Prescription Animal Remedy and
can only be obtained through veterinarians.
There has been some discussion about treating mild clinical cases with oxytocin
and frequent stripping rather than using antibiotics. In mild clinical cases of
coliform mastitis, milk will usually return to normal within several milkings if
stripped frequently with 100 IU oxytocin (Guterbock et al 1993). (This dose is
higher than the Australian label recommendation of 30-60 IU.) In other
circumstances, oxytocin tends to alleviate clinical signs rather than effecting a
bacteriological cure. In a study of 40 herds, Hallberg et al (1994) found that it
was economically beneficial to use intramammary antibiotics to treat clinical
mastitis in lactating cows as this reduced the number of pathogens in the milk
and increased the cure rate and number of quarters returning to normal milk.
Flunixin meglumine inhibits prostaglandin production and limits exudate at the
site of inflammation. In contrast with corticosteroids, flunixin does not inhibit
white blood cell mobilisation at the infection site. Passage of flunixin from blood
to milk is poor, with levels in milk about 1% of those in blood. Nevertheless, it
has a useful systemic effect and helps reverse the clinical signs of shock in toxic
forms of coliform or staphylococcal mastitis.
Salicylates, such as aspirin, may help reduce fever and inflammation but have a
low potency and relatively short half-life. Although they are not registered for
use in cattle in Australia, some practitioners find them to be useful supportive
treatment (Whittem 1997a). In contrast, phenylbutazone has a long half-life (36-
72 hours in cattle depending on the dose) but its action may be cumulative and
toxic. Phenylbutazone is NOT APPROPRIATE FOR USE IN CATTLE in
Australia. Large doses of dexamethasone (1-3 mg/kg) have been used to treat
septic shock in people with good results, but the treatment for cattle is costly and
may impair the natural defence mechanisms within the udder.
Large volumes of isotonic intravenous fluid (25-40 L) can markedly improve the
chances of survival of cows suffering from acute toxic mastitis. In the early stages
of shock (for example, in cows that had a normal fluid status two hours earlier)
small volumes of hypertonic saline have been used as an initial treatment to help
restore the circulatory blood volume.
Technote 4.6 discusses off-label use
of animal treatments.
page 14
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Fresh cow clinicals
4.5 Administer the treatment as recommended.
Administration of intramammary preparations
The nozzle of intramammary treatments can introduce bacteria into teats if the
teat end is not properly disinfected. Fact Sheet B in the Countdown Downunder
Farm Guidelines for Mastitis Control gives a detailed description of the correct
way to administer intramammary treatments.
Ideally, antibiotics are given by partial insertion of short nozzle tubes just inside
the teat canal (1-2mm). This is unlikely to be achievable in cows that are not used
to having their teats touched, and may therefore not be appropriate for many
Australian dairy herds. If an operator is not confident that short nozzle tubes
will be used correctly, long nozzle tubes should be used rather than risk damaging
the teat canal epithelium.
Confidence High
There is strong evidence that udder
infusions can introduce pathogens unless
strict attention is paid to sterile technique.
Research priority Moderate
It may be beneficial to use systemic
antibiotics rather than intramammary
preparations in targeted herds.
Advisers are encouraged to
copy and distribute Fact Sheet
B in the Countdown
Downunder Farm Guidelines
for Mastitis Control to clients.
It is necessary to emphasise
that udder cleanliness required
for good milking hygiene is not
equivalent to, or stringent
enough for, sterile
intramammary infusions.
Demonstration of teat end
preparation and intramammary
infusion to staff who
administer the treatments
is worthwhile.
Administration of intramuscular antibiotics
Standards adopted by the Australian beef industry (CattleCare) to prevent carcase
downgrades and chemical residue problems are:
All injections are to be given into the muscles of the neck.
Injections are to be given in no more than 10 mL doses at any one site. For
example, when giving a 30 mL dose, inject 10 mL into each of three different
sites.
This is especially important for dairy cattle that may be culled within 12 months
of treatment.
Use short nozzle tubes (right) when possible and insert just inside
teat canal
page 15
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4.6 Use the full course of antibiotics (as specified on
the label).
