IC Engines 2012 Edition Theory & Questions

1.
Gas Power Cycles

Theory at a Glance (For IES, GATE & PSUs)
Carnot Cycle
A Carnot gas cycle operating in a given temperature range is shown in the p-v and T-s
diagram in Fig. below. The isentropic expansion process 4-1 and the isentropic compression
process 2-3 can be simulated quite well by a well-designed turbine and compressor
respectively, but the isothermal expansion process 3-4 and the isothermal compression process
1-2 are most difficult to achieve. Because of these difficulties, a steady-flow Carnot gas cycle is
not practical. We know that the Carnot cycle efficiency is given by the expression.

3 L 4
th
H 1 2
T T T
1 1 1
T T T
= = =

Carnot cycle on p-v diagrams

Carnot cycle on T-s diagrams

Fig. Working of Carnot engine
Gas Power Cycles
S K Mondals Chapter 1

Since the working fluid is an ideal gas with constant specific heats we have, for the isentropic
process,

1 1
3 1 4 2
4 1 3 2
V T V T
;
T V T V

| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .

Now, T1 = T2 and T4 = T3, therefore

3 4
1 2
V V
r
V V
= = = compression or expansion ratio
Carnot cycle efficiency may be written as,
th
1
1
1
r

=

From the above equation, it can be observed that the Carnot cycle efficiency increases as r
increases. This implies that the high thermal efficiency of a Carnot cycle is obtained at the
expence of large piston displacement. Also, for isentropic processes we have,

1 1
1 1 2 2
4 4 3 3
T P T P
and
T P T P

| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .

Since, T1 = T2 and T4 = T3, We have

1 2
P
4 3
P P
r
P P
= = = pressure ratio

Therefore, Carnot cycle efficiency may be written as,

q =
t h
1
P
1
1
r

From the above equation, it can be observed that, the Carnot cycle efficiency can be increased
by increasing the pressure ratio. This means that Carnot cycle should be operated at high
peak pressure to obtain large efficiency.
Note:
= = =

1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
Q Q Q Q W
T T T T T T
For Carnot cycle only

Stirling Cycle (Regenerative Cycle)
The Carnot cycle has a low mean effective pressure because of its very low work output.
Hence, one of the modified forms of the cycle to produce higher mean effective pressure while
theoretically achieving full Carnot cycle efficiency is the Stirling cycle. It consists of two
isothermal and two constant volume processes. The heat rejection and addition take place at
constant temperature. The p-v and T-s diagrams for the Stirling cycle are shown in figure
below.
Gas Power Cycles

Stirling cycle processes on p-v diagrams

Stirling cycle processes on T-S diagrams

Stirling Cycle Processes:
(a) The air is compressed isothermally from state 1 to 2.
(b) The air at state-2 is passed into the regenerator from the top at a temperature T1. The air
passing through the regenerator matrix gets heated from TL to TH.
(c) The air at state-3 expands isothermally in the cylinder until it reaches state-4.
(d) The air coming out of the engine at temperature TH (condition 4) enters into regenerator
from the bottom and gets cooled while passing through the regenerator matrix at constant
volume and it comes out at a temperature TL, at condition 1 and the cycle is repeated.
(e) It can be shown that the heat absorbed by the air from the regenerator matrix during the
process 2-3 is equal to the heat given by the air to the regenerator matrix during the
process 4-1, then the exchange of heat with external source will be only during the
isothermal processes.

Now we can write, Net work done = W = QS - QR
Heat supplied = QS = heat supplied during the isothermal process 3-4.

4 4
3 3
3 3
V V
P V ln , r CR
V V
| |
= = =
|
\ .

( )
H
mRT ln r =

Heat rejected = QR =Heat during the isothermal compression process, 1-2.
1
1 1
2
V
P V ln
V
| |
=
|
\ .

( )
H
mR T ln r =
( )
net H L
W mR ln r T T = (

Now,

( )
( )
( )
( )
L L
H H
net
th
S H H
mR ln r T T T T
W
Q mR ln r T T

= = =
and
L
th
H
T
1
T
=

Thus the efficiency of Stirling cycle is equal to that of Carnot cycle efficiency when both are
working with the same temperature limits. It is not possible to obtain 100% efficient
Gas Power Cycles

regenerator and hence there will be always 10 by 20 % loss of heat in the regenerator, which
decreases the cycle efficiency, Considering regenerator efficiency, the efficiency of the cycle can
be written as,
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
L
L
H
th
H R V H
R ln r T T
RT ln r 1 C T T
=
+

Where,
R
is the regenerator efficiency.

- Efficiency of Stirling cycle without regeneration

( )
( )
| |
+
|
\ .
=
| |
+
|
\ .
H
L
H H
L L
T
1 1 ln r
T
1
T T
1 1 ln r
T T

Ericsson cycle
The Ericsson cycle consists of two isothermal and two constant pressure processes.
The processes are:
Process 1-2: Reversible isothermal compression.
Process 2-3: Constant pressure heat addition.
Process 3-4: Reversible isothermal expansion.
Process 4-1: Constant pressure heat rejection.

The heat addition and rejection take place at constant pressure as well as isothermal
processes. Since the process 2-3 and 3-4 are parallel to each other on the T-s diagram, the net
effect is that the heat need to be added only at constant temperature T3 = T4 and rejected at
the constant temperature T1 = T2. The cycle is shown on p-v and T-s diagrams in fig. The
advantage of the Ericsson cycle over the Carnot and Stirling cycles is its smaller pressure ratio
for a given ratio of maximum to minimum specific volume with higher mean effective pressure.

Fig. Ericsson cycle on p-v diagrams

Fig. Ericsson cycle on T-s diagram

The thermal efficiency of Ericsson cycle is given by, (derivation is same as that of Stirling
cycle),
L L
H
th
H H
T T T
1
T T
(
= =
(

The Ericsson cycle does not find practical application in piston engines but is approached by a
gas turbine employing a large number of stages with heat exchangers, insulators and
reheaters.
Gas Power Cycles

Lenoir cycle
The Lenoir cycle consists of the following processes.
Constant volume heat addition (1-2); isentropic expansion (2-3); constant pressure heat
rejection (3-1). The Lenoir cycle is used for pulse jet engines.

Fig. Lenoir Cycle

S R
Le noi r
S
Q Q
=
( )
S v 2 1
Q mC T T =
( )
R P 3 1
Q mC T T =
( ) ( )
( )
v 2 1 P 3 1
Lenoi r
v 2 1
mC T T mC T T
mC T T

=

3 1
2 1
T T
1
T T
| |
=
|
\ .

Taking P2 / P1 = rp, we have T2 = T1rp and

1
3 3
2 2
T P
T P
| |
|
\ . | |
=
|
\ .

( ) ( )
( )
1 1
1 1
1/
3 2 P P
P P
1 1
T T T r T r
r r

| | | |
= = =
| |
\ . \ .

1
1
1/
1/
P 1
P
P 1 P
T r T
r 1
1 1
T r T r 1
| |
| |
|
= = |
|
|
\ .
\ .

Thus the efficiency of the Lenoir cycle depends upon the pressure ratio as well as the ratio of
specific heats, viz.
Otto cycle (The constant volume)
The main drawback of the Carnot cycle is its impracticability due to high pressure and high
volume ratios employed with comparatively low mean effective pressure. Nicolaus Otto (1876),
Gas Power Cycles

proposed a constant-volume heat addition cycle which forms the basis for the working of
today's spark ignition engines. The cycle is shown on p-V and T-s diagrams in figures below
respectively.

Fig. Otto Cycle

When the engine is working on full throttle, the processes 0 1 and 1 0 on the p - V diagram
represents suction and exhaust processes and their effect is nullified. The process 1 2
represents isentropic compression of the air when the piston moves from bottom dead centre to
top dead centre. During the process 2 3 heat is supplied reversibly at constant volume. This
process corresponds to spark-ignition and combustion in the actual engine. The processes 3
4 and 4 1 represent isentropic expansion and constant volume heat rejection respectively.

The thermal efficiency of Otto cycle can be written as
S R
Otto
S
Q Q
=
Considering constant volume processes 2-3 and 4-1, the heat supplied and rejected of air can
be written as

( )
S v 3 2
Q mC T T =
( )
R v 4 1
Q mC T T =
( ) ( )
( )
3 2 4 1
Otto
3 2
m T T m T T
m T T

=

4 1
3 2
T T
1
T T
= =

Considering isentropic processes 1 2 and 3 4, we have
( )
2
1
1
1 2
T
V
T V
| |
=
|
\ .

and
( )
3
1
4
4 3
T
V
T V
| |
=
|
\ .

But the volume ratios V1/V2 and V4/V3 are equal to the compression ratio, r. Therefore,
Gas Power Cycles

1 4
2 3
V V
r
V V
= =
Therefore,
3 2
4
1
T T
T T
=
From Eq.3.21, it can be easily shown that

4 4
3 2 3
1
1
2
T T T
T
T T T T
= =

1
Otto
2
T
1
T
=

( ) 1
1
2
1
1
V
V
=
| |
|
\ .

( ) 1
1
1
r

=

Note that the thermal efficiency of Otto cycle is a function of compression ratio r and the ratio
of specific heats, . As is assumed to be a constant for any working fluid, the efficiency is
increased by increasing the compression ratio. Further, the efficiency is independent of heat
supplied and pressure ratio. The use of gases with higher values would increase efficiency of
Otto cycle. Fig. below shows the effect of and r on the efficiency.

Effect of r and on Efficiency for Otto Cycle

Work Output
The net work output for an Otto cycle can be expressed as
3 3 4 4 2 2 1 1
p V p V p V p V
W
1 1

=

Also
3 2
1 4
p p
r
p p
= =

( )
3 4
p
2 3
p p
r say
p p
= =

1 2 4 3
V rV and V rV = =
Therefore,

3 3 1 1 4 4 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
p V p V p V p V
W 1
1 p V p V p V
| |
= +
|
\ .

Gas Power Cycles

p
1 1
p
r r
p V r
r 1
1 r r
| |
| = +
|
\ .

( )
1 1 1 1
p p
p V
r r r r 1
1

= +

( ) ( )
1 1 1
p
p V
r 1 r 1
1

=

Mean Effective Pressure
The mean effective pressure of the cycle is given by

m
Work output
p
Swept volume
=
( )
1 2 2
Swept volume V V V r 1 = =

( )
( )
( )
( )
1
1 1 p
m
2
1
p V r 1 r 1
1
p
V r 1

( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
1 1 p
p V r 1 r 1
1 r 1

Thus, it can be seen that the work output is directly proportional to pressure ratio,
p
r . The
mean effective pressure which is an indication of the internal work output increases with a
pressure ratio at a fixed value of compression ratio and ratio of specific heats. For an Otto
cycle, an increase in the compression ratio leads to an increase in the mean effective pressure
as well as the thermal efficiency.
Diesel cycle
In actual spark-ignition engines, the upper limit of compression ratio is limited by the self-
ignition temperature of the fuel. This limitation on the compression ratio can be circumvented
if air and fuel are compressed separately and brought together at the time of combustion. In
such an arrangement fuel can be injected into the cylinder which contains compressed air at a
higher temperature than the self-ignition temperature of the fuel. Hence the fuel ignites on its
own and requires no special device like an ignition system in a spark-ignition engine. Such
engines work on heavy liquid fuels. These engines are called compression-ignition engines and
they work on a ideal cycle known as Diesel cycle. The difference between Otto and Diesel
cycles is in the process of heat addition. In Otto cycle the heat addition takes place at constant
volume whereas in the Diesel cycle it is at constant pressure. For this reason, the Diesel cycle
is often referred to as the constant-pressure cycle. It is better to avoid this term as it creates
confusion with Joules cycle. The Diesel cycle is shown on p-V and T-s diagrams in fig.
respectively.

Gas Power Cycles

Figure: Diesel Cycle

To analyze the diesel cycle the suction and exhaust strokes represented by 01 and l 0, are
neglected as in the case of the Otto cycle. Here, the volume ratio
1
2
V
V
is the compression ratio,
r, the volume ratio
3
2
V
V
is called the cut-off ratio, rc.

Thermal Efficiency
The thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle is given by

s R
Di esel
s
Q Q
=

( ) ( )
( )
p 3 2 v 4 1
p 3 2
mC T T mC T T
mC T T

=

( )
( )
v 4 1
p 3 2
C T T
1
C T T

( )
( )
4 1
3 2
T T
1
1
T T
| |
= |
|
\ .

Considering the process 1 2

( )
( )
1
1
1
2 1 1
2
V
T T T r
V
| |
= =
|
\ .

Considering the constant pressure process 2 3, we have

3 2
2 3
V V
T T
=
( )
3 3
c
2 2
T V
r say
T V
= =

3 2 c
T T r =

( ) 1
3 1 c
T T r r
=
Considering process 3 4, we have
Gas Power Cycles

( ) 1
3
4 3
4
V
T T
V
| |
=
|
\ .

( ) 1
3 2
3
2 4
V V
T
V V
| |
=
|
\ .

( ) 1
c
3
r
V
r
| |
=
|
\ .

( )
( ) ( )
c
1 1
c
r 1
1
1
r r r

(
(
=
(

( )
( )
c
1
c
r 1 1
1
r 1
r

(
=
(

It may be noted that the efficiency of the Diesel cycle is different from that of the Otto cycle
only in the bracketed factor. This factor is always greater than unity. Hence for a given
compression ratio, the Otto cycle is more efficient. In diesel engines the fuel cut-off ratio, rc,
depends on output, being maximum for maximum output. Therefore, unlike the Otto cycle the
air-standard efficiency of the Diesel cycle depends on output. The higher efficiency of the Otto
cycle as compared to the Diesel cycle for the same compression ratio is of no practical
importance. In practice the operating compression ratios of diesel engines are much higher
compared to spark ignition engines working on Otto cycle. The normal range of compression
ratio for diesel engine is 16 to 20 whereas for spark-ignition engines it is 6 to 10. Due to the
higher compression ratios used in diesel engines the efficiency of a diesel engine is more than
that of the gasoline engine.

Work Output
The net work output for a diesel cycle is given by
( )
3 3 4 4 2 2 1 1
2 3 2
p V p V p V p V
W p V V
1 1

= +

( )
3 c 2 4 2 2 2 1 2
2 2 c
p r V p rV p V p rV
p V r 1
1 1

= +

( ) ( ) ( )
2 c 3 c 4 2 1
2
P r 1 1 p r p r p p r
V
1
( +
=
(

( ) ( )
4 1
2 c 3 c 2
3 2
2
p p
P r 1 1 p r r p 1 r
p p
V
1
( | | | |
+
( | |
\ . \ . (
=
(
(
(

( ) ( )
4 1
2 c 3 c 2
3 2
2
p p
P r 1 1 p r r p 1 r
p p
V
1
( | | | |
+
( | |
\ . \ . (
=
(
(
(

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1
c c c
2 2
r 1 1 r r r 1 r
p V
1

(
+
(
=
(

Gas Power Cycles

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
1 1 1
1 1 c
p V r r 1 r 1 r
1

(

(

=

The expression for mean effective pressure can be shown to be

( )
( )
( )
1
1 1 c c
m
1
p V r r 1 r 1
P
r 1
1 V
r
(

(

=
| |
|
\ .

( )
( )
( ) ( )
1 c c
p r r 1 r r 1
1 r 1
(

=

The dual or mixed or limited pressure cycle
In the Otto cycle, combustion is assumed at constant volume while in Diesel cycle combustion
is at constant pressure. In practice they are far from real. Since, some time interval is required
for the chemical reactions during combustion process, the combustion cannot take place at
constant volume. Similarly, due to rapid uncontrolled combustion in diesel engines,
combustion does not occur at constant pressure. The Dual cycle, also called a mixed cycle or
limited pressure cycle, is a compromise between Otto and Diesel cycles. Figures show the Dual
cycle on p-V and T-s diagrams respectively.
In a Dual cycle a part of the heat is first supplied to the system at constant volume and then
the remaining part at constant pressure.

Fig. Dual Cycle
Thermal Efficiency

The efficiency of the cycle may be written as

s R
Dual
s
Q Q
=
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
v 3 2 p 4 3 v 5 1
v 3 2 p 4 3
mC T T mC T T mC T T
mC T T mC T T
+
=
+

Gas Power Cycles

( )
( ) ( )
5 1
3 2 4 3
T T
1
T T T T
=
+

( )
( ) ( )
p c
p p p
r r 1
1
1
r 1
r 1 r r 1
(
(
=
(
+

It can be seen from the above equation that a value of rp > 1 results in an increased efficiency
for a given value of rc and . Thus the efficiency of Dual cycle lies between that of the Otto
cycle and the Diesel cycle having same compression ratio.

With
c
r = 1, it becomes an Otto cycle, and with r
p
= 1, it becomes a Diesel cycle.

Work Output

The net work output of the cycle is given by

( )
4 4 5 5 2 2 1 1
3 4 3
p V p V p V p V
W p V V
1 1

= +

( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1
p c p p c
p V
r r r 1 r r 1 r r 1
1

(
= +


The effective pressure is given by

s
Work output W
pm
Swept volume V
= =

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
p c p p c
1
r r r 1 r r 1 r r r 1
p
1 r 1
(
+
(
=
(

Atkinson cycle
Atkinson cycle is an ideal cycle for an Otto engine exhausting to a gas turbine. In this cycle the
isentropic expansion (3-4) of an Otto cycle is allowed to further expand to the lowest cycle
pressure (3-5) so as to increase the work output.

Fig. Atkinson Cycle
Gas Power Cycles

For 1 kg gas, ( )
1 v 3 2
Q C T T =
( )
2 p 5 1
Q C T T =

( )
( )
( )
p 5 1 5 1
cycle
3 2 v 3 2
c T T T T
1 1
T T c T T

= =

Let r compression ratio =
1
2
v
v

re, expansion ratio =
5
3
v
v

1 2 1
2 1
1 2
T v
T T r
T v

= =

3 3 3 5 3 1
2 2 5 2 5 2
T p p p p p
. .
T p p p p p
= = =

3 5
e
5 3
p v
r
p v
| |
= =
|
\ .

1 2
2 1
p v 1
p v
r
| |
= =
|
\ .

1 e
3 2 e 1 e 1
r 1 1
T T .r . T r .r . T .
r
r r
= = =

1
5 3
1
3 5
e
T v 1
T v
r
| |
= =
|
\ .

e e
5 3 1 1
1 1
e e
r r 1 1
T T . T . . T
r r
r r

= = =

Substituting ( ) ( )
2 3 5
T , T and T from Eqs. (b), c and d ,

e
1 1
Atki nson
e
1 1
r
T . T
r
1
r
T T r
r
1

e
e
r r
1
r r

Comparison of Otto, Diesel, and Dual cycles for the same compression
ratio and heat rejection

Gas Power Cycles

Fig. Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual Cycles for the same Compression Ratio

1- 2- 6- 5 - Otto cycle
1-2-7-5 - Diesel cycle
1-2-3-4-5 - Duel cycle

otto Dual Di esel
> >

Comparison of Otto, Diesel, and Dual cycles for the same Maximum
pressure and temperature and the heat rejection being also the same.

Fig. Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual Cycles for the Same Maximum Pressure and Temperature
1-6-4-5 -Otto cycle
1-7-4-5 - Diesel cycle
1-2-3-4-5 - Duel cycle

Di esel Dual Otto
> >

Same Peak Pressure, Peak Temperature and Heat Rejection:
Figure shows the Otto cycle 1-2-3-4 and Diesel cycle 1-2-3-4 on p-V and T-s coordinates, where
the peak pressure and temperature and the amount of heat rejected are the same.
The efficiency of the Otto cycle,

R
otto
S
Q
1
Q
=

Gas Power Cycles

Where, Qs in the area under the curve 2-3 in Fig. (b). The efficiency of the Diesel cycle, 1-2-3-3-
4 is,

R
otto
S
Q
1
Q'
=

Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input:

For same maximum pressure and heat input, the Otto cycle (1-2-3-4-1) and Diesel cycle (1-2'-
3'-4'-1) are shown on p-V and T-s diagrams in Fig. It is evident from the figure that the heat
rejection for Otto cycle (area 1-5-6-4 on T-s diagram) is more than the heat rejected in Diesel
cycle (1-5-6'-4'). Hence Diesel cycle is more efficient than Otto cycle for the condition of same
maximum pressure and heat input. One can make a note that with these conditions, the Diesel
cycle has higher compression ratio than that of Otto cycle. One should also note that the cycle
which is having higher efficiency allows maximum expansion. The Dual cycle efficiency will be
between these two.