The efficacy and treatment course for lactating cow formulations have been
established through extensive research for registration of the products
(www.dpie.gov.au).
Only affected quarters of clinical mastitis cases should be treated. As a significant
proportion of cows with clinical mastitis have more than one affected quarter, all
quarters should be checked at each milking during the treatment course to enable
early detection and treatment of affected quarters.
Regardless of whether a clinically affected quarter shows rapid improvement, it
is important to use the full course of antibiotic treatment specified by the product
manufacturer to reduce the likelihood of infection recurring because of inadequate
treatment, and to minimise the development of antibiotic resistant strains of
bacteria.
The development of antibiotic resistance
There is limited information on the rate that bacteria are developing resistance to
antibiotics commonly used to treat infections in food-producing animals.
The likelihood of antibiotic resistance developing broadly depends on the:
prevalence of resistant bacteria in the animal population;
frequency of antibiotic use in the animal population; and
type of exposure to the antibiotics, e.g. short treatment courses of high doses
of antibiotic confer less selective pressure than long-term exposure to low doses
of antibiotic.
In addition to these factors, the rate of spread of antibiotic resistance within and
between animal species will be influenced by the opportunity for contact between
animals and the host specificity of bacterial strains. It is therefore likely to vary
significantly with management systems, mix of enterprise types and geographic
location.
One of the few published studies on the change in prevalence of resistant mastitis
bacteria is in Finland, where Myllys et al (1998) reported an increase of 27% in
the proportion of Staph aureus strains resistant to at least one antibiotic (mostly
due to strains capable of producing beta-lactamase). There is currently no
substantial data set that enables comparisons of this finding with what is happening
in the Australian dairy cattle population.
An expert advisory committee (JETACAR), considering the future management
of antibiotic use in food-producing animals, recommended that a mechanism for
measuring the rate of development of resistance in Australia be established. A
surveillance system to measure the incidence and prevalence of antibiotic-resistant
bacteria and resistance genes in all areas of antibiotic use (including medical and
veterinary applications) may be appropriate (JETACAR 1999).
Confidence High
It is important to use the full course of
antibiotic treatment specified by the
product manufacturer to reduce the
likelihood of infection recurring and to
minimise the development of antibiotic
resistant strains of bacteria.
The JETACAR report can be

viewed at the website
www.health.gov.au/pubs/
jetacar.htm
page 16
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Off-label use
Off-label use refers to an unregistered use of a product. This includes any deviation
from the manufacturers recommendations, such as using a:
a different dose rate than stated on the label;
a different route of administration;
a different treatment interval; or
a drug for a different purpose to that stated on the label.
Off-label use can only be authorised by a consulting veterinarian and only where
state legislation permits. It is done at the vets discretion, taking knowledge of
safety and efficacy into account, and is usually restricted to situations where no
suitable registered product is available or where scientific evidence supports
off-label use.
In food-producing animals, veterinarians prescribing off-label use of drugs
become liable for setting appropriate withholding periods. These should be given
to the client in writing. Wherever possible, the proposed treatment should be
explained to the owner and informed consent obtained before treatment is started.
4.7 Milk the quarter out fully at least every milking.
Section 4.4 describes supportive treatment for clinical mastitis cases.
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4.8 Clearly mark treated cows.
All milking staff should be familiar with the system used on each farm to identify
cows that have been given antibiotic treatment. The Food Quality Program (1999)
gives examples of systems for temporary cow identification, all of which can be
very effective.
A separate identification system for marking cows that have received Dry Cow
Treatment allows for easy recognition if cows rejoin the herd in error, and can
help relief milkers or casual staff avoid mistakes.
Confidence High
Clearly marking treated cows decreases
the risk of antibiotic residue violations.
Two examples of temporary cow identification (Food Quality Program 1999)
Comparison of methods of temporary identification by the New Zealand Ministry of Agriculture
(Food Quality Program 1999)
Method Visibility Durability Ease of use
Velcro strip Excellent Good Easy to apply and remove
Insulation tape Excellent Good Easy to apply and cut off
Plastic hock strap Excellent Very good Easy to apply and remove
Spray paint (non-scourable) Variable Good Very simple
Spray paint (scourable) Variable Very poor Not suitable
Tailpaint Good Excellent Messy. Can paint over with new
colour after treatment
to avoid confusion
Paint stick/raddle Good Excellent Simple; use like a crayon
A cross differentiates the quarters a
clear reminder from the rear
Use red tape for front and blue for back
quarter
page 18
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4.9 Record all details.