For Same Maximum Pressure and Work Output
For same work output the area 1-2-3-4 (work output of Otto cycle) and area 1-2'-3'-4' (work
output of Diesel cycle) are same. To achieve this, the entropy at 3 should be greater than
entropy at 3' .It is clear that the heat rejection for Otto cycle is more than that of diesel cycle.
Hence, for these conditions, the Diesel cycle is more efficient than the Otto cycle. The efficiency
of Dual cycle lies between the two cycles.
Gas Power Cycles

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS (GATE, IES, IAS)

Previous Years GATE Questions
Carnot cycle
Q1. A cyclic heat engine does 50 kJ of work per cycle. If the efficiency of the heat engine is
75%, the heat rejected per cycle is [GATE-2001]
2 1 1 2
(a)16 kJ (b)33 kJ (c)37 kJ (d)66 kJ
3 3 2 3

Q2. A Carnot cycle is having an efficiency of 0.75. If the temperature of the high
temperature reservoir is 727 C/ what is the temperature of low temperature reservoir?
[GATE-2002]
(a) 23C (b) -23C (c) 0C (d) 250C

Q3. A heat transformer is a device that transfers a part of the heat, supplied to it at an
intermediate temperature, to a high temperature reservoir while rejecting the
remaining part to a low temperature heat sink. In such a heat transformer, 100 kJ of
heat is supplied at 350 K. The maximum amount of heat in kJ that can be transferred
to 400 K, when the rest is rejected to that can be transferred to 400 K, when rest is
rejected to a heat sink at 300 K is
(a) 12.50 (b) 14.29 (c) 33.33 (d) 57.14 [GATE-2007]

Q4. A solar energy based heat engine which receives 80 kJ of heat at 100 deg C and rejects
70 kJ of heat to the ambient at 30 deg C is to be designed. The thermal efficiency of the
heat engine is [GATE-1996]
(a) 70% (b) 1.88% (c) 12.5% (d) indeterminate
Stirling cycle
Q5. A Stirling cycle and a Carnot cycle operate between 50C and 350C. Their efficiencies
are s and c respectively. In this case, which of the following statements is true?
[GATE-1999]
(a) s > c (b) s = c
(c) s < c
(d) The sign of (s - c) depends on the working fluids used
Ericsson cycle
Q6. A cycle consisting of two reversible isothermal processes and two reversible isobaric
processes is known as [GATE-1996]
(a) Atkinson cycle (b) Stirling cycle
(c) Brayton cycle (d) Ericsson cycle

Q7. A gas turbine cycle with infinitely large number of stages during compression and
expansion leads to [GATE-1994]
(a) Stirling cycle (b) Atkinson cycle
(c) Ericsson cycle (d) Brayton cycle
Gas Power Cycles

The constant volume or Otto cycle
Q8. Which one of the following is NOT a necessary assumption for the air-standard Otto
cycle?
(a) All processes are both internally as well as externally reversible.
(b) Intake and exhaust processes are constant volume heat rejection
processes.
(c) The combustion process is a constant volume heat addition process.
(d) The working fluid is an ideal gas with constant specific heats. [GATE-2008]

Q9. An engine working on air standard Otto cycle has a cylinder diameter of 10 cm and
stroke length of 15 cm. The ratio of specific heats for air is 1.4. If the clearance volume
is 196.3 cc and the heat supplied per kg of air per cycle is 1800kJ/kg, then work output
per cycle per kg of air is [GATE-2004]
(a) 879.1 kJ (b) 890.2 kJ
(c) 895.3 kJ (d) 973.5 kJ

Q10. For an engine operating on air standard Otto cycle, the clearance volume is 10% of the
swept volume. The specific heat ratio of air is 1.4. The air standard cycle efficiency is
[GATE-2003]
(a) 38.3% (b) 39.8% (c) 60.2% (d) 61.7%

Q11. An ideal air standard Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 8.5. If the ratio of the
specific heats of (y) is 1.4/ then what is the thermal efficiency (in percentage) of the
Otto cycle? [GATE-2002]
(a) 57.5 (b) 45.7 (c) 52.5 (d) 95

Q12. In an air-standard Otto cycle, the compression ratio is 10. The condition at the
beginning of the compression process is 100 kPa and 27
0
C. Heat added at constant
volume is 1500 kJ/kg, while 700 kJ/kg of heat is rejected during the other constant
volume process in the cycle. Specific gas constant for air = 0.287 kJ/kgK. The mean
effective pressure (in kPa) of the cycle is [GATE -2009]
(a) 103 (b) 310 (c) 515 (d) 1032

Q13. In a spark ignition engine working on the ideal Otto cycle, the compression ratio is 5.5.
The work output per cycle (i.e., area of the P-V diagram) is equal to 23.625 x 10
5
x Vc J,
where Vc is the clearance volume in m
3
. The indicated mean effective pressure is
[GATE-2001]
(a) 4.295 bar (b) 5.250 bar
(c) 86.870 bar (d) 106.300 bar
Comparison of Otto, diesel, and dual (limited-pressure)
cycles
Q14. List l List II [GATE-1995]
(Heat Engines) (Cycles)
(A) Gas Turbine 1. Constant volume heat addition and constant volume
heat rejection
(B) Petrol Engine 2. Constant pressure heat addition and constant volume
heat rejection
(C) Stirling Engine 3. Constant pressure heat addition and constant pressure
heat rejection
Gas Power Cycles

(D) Diesel Engine 4. Heat addition at constant volume followed by heat
addition at constant temperature
5. Heat rejection at constant volume followed by heat
rejection at constant temperature
A B C D A B C D
(a) 3 1 4 2 (b) 1 4 2 3
(c) 4 2 3 1 (d) 2 3 1 4

Common Data for Questions 15 & 16:
In two air standard cycles - one operating on the Otto and the other on the Brayton cycle-air is
isentropic ally compressed from 300 to 450 K. Heat is added to raise the temperature to 600 K
in the Otto cycle and to 550 K in the Brayton cycle.

Q15. If
o
q and
B
q are the efficiencies of the Otto and Brayton cycles, then
(a) 0.25, 0.18
o B
q q = = [GATE-2005]
(b) 0.33
o B
q q = =
(c) 0.5, 0.45
o B
q q = =
(d) It is not possible to calculate the efficiencies unless the temperature after the
expansion is given

Q16. If Wo and WB are work outputs per unit mass, then [GATE-2005]
(a) Wo> WB
(b) WO<WB
(c) WO=WB
(d) it is not possible to calculate the work outputs unless the temperature after
expansion is Given.

Q17. A diesel engine is usually more efficient than a spark ignition engine because
(a) diesel being a heavier hydrocarbon, releases more heat per kg than gasoline
(b) The air standard efficiency of diesel cycle is higher than the Otto cycle, at a fixed
compression ratio [GATE-2003]
(c) The compression ratio of a diesel engine is higher than that of an SI engine
(d) Self ignition temperature of diesel is higher than that of gasoline

Q18. Consider air standard Otto and Diesel cycles, both having the same state of air at the
start of compression. If the maximum pressure in both the cycles is the same, then
compression ratio 'r' and the efficiency '' are related by
(a) rDiesel > rOtto (b) rDiesel < rOtto
(c) Otto > Diesel (d) Otto < Diesel [GATE-2000]

Previous Years IES Questions
Carnot cycle
Q1. Which gas power cycle consists of four processes during which work alone is transferred
and heat alone is transferred during the other two processes?
(a) Atkinson cycle (b) Carnot cycle [IES-2008]
(c) Diesel cycle (d) Otto cycle

Gas Power Cycles

Q2. Three engines A, B and C operating on Carnot cycle use working substances as Argon,
Oxygen and Air respectively. Which engine will have higher efficiency?
[IES-2009]
(a) Engine A (b) Engine B
(c) Engine C (d) All engines have same efficiency

Q3. Which one of the following cycles has the highest thermal efficiency for given maximum
and minimum cycle temperatures? [IES-2005]
(a) Brayton cycle (b) Otto cycle
(c) Diesel cycle (d) Stirling cycle

Q4. For a heat engine operating on the Carnot cycle, the work output is th of the heat
transferred to the sink. The efficiency of the engine is [IES-2003]
(a) 20 % (b) 33.3 % (c) 40 % (d) 50 %

Q5. The data given in the table refers to an engine based on Carnot cycle, where
Q1 = Heat received (kJ/min), Q2 = Heat rejected (kJ/s), W = Work output (kW)
S. No. Q1 Q2 W
1.
2.
3.
4.
1500
1600
1700
1800
16.80
17.92
19.03
20.15
8.20
8.75
9.30
9.85
If heat received by the engine is 2000 kJ/minute the work output will be, nearly,
[IES-2001]
(a) 9.98 (b) 10.39 (c) 11.54 (d) 10.95

Q6. A Carnot engine uses nitrogen as the working fluid ( = 1.4). The heat supplied is 52 kJ
and adiabatic expansion ratio 32:1. The receiver temperature is 295 K. What is the
amount of heat rejected? [IES 2007]
(a) 11 kJ (b) 13 kJ (c) 26 kJ (d) 28 kJ

Q7. In a heat engine operating in a cycle between a source temperature of 606C and a sink
temperature of 20C, what will be the least rate of heat rejection per kW net output of
the engine? [IES-2004]
(a) 0.50 kW (b) 0.667 kW (c) 1.5 kW (d) 0.0341 kW

Q8. Which one of the following changes/sets of changes in the source and sink temperatures
(T1 and T2 respectively) of a reversible engine will result in the maximum improvement
in efficiency?
(a)
1
T T + A (b)
2
T T A
(c)
1
T T + A and
2
T T A (d)
1
T T A and
2
T T A [IES-1994]

Q9. A heat engine using lake water at 12
o
C as source and the surrounding atmosphere at 2

o
C as sink executes 1080 cycles per min. If the amount of heat drawn per cycle is 57 J,
then the output of the engine will be [IES-1993]
(a) 66W (b) 56W (c) 46 W (d) 36 W
Stirling cycle
Q10. What does the reversed ideal Stirling cycle consist of? [IES-2005]
(a) Tow reversible isothermal processes and two reversible adiabatic processes
(b) Two reversible isothermal processes and two reversible isochoric processes
(c) Two reversible isobaric processes and two reversible adiabatic processes
Gas Power Cycles

(d) Two reversible adiabatic processes and two reversible isochoric processes

Q11.

Thermodynamic cycle shown above on the temperature entropy diagram pertains to
which one of the following?
(a) Stirling cycle (b) Ericsson cycle
(c) Vapour compression cycle (d) Brayton cycle [IES 2007]
Ericsson cycle
Q12. Which cycle consists of two reversible isotherms and two reversible isobars?
(a) Carnot cycle (b) Stirling cycle
(c) Ericsson cycle (d) Brayton cycle [IES-2009]

Q13. Which one of the following parameters is significant to ascertain chemical equilibrium
of a system? [IES-2009]
(a) Clapeyron relation (b) Maxwell relation
(c) Gibbs function (d) Helmholtz function

Q14. Brayton cycle with infinite inter-cooling and reheating stages would approximate a
[IES-2002]
(a) Stirling cycle (b) Ericsson cycle
(c) Otto cycle (d) Atkinson cycle
The constant volume or Otto cycle
Q15. Which one of the following p-T diagrams illustrates the Otto cycle of an ideal gas?
[IES-1996]

Q16. Which one of the following diagrams represents Otto cycle on temperature (T) - entropy
(s) plane? [IES-1993]
Gas Power Cycles

Q17. An Otto cycle on internal energy (U) and entropy(s) diagram is shown in
[IES-1992]

Q18. Consider the following statements regarding Otto cycle: [IES-1998]
1. It is not a reversible cycle.
2. Its efficiency can be improved by using a working fluid of higher value of ratio of
specific heats.
3. The practical way of increasing its efficiency is to increase the compression ratio.
4. Carburetted gasoline engines working on Otto cycle can work with compression
ratios more than
Of these statements
(a) 1, 3 and 4 are correct (b) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
(c) 1, 2 and 4 are correct (d) 2, 3 and 4 are correct

Q19. For maximum specific output of a constant volume cycle (Otto cycle)
(a) The working fluid should be air [IES-1997]
(b) The speed should be high
(c) Suction temperature should be high
(d) Temperature of the working fluid at the end of compression and expansion should
be equal

Gas Power Cycles

Q20. In an air standard Otto cycle, r is the volume compression ratio and y is an adiabatic
index (Cp/ Cv), the air standard p v efficiency is given by [IES-2002]
(a)
1
1
1
r
q

= (b)
1
1
r
q =
(c)
1
1
1
r
q

= (d)
1
2
1
1
r
q

=

Q21. For the same maximum pressure and heat input, the most efficient cycle is
(a) Otto cycle (b) Diesel cycle [IES-2000]
(c) Brayton cycle (d) Dual combustion cycle

Q22. Assertion (A): Power generated by a four stroke engine working on Otto cycle is higher
than the power generated by a two stroke engine for the same swept volume, speed,
temperature and pressure conditions. [IES-2003]
Reason (R): In a four stroke engine one cycle is completed in two revolutions.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false but R is true
The diesel cycle
Q23. Consider the following statements: [IES-2006]
1. For a Diesel cycle, the thermal efficiency decreases as the cut off ratio increases.
2. In a petrol engine the high voltage for spark is in the order of 1000 V
3. The material for centre electrode in spark plug is carbon.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 1 and 2
(c) Only 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

Q24. In an air-standard Diesel cycle, r is the compression ratio, p is the fuel cut - off ratio
and y is the adiabatic index (Cp/ Cv). Its air standard efficiency is given by
[IES-2002]
(a)
( )
( )
q

(
(
=
(

1
1
1 .
1 r
(b)
( )
( )
1
1
1
1
1 .
1 r
( =
(

(c)
( )
( )
1
1
1
1 .
1 r
( =
(

(d)
( )
( )
1
1
1
1 .
1 r
( =
(

Q25. Assertion (A): The air standard efficiency of the diesel cycle decreases as the load is
increased
Reason (R): With increase of load, cut-off ratio increases. [IES-2001]
The dual or mixed or limited pressure cycle
Q26. In a standard dual air cycle, for a fixed amount of heat supplied and a fixed value of
compression ratio, the mean effective pressure [IES-2003]
Gas Power Cycles

(a) Shall increase with increase in rp (pressure ratio for constant volume heating) and
decrease in rc (constant pressure cut-off ratio)
(b) Shall increase with decrease in rp and increase in rc
(c) Shall remain independent of rp
(d) Shall remain independent of rc
Comparison of Otto, diesel, and dual (limited-pressure) cycles
Q27.

The correct sequence of the cycles given in the above T-S diagrams is
(a) Vapour compression refrigeration, Rankine, Diesel, Otto [IES-2003]
(b) Rankine, Vapour compression refrigeration, Diesel, Brayton
(c) Rankine, Carnot, Otto, Brayton
(d) Vapour compression refrigeration, Carnot, Diesel, Otto

Q28.

The correct sequence of the given four cycles on T-s plane in Figure (1), (2), (3), (4) is
[IES-2002]
(a) Rankine, Otto, Carnot and Diesel
(b) Rankine, Otto, Diesel and Carnot
(c) Otto, Rankine, Diesel and Carnot
(d) Otto, Rankine, Carnot and Diesel

Q29. For the same maximum pressure and heat input [IES-1992]
(a) The exhaust temperature of patrol is more than that of diesel engine
(b) The exhaust temperature of diesel engine is more than that of patrol engine
(c) The exhaust temperature of dual cycle engine is less than that of diesel engine
(d) The exhaust temperature of dual cycle engine is more than that of patrol engine

Q30. Match List I with II and select the correct answer using the code given below the
[IES 2007]
Gas Power Cycles

Lists:
List I List II
(Prime Mover) (Air Standard Cycle)
A. High Speed diesel engine 1. Atkinson Cycle
B. IC engine having expansion 2. Dual combustion limited pressure
ratio greater than compression ratio cycle
C. Pulse jet engine 3. Erickson Cycle
D. Gas turbine with multistage 4. Lenoir cycle
compression and multistage expansion
Code:
A B C D A B C D
(a) 3 1 4 2 (b) 2 4 1 3
(c) 3 4 1 2 (d) 2 1 4 3

Q31. The order of values of thermal efficiency of Otto, Diesel and Dual cycle, when they have
equal compression ratio and heat rejection, is given by [IES-2002]
(a)
otto diesel dual
q q q > > (b)
diesel dual otto
q q q > >
(c)
dual diesel otto
q q q > > (d)
otto dual diesel
q q q > >

Q32. Match List-I with List-II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the
lists: [IES-2001]
List-I List-II
(Cycles operating between (Characteristic of cycle efficiency )
fixed temperature limits)
A. Otto cycle 1. depends only upon temperature limits
B. Diesel cycle 2. depends only on pressure limits
C. Carnot cycle 3. depends on volume compression ratio
D. Brayton cycle 4. depends on cut-off ratio and volume
compression ratio
A B C D A B C D
(a) 3 4 1 2 (b) 1 4 3 2
(c) 3 2 1 4 (d) 1 2 3 4
lists: [IES-2001]
List-I List-II
A. Air standard efficiency of Otto cycle 1. Mechanical efficiency
B. Morse test 2. Diesel cycle
C. Constant volume cycle 3. Brake thermal efficiency
D. Constant pressure heat addition 4. Otto cycle
5.
( ) 1
1
1
r

Codes:
A B C D A B C D
(a) 5 1 4 2 (b) 3 5 2 4
(c) 3 5 4 2 (c) 5 1 2 4

Q34. Assertion (A): The C.I. engine is found to be more efficient than an S.I. engine.
Reason (R): Modern C.I. engines operate on a dual-cycle, which has efficiency greater
than the Otto cycle. [IES-2001]
Gas Power Cycles


Q35. Match List-I (name of cycles) with List-II (pv diagrams) and select the correct answer
using the codes given below the lists: [IES-1999]
List I List II
A. Stirling cycle

B. Diesel cycle

C. Otto cycle

D. Atkinson cycle

Code:
A B C D A B C D
(a) 2 3 1 5 (b) 1 3 2 5
(c) 2 3 1 4 (d) 5 3 2 1
Q36. Match List-I (details of the processes of the cycle) with List-II (name of the cycle) and
select correct answer using the codes given below the Lists:
List-I List-II [IES-1997]
A. Two isothermals and two adiabatic 1. Otto
B. Two isothermals and two constant volumes 2. Joule
C. Two adiabatic and two constant volumes 3. Carnot
D. Two adiabatic and two constant pressures 4. Stirling
Code:
A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 3 1 2 (b) 4 3 2 1
(c) 3 4 1 2 (d) 3 4 2 1

Gas Power Cycles

Q37. Assertion (A): In practice, the efficiency of diesel engines is higher than that of petrol
engines. [IES-1997]
Reason (R): For the same compression ratio, the efficiency of diesel cycle is higher than
that of Otto cycle.

Q38. For constant maximum pressure and heat input, the air standard efficiency of gas
power cycles is in the order [IES-1993]
(a) Diesel cycle, dual cycle, Otto cycle
(b) Otto cycle, Diesel cycle, dual cycle
(c) Dual cycle, Otto cycle, Diesel cycle
(d) Diesel. cycle, Otto cycle, dual cycle

Q39. For the same maximum pressure and temperature [IES-1992]
(a) Otto cycle is more efficient than diesel cycle
(b) Diesel cycle is more efficient than Otto cycle
(c) Dual cycle is more efficient than Otto and diesel cycles
(d) Dual cycle is less efficient than Otto diesel cycles

Q40. Match List I (Cycles) with List II (Processes) and select the correct answer using the
codes given below the Lists: [IES-2003]
List I List II
(Cycles) (Processes)
A. Bell Coleman cycle 1. One constant pressure, one constant volume and
two is entropic
B. Stirling cycle 2. Two constant pressure and two is entropic
C. Ericsson cycle 3. Two constant pressure and two isothermal
D. Diesel cycle 4. Two constant volume and two isothermal
Codes:
A B C D A B C D
(a) 2 3 4 1 (b) 1 4 3 2
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 1 3 4 2

Q41. Match List-l (Gas Cycles) with List-ll (Thermodynamic co-ordinates) and select the
correct answer using the codes given below the lists: [IES-2009]

List-I
A. Carnot cycle
B. Brayton cycle
C. Ericsson cycle
D. Stirling cycle
List-II
1. Pressure-Entropy
2. Pressure-Temperature
3. Temperature-Volume
4. Temperature-Entropy
Codes:
A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 2 1 3 (b) 3 2 1 4
(c) 4 1 2 3 (d) 3 1 2 4

Gas Power Cycles

Previous Years IAS Questions
Carnot cycle
Q1. Assertion (A): Two engines A and B work on the Carnot cycle. Engine A uses air as the
working substance and B uses steam as the working substance. Both engines are
having same efficiency. [IAS-2007]
Reason (R): Carnot cycle efficiency is independent of working substance.

Q2. A heat engine working on Carnot cycle receives heat at the rate of 40 kW from a source
at 1200 K and rejects it to a sink at 300 K. The heat rejected is
(a) 30 kW (b) 20 kW (c) 10 kW (d) 5 kW [IAS-2001]

Q3. A heat engine using lake water at 12
o
C as source and the surrounding atmosphere at
2
o
C as sink executes 1080 cycles per min. If amount of heat supplied per cycle is 57 J,
what is the output of the engine? [IAS-2004]
(a) 66 W (b) 56 W (c) 46 W (d) 36 W
Stirling cycle
Q4. Which one of the following pairs of air standard cycles has the same efficiency as that of
Carnot cycle when operating between the same maximum (source) and minimum (sink)
temperatures together with ideal regeneration?
(a) Otto and Brayton (b) Brayton and Ericsson
(c) Ericsson and Stirling (d) Stirling and Otto [IAS-1997]
Ericsson cycle
Q5. A gas turbine cycle with infinitely large number of stages during compression and
expansion approaches [IAS-2003]
(a) Stirling cycle (b) Atkinson cycle
(c) Ericsson cycle (d) Brayton cycle
Lenoir cycle
Q6. Pulse jet engine operation can be idealized/ approximated to follow which one of the
following? [IAS-2007]
(a) Brayton cycle (b) Ericsson cycle
(c) Lenoir cycle (d) Stirling cycle
The diesel cycle
Q7. In the case of a Diesel cycle, increasing the cut-off ratio will increase
(a) Efficiency (b) mean effective pressure [IAS-1996]
(c) The maximum weight (d) the engine weight

Comparison of Otto, diesel, and dual (limited-pressure)
cycles
Gas Power Cycles

Q8. Match List - I (Thermodynamic system/prime mover) with List - II (Thermodynamic
Cycle) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the list:
[IAS-1998]
List I List - II
A. Air liquefaction plant 1. Atkinson cycle
B. Gas turbine with multistage compression 2. Brayton cycle
and multistage expansion
C. Free piston engine/compressor with 3. Ericsson cycle
a gas turbine
D. Pulse jet 4. Reversed striling cycle
5. Lenoir cycle
Codes:
A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 2 4 3 (b) 1 2 3 4
(c) 4 3 1 5 (d) 4 3 5 1

Q9. Assertion (A): For a given compression ratio, the thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle
will be higher than that of the Otto cycle. [IAS-2000]
Reason(R): In the Diesel cycle, work is also delivered during heat addition.

Q10. Match List I (Cycle) with List II (Process) and select the correct answer:
List I List II
A. Otto 1. Two isothermal and two constant volumes [IAS-2000]
B. Stirling 2. Two isothermal and two isobars
C. Ericsson 3 Two isentropic and two isobar
D. Brayton 4.Two isentropic and two constant volume
5. Two isentropic and two isothermal
A B C D A B C D
(a) 2 3 4 1 (b) 3 2 1 4
(c) 3 2 4 1 (d) 2 3 1 4

Q11. The air standard efficiency of diesel cycle will be less than that of Otto cycle in the case
of [IAS-1999]
(a) Same compression ratio and same heat input
(b) Same maximum pressure and same heat input
(c) Same maximum pressure and same output
(d) Same maximum pressure and S8.me maximum temperature

Q12. Which one of the following cycles working within the same temperature limits has the
highest work ratio? [IAS-1998]
(a) Carnot cycle (b) Joule cycle
(c) Otto cycle (d) Rankine cycle

Q13. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the
lists: [IAS-1996]
List I List II
A. Compression ratio 1. Brayton cycle
B. Pressure ratio 2. Diesel cycle
C. Cut-off ratio 3. Dual combustion cycle
Gas Power Cycles

D. Explosion ratio 4. Otto cycle
Codes: A B C D A B C D
(a) 1 4 3 2 (b) 1 4 2 3
(c) 4 1 2 3 (d) 4 1 3 2

Q14. A Diesel and Otto cycle have the same compression ratio 'r'. The cut-off ratio of the
cycle iss. The air standard efficiency of these cycles will be equal when
(a) s
k
- k (s - 1) - 1= 0 (b) s
k
- k (s - 1)+ 1 = 0 [IAS-1996]
(c) s
k
- k (s - 1)+ 1 = 0 (d) s
k
- (s - 1)- k = 0

Q15. For the same compression ratio and the same heat input, the correct sequence of the
increasing order of the thermal efficiencies of the given cycles is
[IAS-1996]
(a) Otto, Diesel, dual (b) Diesel, dual Otto
(c) Dual, Diesel, Otto (d) Dual, Otto, Diesel

lists: [IAS-1995]
List-I List-II
A. Twoconstant volumes and two adiabatics 1. Ericsson
B. Twoconstant pressures and two adiabatics 2. Stirling
C.Twoconstant volumes and two isothermals 3. Joule
D. Twoconstant pressure and two isothermals 4. Otto
(a) 3 4 2 1 (b) 3 4 1 2
(c) 4 3 1 2 (d) 4 3 2 1

Q17. Otto cycle efficiency is higher than Diesel cycle efficiency for the same compression
ratio and heat input because, in Otto cycle [IAS 1994]
(a) Combustion is at constant volume
(b) Expansion and compression are isentropic
(c) Maximum temperature is higher
(d) Heat rejection is lower

Q18. Which one of the following hypothetical heat engine cycle represents maximum
efficiency? [IAS-1999]

Gas Power Cycles

ANSWER WITH EXPLANATION

Previous Years GATE Answers
1. Ans. (a)
1
1 1
W 50
or 0.75 or Q 66.67kJ
Q Q
q = = =
1 2 2
2
And W Q Q or Q 66.67 50 16 kJ
3
= = =
2. Ans. (b)
( )
0 min min
cannot min
max
T T
1 or 0.75 1 T 250K 23 C
T 273 727
q = = = =
+

3. Ans. (d)
4. Ans. (c)
1 2 2
1 1
Q Q Q 70
1 1 12.5%
Q Q 80
q

= = = =
5. Ans. (c) Note:
(i) Since part of the heat is transfers at constant volume process, the efficiency of the
Stirling cycle is less than that of the Carnot cycle.
(ii) The regenerative Stirling cycle has the same efficiency as that of Carnot cycle
(iii) Efficiency of Stirling cycle without regeneration

( )
( )
1
2
1 1
2 2
T
1 1 lnr
T
1
T T
1 1 lnr
T T
| |
+
|
\ .
=
| |
+
|
\ .

6 Ans. (d)
7. Ans. (c) Brayton cycle with many stages of intercooling and reheating approximates to
Ericsson cycle.

8. Ans. (b) Intake process isnt constant volume heat rejection processes. it is
constant pressure process.
9. Ans. (d)
Initial volume (v1)
=
( )
2
2
3 3 3
0.1
d
L 0.15m 1.1781 10 m
4 4
t
t

= =
Final Volume (v2)
= 196.3 cc = 0.1963 x 10
-3
m
3
= vc

1 c
c
v v
Compression ratio 7
v
+
= =

1 1.4 1
c
1 1
1 1 0.5408
r 7
q

= = =
W Q 0.5408 1800 973.5kJ q = = =

Gas Power Cycles

10. Ans. (d) ( )
( )
q

= = = =
c 1 1.4 1
c
1 1
compression ratio r 11 1 1 0.615
r
11

11. Ans. (a)
( ) 1 1.4 1
c
1 1
% 1 100% 1 100 57.5%
r
8.5
q

| |
| |
= = =
|
|
\ .
\ .

12. Ans.(d)

( )
( )
( )
1 2
1 2
3
area of diagram
mep
length of v diagram
V
Q Q
V V
1500 700 KJ
0.861 0.0861 m / kg
1032 KPa
p v
p
work done
=
A
=

1
2
V
r 10
V
= =
1 1 1
PV RT =
( )
3
1
0.287 300
V 0.861m / kg
100
= =
2
V 0.0861 =

13. Ans. (b)
1 1
c 1 c c c
2 c
V V
r or V r V 5.5V
V V
= = = =

( )
( )
=

=

= =
m
5
2 c
1 2
5
c
c c
Work per cycle
p
Piston displacement volume
23.625 10 V
N/ m
V V
23.625 10 V
Pa 5.25bar
5.5V V

14. Ans. (a)
15. Ans. (b)

Otto cycle

Brayton cycle
Gas Power Cycles

1
2 1
Otto o 1
1 2 c
1
2 1
Brayton B 1 1
1 2 c
p
v T 1 300
1 1 1 1 0.33
v T 450 r
v T 1 1 300
1 1 1 1 1 0.33
v T 450 r
r
q q
q q

| |
= = = = = =
|
\ .
| |
= = = = = = =
|
\ .

16. Ans. (a)

( ) ( )
1
2 2 4 2
4 3
1 1 3 1
1
2 2 4 2
4 3
1 1 3 1
Otto p 3 4 Brayton p 3 4
o B
Otto Brayton
P T T T 450
Otto or T T 600 900K
P T T T 300
P T T T 450
Brayton or T T 550 825K
P T T T 300
W c T T and W c T T
So W W
| |
= = = = =
|
\ .
| |
= = = = =
|
\ .
= =
>

17. Ans. (c)
18. Ans. (a, d)

Previous Years IES Answers
1. Ans. (b)

2. Ans. (d) We know that
2
1
T
1
T
q =
Since Efficiency of the Engine purely depends upon source and sink temperatures and
independent of the working substances. All the engines have same efficiency
3. Ans. (d) Dont confuse with Diesel cycle. As stirling cycles efficiency is equal to Carnot cycle.
4. Ans. (a)
5. Ans. (d)
6. Ans. (b)
1
2
T
T
=
1
1
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
p
p
=
1
2
1

|
|
.
|
\
|

v
v
Given
1
2
v
v
=32 or
1
2
T
T
=
1 4 . 1
32
1

|
.
|
\
|
=
4
1

1
1
T
Q
=
2
2
T
Q
or Q2=Q1x
1
2
T
T
=52x
4
1
= 13 kJ
Gas Power Cycles

7. Ans. (a) Least rate of heat rejection per kW net output =
2
Q
w
it will occur when reversible
process will occur.

1 2 1 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
Q Q Q Q Q T W 293
or 0.5
T T T T T T W T T 879 293
= = = = = =

8. Ans. (c) For maximum improvement in efficiency source temperature should be raised and
sink temperature lowered.
9. Ans. (d) Here T1 = 273 + 12 = 285K
T2 = 273 + 2 = 275K.
Heat drawn per cycle = 57J and no. of cycles per m = 1080 i.e. 1080/60 = 18 cycles/sec.
2
1
285 275 Work done Work done
=
285 Heat input 57
T T
T
q

= = =
= =
10 57 570
work done per cycle J and work done per sec = 18 J /s 36 W
285 285

10. Ans. (b)
11. Ans. (a) 1-2 and 3-4 are isothermal process
2-3 and 4-1 may be isobaric or isochoric process
So this cycle may be Starling cycle of Ericsson cycle but steepness of the curve 2-3 and
1-4 is very high. Therefore we may say it is Starling cycle.
12. Ans. (c)

13. Ans. (c)
14. Ans. (b)
15. Ans. (a)
16. Ans. (c) Otto cycle involves two isentropic and two constant volume processes.
17. Ans. (c)
18. Ans. (d)
19. Ans. (d)
20. Ans. (a)
21. Ans. (b)
22. Ans. (d)
23. Ans. (a) 2 is false, the voltage for spark is in the order of 25 KV
3 is false, best material platinum but mostly used nickel alloy.
24. Ans. (c)
25. Ans. (a)
26. Ans. (a)
Gas Power Cycles

27. Ans. (b)
28. Ans. (b)
29. Ans. (a)
30. Ans. (d)
31. Ans. (d)
32. Ans. (a)
33. Ans. (a)
34. Ans. (b)
35. Ans. (b)
36. Ans. (c)
37. Ans. (c)
38. Ans. (a)
39. Ans. (b)
Following figures shows cycles with same maximum pressure and same maximum
temperature. In this case, Otto cycle has to be limited to lower compression ratio to
fulfil the condition that point 3 is to be a common state for both cycles. T-s diagram
shows that both cycles will reject the same amount of heat.

40. Ans. (c)
41. Ans. (c)

Previous Years IAS Answers
1. Ans. (d) efficiency of cannot cycle (q) =1-
2
1
T
T
it only depends on reservoirs temperature
nothing else.
2. Ans. (c)
1 2 1
2 2
1 2 1
40
300 10
1200
Q Q Q
or Q T kW
T T T
= = = =
3. Ans. (d)
2
1
275
1 1 0.0351
285
T
T
q = = =
1080
, 0.0351 573/ 1.2 / 2 36
60
Output Q cycle J cycle W q = = = = =
4. Ans. (c)
5. Ans. (c)
6. Ans. (c)
7. Ans. (b)
8. Ans. (c)
Gas Power Cycles

9. Ans. (d) For same compression ratio Otto cycle has maximum efficiency.
10. Ans. (a)
11. Ans. (a)
12. Ans. (d) Wc is pump work in liquid state i.e. minimum
13. Ans. (c)
14. Ans. (a)

( )
( )
( ) ( )
k
otto diest k 1 k 1
k k
S 1
1
1 1
r k S 1 r
or S 1 k s 1 or S k s 1 1 0
q q

= = =
= =

15. Ans. (b)
16. Ans. (d)
17. Ans. (d) For same heat input and same compression ratio, in case of Otto cycle, efficiency in
higher because the heat rejection is lower.
18. Ans. (b)

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
= =
= =
| | | |
+ =
`
| |
\ . \ . )
+
1
Work done byall cases is same 5 1 700 300 800 unit s
2
Heat input for (a )and (c)is same 700 5 1 280 unit s
5 1 1 5 1
Heat input for (b)is 300 700 300 1000 unit s
2 2 2
1
Heat input for (d)is 300 5 1 5 1 700 300
2
q
=
`
)
2000unit s
max imum when min imumheat input is case(b)

Students Notes

2. SI and CI Engines
Engine
It is a device which transforms one form of energy into another form, especially converting
other forms of energy into mechanical energy.

However, while transforming energy from one form to another the efficiency of conversion
plays an important role. Normally, most of the engines convert thermal energy into
mechanical work and therefore they are called heat engines.

Heat Engine
It is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy and utilizes
this thermal energy to perform useful work.

Thus thermal energy is converted to mechanical energy in a heat engine.
Heat engines can be broadly classified into two categories:
(i) Internal Combustion Engine
(ii) External Combustion Engine

Engines whether I.C or E.C are of two types, viz,
(a) Rotary Engines
(b) Reciprocating Engines.

IC Engine vs E.C Engine
Internal combustion engine is a type of heat engine in which the products of combustion is the
working fluid of the cycle.

SI and CI Engines

Whereas external combustion engine is a type of heat engine in which the products of
combustion transfer heat energy to another fluid which is the working fluid of the cycle.
IC Engine is not self starting Jet Engines and Rocket are also IC Engines.

The main advantages of I.C engines over E.C Engine like steam plants are greater mechanical
simplicity, lower ratio absence of auxiliary apparatus due to absence of auxiliary apparatus
like boiler and condenser and hence lower first cost (except in the case of very large units),
higher overall efficiency, and lesser requirement of water for dissipation of energy through
coding system.
The advantages of external combustion engine are - use of cheaper fuels including solid
fuels, and high starting torque.

Engine Components

Spark-Ignition Engine

(i) Cylinder: - It is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a reciprocating
motion.
The varying volume created in the cylinder during the operation of the engine is filled with the
working fluid and subjected to different thermodynamic processes. The cylinder is supported
in the cylinder block.
Material - Cast Iron or Aluminium Alloy or Alloy Steel.

(ii) Piston - It is a cylindrical component filled into the cylinder forming the moving boundary
of the combustion system.
It fits perfectly (snugly) into the cylinder providing a gas-tight space with the piston rings and
the lubricant. It forms the first link in transmitting the gas forces to the output shaft.
Material - Cast Iron or Aluminium Alloy.

(iii) Combustion Chamber: - It is the space enclosed in the upper part of the cylinder, by the
cylinder head and piston top during the combustion process head and the piston top during the
combustion process.
The combustion of fuel and the consequent release of thermal energy results in the building up
of pressure in this part of the cylinder.

(iv) Inlet Manifold - It is the passage which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the
engine and through which air or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder.
SI and CI Engines

(v) Exhaust Manifold - It is the passage which connects the exhaust system to the exhaust
valve of the engine and through which the products of combustion escape into the atmosphere.

(vi) Inlet and Exhaust Valves - Valves are commonly mushroom shaped poppet type. They are
provided either on the cylinder head on the side of cylinder for regulating the charge coming
into the cylinder (inlet valve) and for discharging the products of combustion (exhaust valve)
from the cylinder.

(vii) Spark plug - It is a component to initiate the combustion process in S.I Engines and is
usually located on the cylinder head.

(viii) Connecting rod - It is a component which interconnects the piston and the crankshaft and
transmits the gas forces from the piston to the crankshaft.
Material - Steel or Aluminium alloys. (Forced)

(ix) Crank shaft - It is a component which along with connecting rod converts the reciprocating
motion of the piston into useful rotary motion of the output shaft.
In the crankshaft of a single cylinder engine there is a pair of crank arms and balance weights.
The balance weights are provided for static and dynamic balancing of the rotating system. The
crankshaft is enclosed in a crankcase.
Material - Cast steel or forged steel or Alloy steel.

(x) Piston rings - These are the rings filled into the slots around the piston to provide a tight
seal between the piston and the cylinder wall and thus proventing leakage of combustion
gases.
Material - Cast Iron or Aluminium Alloy.

(xi) Gudgeon or Wrist or Piston pin - It is the link between the small end of the connecting rod
and the piston.
Material - Steel

(xii) Camshaft - It is a shaft and along with its associated parts control the opening and closing
of the two valves.
The associated parts are push rods, rocker arms, valve springs and tapets. This shaft also
provides the drive to the ignition system. The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft through
timing gears.

(xiii) Cams - It is a mechanical member used to import desired motion of a follower by direct
physical contact.
These are made as integral parts of the camshaft and are designed in such a way to open the
valves at the correct timing and to keep them open for the necessary duration.

(xiv) Flywheel - It is a device used to limit the fluctuation of speed during each cycle of the an
engine.
It is a heavy wheel used in engines and machinery where reciprocating motion is converted
into rotary motion.

The net torque imported to the crankshaft during one complete cycle of operation of the engine
fluctuates causing a change in the angular velocity of the shaft. In order to achieve a uniform
torque an inertia mass in the form of a wheel is attached to the output shaft and this wheel is
called flywheel.

SI and CI Engines

The variation of net torque decreases with increase in the number of cylinders in the engine
and thereby the size of the flywheel also becomes smaller. This means that a single cylinder
engine will have a larger flywheel whereas a multi-cylinder engine will have a smaller
flywheel.

Nomenclature
(i) Cylinder bore (d) - It is the nominal dia of the working cylinder. It is usually expressed in
mm.
(ii) Piston Area (A) - It is the area of a circle of dia equal to the cylinder bore. It is usually
expressed in cm
2
.

(iii) Stroke (L) - It is the nominal distance through which a working piston moves between two
successive reversals of its direction of motion. It is usually expressed in mm.
It is the nominal distance between dead centers.

(iv) Dead centre - It is the position at which the direction of the piston motion is reversed at
either end of the stroke. There are two dead centres.-
(a) TDC or IDC
(b) BDC or ODC

(a) Top dead centre or Inner dead centre - It is the dead centre when the piston is farthest
from the crankshaft.

(b) Bottom dead centre or Outer dead centre - It is the dead centre when the piston is nearest
to the crankshaft.

(v) Displacement or Swept or Stroke Volume (V
s
) - It is the nominal volume swept by the
working piston when traveling from one dead centre to the outer. It is generally expressed in
cm
3
.

(vi) Clearance volume (Vc) - It is the nominal volume of the combustion chamber above the
piston when it is at TDC.

(vii) Compression ratio (r) - It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume, when the piston is at
bottom dead centre (V
T
) to the clearance volume (V
c
)
For S.I Engine : r = 6 to 11
For C.I Engine : r = 12 - 22

4 Stroke S.I Engine

In this engine, the cycle of operations is completed in four strokes of the piston or two
revolutions of the crankshaft. During the four strokes, there are five events to be completed,
viz.

Suction.
Compression.
Combustion.
Expansion.
Exhaust.

SI and CI Engines

Each stroke consists of 180
0
of crankshaft rotation and hence a four stroke cycle is completed
through 720 of crank rotation.

Comparison of S.I and C.I engines - (4 Strokes)
In four - stroke engines, there is one power stroke for every two revolutions of the crankshaft.
There are two non-productive strokes of exhaust and suction which are necessary for flushing
the products of combustion from the cylinder and filling it with the fresh charge.
Since both SI and CI engines have much in common, it is worthwhile to compare them based
on important parameters.
Description SI Engine CI Engine
Basic cycle Works on Otto cycle or constant
volume heat addition cycle.
Works on Diesel cycle or
constant pressure heat
addition cycle.
Fuel Gasoline, a highly volatile fuel. Self-
ignition temperature is high.
Diesel oil, a non-volatile fuel.
Self-ignition temperature is
comparatively low.
Introduction of fuel A Gaseous mixture of fuel-air is
introduced during the suction stroke.
A carburettor and an ignition system
are necessary. Modern engines have
gasoline injection.
Fuel is injected directly into
the combustion chamber at
high pressure at the end of
the compression stroke. A fuel
pump and injector are
necessary.
Load control Throttle controls the quantity of fuel
of fuel-air mixture introduced.
The quantity of fuel is
regulated. Air quantity is not
controlled.
Compression ratio 6 to 10. Upper limit is fixed by
antiknock quality of the fuel.
16 to 20. Upper limit is
limited by weight increase of
the engine.
Speed Due to light weight and also due to
homogeneous combustion, they are
high speed engines.
Due to heavy weight and also
due to heterogeneous
combustion, they are low
speed engines.
Thermal efficiency Because of the lower CR, the
maximum value of thermal efficiency
that can be obtained is lower.
Because of higher CR, the
maximum value of thermal
efficiency that can be
obtained is higher.
Weight Lighter due to lower peak pressures. Heavier due to higher peak
pressures.

Four Stroke Engine
The four stroke engine was first demonstrated by Nikolaus Otto in 1876
1
. hence it is also
known as the Otto cycle. The technically correct term is actually four stroke cycle. The four
stroke engine is probable the most common engine type nowadays. It powers almost all cars
and tracks.

SI and CI Engines

The four stroke of the cycle are intake, compression, power, and exhaust. Each corresponds to
one full stroke of the piston. Therefore the complete cycle requires two revolutions of the
crankshaft to complete.

Intake- During the intake stroke, the piston moves downward,
drawing a fresh charge of vaporized fuel/air mixture. The
illustrated engine features a popper intake valve which is drawn
open by the vacuum produced by the intake stroke. Some early
engines worked this way, however most modern engines
incorporate an extra cam/lifter arrangement as seen on the
exhaust valve. The exhaust valve is held shut by a spring (not
illustrated here).

Compression- As the piston rises the poppet valve is forced shut by
the increased cylinder pressure. Flywheel momentum drives the
piston upward, compressing the fuel/air mixture.

Power- At the top of the compression stroke the spark plug fires,
igniting the compressed fuel. As the fuel burns it expands, driving
the piston downward.

Exhaust- At the bottom of the power stroke, the exhaust valve is
opened by the cam/lifter mechanism. The upward stroke of the piston
drives the exhausted fuel out of the cylinder

Two Stroke Engine
SI and CI Engines

The two stroke engine employs the crankcase as well as the cylinder to achieve all the
elements of the Otto cycle in only two strokes of the piston.

Intake- The fuel/air mixture is first drawn into the crankcase by the
vacuum created during the upward stroke of the piston. The illustrated
engine features a poppet intake valve incorporated into the crankshaft.

During the downward stroke the poppet valve is forced closed by the
increased crankcase pressure. The fuel mixture is then compressed in the
crankcase during the remainder of the stroke.

Transfer/Exhaust- Toward the end of the stroke. The piston exposes the
intake port, allowing the compressed fuel/air mixture in the crankcase to
escape around the piston into the main cylinder. This expels the exhaust
gasses out the exhaust port. Usually located on the opposite side of the
cylinder. Unfortunately, some of the fresh fuel mixture is usually expelled
as well.

Compression- The piston then rises, driven by flywheel momentum, and
compresses the fuel mixture.

Power- At the top of the stroke the spark plug ignites the fuel mixture.
The burning fuel expands, driving the piston downward, to complete.
SI and CI Engines

Pre-combustion chamber
This chamber is located at the cylinder head and is connected to the engine cylinder by small
holes. It occupies 40% of the total cylinder volume. During the compression stroke, air from
the main cylinder enters the pre-combustion chamber. At this moment, fuel is injected into the
pre-combustion chamber and combustion begins. Pressure increases and the fuel droplets are
forced through the small holes into the main cylinder, resulting in a very good mix of the fuel
and air. The bulk of the combustion actually takes place in the main cylinder. This type of
combustion chamber has multi-fuel capability because the temperature of the pre-chamber
vaporizes the fuel before the main combustion event occurs.