Fact Sheet E of the Countdown Downunder Farm Guidelines for Mastitis Control
shows essential information to be recorded for each clinical case (including cow
identification, episode date, treatment details and withholding periods).
Advisers should encourage dairy farmers to keep permanent records of clinical
mastitis cases so they can manage individual cows and assess herd-level mastitis
control. For example, they can:
make decisions about how to dry-off cows (if selective Dry Cow Treatment is
being used);
make decisions about which cows to cull;
identify suspicious cows (if clots are found on the filter or bulk milk cell
counts rise);
assess the number of mastitis cases and their response to treatment;
calculate the cost of clinical mastitis in their herd;
identify risk periods (e.g. stage of lactation) for clinical mastitis;
determine the main mastitis pathogen(s) in the herd; and
review the effectiveness of mastitis control and udder health on farms.
Herd improvement organisations have started providing services that can link
clinical case information with details of the cows age, production, individual
cow cell counts (ICCC), previous clinical mastitis history, and Dry Cow Treatment
history (see example).
Example measures Whole herd Group comparisons within the herd Application
Lactation
number
Previous Dry Cow
Treatment (yes/no)
Level of clinical mastitis in the herd Describe the level of clinical mastitis.
(% or rate)
Clinical cases by days after calving Identify risk periods.
or in the dry period (% or rate)
Episodes per clinical case (no.) Differentiate individual cow from herd
problem.
Identify repeat cases for culling.
New versus chronic infections Assess effectiveness of Dry Cow
(% or rate)* Treatment strategy.
Identify priority control measures.
Volume of milk discarded (L) Establish cost of treatment.
Duration of treatment (days) Establish cost of treatment.
* Requires ICCC data.
Examples of measures used to assess clinical case management
page 19
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Data entry form for clinical cases of mastitis from the Maffra Herd Improvement Co-operative
Extract of a clinical case report from the Maffra Herd Improvement Co-operative
Clinical cases
Month of lactn 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Cases/100 cows 8 2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Target 5 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
page 20
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Fresh cow clinicals
4.10 Observe withholding times for milk and meat.
Withholding periods (WHP) refer to the minimum period of time that must elapse
after the last administration of a drug before an animal or its products are sold
for human consumption.
Pharmaceutical companies provide recommended withholding periods for their
products. Antibiotic residues in milk or meat will not exceed the relevant
Australian Maximum Residue Limit if treatments are used according to the label
directions and milk or meat are withheld for the specified withholding periods.
Recommended withholding periods are based on trials that specify the:
class of livestock, e.g. lactating cows;
dose rate, e.g. milligrams of drug per kilogram liveweight of animal;
dose interval, e.g. given once daily;
duration of treatment course;
route of administration, e.g. intramammary infusion or intramuscular
injection;
use of drugs within their expiry date;
use of drugs stored in accordance with label directions; and
pattern of use for which they are registered, e.g. individual animal treatments.
Any deviation from the registration specifications described above may lead to
changes in the withholding periods for a product. Such changes are unlikely to
be linear (e.g. doubling the dose cannot be extrapolated to a simple doubling of
the required withholding periods) (Whittem 1997b).
When giving systemic treatments for mastitis it is important to calculate the
correct dose, as withholding periods for milk and meat change markedly when
drugs are used at higher dose rates than specified on the label. Weights can be
measured on scales or by using girth measurements and height sticks as a guide.
Recommended withholding periods for milk and meat after Lactating Cow Treatment (October 1999)
Product Withholding period
After last infusion After last feed of treated milk
Milk Cow meat (days) Calf meat (days)
Ampiclox LC 72 hours 30* 30*
Cepravin LC 72 hours 7 Must not be fed to
(6 milkings) bobby calves
Lincocin Forte 96 hours 30 30
Mastalone Blue 7 days 30* 30*
Orbenin LC 96 hours 30 30*
Special Formula 72 hours 30 30
17900 Forte V
Figures with an asterisk are not from material approved by the National Registration Authority, but provided by the pharmaceutical companies as consistent with
NRA-approved withholding periods for other products. Contact the manufacturer or a veterinarian for further information.