Stages of Combustion in S.I Engines
A typical theoretical pressure -crank angle diagram, during the process of compression (a-b)
combustion (b - c) and expansion (c -d) in an ideal 4-s S.I engine is shown below.

Fig.

In an ideal engine, as can be seen from the diagram, the entire pressure rise during
combustion takes place at constant volume i.e at TDC.
However, in an actual engine this does not happen.

Sir, Ricardo known as the father of engine research. Describes the combustion process in a S.I
engine as consisting of these stages -
I - Ignition Lag or Preparation phase
II - Propagation of flame
III - After burning
The pressure variation due to combustion in a practical engine is shown below.

SI and CI Engines

Fig.
Point A: The point of passage of spark
Point B: The point of which the beginning of pressure rise can be detected (say 8
0
b TDC)
Point C: The point at which peak pressure is attained. (Say at 12
0
a TDC)

Ist Stage: - Ignition Lag or Preparation phase in which growth and development of a self
propagating nucleus of flame takes place. This is a chemical process depending upon both
temperature and pressure, the nature of the fuel and the preparation of the exhaust residual
gas. Further, it also depends upon the relationship between the temperature and the rate of
reaction.

IInd Stage: - Propagation of flame is a physical process and is covered with the spread of the
flame throughout the combustion chamber. The starting point is the point where the line of
combustion deposits from the motoring curve in the compression time.
During this stage the flame propagates practically at a small part of the burning
mixture comes in contact with the cylinder wall during this period. The rate of heat release
depends largely on the turbulence intensity and also on the reaction rate which is dependent
on the mixture composition.
The rate of pressure rise is proportional to the rate of heat release because during this
stage, the combustion chamber volume remains practically constant (since piston is near the
top dead centre).

IIIrd Stage: - The starting point of the third stage i.e, after burning is the instant at which the
maximum pressure is reached on the indicator diagram.
The flame velocity decreases during this stage. The rate of combustion becomes low due
to lower flame velocity and reduced flame front surface.
Since the expansion stroke starts before this stage of combustion with the piston
moving away from the top dead centre there can be no pressure rise during this stage.

Flame front propagation: - For efficient combustion the rate of propagation of the flame front
within the cylinder is quite critical.
The two important factors which determine the rate of movement of the flame front
across the combustion chamber are -
(i) Reaction rate (chemical process)
(ii) Transposition rate (Physical process)
The reaction rate is the result of a purely chemical combination process in which the flame
eats its way into the unburned charge.

SI and CI Engines

The transposition rate is due to the physical movement of the flame front relative to the
cylinder wall and is also the result of the pressure difference setup between the burning gases
and the unburned gases in the combustion chamber.

In area I, (A > B) the flame front progresses relatively slowly due to a low transposition rate
and low turbulence. The transposition of the flame front is very little since there is a
comparatively small mass of charge burned at the start. The low reaction rate plays a
dominant role resulting in a slow advance of the flame. Also, since the spark plug is to be
necessarily located in a quiescent layer of gas that is close to the cylinder wall, the lack of
turbulence reaches the reaction rate and further lowers the flame speed.
As the flame front leaves the quiescent zone and produces into more turbulent areas
(area II) where it consumes a greater mass of mixture, it progresses more rapidly and at a
consistent rate (B - C).
The volume of unburned charge is reduced appreciably towards the end of flame travel
and the transposition rate again becomes negligible thereby reducing the flame speed. The
reaction rate is also reduced again since the flame is entering a zone (area III) of relatively low
turbulence (C - D).

Factors influencing the flame speed
The flame velocity influences the rate of pressure rise in the cylinder and it is related to
certain types of abnormal combustion that occur in S.I engines.

Important factors which influence the flame speed are: -
(i) Turbulence
(ii) Fuel - air ratio
(iii) Temperate and pressure at inlet
(iv) Compression ratio
(v) Engine output
(vi) Engine speed
(vii) Engine size.

Abnormal Combustion
In normal combustion, the flame initiated by the spark travels across the combustion chamber
in a fairly uniform manner. Under certain operating conditions the combustion gets deviated
from its normal course leading to loss of performance and possible damage to the engine. This
SI and CI Engines

type of combustion may be termed as an abnormal or knocking combustion. This type of
combustion may termed as an abnormal combustion or knocking combustion. The onsequences
of this abnormal combustion process are the loss of power, recurring pre-ignition and echanical
damage to the engine.

The important abnormal combustions are detonation or knock, pre-ignition run of which knock
is most important because it puts a limit on the compression ratio at and to some extent,
power output.

(a) (b)
Normal Combustion Abnormal Combustion

In the normal combustion a normal flame front travels across the combustion chamber from A
towards D. The speed of the flame front is 15 to 30 m/s. As the flame front advances it
compresses the unburned charges BB,D, raising its temperature. The temperature is also
increased by radiation from the advancing flame front and due to reaction taking place in the
unburned mixture itself. It this unburned charge does not reach its critical temperature for
auto-ignition, it will not auto ignite, and the flame front BB will move across through
unburned change to farthest point of the chamber D in the normal manner.

In the abnormal combustion called detonation or knocking, the end charge auto ignites before
the flame front reaches it. In order to auto ignite, the last unburned portion of the charge must
reach above a certain critical temperature and remain at this temperature for a certain length
of time. During this period certain chemical reactions take place which prepare the charge for
auto ignition. The time required in this preparation phase is called ignition delay.

Fig. (b) shows combustion with detonation. The flame front has reaches BB and the unburned
charge BBD has reached the critical conditions for auto ignition. If the flame front can proceed
from BB to D and consume the unburned charge in a normal manner, prior to completion of
the delay period, there will be no detonation. If, however, the flame front is able to proceed
only as say CC during the ignition delay period, then the remaining portion of the unburned
charge CCD will auto ignite and cause extreme pressure fluctuation called detonation,
detonation in SI engines occur near the end of combustion where as in diesel engine it occur in
the beginning if the combustion.

We have seen that if the unburned charge does not reach its critical temperature there will be
no detonation. Further, if the ignition delay period is longer than the time required for the
fame front to burn through the unburned charge, there again will be no detonation. Only when
the critical temperature is reached and maintained, and the ignition delay is shorter than the
time it takes for the flame front to burn through the unburned charge, there will be
detonation. Hence in order to avoid or suppress the detonation, a high auto ignition
temperature and a long ignition delay are desirable qualities for SI engine fuel.

Effect of detonation

SI and CI Engines

1. Noise and roughness
2. Mechanical damage
3. Carbon deposits
4. Increase in heat transfer
5. Decrease in power output and efficiency
6. Pre-ignition

To reduce detonation in SI engine
Increase:
1. Engine speed
2. Turbulence
3. Humidity

Reduce
1. C.R.
2. Spark timing
3. Inlet air temperature & pressure
4. Coolant temperature
5. Distance of flame travel
6. Throttle (load)
7. Cylinder and combustion chamber wall temperature.

Use
1. High octane fuel
2. (A/F) ratio too lean or too rich

Diesel knock
The long delay period will allow a large amount of fuel injection. Hence, large amount of fuel is
accumulated in the chamber. The auto ignition of this large amount of fuel may cause high
rate of pressure rise and high maximum pressure which may knocking in diesel engines. A
long delay period not only increases the amount of fuel injected by the moment of ignition, but
also improves the homogeneity of the fuel air mixture and its chemical preparedness for
explosion-type self ignition similar to detonation in SI engine. The detonation occurs near the
beginning of combustion in diesel engine.

Delay period or ignition lag
The first stage of combustion in the CI engine, i.e. the delay period, exerts a very great
influence on both engine design and performance. Ignition delay period during which some
fuel has been admitted but has not been ignition. The ignition delay is counted from the start
of injection to the point where the P-u curves separates from the pure air compression curve.

SI and CI Engines

Stage of Combustion in a CI Engine

The period of physical delay is the time between the beginning of injection and the attainment
of chemical reaction conditions. In the physical delay period the fuel is atomized, vaporized,
mixed with air, and raised in temperature.

Chemical Delay: The second part of the delay is called chemical delay in which preflame
reaction start slowly and then accelerate until local inflammation or ignition take place.

To reduce diesel knock
Increase:
1. Injection pressure
2. C.R.
3. Intake temperature
4. Jacket water temperature
5. Intake pressure (super changing)
6. Load (fuel air ratio)
7. Fuel temperature

Reduce:
1. Turbulence
2. Engine speed
3. Injection advance angle

Use:
1. High centane fuel.
2. Delay angle is reduced by using chemical dopes called ignition accelerator i.e.
(i) Ethyl nitrate
(ii) Amyl nitrate.
3. Small amount of fuel is injected at first.

Effect of Variables on the Delay Period
SI and CI Engines

Increases in variable Effect on Delay Period Reason
Cetane number of fuel Reduces Reduces the self-ignition
temperature
Injection pressure Reduces Reduces physical delay due to
greater surface-volume ratio
Injection timing advance Reduces Reduces pressures and
temperatures when the
injection begins
Compression ratio Reduces Increases air temperature
and pressure and reduces
auto ignition begins
Intake temperature Reduces Increases air temperature
Jacket water temperature Reduces Increases wall and hence air
temperature
Fuel temperature Reduces Increases chemical reaction
due to better vaporization
Intake Pressure
(supercharging)
Reduces Increases density and also
reduces auto ignition
temperature
Speed Increases in terms of crank
angle. Reduces in terms of
milliseconds
Reduces loss of heat
Load (fuel-air-ratio) Decreases Increases the operating
temperature
Engine size Decreases in terms of crank
angle. Little effect in terms of
milliseconds
Larger engines operate
normally at low speeds
Type of combustion chamber Lower for engines with pre
combustion chamber
Due to compactness of the
chamber

Combustion Chambers for SI Engines
The design of the combustion chamber for an SI engine has an important influence on the
engine performance and its knocking tendencies. The design involves the shape of the
combustion chamber, the location of spark plug involves the shape of the plug and the location
of inlet and exhaust valves. Because of this importance, the combustion chamber design has
been a subject of considerable amount of research and development in the last, fifty years. It
has resulted in the raising of the compression ratio of the engine from 4 before the first world
war period to 11 in the present times with special combustion chamber designs and suitable
antiknock fuels. The important requirements of an SI engine combustion chamber are to
provide high power output with minimum octane requirement, high thermal efficiency and
smooth engine operation.
Combustion chambers must be designed carefully. Keeping in mind the following general
objectives.

Smooth Engine Operation
The aim of any engine design is to have a smooth operation and a good economy. These can be
achieved by the following:
Moderate Rate of Pressure Rise: The rate of pressure rise can be regulated such that the
greatest force is applied to the piston as closely after TDC on the power stroke as possible,
with a gradual decrease in the force on the piston during the power stroke. The forces must be
SI and CI Engines

applied to the piston smoothly, thus limiting the rate of pressure rise as well as the position of
the peak pressure with respect to TDC.
Reducing the possibility of Knocking: Reduction in the possibility of knocking in an engine can
be achieved by,

(i) Reducing the distance of the flame travel by centrally locating the spark plug also by
avoiding pockets of stagnant charge.

(ii) Satisfactory cooling of the spark plug and of exhaust valve area which are the source of hot
spots in the majority of the combustion chambers.

(iii) Reducing the temperature of the last portion of the charge, through application of a high
surface to volume ratio in that part where the last portion of the charge, burns. Heat transfer
to the combustion chamber walls can be increased by using high surface to volume ratio
thereby reducing the temperature.

Combustion Chambers for CI Engines
The most important function of the CI engine combustion chamber is to provide proper mixing
of fuel and air in a short time. In order to achieve this, an organized air movement called the
air swirl is provided to produce high relative velocity between the fuel droplets and the air.
The fuel is injected into the combustion chamber by an injector having a single or multihole
orifices. The increase in the number if jets reduces the intensity of air swirl needed.

(i) Direct-Injection (DI) Type: This type of combustion chamber is also called an open
combustion chamber is located in the main cylinder and the fuel is injected into this
volume.
(ii) Indirect-Injection (IDI) Type: In this type of combustion chambers, the combustion space is
divided into two parts, one part in the main cylinder and the other part in the cylinder
head. The fuel-injection is effected usually into that part of the chamber located in the
cylinder head. These chambers are classified further into:
(a) Swirl chamber in which compression swirl is generated.
(b) Pre combustion chamber in which combustion swirl is induced.
(c) Air cell chamber in which both compression and combustion swirl are induced.

SI and CI Engines

Knock limited parameters: - It should be the aim of the designer of reduces the tendency of
knock in the engine.
In this connection certain knock limited parameters are: -
(a) Knock limited compression ratio
(b) Knock limited inlet pressure.
(c) Knock limited indicated mean effective pressure.

Knock Limited Compression ratio: The knock limited compression ratio is obtained by
increasing the compression on a variable compression ratio engine until incipient knocking is
observed. Any change in operating condition such as fuel-air ratio or in the engine design that
increases the knock limited compression ratio is said to reduce the tendency towards knocking.

Knock Limited Inlet Pressure: The inlet pressure can be increased by opening the throttle or
increasing delivery pressure until incipient knock is observed. An increase in knock limited
inlet pressure indicates a reduction in the knocking tendency.

Knock limited Indicated Mean Effective Pressure:
An useful measure of knocking tendency called the performance number, has been developed
from the concept of knock limited indicated mean effective pressure. This number is defined as
the ratio of Klimep with the fuel in question to Klimep with iso-octane when the inlet pressure
is kept constant. This performance number is related to octane number and one of the
advantages of this is that it can be applied to fuels whose knocking characteristics are superior
to that of iso-octane, i.e., it extends the octane scale beyond 100.
Further simplification on the use of performance number requirements is done by introducing
the concept of relative performance number, rpm, which is defined as:

Actual Performance number
rpm
Performance number correspondi ng to the i mep of 100
=

Effect of engine variables on knock
Four major factors are involved in either producing or preventing knock. These are -
(i) Temperature
(ii) Pressure
(iii) Density of the unburned charge
(iv) Time factors.

Since, the effect of temperature Pressure and density are closely interrelated, these can be
consolidated into one group, and thus there are three factors -
(a) Density factor
(b) Time factor
(c) Composition factor
SI and CI Engines

Characteristics Tending to Reduce Detonation or Knock

S.No. Characteristics SI Engines CI Engines
1. Ignition temperature of fuel High Low
2. Ignition delay Long Short
3. Compression ratio Low High
4. Inlet temperature Low High
5. Inlet pressure Low High
6. Combustion wall temperature Low High
7. Speed, rpm High Low
8. Cylinder size Small Large

Fuel-Air (F/A) or Air-Fuel Ratio (A/F)

The relative proportions of the fuel and air in the engine are very important from the
standpoint of combustion and the efficiency of the engine. This is expressed either as a ratio of
the mass of the fuel to that of the air or vice versa.

In the SI engine the fuel-air ratio practically remains a constant over a wide range of
operation. In CI engines at a given speed the air flow does not vary with load: it is the fuel flow
that varies directly with load. Therefore, the term fuel-air ratio is generally used instead of
air-fuel ratio.

A mixture that contains just enough air for complete combustion of all the fuel in the mixture
is called a chemically correct or stoichiometric fuel-air ratio. A mixture having more fuel than
that in a chemically correct mixture is termed as rich mixture and a mixture that contains less
fuel (orexcess air) is called a lean mixture. The ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to stoichiometric
fuel-air ratio is called equivalence ratio and is denoted by |.

Actual fuel ai r rati o
Stoi chi ometri c fuel ai r rati o
|

Accordingly, | = 1 means stoichiometric (chemically correct) mixture, | < 1 means lean
mixture and | > 1 means rich mixture.
SI and CI Engines

Air-Fuel Mixtures: - An engine is generally operated at different loads and speeds. For this,
proper air-fuel mixture should be supplied to the engine cylinder. Fuel and air are mixed to
form three different types of mixtures.
(i) Chemically correct mixture
(ii) Rich mixture and
(iii) Lean mixture

Chemically correct or stoichiometric mixture is one in which these is just enough air for
complete combustion of the fuel.
For example, to burn one kg of octane (C
8
H
18
) completely 15.12 kg of air is required. Hence
chemically correct A/F ratio for C
8
H
18
is 15.12 :1, usually approximated to 15 : 1.

This chemically correct mixture will vary only slightly in numerical value between equations
for complete combustion for a particular fuel.

A mixture which contains less air than the stoichiometric requirements are called a rich
mixture and these contain more air is called a lean mixture.

These are, however, a limited range of A/F ratios in a homogenous mixture, only within which
combustion in an SI engine will occur.

SI and CI Engines

Outside this range, the ratio is either too rich or too lean to sustain flame propagation.
This range of useful A/F ratio rums from approximately 19:1 (lean) to 9 : 1 (rich).

The carburetor should provide an A/F ratio in accordance with engine operating requirements
and this must within the combustible range.
Mixture requirements at different loads and speeds
The air-fuel ratio at which an engine operates has a considerable influence on its performance.
Let us consider an engine operating at full throttle and constant speed with varying A/F ratio.
Under these conditions, the A/F ratio will affect both the power output and the brake specific
fuel consumption as indicated by the typical curve shown below.

Fig.

The mixture corresponding to the maximum output on the curve is called the best power
mixture with an A/F ratio of approximately 12:1. The mixture corresponding to the minimum
point on the bsfc curve is called the best economy mixture. The A/F ratio is approximately 16 :
1.
The best power mixture is much richer than the chemically correct mixture and the best
economy mixture is slightly leaner than the chemically correct.

Above figure is based on full throttle operation. The A/F ratios for the best power and best
economy at part throttle are not strictly the same as at full throttle. If the A/F ratios for best
power and best economy are constant over the full range of throttle operation and if the
influence of other factors is disregarded, the ideal fuel metering device would be merely a two
position carburetor. Such a carburetor could be set for the best power mixture when maximum
performance is desired and for the best economy mixture when the primary consideration is
the fuel economy.
Excess fuel Excess Air
Fig: Useful air-fuel mixture range of gasoline
(kg air /kg fuel)
SI and CI Engines

These two settings are indicated below by the solid horizontal lines X-X and Z - Z respectively.

Fig : Carburetor Performance necessary to fulfill Engine Requirements .
The CI engine combustion chambers
Diesel engines can have divided and undivided combustion chambers (indirect and direct
injection engines). Direct injection engines have a greater efficiency and operate more
economically than indirect injection engines using a pre- or swirl chamber. Direct injection
engines are used for all commercial vehicle applications. Because of lower engine noise,
indirect injection engines are more suitable for cars. In addition, they are significantly less
polluting (HC and NOx) and cheaper to produce. For these reasons their higher fuel
consumption in comparison with direct injection engines is generally accepted as a
compromise.
With the pre-chamber method for car diesel engines, fuel is injected into a hot pre-chamber
in which pre-combustion initiates a good mixture preparation for the main combustion. Fuel is
injected by means of a throttling pintle nozzle at relatively low pressure (up to 300 bar). The
partially combusted air-fuel mixture then passes to the main combustion chamber. A variation
of this method is the swirl chamber method. With a direct injection method used primarily for
commercial vehicles and stationary engines, fuel is injected directly into the combustion
chamber without the use of a pre-chamber.
Pre-combustion chamber
This chamber is located at the cylinder head and is connected to the engine cylinder by small
holes. It occupies 40% of the total cylinder volume. During the compression stroke, air from
the main cylinder enters the pre-combustion chamber. At this moment, fuel is injected into the
pre-combustion chamber and combustion begins. Pressure increases and the fuel droplets are
forced through the small holes into the main cylinder, resulting in a very good mix of the fuel
and air. The bulk of the combustion actually takes place in the main cylinder. This type of
combustion chamber has multi-fuel capability because the temperature of the pre-chamber
vaporizes the fuel before the main combustion event occurs.
SI and CI Engines

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS (GATE & IES)

Ignition limits
Q1. A fuel represented by the formula C8H16 is used in an I.E. Engine. Given that the
molecular weight of air is 29 and that 4.76 kmols of air contain 1 kmol of oxygen and
3.76 kmol of nitrogen, the Air /Fuel ratio by mass is [GATE-2000]
(a) 11.47 (b) 12.78 (c) 14.79 (d) 19.52

Q2. For a spark ignition engine, the equivalence ratio ( | ) of mixture entering the
combustion chamber has values [GATE-2003]
(a) | < 1 for idling and | > 1 for peak power conditions
(b) | > 1 for both idling and peak power conditions
(c) | > 1 for idling and | < 1 for peak power conditions
(d) | < 1 for both idling and peak power conditions
Combustion in SI engine
Q3. Knocking tendency in a S.l. engine reduces with increasing [GATE-1993]
(a) Compression ratio (b) wall temperature
(c) Supercharging (d) engine speed
Diesel knock

Q4. An IC engine has a bore and stroke of 2 units each. The area to calculate heat loss can
be taken as [GATE-1998]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 4 5 6 8 a b c d t t t t

Ignition limits
Q1. For a conventional S.I. engine, what is the value of fuel-air ratio in the normal
operating range?
(a) 0.056 0.083 (b) 0.083 0.56
(c) 0.0056 0.83 (d) 0.056 0.83 [IES 2007]

Q2. The stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for petrol is 15: 1. [IES-2004]
What is the air/fuel ratio required for maximum power?
(a) 16 : 1 - 18 : 1 (b) 15 : 1 (c) 12 : 1 - 18 : 1 (d) 9: 1 - 11 : 1

Q3. The air fuel ratio for idling speed of an automobile patrol engine is closer to
(a) 10: 1 (b)15:1 (c) 17 : 1 (c) 21: 1 [IES-1992]

Q4. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the given code given below
the lists: [IES 2007]
SI and CI Engines

List I List I
(SI Engine Operational mode) (A/F Ratio Supplied by the Carburetor)
A. Idling 1. 3
B. Cruising 2. 10
C. Maximum Power 3. 13
D. Cold starting 4. 16
5. 20
Codes:
A B C D A B C D
(a) 2 4 5 1 (b) 4 5 3 2
(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 4 5 3 1

Q5. Match List I (S.I. Engine Operational Mode) with List II (Air fuel Ratio by Mass) and
select the correct answer: [IES-2004]
List I List II
A. Idling 1. 4: 1
B. Cruising 2. 10: 1
C. Maximum power 3. 12.5: 1
D. Cold starting 4. 16: 1
5. 14.8: 1
A B C D A B C D
(a) 2 4 3 1 (b) 5 4 1 3
(c) 2 3 5 1 (d) 5 3 1 4

Q6. The air fuel ration for idling speed of an automobile patrol engine is closer to
(a) 10: 1 (b)15:1 (c) 17 : 1 (c) 21: 1 [IES-1992]

Q7. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer [IES-1996]
List I (SI engine operating mode) List II (Desired air-fuel ratio)
A. Idling 1. 13.0
B. Cold starting 2. 4.0.
C. Cruising 3. 16.0
D. Full throttle 4. 9.0
(a) 4 2 3 1 (b) 2 4 1 3
(c) 1 2 1 3 (d) 2 4 3 1

Q8. Match List I (Air-fuel ratio by mass) with List II (Engine operation mode) and select
the correct answer using the codes given below the Lists [IES-2000]
List I List II
A. 10: 1 1. CI engine part load
B. 16: 1 2. SI engine part load
C. 35: 1 3. SI engine idling
D. 12.5: 1 4. CI full load
5. SI full load
(a) 3 2 1 5 (b) 4 2 1 5
(c) 3 1 2 4 (d) 4 1 2 3

lists:
List I (Operating mode of SI engine) List II (Appropriate Air-Fuel ratio)
A. Idling 1. 12.5 [IES-1995]
SI and CI Engines

B. Cold starting 2. 9.0
C. Cruising 3. 16.0
D. Maximum power 4. 22.0
5. 3.0
(a) 2 4 5 1 (b) 1 3 4 2
(c) 5 2 1 3 (d) 2 5 3 1

Q10. Match List I (S.I. Engine Operating Mode) with List II (Approximate A/F Ratio) and
select the correct answer using the code given below the Lists:
List I List II [IES-2005]
A Cold Start 1. 10: 1
B. Idling 2. 16:1
C. Cruising 3. 13 : 1
D. Maximum Power 4. 4 : 1
5. 20: 1
A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 3 2 1 (b) 2 1 5 3
(c) 4 1 2 3 (d) 2 3 5 1

Q11. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer. [IES-1994]
List I (Operating condition) List II (Approximate air fuel ratio)
A. Idling 1. 16
B. Part load operation 2. 10
C. Full load 3. 12.5
D. Cold start 4. 3
(a) 2 1 3 4 (b) 1 2 4 3
(c) 2 1 4 3 (d) 1 2 3 4

Q12. If methane undergoes combustion with the stoichiometric quantity of air, the air-fuel
ratio on molar basis would be: [IES-1997]
(a) 15.22: 1 (b) 12.30: 1 (c) 14.56: 1 (d) 9.52: 1

Q13. Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio by volume for combustion of methane in air is:
(a) 15: 1 (b)17.16: 1 (c) 9.52: 1 (d) 10.58: 1 [IES-2002]

Q14. Auto -ignition time for petrol- air mixture is minimum when the ratio of actual fuel-air
ratio and chemically correct fuel air ratio is [IES-2002]
(a) 0.8 (b) 1.0 (c) 1.2 (d) 1.5
Combustion in SI engine
Q15. Velocity of flame propagation in the SI engine is maximum for a fuel-air mixture which
is [IES-1999]
(a) 10% richer than stoichiometric
(b) Equal to stoichiometric
(c) More than 10% richer than stoichiometric
(d) 10% leaner than stoichiometric

Q16. Assertion (A): In SI engines, as the engine speed increases, spark is required to be
advanced.
Reason (R): As the engine speed increases, flame velocity increases. [IES-1996]
SI and CI Engines


Q17. Which of the following cannot be caused by a hot spark plug? [IES-2005]
1. Pre-ignition 2. Post-ignition 3. Detonation 4. Run-on-ignition
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only

Q18. By higher octane number of SI fuel, it is meant that the fuel has [IES-1995]
(a) Higher heating value (b) higher flash point
(c) Lower volatility (d) longer ignition delay

Q19. Match List I with List IT and select the correct answer using the codes given below the
lists: [IES-1993]
List I List II
(S.l. Engine problem) (Characteristic of fuel responsible for the problem)
A. Cold starting 1. Front end volatility
B. Carburetor icing 2. Mid-range volatility
C. Crankcase dilution 3. Tail end volatility
Code: A B C A B C
(a) 1 2 3 (b) 1 3 2
(c) 2 3 1 (d) 3 1 2

Q20. List I gives the different terms related to combustion while List II gives the outcome of
the events that follow. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer.
[IES-1996]
List I List II
A. Association 1. Pseudo shock
B. Dissociation 2. Knock
C. Flame front 3. Endothermic
D. Abnormal combustion 4. Exothermic
Code: A B C D A B C D
(a) 3 4 1 2 (b) 4 3 1 2
(c) 3 4 2 1 (d) 4 3 2 1
Detonation or knocking
Q21. Which of the following factors increase detonation in the SI engine?
1. Increased spark advance. [IES-1993]
2. Increased speed.
3. Increased air-fuel ratio beyond stoichiometric strength
4. Increased compression ratio.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 1 and 4

1. In the SI engines detonation occurs near the end of combustion whereas in CI
engines knocking occurs near the beginning of combustion.
2. In SI engines no problems are encountered on account of pre-ignition.
3. Low inlet pressure and temperature reduce knocking tendency in SI engines but
increase the knocking tendency in CI engines.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) Only 1 and 2 (c) Only 2 and 3 (d) Only 1 and 3
SI and CI Engines

Q23. The tendency of petrol to detonate in terms of octane number is determined by
comparison of fuel with which of the following? [IES-2006]
(a) Iso-octane (b) Mixture of normal heptane and iso-octane
(c) Alpha methyl naphthalene (d) Mixture of methane and ethane

In order to prevent detonation in a spark-ignition engine, the charge away from the
spark plug should have
1. Low temperature 2. Low density 3. Long ignition delay
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (c) Only 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

Q25. For minimizing knocking tendency is SI engine, where should the space plug be
located? [IES-2008]
(a) Near inlet valve
(b) Away from both the valves
(c) Near exhaust valve
(d) Midway between inlet and exhaust valves

Q26. Which of the following action(s) increaser(s) the knocking tendency in the S I. engine?
(a) Increasing mixture strength beyond equivalence ratio (|) =14 [IES-2004]
(b) Retarding the spark and increasing the compression ratio
(c) Increasing the compression ratio and reducing engine speed
(d) Increasing both mixture strength beyond equivalence ratio (|)= 14 and the
compression ratio

Q27. In spark ignition engines knocking can be reduced by: [IES-2002]
(a) Increasing the compression ratio
(b) Increasing the cooling water temperature
(c) Retarding the spark advance
(d) Increasing the inlet air temperature

Q28. In a SI engine, combustion stage I takes 1 ms and combustion stage II takes 15 ms
when the engine runs at 1000 rpm. If stage I time duration is independent of engine
speed what will be the additional spark advance necessary when the engine speed is
doubled? [IES-2008]
(a) 0 (b) 6 (c) 12 (d) 24

Q29. Which of the following are the assumptions involved in the auto-ignition theory put
forth for the onset of knock in SI engines? [IES-1998]
1. Flame velocity is normal before the onset of auto ignition.
2. A number of end-gas elements auto ignite simultaneously.
3. Preflame reactions are responsible for preparing the end-gas to ignite.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3

Knock in the SI engine can be reduced by
1. Supercharging
2. Retarding the spark.
3. Using a fuel of long straight chain structure
4. Increasing the engine speed.
SI and CI Engines

Of these correct statements are
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2 and 4

Q31. Assertion (A): Self-ignition temperature of the end charge must be higher to prevent
knocking of an SI engine. [IES-1994]
Reason (R): Higher compression ration increases the temperature of the air-fuel
mixture.

Q32. Match List I with List II, in respect of SI engines, and select the correct answer by
List I List II
A. Highest useful compression ratio 1. Ignitable mixture
B. Dopes 2. Knock rating of fuels
C. Limiting mixture strength 3. Detonation
D. Delay period 4. Chain of chemical reactions in combustion
chamber
(a) 2 3 1 4 (b) 3 2 1 4
(c) 2 3 4 1 (d) 3 4 2 1

Detonation in the S.I. engine can be suppressed by
1. Retarding the spark timing.
3. Using 10% rich mixture.
Of these statements
(a) 1 and 3 are correct (b) 2 and 3 are correct
(c) 1, 2 and 3 are correct (d) 1 and 2 are correct

Q34. Consider the following statements [IES-2000]
1. Octane rating of gasoline is based on iso-octane and iso-heptane fuels which are
paraffin
2. Tetraethyl lead is added to gasoline to increase octane number.
3. Ethylene di-bromide is added as scavenging agent to remove lead deposits on spark
plugs.
4. Surface ignition need not necessarily cause knocking.
Which of these statements are correct?
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 1,2 and 3
SI engine combustion chamber designs
Q35. The volumetric efficiency of a well designed SI engine is in the range of
(a) 40% - 50% (b) 50% - 60%
(c) 60% - 70% (d) 70% - 90% [IES-2002]

Q36. Consider the following statements relevant to the ignition system of SI engine:
1. Too small a dwell angle will lead to the burning of condenser and contact points.
2. Too small a dwell angle will result in misfiring. [IES-2002]
3. Too large a dwell angle will result in burning of condenser and contact points.
4. Too large a dwell angle will result in misfiring.
SI and CI Engines

Which of the above statements are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 4 and 1

Q37. Knocking in the SI engine decreases in which one of the following orders of combustion
chamber designs? [IES-1995]
(a) F head, L head, I head (b) T head, L head, F head.
(c) I head, T head, F head (d) F head, I head, T head.

Q38. Which of the following feature(s) is/are used in the combustion chamber design to
reduce S.I engine knock? [IES-2004]
(a) Spark plug located away from exhaust value, wedge shaped combustion chamber
and short flame travel distance
(b) Wedge shaped combustion chamber
(c) Wedge shaped combustion chamber and short flame travel distance
(d) Spark plug located away from exhaust value, short flame travel distance and side
value design

Q39. Which of the following combustion chamber design features reduce(s) knocking in S.I.
engines? [IES-2005]
1. Spark plug located near the inlet valve. 2. T-head.
3. Wedge shaped combustion chamber 4. Short flame travel distance.
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 3 only (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2

Q40. A two-stroke engine has a speed of 750 rpm. A four-stroke engine having an identical
cylinder size runs at 1500 rpm. The theoretical output of the two-stroke engine will
(a) Be twice that of the four-stroke engine
(b) Be half that of the four-stroke engine
(c) Be the same as that of the four-stroke [IES-1997]
(d) Depend upon whether it is a C.I. or S.I. engine

Q41. For same power output and same compression ratio, as compared to two-stroke
engines, four-stroke S.I. engines have: [IES-1997]

(a) Higher fuel consumption (b) lower thermal efficiency
(c) Higher exhaust temperatures (d) higher thermal efficiency

Q42. Match List I with List 11and select the correct answer using the codes given below the
lists:
A. Pre-combustion chamber 1. Compression swirl
B. Turbulent chamber 2. Masked inlet valve
C. Open combustion chamber 3. Spark ignition
D. F-head combustion chamber 4. Combustion induced swirl
5. M-chamber
(a) 4 5 3 2 (b) 1 3 5 2
(c) 2 3 1 5 (d) 4 1 2 3

Q43. If the approximate average mean pressures during induction, compression, power and
exhaust strokes of an internal combustion engine are respectively 15 kN/m
2
below
atmosphere, 200 kN/m
2
above atmosphere, 1000 kN/m
2
above atmosphere and 20
SI and CI Engines

kN/m
2
above atmosphere, then the resultant mean effective pressure, in kN/m
2
, is
[IES-1994]
(a) 765 (b) 795 (c) 800 (d) 805
Combustion in the CI engine
Q44. The delay period in CI engine depends upon which of the following?
(a) Temperature and pressure in the cylinder at the time of injection
(b) Nature of the fuel mixture strength
(c) Relative velocity between the fuel injection and air turbulence pressure of residual
gases
(d) All of the above [IES 2007]
Diesel knock
Q45. Which of the following statements is "true"? [IES-1992]
(a) The term "KNOCK" is used for on identical phenomenon in a spark ignition and
compression ignition engine
(b) "KNOCK" is a term associated with a phenomenon taking place in the early part of
combustion in a spark ignition engine and the later part of combustion in a spark
ignition engine
(c) "KNOCK" is a term associated with a phenomenon taking place in the early part of
combustion in a spark ignition engine and the later part of combustion in a compression
ignition engine
(d) None of the above

Q46. The knocking tendency in compression ignition engines increases with:
(a) Increase of coolant water temperature (b) Increase of temperature of inlet air
(c) Decrease of compression ratio (d) Increase of compression ratio [IES-2005]

Q47. Assertion (A): A very high compression ratio is favoured for a CI engine, in order to
attain high mechanical efficiency without knocking. [IES-1996]
Reason (R): The delay period in CI combustion affects rate of pressure rise and hence
knocking.

Q48. Which of the following factors would increase the probability of knock in the CI
engines?
1. Long ignition delay of fuel
2. High self ignition temperature of fuel
3. Low volatility of fuel [IES-1995]
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3.

Q49. Consider the following measures: [IES-1994]
1. Increasing the compression ratio
2. Increasing the intake air temperature.
3. Increasing the length to diameter ratio of the cylinder.
The measures necessary to reduce the tendency to knock in CI engines would include
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4
SI and CI Engines

Q50. Hypothetical pressure diagram for a
compression ignition engine is shown
in the given figure. The diesel knock
is generated during the period
(a) AB
(b) BC
(c) CD
(d) after D

[IES-1998]

Q51. The tendency of knocking in C I engine reduces by [IES-2002]
(a) High self - ignition temperature of fuel
(b) Decrease in jacket water temperature
(c) Injection of fuel just before TDC
(d) Decrease in injection pressure

Q52. Which of the following factor(s) increase(s) the tendency for knocking in the C.I.
engine?
(a) Increasing both the compression ratio and the coolant temperature [IES-2004]
(b) Increasing both the speed and the injection advance
(c) Increasing the speed, injection advance and coolant temperature
(d) Increasing the compression ratio

Q53. Consider the following statements:
Diesel knock can be reduced by
1. Increasing the compression ratio.
3. Increasing the injection retard.
4. Decreasing the inlet air temperature
(a) 2 and 4 only (b) 1, 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 [IES 2007]
The CI engine combustion chambers
Q54. The object of providing masked inlet valve in the air passage of compression- ignition
engines is to [IES-1994]
(a) Enhance flow rate (b) control air flow.
(c) Induce primary swirl (d) induce secondary turbulence.

Q55. Which one of the following events would reduce the volumetric efficiency of a vertical
compression - ignition engine? [IES-1994]
(a) Inlet valve closing after bottom dead centre.
(b) Inlet valve closing before bottom dead centre.
(c) Inlet valve opening before top dead centre.
(d) Exhaust valve closing after top dead centre.

Q56. If the performance of diesel engines of different sizes, cylinder dimensions and power
ratings are to be compared, which of the following parameters can be used for such
comparison? [IES-2003]
SI and CI Engines

(a) Swept volume (b) Air fuel ratio
(c) Specific brake fuel consumption (d) Volumetric efficiency

Q57. A 4-stroke diesel engine, when running at 2000 rpm has injection duration of 1.5 ms.
What is the corresponding duration of the crank angle in degrees?
(a) 18 (b) 9
o
(c) 36 (d) 315 [IES-2005]

Q58. In the operation of four-stroke diesel engines, the term squish refers to the:
(a) Injection of fuel in the pre-combustion chamber [IES-2001]
(b) Discharge of gases from the pre-combustion chamber
(c) Entry of air into the combustion chamber
(d) Stripping of fuel from the core

Q59. Divided chamber diesel engines use lower injection pressures compared to open
chamber engines because [IES-1999]
(a) Pintle nozzles cannot withstand high injection pressures
(b) High air swirl does not require high injection pressures for atomization
(c) High injection pressures may cause over-penetration
(d) High injection pressure causes leakage of the fuel at the pintle

Q60. For which of the following reasons, do the indirect injection diesel engines have higher
specific output compared to direct injection diesel engines?
1. They have lower surface to volume ratio. [IES-2005]
2. They run at higher speeds.
3. They have higher air utilization factor.
4. They have lower relative heat loss.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 and 4

Q61. Assertion (A): Pre-chamber diesel engines use higher injection pressures when
compared to open combustion chamber engines. [IES-1997]
Reason (R): Pre-chamber engines have higher compression pressures.

Q62. Assertion (A): A pintle nozzle is employed to mix the fuel properly even with the slow
air movement available with many open combustion chambers in C I engines.
Reason (R): The mixing of fuel and air is greatly affected by the nature of the air
movement in the combustion chamber of C I engines. [IES-2002]
Comparison of SI and CI Engines
Q63. Which of the following pairs of engine and performance/characteristics is/are correctly
matched?
1. Turbojet - Efficiency increases with flight speed
2. SI engine - Lowest specific fuel consumption
3. Turboprop - Suitable for low flight speeds
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: [IES-1998]
SI and CI Engines

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 alone

1. Volumetric efficiency of diesel engines is higher than that of SI engines
2. When a SI engine is throttled; its mechanical efficiency decreases.
3. Specific fuel consumption increases as the power capacity of the engine increases.
4. In spite of higher compression ratios, the exhaust temperature in diesel engines is
much lower than that in SI engines.
Of these statements
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 are correct (b) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
(c) 3 and 4 are correct (d) 1, 2 and 4 are correct

Q65. The correct sequence of the decreasing order of brake thermal efficiency of the three
given basic type of IC engines is
(a) 4 stroke CI engine, 4 stroke SI engine, 2 stroke SI engine [IES-1995]
(b) 4 stroke SI engine, 4 stroke CI engine, 2 stroke SI engine
(c) 4 stroke CI engine, 2 stroke SI engine, 4 stroke SI engine
(d) 2 stroke SI engine, 4 stroke SI engine, 4 stroke CI engine.

Q66. Assertion (A): Specific output of a diesel engine is higher than that of the SI engine.
Reason (R): Diesel engine is built stronger and heavier with higher compression ratio.
(c) A is true but R is false [IES-1998]
Q67. Assertion (A): Knocking in S.I. engines is due to auto-ignition of the end charge while
knocking, in C.I. engines are due to auto-ignition of the first charge.
Reason (R): Spark ignition engines employ lower compression ratio than diesel engines
and the fuel used has a calorific value lower than that of diesel oil. [IES-2001]

Q68. With reference to Turbojet and Rocket engines, consider the following statements:
1. Efficiency of Rocket engines is higher than that of Jet engines [IES-2001]
2. Exit velocities of exhaust gases in Rocket engines are much higher than those in Jet
engines
3. Stagnation conditions exist at the combustion chamber in Rocket engines
4. Rocket engines are air-breathing engines
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 3 and 4 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3

SI and CI Engines


1 Ans. (c)

2. Ans. (b)
3. Ans. (d)
4. Ans. (c)

1. Ans. (a) (A/F) for maximum power = 12 and (A/F) for Stoichiometric = 14.5
(A/F) for maximum fuel economy = 16.
2. Ans. (d) For Maximum power Air/Fuel ratio=12:1
For Maximum economy Air/Fuel ratio=16:1
For Maximum power we need rich mixture.
3. Ans. (a)
4. Ans. (c)
5. Ans. (a)
6. Ans. (a)
7. Ans. (a) Cold starting requires maximum fuel, idling requires little less fuel, full throttle
requires still less fuel and idling requires minimum fuel.
8. Ans. (a)
9. Ans. (d)
10. Ans. (c)
11. Ans. (a)
12. Ans. (d)
4 2 2 2
2
2 2
i.e.Volumesof O arerequiredfor1volumeof methane
CH O CO H O + +

2
air fuel ratio x 100 9.52%
21
= =
13. Ans. (c)
14. Ans. (c)
15. Ans. (a) When the mixture is nearly 10% richer than stoichiometric (fuel-air ratio = 0.08
i.e. air-fuel ratio 12.5:1) the velocity of flame propagation is maximum and ignition lag of the
end gas is minimum.
16. Ans. (c)
17. Ans. (b)
18. Ans. (d) A fuel with higher octane number has longer ignition delay.
19. Ans. (a)
SI and CI Engines

20. Ans. (b)
21. Ans. (d) Detonation in the S.I. engines is increased by increasing spark advance and
increased compression. The increased speed and lean mixtures do not have much influence.
22. Ans. (d)
23. Ans. (b)
24. Ans. (d)
25. Ans. (b)
26. Ans. (c)
27. Ans. (c)
28. Ans. (b)
29. Ans. (d)
30. Ans. (d) Knock in SI engine can be reduced by retarding spark and increasing the engine
speed.
31. Ans. (d) Self ignition temperature of end of charge must be lower to prevent knocking.
Higher compression ratio increases temperature of air fuel mixture. Thus A is false and R is
correct.
32. Ans. (b)
33. Ans. (d) Decreasing the engine speed increases possibility of detonation
34. Ans. (b) Octane rating of gasoline is based on iso-octane and n-heptane fuels which are
paraffin so 1 is wrong.
35. Ans. (d)
36. Ans. (b)
37. Ans. (c)
38. Ans. (c)
39. Ans. (c)
40. Ans. (c) In two-stroke engine there is one power stroke in 2 strokes, but in four-stroke
engine there is one power stroke in 4 strokes.
41. Ans. (d) Efficiency of 4 stroke engine is higher because of better utilization compared to 2
stroke engine.
42. Ans. (a)
43. Ans. (a) Resultant mean effective pressure = 1000 - 200 - (15 + 20) = 800 - 35 = 765 kN/m
2

44. Ans. (d)
45. Ans. (a)
46. Ans. (c)
47. Ans. (d) A very high compression ratio is favoured for a CI engine, in order to attain high
THERMAL efficiency without knocking.
48. Ans. (a)
49. Ans. (a)
50. Ans. (b)
51. Ans. (c)
52. Ans. (b) Increasing coolant temperature will reduce knocking in C I engine.
53. Ans. (c) Increasing the engine speed reduces knock in SI engine. Decreasing the engine
speed reduces knock in CI engine.
54. Ans. (a)
55. Ans. (b) Volumetric efficiency will reduce if fresh charge filled is reduced. i.e. inlet valve
closes before bottom dead centre.
56. Ans. (c)
57. Ans. (a)

0
2 N 2 2000
rad / s
60 60
2 2000 1.5 2 180 2000 1.5
t rad 18
60 1000 60 1000
t t
e
t
u e
= =

= = = =

SI and CI Engines

58. Ans. (c) Mixing of the fuel more thoroughly. Improved mixing had to be accomplished by
imparting additional motion to the air, most commonly by induction-produced air swirls or a
radial movement of the air, called squish, or both, from the outer edge of the piston toward the
centre. Various methods have been employed to create this swirl and squish.
59. Ans. (b) In divided combustion chamber, the restrictions or throat between chambers
results in high velocities which helps in rapid mixing of fuel with air. Thus high injection
pressure is not required for atomization.
60. Ans. (d)
61. Ans. (d) Pre-combustion diesel engines use lower injection pressures
62. Ans. (b)
63. Ans. (c)
64. Ans. (d) Specific fuel consumption decreases as the power capacity of the engine increases.
65. Ans. (a)
66. Ans. (d) Due to higher compression ratio. Specific power output (means power /weight) of a
diesel engine is lower than that of the SI engine. That so why we use SI engine for light
vehicles.
67. Ans. (b)
68. Ans. (d)

SI and CI Engines

Conventional Questions with Answers
Q1. The spark plug is fixed at 18
o
before top dead centre (TDC) in an SI engine running at
1800 r.p.m. It takes 8
o
of rotation to start combustion and get into flame propagation
mode. Flame termination occurs at 12
o
after TDC. Flame front can be approximated
as a sphere moving out from the spark plug which is offset 8 mm from the centre line
of the cylinder whose bore diameter is 8.4 cm. Calculate the effective flame front
speed during flame propagation. The engine speed is increased to 3000 r.p.m. and
subsequently as a result of which the effective flame front speed increases at a rate
such that it is directly proportional to 0.85 times of engine speed. Flame development
after spark plug firing still takes 8
o
of engine rotation. Calculate how much engine
rotation must be advanced such that the flame termination again occurs at 12
o
after
TDC. [IES-2010, 10-Marks]
Ans. Insufficient data.