Technote 4.4 describes the active
ingredients and treatment course for
these intramammary products.
Technote 3.1 gives comparable
information for Dry Cow Treatments.
page 21
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Milk should be withheld from the
vat if there is any suspicion that
they contain antibiotic residue.
Samples can be submitted
for antibiotic testing to help
resolve problems.
High dose rates constitute an off-label dosage and, for any prescription drug,
can only be considered with written permission from a veterinarian. They are a
common cause of antibiotic violations.
For registration purposes, the National Regulatory Authority requires withholding
periods to be based on the product sold for consumption. Consequently,
withholding periods for intramammary antibiotics for lactating cows refer to
cows and calves sold for meat or vats of milk.
In Australia, failure to observe withholding periods after treatment is the most
significant cause of residue non-compliance (Nicholls et al 1994). In dairy cattle,
antibiotic violations are often associated with:
inadvertent use of Dry Cow Treatment in lactating cows (note that Dry Cow
Treatment is registered only for use immediately after a cows last milking for
a lactation);
failing to identify treated cows;
failing to record treatment dates;
cows treated with Dry Cow Treatment at drying-off mistakenly rejoining the
milking herd;
off-label drug use and
cows treated with Dry Cow Treatment calving before expiry of the Minimum
Dry Period.
Antibiotic residue tests
Traces of antibiotic in milk may cause allergic reactions in people and inhibit
some starter cultures used in cheese production. National and international
regulations stipulate the maximum levels of antibiotics that may be present in
milk and these thresholds are often extremely low (Victorian Dairy Industry
Authority 1999). Dairy companies perform regular screening tests to detect
inhibitory substances in the vat milk that they collect. The dairy industry also
conducts an independent survey of bulk raw milk for antibiotic (and other)
residues, called the Australian Milk Residue Analysis. This service provides a
credible monitoring system that helps the Australian Quarantine Inspection
Service to sign off on European Union exports.
Any factory will conduct tests for farmers if there are concerns that antibiotics
may have contaminated the vat. The tests include microbial inhibition tests such
as the widely used Delvotest SP (DSM Food Specialists) and Disc assay (Difco
Laboratories), or assays such as Lak Teck (Idetek Inc.), Penzyme (SmithKline
Beecham Animal Health), CITE (IDEXX Corp.) or Charm II (Charm Sciences
Inc.). The tests should be performed by operators experienced in using the kits to
obtain valid results.
page 22
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These screening tests have been designed and validated for use on vat milk and
are likely to give false positive test results if they are applied to individual milk
samples. For example, non-specific inhibitory substances present in the milk of
freshly calved cows or clinical mastitis cases are likely to give a positive
Delvotest SP test result (Cullor et al 1993). Inhibitory substances and antibiotic
residue detected in an individual milk sample may not be excessive once it is
diluted with clean milk in the vat. However, testing individual milk samples with
factory screening tests provides a cheap and conservative approach to ensuring
contaminated milk does not go into the vat.
Vat screening tests are relatively non-specific and vary considerably in their ability
to detect all antibiotic families. A more sophisticated and expensive method for
quantifying and identifying the type of antibiotic present is High Pressure Liquid
Chromotagraphy (HPLC). Although this is more suited for testing milk samples
from individual cows, the cost (about $100) is likely to be prohibitive in normal
circumstances.
4.12 Make a particular effort to minimise spread of
bacteria from infected cows to other cows.
Technote 8 describes good hygiene during milking.
4.11 Discard milk from all quarters of cows that receive
treatment.
Even when a single quarter has been treated with intramammary antibiotic, it is
possible that some antibiotic will be absorbed into the bloodstream and pass into
the milk of normal quarters. The risk of antibiotic contamination is too great to
include milk from treated cows in the vat.