3. Carburetion and Fuel
Injection
Definition of Carburetion
The process of formation of a combustible fuel-air mixture by mixing the proper amount of fuel
with air before admission to engine cylinder is called carburetion and the device which does
this job is called a carburettor.

Induction system showing typical pressure at the start of intake stroke under idling condition.

Factors Affecting Carburetion

Of the various factors, the process of carburetion is influenced by
(i) The engine speed
(ii) The vapourization characteristics of the fuel
(iii) The temperature of the incoming air and
(iv) The design of the carburetor

Therefore, in order to have high quality carburetion (that is mixture with high vapour vapour
content) the velocity of the air stream at the point where the fuel is injected has to be
increased. This is achieved by introducing a venturi section in the path of the air. The fuel is
discharged by introducing a venturi section in the path of the air. The fuel is discharged from
the main metering jet at the minimum cross section of the venturi (called throat).

Other factors which ensure high quality carburetion within a short period are the presence of
highly volatile hydrocarbons in the fuel. Therefore, suitable evaporation characteristics of the
fuel, indicated by its distillation curve, are necessary for efficient carburetion especially at
high engine speeds.

The design of the carburator, the intake, system and the combustion chamber have
considerable influence on uniform distribution of mixture to the various cylinders of the
engine. Proper design of carburetor element alone ensures the supply of desired composition of
the mixture under different operating conditions of the engine.
Carburetion and Fuel Injection

Performance Curve of an Automobile Carburettor

Principle of Carburetion
Into the chamber. In the carburettor, air passing into the combustion chamber picks up fuel
discharged from a tube. This tube has a fine orifice called carburettor jet which is exposed to
the air path. The rate at which fuel is discharged into the air depends on the pressure
difference or pressure head between the float chamber and the throat of the venturi and on the
area of the output of the tube. In order that the fuel drawn from the nozzle may be thoroughly
atomized, the suction effect must be strong and the nozzle outlet comparatively small. In order
to produce a strong suction, the pipe in the carburettor carrying air to the engine is made to
have a restriction. At this restriction called throat due to increase in velocity of flow, a suction
effect is created. The restriction is made in the form of a venture as shown in Fig. to minimize
throttling losses. The end of the fuel jet is located at the venture or throat of the carburettor.

Operation of the Venturi Tube

Simple Carburetor
The simple carburetor mainly consist of a float chamber, fuel discharge nozzle and a metering
orifice, a venturi, a throttle valve and a choke. The float and needle valve system maintains a
constant level of gasoline in the float chamber. If the amount of fuel in the float chamber falls
below the designed level, the float goes down, thereby opening the fuel supply valve and
admitting fuel. When the designed level has been recharged, the float closes the fuel supply
valve thus stopping additional fuel flow from the supply system. Float chamber is vented
either to the atmosphere or to the upstream side of the venture.
During suction stroke air is drawn through the venture. As already described, venture is a
tube of decreasing cross-section with a minimum area at the throat. Venturi tube is also
known as the choke tube and is so shaped that it offers minimum resistance to the air flow. As
the air passes through the venture the velocity increase reaching a maximum at the venture
throat. Correspondingly, the pressure decreases reaching a minimum. From the float chamber,
the fuel is fed to a discharge jet, the tip if which is located in the throat of the venture. Because

of the differential pressure between the float chamber and the throat of the venture, known as
carburetor depression, fuel is discharged into the air stream. The fuel discharge is affected by
the size of the discharge jet it is chosen to give the required air-fuel ratio. The pressure at the
throat at the fully open throttle condition lies between 4 to 5 cm of Hg, below atmospheric and
seldom exceeds 8cm Hg below atmospheric. To avoid overflow of fuel through the jet, the level
of the liquid in the float chamber is maintained at a level slightly below the tip of the
discharge jet. This is called the tip of the nozzle. The difference in the height between the top
of the nozzle and the float chamber level is marked h in Fig. The gasoline engine is quantity,
which means that when power output is to be varied at a particular speed, the amount of the
charge delivered to the cylinder is varied. This is achieved by means of a throttle valve usually
of the butterfly type which is situated after the venture tube. As the throttle is closed less air
flows through the venturi tube and less is the quantity of air fuel mixture delivered to the
cylinder and hence power output is reduced. As the throttle is opened, more air flow through
the chock tube resulting in increased quantity of mixing being delivered to the engine. This
increase the engine power output.

A simple carburetor of the type described above suffers from a fundamental drawback in that
it provides the requires A/F ratio only at one throttle position. At the other throttle is opened
less or more. As the throttle opening is varied, the air flows of fuel through the nozzle.
Therefore, the velocity of flow of air and fuel very in a similar manner. At the same time, the
density of air decrease at the pressure at the venturi throat decrease with increasing air flow
whereas that of the fuel remains unchanged. This result in a simple carburetor producing a
progressively rich mixture with increasing throttle opening.

The Simple Carburettor

ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A CARBORATOR
(i) Float chamber
(ii) Nozzle
(iii) Metering orifice
(iv) Venturi
(v) Throttle valve.


The float and a needle valve system maintains a constant level of gasoline in the float chamber
falls below the designed level, the float goes down , thereby opening the fuel supply valve and
admitting fuel.

When the designed level has been reached the float closes the fuel supply valve thus stopping
additional fuel flow from the supply system. Float chamber is vented either to the atmosphere
or to the upstream of the venturi.

During suction stroke air is drawn through the venturi. Venturi tube is also known as the
choke tube and is so shaped that it offers minimum resistance to the air flow. As the air passes
through the venturi the velocity increases reaching a maximum at the venturi increases
reaching a maximum at the venturi throat. Correspondingly , the pressure decreases reaching
a minimum. From the float chamber, the fuel is fed to a discharge jet, the tip of which is
located in the throat of the venturi. Because of the differential pressure between the float
chamber and the throat of the venturi known as carburettor depression, fuel is discharged into
the air stream. The fuel discharge is affected by the size of the discharge jet and it is chosen to
give the required A/F ratio.

The pressure at the throat at the fully open throlle condition lies between 4 to 5 cm of Hg,
below atmospheric and seldom exceeds 8 cm of Hg below atmospheric.

To avoid overflow of fuel through the jet, the level of the liquid in the float chamber is
maintain at a level slightly below the tip of the discharge jet.

The gasoline engine is quantity governed, which means that when power output is to be varied
at a particular speed, the amount of charge delivered to the cylinder is varied. This is achieved
by means of a throttle valve usually of the butterfly type which is situated after the venturi
tube. As the throttle is closed less air flows through the venturi tube and less is the flows
through the venturi tube and less is the quantity of air-fuel mixture delivered to the cylinder
and hence power output is reduced. As the throttle is opened, more air flows through the choke
tube resulting in increased quantity of mixture being delivered to the engine. This increases
the engine power output.

A simple carburetor of the type shown above suffers from a fundamental drawbacks in that it
provides the required A/F ratio only at one throttle position. At the other throttle positions the
mixture is either leaner or richer depending on whether the throttle is opened less or more. As
the throttle opening is varied, the air flow varies and creates a certain pressure differential
between the float chamber and the venturi throat. The same pressure differential regulates
the flow of fuel through the nozzle. Therefore, the velocity of flow of air and fuel vary in a
similar manner. At the same time, the density of air decreases as the pressure at the venturi
throat decreases as the pressure at the venturi throat decreases with increasing air flow
whereas that of the fuel remains unchanged. This results in a simple carburetor producing a
progressively rich mixture with increasing throttle opening.

Size of the Carburettor
The size of a carburettor is generally given in terms of the diameter of the venture tube in mm
and the jet size in hundredths of a millimetre. The calibrated jets have a stamped number
which gives the flow in ml/min under a head of 500 mm of pure benzol.
For a venture of 30 to 35 mm size (having a jet size which is one sixteenth of venture size) the
pressure difference (P1-P2) is about 50 mm of Hg. The velocity at throat is about 90 100 m/s
and the coefficient of discharge for venture Cda is usually 0.85.


The Choke and the Throttle
When the vehicle is kept stationary for a long period during cool winter seasons, may be
overnight, starting becomes more difficult. As already explained, at low cranking speeds and
intake temperature a very rich mixture is required to initiate combustion. Some times air-fuel
ratio as rich as 9:1 is required. The main reason is that very large fraction of the fuel may
remain as liquid suspended in air even in the cylinder. For initiating combustion, fuel-vapour
and air in the form of mixture at a ratio that can sustain combustion is required. It may be
noted that at very low temperature vapour fraction of the fuel is also very small and this forms
combustible mixture to initiate combustion. Hence, a very rich mixture must be supplied. The
most popular method of providing such mixture is by the use of choke valve. This is simple
butterfly valve located between the entrances.

Complete Carburettor
In order to satisfy the demands of an engine under all conditions of operation the following
additional systems are added to the simple carburetor.
(i) Main metering system
(ii) Idling system
(iii) Power enrichment by economiser system
(iv) Acceleration pump system
(v) Choke.

(i) Main Metering System- The main metering system of a carburetor is designed to supply a
nearly constant basis fuel-air ratio over a wide range of speeds and loads. This mixture
correspondence approximately to best economy at full throttle (A/F ratio ~15.6 or F/A ratio
0.064). Since a simple or elementary carburetor tends to enrich the mixture at higher speeds
automatic compensating device are incorporated in the main metering system to correct this
tendency. These devices are:

(a) Use of a compensating jet that allows an increasing flow of air through a fuel passage as
the mixture flow increases.
(b) Use of emulsion tube for air bleeding. In this device the emphasis is on air bleeding alone.
(c) Use of a tapered metering pin that is arranged to be moved in and out of the main or
auxiliary fuel orifice either manually or by means of some automatic mechanism changing
the quantity of fuel drawn into the air charge.
(d) Back-suction control or pressure reduction in the float chamber.
(e) Changing the position or jet in the venturi. The suction action is highest at the venturi
throat, therefore by raising the venturi the nozzle relatively moves to points with smaller
suction and the flow of fuel is decreased.
(f) Use of an auxiliary air valve or port that automatically admits additional air as mixture
flow increases.

(ii) Idling system- It has already been shown that at idling and low load the engine requires a
rich mixture. However, the main metering system not only fails to enrich the mixture at low
air flows but also supplies no fuel at all at idling. For this reason, a separate idling jet must be
added to the basic carburetor. It consists of a small fuel line from the float chamber to a point
a little on the engine side of the throttle. This line contains a fixed fuel orifice. When the
throttle is practically closed, the full manifold suction operates on the outlet to this jet. In
addition, the very high velocity past the throttle plate increases the suction locally. Fuel can
therefore be lifted by the additional height up to the discharge point, but this occurs only at
very low rates of air flow. As he throttle is opened, the main jet gradually takes over while the
idle jet becomes ineffective


The desired air fuel ratio foe the idling jet is regulated manually be idle adjust, which is a
needle valve controlling the air bleed.

(iii) Power enrichment or economizer system- As the maximum power range of operation (75%
to 100% load) is approaches; some device must allow richer mixture to be supplied despite the
compensating leanness. Such a device is the meter rod economizer. The name economizer is
rather misleading. It stems from the fact that such a device provides a rich uneconomical
mixture at high load demand without interfering with economical operation in the normal
power range. The meter rod economizer simply provides a large orifice opening to the main jet
as the throttle is opened beyond a certain point. The rod may be tapered or stepped. Other
examples provide for the opening of auxiliary jets through some linkage to the throttle
movement or through a spring action when manifold vacuum is lost as the throttle is opened.

(iv) Acceleration pump system- It has already been shown that when it is desired to accelerate
the engine rapidly, a simple carburetor will not provide the required rich mixture. Rapid
opening of the throttle will be immediately followed by an increased airflow, but the inertia of
the liquid fuel will cause at least a momentarily lean mixture just when richness is desired for
power. To overcome this deficiency an acceleration pump is provided. The pump consists of a
spring-loaded plunger. A linkage mechanism is provided so that when the throttle is rapidly
opened to the plunger moves into the cylinder and forces an additional jet of fuel into the
venturi. The plunger is raised again against the spring force when the throttle is partly closed.
Arrangement is provided so that when the throttle is opened slowly, the fuel in the pump
cylinder is not forced into the venturi but leaks past plunger or some holes into the float
chamber.

Instead of the mechanical linkage shown some carburetors have a pump plunger held up by
manifold vacuum. Whenever that vacuum is reduced by the rapid opening of the throttle, a
spring forces the plunger down in a pumping action identical to that of the pump illustrated.

(v) choke- During cold starting period, at low cranking speed and before the engine has
warmed up, a mixture much richer than usual mixtures (almost 5 to 10 times more fuel) must
be supplied simply because a large fraction of the fuel will remain liquid even in the cylinder,
and only the vapour fraction can provide a combustible mixture with the air. The most
common means of obtaining this rich mixture is by the use of a choke, which is a butterfly type
of valve placed between the entrance to the carburettor and the venture throat. By partially
closing the choke, a large pressure drop can be produced at the venture throat that would
normally result from the amount of air flowing through the venture. This strong section at the
throat will draw large quantity of fuel from the main nozzle and supply a sufficiently rich
mixture so that the ratio of evaporated fuel to air in the cylinder is within combustible limit.
Choke valves are sometimes made with a spring loaded by pass so that high pressure drop and
excessive choking will not result after the engine had started and has attain a higher speed.
Some manufacture make the choke operates automatically by the means of a thermostats such
that when the engine is coal the choke is closed by a bimetallic element. After starting and the
engine warms of the bimetallic element gradually open the choke to its fully open position.
Aircraft Carburettor

1. The important difference between an aircraft and auto mobile carburettor is that the
former operates at varying altitudes whereas the latter operates mostly at ground level
conditions. As the altitude increases the air density reduces and the air/fuel ratio, which is
proportional to

ai r de ns i ty
fue l de ns i ty


reduces, i.e. the fuel mixture becomes richer with altitude. At about 7000 metres the air
density is nearly one-half that at ground level and hence the A/F ratio about 0.7 times the
value at ground level, i.e. the mixture will be about 40 per cent richer.

It is, therefore, necessary to provide an altitude mixture correction device in aircraft
carburettors to progressively reduces the amount of fuel with altitude. The various
methods used for this purpose are, (i) back suction control, (ii) air bleeding, and (iii)
providing a metering pin.
The other special features of aircraft carburettors are:

2. Special float chamber is needed for the level system. The ordinary hydrostatic float method
is unsatisfactory for conditions of engine tilt at more than small angles and when the
aircraft is doing acrobatics it is necessary to employ a special system of fuel supply to
ensure that the float chamber or its equivalent reservoir (and diaphragm) always contains
sufficient fuel.

3. Yet another problem in aircraft carburettors is the formation of ice in the choke tube and
on the throttle valve due to the low temperature of the air. For eliminating the ice either
an automatic de-icing unit is fitted or a supply of hot engine oil is arranged to flow around
the carburettor barrel and through the hollow throttle valve.
Petrol Injection
The fuel-injection system is the most vital component in the working of CI engines. The engine
performance viz., power output, economy etc. is greatly dependent on the effectiveness of the
fuel-injection system. The injection system has to perform the important duty of initiating and
controlling the combustion process.

Basically, the purpose of carburetion and fuel-injection is the same viz., preparation of the
combustible charge. But in case of carburetion fuel is atomized by processes relying on the air
speed greater than fuel speed at the fuel nozzle, whereas, in fuel-injection the fuel speed at the
point of delivery is greater than the air speed to atomize the fuel. in carburettors.

When the fuel is injected into the combustion chamber towards the end of compression stroke,
it is atomized into very fine droplets. These droplets vaporize due to heat transfer from the
compressed air and form a fuel-air mixture. Due to continued heat transfer from hot air to the
fuel, the temperature reaches a value higher than its self-ignition temperature. This causes
the fuel to ignite spontaneously initiating the combustion process.

Functional requirement of an injection system: - For a proper running and good performance
from the engine, the following requirements must be met by the injection system-
(i) Accurate metering
(ii) Timing the injection
(iii) Rate of injection
(iv) Proper atomization
(v) Proper spray pattern
(vi) Uniform distribution of fuel droplets
(vii) Equal quantities of metered fuel to all cylinders for multi cylinder engines.
(viii) No lag thus eliminating dribbling.

Classification of Injection System
In a constant-pressure cycle or diesel engine, only air is compressed in the cylinder and then
fuel is injected into the cylinder by means of a fuel-injection system. For producing the

required pressure for atomizing the fuel either air or a mechanical means is used. Accordingly
the injection systems can be classified as:
(i) Air injection systems
(ii) Solid injection systems

Air Injection system
In this system, fuel is forced into the cylinder by means of compressed air. This system is little
used nowadays, because it requires a bulky multi-stage air compressor, This cause an increase
in engine weight and reduces the brake power output further. One advantage that is claimed
for the air injection system is good mixing of fuel with the air with resultant higher mean
effective pressure. Another is the ability to utilize fuels of high viscosity. These advantages are
off-set by the requirement of a multistage compressor thereby making the air-injection system
obsolete.

Advantages
1. The main advantage of the air injection system is the good atomization obtained. A high
mep can be attained as rapid combustion results due to good mixing of fuel and air.
2. Heavy and viscous fuels, which are cheaper, can also be injected.
3. The fuel pump is required to develop only a small pressure.

Disadvantages
1. It requires a high pressure multi-stage compressor. The large number of parts the inter-
cooler, etc., make the system complicated and expensive.
2. A separate mechanical linkage is required to time the operation of the fuel value.

Schematic diagram of an air injection system
Solid Injection System
In this system the liquid fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber without the aid
of compressed air. Hence, it is also called airless mechanical injection or solid injection system.
Solid injection systems can be classified into four types.

(i) Individual pump and nozzle system
(ii) Unit injector system
(iii) Common rail system
(iv) Distributor system

All the above systems comprise mainly of the following components -
(i) Fuel tank
(ii) Fuel feed pump

(iii) Injection pump
(iv) Governor
(v) Injector
(vi) Fuel fitters

Typical Fuel Feed System for a CI Engine

Injection Pump
The main objectives of fuel-injection pump is to deliver accurately metered quantity of fuel
under high pressure (in the range from 120 to 200 bar) at the correct instant to the injector
fitted on each cylinder. Injection pumps are of two types, viz. (i) Jerk type pumps (ii)
Distributor type pumps

Fuel Injector
Quick and complete combustion is ensured by a well designed fuel injector. By atomizing the
fuel into very fine droplets, it increases the surface area of the fuel droplets resulting in better
mixing and subsequent combustion. Atomization is done by forcing the fuel through a small
orifice under high pressure.

The injector assembly consists of
(i) A needle valve
(ii) A compression spring
(iii) A nozzle
(iv) An injector body
Types & Fuel Injectors
There are three main types of fuel injectors. These are:
1. Blast injectors.
2. Mechanically operated injectors.
3. Automatic injectors.

Quantity of Fuel per Cycle, Size of Nozzle Orific
The quantity of the fuel injected per cycle depends upon the amount of air available
(displacement volume) and the load of the engine. The fuel is supplied into the combustion
chamber through the nozzle holes. The velocity of the fuel for good atomization is of the order
of 400m/sec. Roughly, the velocity of the fuel through nozzle orifice can be given by
f d
f
2 p
C C
A
=


Where Cf = velocity of fuel,
Cd = flow coefficient of orifice
Ap = the pressure difference between injection and cylinder pressure
The volume of the fuel injected per second, Q, is given by
Q = Area of all orifices velocity time of one injection No. of injections per second for one
orifice
Q =
2
f
1 N
d n C
4 360 N 60
t u | | | | | |

| | |
\ . \ . \ .

Where d is the diameter of the orifice, n number of holes, u duration of injection in crankangle
and N number of injections per minute.
Usually the rate of fuel injection is expressed is mm
3
/degrees crank angle/litre cylinder
displacement volume to avoid effect of engine size.

Fuel Injector
Injection in SI Engine
Fuel-injection systems are commonly used in CI engines. Presently gasoline injection system is
coming into vogue in SI engines because of the following drawback of the carburetion.
(a) Non uniform distribution of mixture in multicylinder engines.
(b) Loss of volumetric efficiency due to restriction for the mixture flow and the possibility of
back firing.
A gasoline injection system eliminates all these drawbacks. The injection of fuel in SI engine
can be employing any of the following methods
(a) Direct injection of fuel into the cylinder
(b) Injection of fuel close to the inlet valve
(c) Injection of fuel into the inlet manifold

There are two types of gasoline injection systems, viz.
(i) Continuous Injection: Fuel is continuously injected. It is adopted when manifold injection
is contemplated.

(ii) Timed Injection: Fuel is injected only during induction stroke over a limited period.
Injection timing is not a critical factor in SI engines.

Major advantages of fuel-injection in an SI engine are:
(i) Increased volumetric efficiency
(ii) Better thermal efficiency
(iii) Lower exhaust emissions
(iv) High quality fuel distribution

Advantages and Disadvantages of Petrol Injection

(1) The main advantages of petrol injection are:
Increases volumetric efficiency and hence increased power and torque, due to the absence
of any restriction such as ventures and other metering elements in the air passage.
(2) Better distribution of mixture to each cylinder and hence lower specific fuel consumption.
(3) Lower mixture temperature in the engine cylinders, despite the increase in power
developed and hence possibility of employing higher compression ratios (higher by 1 to
1.5).
(4) Freedom from blowbacks and icing.
(5) Better starting and acceleration.
(6) Engine fitted with petrol injection system can be used in any till position which will
cause trouble in carburettors.

The disadvantages of fuel injection as against conventional carburetion are as follows:
(1) The greatest disadvantage of fuel injection system is against conventional carburetion is
its considerably higher initial cost due to prices and complicated component assemblies.
The number of individual parts in petrol injection system may be 3 to 4 times that in a
carburetion system. In Junkers engine fuel injection system has 1576 parts compared to
Mercedes Carburettor system 433 parts (both for 12 cylinder engine).
(2) Increased service problem. Injection system has many wearing parts such as camshaft,
rotor, shuttle, etc.
(3) Weight and bulk of petrol injection system is more than that part of a carburettor.
(4) Injection system generates more noise.

Requirements of a Diesel Injection System
The above analysis indicates that the following requirements should be fulfilled by the diesel
injection equipment:
(1) The fuel should be introduced into the combustion chamber within a precisely defined
period of the cycle.
(2) The amount of the fuel injected per cycle should be metered very accurately. The
clearances between the working parts of a fuel pumps as well as the size of the orifice are
vary small. The working clearance is as small as 0.001mm and the nozzle orifice size of
even a big engine is as small as 0.625mm in diameter. If it is enlarged by output may
result in imbalance, overheating or smoky exhaust.
(3) The rate of injection should be such that it results in the desired heat release pattern.
(4) The quantities of the fuel metered should very to meet changing speed and load
requirements.
(5) The injected fuel must be broken into very fine droplets, i.e., good atomisation should be
obtained.
(6) The spray-pattern must be such that it results in rapid mixing of fuel and air.
(7) The beginning and the end of injection should bee sharp, i.e., there should not be any
dribbling or after-injection.

(8) The injection timing, if desired, should change to suit the engine speed and load
requirements.
(9) In the case of multicylinder engines, the distribution of the meter fuel among various
cylinders should be uniform.
(10) In addition to the above requirements, the weight and the size of the fuel injection
system must be minimum. It should not be costly to manufacture and expensive to,
adjust and repair.

To accomplish the objectives of precise metering, distributing, timing and atomising the
following functional elements are required in a fuel injection system.
(i) Pumping elements to move the fuel from fuel tank to cylinder (plus piping, etc.).
(ii) Metering elements to measure and supply the fuel according to the requirement of speed
dand load.
Metering controls to adjust the rate of the metering elements for changes in load and speed of
the engine.
Distributing elements to divide the metered fuel equally among the cylinders.
Timing controls to adjust the start and the stop injection.
Mixing elements to automize and distribute the fuel within the combustion chamber. There
could be various designs of injection systems incorporating the above functional elements as
described below.

Spray Formation
The various phases of spray formation as the fuel is injected through the nozzle are shown in
fig. At the start of the fuel injection the pressure difference across the orifice is low. Therefore
single droplets are formed as in Fig. (a). As the pressure difference increases the following
process occur one after the other.
A stream of fuel emerges from the nozzle, with further and further increasing the pressure
difference, the break-up distance decrease and the cone angle increases until the apex of the
cone practically coincides with the orifice At the exit of the orifice the fuel jet velocity, Vf, is of
the order of 400 m/s. It is given by the following equation

i nj cyl
f d
f
2(P P )
V C

=

Where Cd = coefficient of discharge for the orifice
Pinj = fuel pressure at the inlet to injector, N/m
2

Pcyl = pressure of charge inside the cylinder, N/m
2

f
= fuel density, kg/m
3

The spray form circular orifice has a denser and compact core, surrounded by a droplets of
various sizes and vaporized liquid. Larger droplets provide a higher penetration into the

chamber but smaller droplets are required for quick mixing and evaporation of the fuel. The
diameter of most of the droplets in a fuel spray is less than 5 microns. The droplet sizes
depends on various factors which are listed below:
Mean droplet size decreases with increase in injection pressure.
Mean droplet size decreases with increase in air density.
Mean droplet size increases with increase in fuel viscosity.
Size of droplets increases with increase in the size of the orifice.

Injection Timing
Consider a cylinder of a four cylinder engine. The fuel is injected into the inlet manifold of
each cylinder at different timings. The timing at which the injection of the fuel takes place
inside the inlet manifold is called injection timing.
The effect of injection advance to the pressure variation is shown in Fig., for three injection
advance timing of 9
o
, 18
o
and 27
o
before TDC. The injected quantity of fuel per cycle is
constant. As the pressure and temperature at the beginning of injection are lower for higher
ignition advance, the delay period increases with increase in injection advance. The optimum
angle of injection advance depends on many factors but generally it is about 20
o
bTDC.


OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS (GATE, IES & IAS)

Complete carburettor
Q1. At the time of starting, idling and low speed operation, the carburretor supplies a
mixture which can be termed as [GATE-2004]
(a) Lean (b) slightly leaner than stoichiometric
(c) stoichiometric (d) rich

A simple or elementary carburettor
Q1. The essential function of the carburettor in a spark ignition engine is to:
(a) Meter the fuel into air stream and amount dictated by the load and speed
(b) Bring about mixing of air and fuel to get a homogeneous mixture [IES-1992]
(c) Vaporise the fuel
(d) Distribute fuel uniformly to all cylinders in a multi cylinder engine and also
vaporise it.

Q2. Which one of the following curves is a proper representation of pressure differential (y-
axis) vs velocity of air (x-axis) at the throat of a carburettor?
[IES-1993]

Q3. Assertion (A): A simple or elementary carburettor provides progressively rich mixture
with increasing air flow [IES-2004]
Reason (R): The density of the air tends to increase as the rate of air flow increases.


Q4. Assertion (A): A simple carburettor which is set to give a correct mixture at low air
speeds will give a progressively rich mixture as the air speed is increased. [IES-1995]
Reason (R): As the pressure difference over the jet of a simple carburettor increases the
weight of petrol discharge increases at a greater rate than does the air supply.
Complete carburettor
1. In a carburettor the throttle valve is used to control the fuel supply.
2. The fuel level in the float chambers is to be about 4 to 5 mm below the orifice
level of main jet.
3. An idle jet provides extra fuel during sudden acceleration.
4. A choke valve restricts the air supply to make the gas richer with fuel.
(a) 2 and 4 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4

lists :
(Elements of a complete carburetor) (Rich-mixture requirement)
A. Idling system 1. To compensate for dilution of charge
B. Economizer 2. For cold starting
C. Acceleration pump 3. For meeting maximum power range of
operation
D. Choke 4. For meeting rapid opening of throttle
(a) 1 2 3 4 (b) 1 3 4 2
(c) 2 3 4 1 (d) 4 1 2 3

Q7. Compensating jet in a carburettor supplies almost constant amount of petrol at all
speeds because [IES-1996]
(a) The jet area is automatically varied depending on the suction.
(b) The flow from the main jet is diverted to the compensating jet with increase in
speed.
(c) The diameter of the jet is constant and the discharge coefficient is invariant.
(d) The flow is produced due to the static head in the float chamber.

Q8. Assertion (A): One of the important requirements of a carburettor is to supply lean
mixture at starting.
Reason (R): A rather lean mixture is required at No-load and low-load operation of a SI
engine. [IES-1997]
Q9. Consider the following statements for a carburettor: [IES-2004]
1. Acceleration jet is located just behind the throttle value
2. Idle jet is located close to the choke

3. Main jet alone supplies petrol at normal engine speeds
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3

Q10. In some carburettor, meter rod and economiser device is used for [IES-1998]
(a) Cold starting (b) idling
(c) Power enrichment (d) acceleration

Q11. Oxides of nitrogen in the engine exhaust can be reduced by which of the following
methods?
1. Decrease in compression ratio
2. Exhaust gas recirculation
3. Use of 5% lean mixture
4. Use of oxidation catalysts in exhaust manifold
Select the correct answer using the code given below: [IES-2008]
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4
(d) 2 and 4 only

1. Recycling exhaust gases with intake increases emission of oxides of nitrogen from
the engine.
2. When the carburettor throttle is suddenly opened, the fuel air mixture leans out
temporarily causing engine stall.
3. The effect of increase in altitude on carburettor is to enrich the entire part-throttle
operation.
4. Use of multiple venturi system makes it possible to obtain a high velocity air
stream when the fuel is introduced at the main venturi throat.

In down draft carburettor, a hot spot is formed at the bottom wall which is common for
intake and exhaust manifolds. This helps to
1. Improve evaporation of liquid fuel
2. Provide higher thermal efficiency
3. Reduce fuel consumption
4. Lower the exhaust gas temperature

Petrol injection
Q14. Consider the following statements regarding the advantages of fuel injection over
carburetion in S.I. engines:
1. Higher power output and increased volumetric efficiency. [IES-2001]
2. Simple and inexpensive injection equipment.
3. Longer life of injection equipment.
4. Less knocking and reduced tendency for back-fire.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 4 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 4

Requirements of a diesel injection system
Q15. Where does mixing of fuel and air take place in case of diesel engine? (a)
Injection pump (b) Injector [IES-2006]
(c) Engine cylinder (d) Inlet manifold

Q16. Assertion (A): Air injection system finds wide application in modern diesel engines.
Reason (R): Very good atomization of fuels is attained by the air injection system.
(a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A [IES-1994]

The injector nozzle of a CI engine is required to inject fuel at a sufficiently high
pressure in order to
1. be able to inject fuel in a chamber of high pressure at the end of the compression
stroke.
2. Inject fuel at high velocity to facilitate atomization.
3. Ensure that penetration is not high.
Of the above statements
Fuel pump
Q18. Generally, in Bosch type fuel injection pumps, the quantity of fuel is increased or
decreased with change in load, due to change in [IES-1994]
(a) Timing of start of fuel injection. (b) Timing of end of fuel injection
(c) Injection pressure of fuel (d) velocity of flow of fuel

A simple or elementary carburettor
Q1. Assertion (A): The carburetor in a petrol engine is categorized as a closed loop control
system. [IAS-2001]
Reason (R): There is no method by which the air-fuel ratio is measured in the
carburetor.


1. Ans. (d)

1. Ans. (a)
2. Ans. (a) The relationship between
2
Pand vis P v A A [parabolic x
2
=4Ay] which is
represented by curve (a).
3. Ans. (c)
4. Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R provides correct explanation for A
5. Ans. (a) 1 is false: In a carburetor the throttle valve is used to control the air-fuel mixture
supply.
3 is false: An Idle jet provides extra-fuel during idling and low speed.
6. Ans. (b) The idling system is used to compensate for dilution of charge, economizer is for
meeting maximum power range of operation, acceleration pump for meeting rapid opening of
throttle valve, and choke is used for cold starting.
7. Ans. (b)
8. Ans. (d) At starting rich mixture is required
9. Ans. (d)
10. Ans. (c) An economizer is a valve which remains closed at normal speed and gets opened to
supply enriched mixture at full throttle operation.
11. Ans. (c) Decrease in compression ratio will decrease the temperature therefore decrease
NOx emission.
12. Ans. (c)
13. Ans. (a)
14. Ans. (d)
15. Ans. (c)
16. Ans. (a) Both A and R are correct and R is correct explanation of A.
17. Ans. (a)
18. Ans. (b) The quantity of fuel is varied by rotating helix on pump plunger, i.e. timing the
end of fuel injection.

1. Ans. (c) There are several methods by which the air-fuel ratio is measured in the
carburettor.


Q1. Derive an expression for air/fuel ratio of a carburettor by
(i) Neglecting compressibility of air
(ii) Taking compressibility effects into account. [IES-2009, 8 + 7 = 15-Marks]
Ans. (i) Neglecting compressibility effect, we have

( )
( )
( )
2
1 2 2
a a
1 2
2
a
a 2 2 a
2 a 1 2
n 1 2 a 2
f f f 1 2 f
a a 2
f f f
P P C
2
P P
C 2
m A C
A 2 P P
ai r / fuel rati o
P P m A
m A P P gz
m A
If z 0,
m A
=

(
=
(

=
=

= =

= =

(ii) Let carburetor with the tip of the fuel nozzle meters above the fuel level in the
float chamber, then applying energy equation

( )
( )
2 2
2 1 2 1
1
q - w = h h c c
2
+
Where q = heat
w = work
h = enthalpy
c = velocity
Assuming, adiabatic flow, we get
Q = 0, w = 0 and c1 = 0
Hence
( )
2 1 2
c 2 h h =
Assuming gas behaves ideally so we have

( )
p
2 p 1 2
h c T
c 2c T T ... (i )
=
=

As the flow process from inlet to the venturing throat, we can assume isentropic
process, so we have

1
2 2
1 1
1
2
1 2 1
1
T P
T P
P
T T T 1
P
| |
|
\ .

| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
(
| |
(
=
|
(
\ .

Substituting in equation (i), we get

1
2
2 p 1
1
P
c 2c T 1
P
| |
|
\ .
(
| |
(
=
|
(
\ .
(


Now, mass flow of air,

a 1 1 1 2 2 2
m p A c p A c = =
Where
1 2
A , A are cross sectional areas at the air inlet and outlet.
To calculate mass flow rate of air, we have

1 2
1 2
P P
p p

=

1/
2
2 1
1
P
p p
P
| |
=
|
\ .

1/
2
a
1
P
m
P
| |
=
|
\ .

1
1
2
p 1
1
P
p 2c T 1
P

(
| |
(
|
(
\ .
(

1 1
a
1
A p
m
R T
=

1
2 /
2 2
p
1 1
P P
2c ..... (i i )
P P

(
| | | |
(
| |
(
\ . \ .
(

In order to calculate air fuel ratio, fuel flow rate is to be calculated.
As the fuel is in incompressible, applying Bernoullis equation.

2
1 2 f
f f
p p c
gz
2
= +

Where

f
= density of fuel

f
c = fuel velocity at the nozzle exit
Z = height of the nozzle exit above the level of fuel in the float bowl

1 2
f
f
p p
c 2 gz
(
=
(

Mass flow rate of fuel,

( )
f f f f
f f 1 2 f
m A c
A 2 p p gz ...... (i i i )
=
=

Where

f
A = area of the crosssection of the nozzle

f
= density of the fuel.
A/F ratio

( )
2 1
1 f 1 2 f
A p
........ (iv)
2T p p gz
|
=

1
2/
2 2
1 1
p p
where
p p
+
| | | |
|=
| |
\ . \ .


P
1.43 1.71
2 2
1 1
But C 1.005 J/ kg.
R 287 J / kg K and
= 1.4
p p
=
p p
=
=
| | | |
|
| |
\ . \ .

So equation (iv) is the required equation.

Q2. Drive an expression for the diameter of the injector orifice to spray fuel
3
Q cm
/cycle/cylinder in terms of injection pressure
( )
2
kN /
i nj
p m , combustion chamber
pressure
( )
2
1
kN /
cy
p m , density of fuel
( )
f
3
kg / cm and period of injection t
seconds.
Calculate the diameter of the injectgor orifice of a six-cylinder, 4-stroke CI engine
using the following data:
Brake power = 250 kW; Engine speed = 1500 r.p.m; BSFC = 0.3 kg/kW Cylinder
pressure = 35 bar; Injection pressure = 200 bar; Specific gravity of fuel = 0.88;
Coefficient of discharge of the fuel orifice = 0.92; Duration of injection = 36C of crank
angle. [IES-2007, 15-Marks]
Ans. Given: For CI Engine,
Quantity of fuel sprayed

3
2 cm / cycle / cyli nde r =

i nj
p = Injection pressure
2
kN / m

cyl
p = Combustion chambers pressure
2
kN / m

f
= Density of fuel,
3
kg / c m
t = Period of injection, second.
Now velocity of fuel through injector orifice

f d
v C 2gh =
where h = differential pressure head between injection and cylinder pressure

( )
3
i nj cyl
6
f
p p 10
h
g 10

=

( )
i nj cyl
3
f
p p
m
10 g
=

( ) inj cyl
2 p p
f d
3
f
v C m / s
10
=

Now volume of fuel injected/cylinder/sec = Area of orifice fuel jet velocity time of
one injection number of injection/sec for one orifice

2 i
f
N 60
d v
4 360 N 60
t u | | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .

For one cycle, 360 u =

6 3
Q 10 m / cycle / cyli nder

2 i
f
N 60
d v
4 N 60
t | |
=
|
\ .

i.e.
6 2
f
Q 10 d v t
4
t
=

i.e.
( ) i nj cyl
6
2
2 p p
d
3
f
4Q 10
d
t C
10
=
t

( )
1
1/2
4 3
2 f
d
i nj cyl
10 4Q
d 10
t c
2 p p

| |
| |
|
=
|
| t

\ .
\ .

( )
1
4
i nj cyl
1
3
2
f
d
2 p p
10 4Q
cm
tc

(
| |
(
=
|
( t
\ .

Now, given for 4 stroke CI engine, number of cylinders = 6
B.P. = 250 kW.
Engine speed = N = 1500 r.p.m
BSFC = 0.3 kg/kW

5 2
cyl
p 35 bar 35 10 N / m =

5 2
cyl
p 200 bar 200 10 N / cm =
Specific gravity of fuel = 0.88

3
1
880 kg / m =

d
C = coefficient of discharge for fuel orifice = 0.92
Duration of injection = u = 36 of crank
Now, time deviation (period) of injection

2
36
0.4 10 sec
1500
360
60
= =

Velocity of injection
i nj
v

( ) i nj cyl
2 p p
d
f
C

=

( )
5
2 200 35 10
0.92
880

= 178.16 m / sec =
Fuel consumed/hour = BSFC power output
= 0.3 250 = 75 kg
Fuel consumption/cylinder

75
12.5 kg / hr
6
=
Fuel consumption/cycle

Fuel consumption / min ute
n
=
Where
N
n
2
= for 4 stroke engine = 750
Fuel consumption/cycle

3
12.5 / 60
0.277 10 kg
750

= = .
Volume of fuel injected/cycle

3
0.277 10
880
= 0.3148 cc / cycle =
6 3
0.3148 10 m / cycle
= .
Now, injection orifice area,

f
Volume of fuel i njected / cycle
A
Injecti on veloci ty Injecti on ti me
=


6
f
3
0.3148 10
A
178.16 4 10
=

6 2
0.4417 10 m
=
Now, area of orifice
2
d
4
t
=
6 2
0.4417 10 m
=
Diameter of injector orifice,

6
4 0.4417 10
d

=
t
3
0.75 10
= m 0.75 mm =

Students Notes

4. Fuels
Fuels
Internal combustion engines can be operated on different types of fuels such as liquid, gaseous
and even solid fuels. Depending upon the type of fuel to be used the engines has to be designed
accordingly.

Solid Fuel
The solid fuels find little practical application at present at because of the problems in
handling the fuel as well as in disposing off, the solid rsidue or ash after combustion. However
in the initial stages of the engine development, solid fuels such as finely powdered coal was
attempted. Compared to gaseous and liquid fuels, solid fuels are quite difficult to handle and
storage and feeding are quite cumbersome. Because of the complications in the design of the
fuel feed systems these fuels have become unsuitable in solid form. Attempts are being made
to generate gaseous of liquid fuels from charcoal for use in IC engines.

Liquid Fuels
In most of the modern internal combustion engines, liquid fuels which are the derivatives of
liquid petroleum are being used. The three principal commercial types of liquid fuels are
benzyl, alcohol and petroleum products, However, petroleum products from the main fuel for
internal combustion engines as on today.

Chemical Structure of Petroleum
Petroleum as obtained from the oil wells, is predominantly a mixture of many hydrocarbons
with differing molecular structure. It also contains small amounts of sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen
and impurities such as water and sand. The molecular and hydrogen atoms may be linked in
different ways in a hydrocarbon molecule and this linking influences the chemical and
physical properties of different hydrocarbon groups. Most petroleum fuels tend to exhibit the
characteristics of that type of hydrocarbon which forms a major constituent of the fuel.
The carbon and hydrogen combine in different proportions and molecular structures to form a
variety of hydrocarbons. The carbon to hydrogen ratio which is one of the important
parameters and their nature of bonding determine the energy characteristics of the
hydrocarbon fuels. Depending upon the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms the petroleum
products are classified into different groups.
The differences in physical and chemical properties between the different types of hydrocarbon
depend on their chemical composition and affect mainly the combustion processes and hence,
the proportion of fuel and air required in the engine. The basic families of hydrocarbons, their
general formulae and their molecular arrangement are shown in Table 6.1

Family of
hydrocarbons
General
formula
Molecular
structure
Saturated/
Unsaturated
Stability
Paraffin
Olefin
Naphthene
Aromatic
CnH2n+2
CnH2n
CnH2n
CnH2n-6
Chain
Chain
Ring
Ring
Saturated
Unsaturated
Saturated Highly
Unsaturated
Stable
Unstable
Stable
Most unstable
Fuels

Paraffin Series
The normal paraffin hydrocarbons are straight and chain molecular structure. They are
represented by a general chemical formula, CnH2n+2. The molecular structures of the first few
members of the paraffin family of hydrocarbons are shown below.