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4.13 Consult your veterinarian for advice about the
following options if a clinical quarter fails to
respond by the end of a full course of treatment
(as listed on the label).
The reasons why a clinical quarter may fail to respond to treatment need to be
considered when giving advice to clients. These may include:
Inappropriate choice of drug.
Drugs which do not have the spectrum of activity required to combat
infections in a particular herd will be ineffective.
The pharmacological properties of some drugs make them inappropriate for
use in mastitis therapy. For example, although some drugs are effective in
vitro they may be ineffective in vivo if they are unable to cross to the site of
the infection.
Physical obstruction preventing drugs reaching the site of infection.
Examples are accumulations of inflammatory cells and hyperplasia of
alveolar epithelium.
Infections, such as Staph aureus, can lead to fibrosis and formation of
micro-abscesses within the udder. Many antibiotics are unable to cross
these barriers in sufficient concentration to reach the minimal inhibitory
concentrations required at the site of infection.
Attributes of the bacteria.
Staph aureus bacteria, sensitive in vitro to the antibiotic used, may gain refuge
within the acid phagolysosomes of macrophages and polymorphonucleur
neutrophils with the udder. Antibiotic penetration of cells may be poor and
even if they gain access to the cell they may not distribute to the
phagolysosomes.
Other organism-related reasons for treatment failure include infections that
are resistant to useable antibiotics (e.g. Pseudomonas, mycoplasma, yeasts,
etc.) and the emergence of L-forms (naked acapsular forms that resist
beta-lactam antibiotics).
page 24
Technote 4
Technote 4
Fresh cow clinicals
Options when there is no response to treatment
Options that can be considered when a clinical quarter fails to respond to a full
course of treatment are discussed below.
Repeating the treatment but treating for an extended time with the antibiotic.
Oxytocin should be used at milking to assist as much milk removal as possi-
ble in conjunction with repeated antibiotic treatments. Note that repeated
treatments may extend the required withholding periods.
Trying a different antibiotic treatment.
This will be effective if the infection is more susceptible to the new
antibiotic or if the physical properties of the antibiotic allow it to reach the
infection site more effectively.
The longer a case of clinical mastitis persists, the greater the degree of
fibrosis and abscessation that may occur, and the less likely the quarter is to
respond to antibacterial treatment. Some cases just do not respond to
treatment.
Drying-off the infected quarter if it is not hot and swollen.
The cow should be in good general health apart from the infected quarter.
A simple method of drying-off a quarter is to stop milking the quarter, as
long as it is monitored to ensure that it does not develop into an acute case of
mastitis. It is important that these quarters are permanently identified to
prevent accidental attachment of cups to these teats at the time of milking.
Dry Cow Treatment must not be used in a quarter when the other quarters
are continuing to be milked. Dry Cow Treatments are not registered for use
in lactating cows. Some antibiotic will be absorbed into the bloodstream and
passed out in the milk from the normal quarters, so there is an unacceptable
risk of antibiotic contamination of the vat. At the end of lactation it is not
appropriate to use Dry Cow Treatment in a quarter that has been dried off
during lactation because intramammary Dry Cow Treatments will not be
absorbed in dry quarters. Advisers may consider using injectable antibiotics
at the end of lactation in these cows.
Stubborn cases of mastitis may be treated by preventing the quarter from
producing further milk permanently while retaining the cow in the herd
with three viable quarters. An alternative approach is to infuse an irritant
chemical solution (5% copper sulphate, or a solution of chlorhexidine
diacetate as per Boddie and Nickerson 1994) into the affected quarter to
produce a chemical mastitis that causes it to permanently dry-off. From the
animal welfare perspective, the short-term inflammation caused is prefer-
able to the long-term inflammation and other potential problems associated
with chronic mastitis. It is notable that most farmers do not report
any significant drop in production of the other three quarters during the
chemical cauterisation treatment. It is not acceptable, for animal welfare
reasons, to remove a teat by use of an elastrator ring or other means (unless
the teat is gangrenous as a result of the mastitis infection).
If a milk sample was collected
and frozen before the initial
treatment, it can be cultured to
determine the causal bacteria
and their antibiotic resistance.
Pathogens introduced at the
time of treatment (due to poor
technique when giving
intramammary infusions)
will only be identified by
resampling the quarter.
page 25
Technote 4 Jan 2000
Technote 4
Fresh cow clinicals
C
A
L
V
I
N
G
Drying-off the affected cow.
Drying-off cows with quarters that fail to respond to treatment removes a
source of infection to other cows in the milking herd. These cows may be
treated with Dry Cow Treatment and the affected quarter closely monitored
if the quarter becomes hot and swollen, or the cow becomes systemically ill,
treatment with lactating cow product in the infected quarter may need to be
reinitiated.
Culling chronically infected cows from the herd.
Culling chronically infected cows is an important component of any mastitis
control program. The recommended withholding period for meat must be
observed if the cow has been treated with antibiotics.
Using chemical solutions to permanently dry-off quarters:
The cow should be in good general health.
The quarter is milked out thoroughly with hand stripping and oxytocin
injections.
The quarter is infused with 20 mL of 5% copper sulphate solution and not
milked for seven more days. After infusion, it exhibits a large degree of
inflammation with associated heat, swelling and mild to moderate pain.
The pain and heat generally subside within the initial week post
treatment and the swelling over the next weeks.
On the eighth day, it is hand-stripped; if there is any sign of milk, the
procedure is repeated. If there is only serous fluids, the quarter is
cleared of as much fluid as possible and not milked any further.
page 26
Technote 4
Technote 4
Fresh cow clinicals
Key papers
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Boddie RL, Nickerson SC. Evaluation of chlorhexidine diacetate for permanently drying off chronic
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Claxton PD, Ryan D. Bovine mastitis. In: Corner LA, Bagust TE, editors. Australian Standard
Diagnostic Techniques for Animal Diseases, CSIRO for the Standing Committee on Agriculture and
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Craven N. Efficacy and financial value of antibiotic treatment of bovine clinical mastitis during
lactation a review. Brit Vet J 1987;143:410422.
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residue testing. In: Proceedings of the 32nd National Mastitis Council Annual Meeting, Kansas
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Veterinary Clinics of North America Food Animal Practice, Physical examination, WB Saunders,
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Food Quality Program. Cow identification Dairy First Fact Sheet 2-4. Guidelines for a dairy farm
HACCP system: reference manual. Department of Industry, Science and Tourism and Dairy Research
and Development Corporation, February 1999.
Gunn AA, Malmo J, Anderson GA, Caple IW. The effects of clinical production of dairy cows in herds fed
pasture. In: Proceedings of the XX World Association of Buiatrics Congress, Sydney, 1998:921-926.
Gunn AA, Malmo J, Anderson GA, Caple IW. The incidence of bacteria associated with clinical
mastitis in the Macalister irrigation district. In: Proceedings of the Australian Association of Cattle
Veterinarians, Hobart, 1999:197-206.
Guterbock WM, Van Eenennaam AL, Anderson RJ, et al. Efficacy of intramammary antibiotic
therapy for treatment of clinical mastitis caused by environmental pathogens. J Dairy Sci
1993;76:3437-3444.
Hallberg JW, Henke CL, Miller CC. Intramammary antibiotic therapy: to treat or not to treat? Effects
of antibiotic therapy on clinical mastitis. In: Proceedings of the 33rd National Mastitis Council
Annual Meeting, Orlando, Florida, 1994:28-39.
JETACAR. The use of antibiotics in food-producing animals: antibiotic-resistant bacteria in animals
and humans. Report of the Joint Expert Technical Advisory Committee on Antibiotic Resistance,
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symposium on udder health management for environmental streptococci, Ontario Veterinary College,
Canada, 1997: 75-86.
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o
C on survival
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World Association of Buiatrics Congress, Sydney, 1998:303307.
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quarters with subclinical mastitis. J Dairy Sci 1996;79:334-336.
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Nicholls TJ, McLean GD, Blackman NL, Stephens IB. Food safety and residues in Australian
Agricultural Produce. Aust Vet J 1994;71:397-399.
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page 1

Technote 1 Jan 2000

Mastitis is divided into two types

If possible heifers should be

Farmers should not restrict the

The JETACAR report can be

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