In these hydrocarbons the valency of all the carbon atoms is fully utilized by single bonds with
hydrogen atoms. Therefore, the paraffin hydrocarbons are saturated compounds and are
characteristically vary stable.

A variation of the paraffin family consist of an open chain structure with an attached branch
and is usually termed a branched paraffin. The hydrocarbons which have the same chemical
formulate but different structural formulae are known as isomers.
Isobutane shown above has the same general chemical formula and molecular weight as
butane but a different molecular structure and physical characteristics. It is called an isomer
of butane and is known as isobutane. Isoparaffins are also stable compounds.

Olefin Series
Olefins are also straight chain compounds similar to paraffins but are unsaturated because
they contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms. Their chemical formula is
CnH2n. Mono-olefins have one double bond whereas diolefin have two in their structure.

Olefins are not as stable as the single bond paraffins because of the presence of the double
bonds in their structure. Consequenlty, these are readily oxidized in storage to form gummy
deposits. Hence, olefin content in certain petroleum products is kept low by specification.

Naphthene Series
The nephthenes have the same chemical formula as the olefin series of hydrocarbons but have
a ring structure and therefore, often they are called as cyclo-paraffins. They are structured
and tend to be stable. The naphthenes are saturated compounds whereas olefins are
unsaturated. Cyclopentane is one of the compounds in the naphthene series (CnH2n).
Fuels

Aromatic Series
Aromatic compounds are ring structured having a benzene molecule as their central structure
and have a general chemical formula CnH2n-6. Though the presence of double bonds indicates
that they are unsaturated, a peculiar nature of these double bonds causes them to be more
stable then the other unsaturated compounds. Various aromatic compounds are formed by
replacing one or more of the hydrogen atoms of the benzene molecules with an organic radical
such as paraffins, nephthenes and olefins. By adding a methyl group (CH3), benzene is
converted to toluene (C6H5CH3), the base for the preparation of Trinitrotiluene (TNT) which is
a highly explosive compound.

The above families of hydrocarbons exhibit some general characteristics due to their molecular
structure which are summarized below
(i) Normal paraffins exhibit the poorest antiknock quality when used in an SI engine. But
the antiknock quality improves with the increasing number of carbon atoms and the
compactness of the molecular structure. The aromatics offer the best resistance to
knocking in SI Engine.
(ii) For CI engines, the order is reversed i.e., the normal paraffins are the best fuel and
aromatics are the best desirable.
(iii) As the number of atoms in the molecular structure increase, the boiling temperature
increases. Thus fuels with fewer atoms in the molecule tend to be more volatile.
(iv) The heating value generally increases as the proportion of hydrogen atoms to carbon
atoms in the molecule increases due to the higher heating value and the aromatics the
least.

In an internal combustion engine the heat energy is released by burning fuel in the engine
cylinder. The chemical reactions which permit the release of heat energy are quite fast but the
time taken in preparing a proper mixture of fuel and air preparing a proper mixture of fuel
and air depends mainly upon the nature of the fuel and the method of introducing it into the
Fuels

combustion chamber. Thus certain requirements are imposed on the fuel used for internal
combustion engines. In other words, the fuel used in the IC engines are designed to satisfy the
performance requirements of the engine system in which they are used. Thus, the fuel must
have certain physical, chemical and combustion properties, such as -
(i) High energy density
(ii) Good thermal stability
(iii) Good combustion qualities
(iv) Low deposit forming tendencies
(v) Compatibility with the engine hardware.
(vi) Good fire safety
(vii) Low toxicity
(viii) Low pollution
(ix) Easy transferability and on board vehicle always.

Important Qualities of Engine Fuels
Fuels used in IC engines should possess certain basic qualities which are important for the
smooth running of the engines. In this section, the important qualities of fuels for both SI and
CI engines are reviewed.

(i) Volatility
Volatility is one of the main characteristic properties of gasoline which determines its
suitability for use in an S.I engine .Since gasoline is a mixture of different hydrocarbons,
volatility depends on the fractional composition of the fuel volatility is the distillation of the
fuel in a special device of its own vapour. The fraction that boils off at a definite temperature is
measured. The characteristic points are the temperature at which 10 , 40,50 and 90% of the
volume evaporates as well as the temperature at which boiling of the fuel terminates.

The following fig shows the fractional distillation curve of gasoline far both winter and
summer grade gasoline.

Typical Distillation Curves of Gasoline
Volume evaporated (%) :- The method for meaning volatility has been standardized by the
Amercian Society for Testing materials (ASTM) and the graphical representation of the result
of the tests is generally referred to as ASTM distillation curve. The more important aspects of
volatility related to engine fuels are discussed in detail in conjunction with the distillation
curve.

Fuels

(a) Starting and Warm up - A certain part of the gasoline should vapourize at the room temp
for easy starting of the engine. Hence, the portion of the distrillation curve between about 0 to
10% boiled off having relatively low boiling temperatures. As the engine warms up, the temp.
will gradually increase to the operating temp. Low distillation temps are desirable throughout
the range of the distillation curve far best warm-up.

(b) Operating range performance - In order to obtain good vaporization of the gasoline, low
distillation temps are preferable in the engine operating range. Better vapourization tends to
produce both more uniform distribution of fuel to the cylinder as well as better acceleration
characteristics by reducing the quantity liquid droplets in the intake mainfold.

(c) Crankcase dilution - Liquid fuel in the cylinder causes loss of lubricating oil (washing away
oil from cylinder walls) which deteriorates the quality of lubrication and tends to cause
damage to the engine through increased friction. The liquid gasoline may also dilute the
lubricating oil and weaken the oil film between rubbing surfaces. To prevent these
possibilities, the upper portion of the distillation temps. to measure that all gasoline in the
cylinder is vapourised by the time of combustion.

(d) Vapour lock characteristics - High rate of vapourisation of gasoline can upset the
carburetter metering or even stop the fuel flow to the engine by setting up a vapour lock in the
fuel passages. This characteristic, demands the pressure of relatively high boiling temp.
Hydrocarbons throughout the distribution range. Since this requirement is not consistent with
the other requirement is not consistent with the other requirement desired in a, b, & c a
compromise must be made for the desired distribution temps.

(ii) Antiknock Quality
Abnormal burning or detonation in an S.I engine combustion chamber causes a very high rate
of energy release, excessive temp and pressure inside the cylinder and adversely affects its
thermal efficiency. Therefore, the characteristics of the fuel used should be such that it resists
the tendency to produce detornation and this property is called is antiknock properly.

The antiknock property of a fuel depends on the self-ignition characteristics of the mixture and varies
largely with chemical composition and molecular structure of the fuel. In general, the best S.I engine
fuel will be that having the highest antiknock property, since this permits the use of higher compression
rates and thus the engine thermal efficiency and the power output can be greatly increases.

(iii) Gum deposits
Reactive hydrocarbons and the impurities in the fuel have a tendency to oxidise upon storage
and form liquid and solid gummy substance.

The gasoline containing hydrocations of the paraffin, naphthalene and aromatic families forms
little gum while cracked gasoline containing unsaturated hydrocarbons is the worst offender.
A gasoline with high gum content will cause operating difficulties such as sticking values and
piston rings carbon deposits in the engine, gum deposits in the manifold, dagging of
carburettor jets and enlarging of the valve stems, cylinders and pistons. The amount of gum
increases with increased concentrations of oxygen, with rise in temp, with exposure to sunlight
and also on contact with metals. Gasoline specifications therefore limit both the gum content
and its tendency to form gum on storage.

(iv) Sulphur Content
Hydrocarbon fuels may contain free sulphur, hydrogen sulphide and other sulphur compounds
which are objectionable for serval reasons. The sulphur is a corrosive element of the fuel that
can corrode fuel lines, carburettors and injection pumps and it will write with oxygen to form
Fuels

sulphur diozide that, in the presence of water at low temps, may form sulphurous acid, Since
sulphur has a low ignition temperature the presence of sulphur can reduce the self-ignition
temp, then promoting knock in the S.I engine.

Important qualities of C.I engine fuels
Diesel fuels are petroleum fractions that lie between kerosene and the lubricating oils. Diesel
fuel properties are influenced by the crude fuel source and the method of refining. Some of the
important qualities of diesel fuel are -

(i) Knock characteristics - Knock in the C.I engine occurs because of an ignition lag in the
combustion of the fuel between the time of injection and the time of actual burning. As the
ignition lag increases. The amount of fuel accumulated in the combustion chamber increases
and when combustion actually takes place, abnormal amount of energy is suddenly released
causing an excessive rate of pressure rise which results in an audible knock. Hence, a good CI
engine fuel should have a short ignition lag and will ignite more rapidly.

Furthermore, ignition lag affects the starting, warm up; and leads to the production of exhaust
smoke in CI engines.

(ii) Volatility - The fuel should be sufficiently volatile in the operating range of temp. to
produce good mixing and combustion. The following fig shows a representative curve of a
typical diesel fuel.

Typical Distillation Curve for Diesel

(iii) Starting characteristic - The fuel should help in starting the engine easily. This
requirement demands high enough volatility to form a combustible mixture reading and a high
cetane rating in order that the self-ignition temp. is low.

(iv) Smoking and odour - The fuel should not promote either smoke or odour in the engine
exhaust. Generally, good volatility is the first prerequisite to ensure good mixing and therefore
complete combustion.
(V) Viscosity - C.I engine fuels should be able to flow through the fuel system and the strainers
under the lowest operating temps. to which the engine is subjected to.

(vi) Corrosion and wear - The fuel should not cause corrosion and wear of the engine
components before or after combustion. These requirements are directly related to the
presence of sulphur, ash and residue in the fuel.

(vii) Handling case - The fuel should be a liquid that will readily flow under will conditions
that are encountered in actual use. This requirements is measured by the power point and the
viscosity of the fuel. The fuel should also have a high flash point and a high fire point.
Fuels

Note:-
(a) Pour Point - It is the temp. below which the entire mass of fuel, solid, and liquid together
freeze and thus cause flow of fuel impossible.

(b) Flash Point - It is the temp. at which a flammable liquid will produce, with a standardized
apparatus and procedure a mixture of its vapour and air which will ignite to give a visible
flash by contact with an open flame.

(c) Fire Point - It is the temp. at which the flash will sustain itself as a steady flame for at
least fire seconds.

The flash and fire point indicate the temp. Below which oil can be handled without danger of
fire. Fire point is usually 11
0
C higher than flash point.
Knock rating of SI engine fuels

Rating of Fuels
Normally fuels are rated for their antiknock qualities. The rating of fuels is done by defining
two parameters called Octane number and Cetane number for gasoline and diesel oil
respectively.

Rating of S.I engine fuels - Resistance to knocking is an extremely important characteristic of
fuel for S.I engines. These fuels differ widely in their ability to resist knock depending on their
chemical composition. A satisfactory quality of the various fuels has been established. In
addition to the chemical characteristics of hydrocarbons such as F/A ratio, ignition timing,
dilution, engine speed, shape of the combustion ratio etc. affect the tendency to knock in the
engine cylinder. Therefore, in order to determine the knock resistance characteristic of the
fuel, the engine and its operating variables must be fixed at standard values.

According to a standard practice, the antiknock value of an SI engine fuel is determined by
comparing. Its antiknock property with a mixture of two reference fuels, iso-octane chemically
being a very good antiknock fuel, is arbitrarily assigned a rating of 100 octane number.
Normal heptane (C
7
H
16
) on the other hand has very poor antiknock quantities and is given a
rating of 0 octane number.

The octane number of a fuel is defined as the percentage by volume of iso-octane in a mixture
of iso-octane and normal heptane, which exactly matches the knocking intensity of the fuel in
a standard engine under a set of standard operating conditions.
The addition of certain compounds (e.g tetraethyl lead) to iso-octane produces fuels of greater
antiknock quality (above 100 ON) The antiknock effectiveness of tetraethyl load, for the same
quantity of lead added, decreases as the total content of lead in the fuel increases.

Furthermore, each octane number at the higher range of the octane scale will produce greater
antiknock effect compared to the same unit at the lower and of the scale. For instance, octane
number increase from 92 to 93 produce greater from 32 to 33 octane number. Because of this
non-linear variation a new scale was derived which expresses the approximate relative engine
performance and the units of this scale are known as the performance number P
N
. octane
number above 100 can be computed by-

Fuels

2
28.28A
ON( 100) 100
1.0 0.736A 1.0 0.736A 0.035216A
> = +
+ + +

Where A is TEL in ml/gal of fuel, or from the performance number, PN,
PN 100
Oc tan e Number 100
3
= +
Octane Value of the Fuel: A higher self-ignition temperature of the fuel and a low preflame
reactivity would reduce the tendency of knocking. In general, paraffin series of hydrocarbon
have the maximum and aromatic series the minimum tendency to knock. The napthene series
comes in between the two. Usually, compounds with more compact molecular structure are
less prone to knock. In aliphatic hydrocarbons, unsaturated compounds show lesser knocking
tendency than saturated hydrocarbons, the exception being ethylene, acetylene and propylene.

The advantages of high-octane fuel are summarised below:
(1) The engine can be operated at high compression ratio and, therefore, with high efficiency
without detonation.
(2) The engine can be supercharged to the high output without detonation.

Diesel Fuels
Diesel fuels are petroleum fractions that lie between kerosene and the lubricating oils. Diesel
fuel properties are influenced by the crude source and the method of refining. The properties
important for a good diesel fuel can be discussed under three main headings:
1. Satisfactory handling and storage.
2. Smooth and efficient burning.
3. Continued cleanliness during uses.

Diesel Index
An alternative method of expressing the quality of diesel oils is Diesel index which is defined
as
( )
o o o
Ani li nepo i nt F API Gravi ty at60 F (15 C)
Di esel i ndex
100
=

The main desirable characteristics of diesel fuels, somewhat in order of importance are:
1. Cleanliness Carbon residue, contamination, sulphur, etc.
2. Ignition quality Cetane number of diesel index, API gravity.
3. Fluidity Viscocity, pour point, etc.
4. Volatility Flash point, carbon residue.

Non-Petroleum Fuels
Non-petroleum liquid fuels find use when petroleum fuels are scarce or costly. They are also
used for blending purposes for improving the quality of petroleum fuels.
1. Benzol.
2. Alcohol. Methanol (CH3OH) and ethanol (C2H5OH) are also used as fuels in SI Engines.
3. Gaseous Fuels.
4. Ammonia.

Alternative Fuels for C.I. Engines

Alcohols as Diesel Fuels
Fuels

While S.I. engines can use alcohol fuel with minimal modifications to their fuel delivering
systems the diesel engine engine has not been a good candidate for alcohols. Basically alcohols
are unsuitable as diesel fuels for the following reasons:
The cetane number of alcohol fuels is very low (of the order of zero to eight), which prevents
their ignitions by compression.
Alcohol fuels have low lubricating qualities causing trouble in injection pumps and nozzles.
There are material problems caused by the harsh reaction of methanol towards various
plastics and metals.

Additives
Some compounds called additives or dopes are used to improve combustion performance of
fuels.
Cetane Number
The cetane rating of a diesel fuel is a measure of its ability to autoignite quickly when it is
injected into the compressed and heated air in the engine. Though ignition delay is affected by
several engine design parameters such as compression ratio, injection rate, injection time,
inlet air, temperature etc., it is also dependent on hydrocarbon composition of the fuel and to
some extend on its volatility characteristic. The cetane number is a numerical measure of the
influence the diesel fuel has in determining the ignition delay. Higher the cetane rating of the
fuel lesser is the propensity for diesel knock.
The cetane number of a fuel is the percentage by volume of cetane in a mixture of cetane and
o- methylnaphthalene (C10H7CH3) that relationship between octane number and cetane
number is
104 ON
CN
2.75
=
Normal paraffins (CnH2n+2) which are straight chain compounds have highest cetane number
and lowest specific gravity.

Fuel for Gas Turbine and Jet Engines
In gas turbine fuel system continuous type of burner is used which can burn satisfactorily a
wide range of fuels including gaseous fuels and liquid fuels including gasoline, diesel fuel and
kerosene.

Since burning is continuous, properties involving ignition delay (Octane and cetane numbers)
are not important. Hence gas turbine fuels can be made cheaper.

The major requirement of fuels for stationary gas turbine is that the fuel and the products of
combustion should not cause corrosion and erosion of nozzles and turbine blades and should
not deposit in the combustion chamber and the fuel system.

Aircraft gas turbine have special problems of cold starting, flame blow down at high attitude,
evaporation loss at low pressures and in supersonic aircrafts boiling due to high stagnation
temp.

The advantages of kerosene - type over gasoline are as follows:-
(i) It reduces vapour lock
(ii) It is better lubricant for the fuel pumps because of its high viscosity.
(iii) It has about 10% higher calorific value on volume basis.
(iv) It has lesser fire hazard when refilling or when accidents occur.

Fuels

Disadvantages
(i) It has about 3% lower colorific value on mass basis.
(ii) It has been starting and relighting characteristics.
(iii) Due to higher viscosity it carries more dist into the fuel pump.
(iv) It requires more time for refilling.

The choice of fuel far gas turbine depends upon the application. Industrial and marine gas
turbines use very cheap fuels, such as residual oil or surplus gas as they have no compete with
diesel engines. Residual oils create the problem of exhaust smoke and ash. For civil aircraft
the main requirements are safety, reliability low cost and case of handling. For military
aircrafts fuel cost is of secondary importance compared with availability, supply logistics and
the need for trouble-free operation over a wide rang of conditions.
Fuels


Diesel fuels
Q1. Alcohols are unsuitable as diesel engine fuels because [GATE-1992]
(a) The cetane number of alcohol fuels is very low which prevents their ignition by
compression
(b) The cetane number of alcohol fuels is very high which prevents their ignition by
compression
(c) The cetane number of alcohol fuels is very low which prevents their ignition by
compression
(d) None of the above
Cetane Number

Q2. List I List II [GATE-1996]
(A) Cetane number 1. Ideal gas
(B) Approach and range 2. Van der Waals gas
(C) 0
h
T
p
o
o
| |
=
|
\ .
3. S.l. engine
(D) dh = cp dT, even when pressure varies 4. C.l. engine p
5. Cooling towers
6. Heat exchangers
Code:
A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 5 2 1 (b) 3 4 2 1
(c) 2 1 3 4 (d) 5 4 3 2


Q1. What is the flash point of a liquid fuel? [IES-2006]
(a) The temperature at which the fuel ignites spontaneously with a bang
(b) The temperature at which the fuel emits vapours at a rate which produces an
inflammable mixture with air
(c) The temperature at which the fuel ignites with a clearly
(d) The temperature at which the fuel ignites without a spark
Fuels for spark-ignition engines
Q2. In a petrol engine car, which one of the following performance characteristics is affected
by the front-end volatility of the gasoline used? [IES-2000]
(a) Hot starting and vapour lock
(b) Engine warm-up and spark plug fouling
(c) Spark plug fouling and hot starting
(d) Vapour lock, engine warm-up and spark plug fouling
Fuels

Q3.
H H H H
| | | |
H C C C C H
| | | |
H H H H

Which one of the following is represented by the molecular structure of the paraffin
family of hydrocarbon fuel given above, for an IC engine?
(a) Ethane (b) Propane
(c) Butane (d) Hexane [IES 2007]

Q4. Which one of the following fuels can be obtained by fermentation of vegetable matter?
(a) Benzene (b) Diesel (c) Gasoline (d) Alcohol [IES-2005]
Knock rating of SI engine fuels
Q5. In a SI Engine, which one of the following is the correct order of the fuels with
increasing detonation tendency? [IES-1997]
(a) Paraffins, Olefins, Naphthenes, Aromatics
(b) Aromatics, Naphthenes, Paraffins, Olefins
(c) Naphthenes, Olefins, Aromatics, Paraffins
(d) Aromatics, Naphthenes, Olefins, Paraffins
Octane number requirement (ONR)
Q6. Consider the following statements regarding knock rating of SI engine fuels:
1. Iso-octane is assigned a rating of zero octane number. [IES-2002]
2. Normal heptane is assigned a rating of hundred octane number
3. Iso-octane is assigned a rating of hundred octane number
4. Normal heptane is assigned a rating of zero octane number

Q7. Assertion (A): Octane number is used for rating of fuels in spark ignition engine.
Reason (R): Octane number of a fuel is defined as percentage by volume, of iso-octane in
a mixture of iso-octane and ex-methylnaphthalene. [IES-2003]

Q8. Reference fuels for knock rating of SI engine fuels would include [IES-1994]
(a) iso- octane and alpha-methyl naphthalene
(b) Normal octane and aniline.
(c) iso-octane and n-hexane
(d) n-heptane and iso - octane.

Q9. Assertion (A): Iso-octane has been chosen as the reference for S.I. engine fuels and has
been assigned a value of octane number 100. [IES-1993]
Reason (R): Among the fuels, iso-octane ensures the highest compression ratio at which
an S.I. engine can be operated without knocking.
Fuels

Cetane Number
Q10. The two reference fuels used for cetane rating are [IES-1995]
(a) cetane and iso-octane (b) cetane and tetraethyl lead
(c) cetane and n-heptane (d) cetane and o -methyl naphthalene.

Q11. The Cetane number of automotive diesel fuel used in India is in which one of the
following ranges? [IES 2007]
(a) 30 40 (b) 41 50 (c) 51 60 (d) 61 70

Q12. Consider the following statements [IES-2001]
1. Motor gasoline is a mixture of various hydrocarbons with a major proportion being
aromatic hydrocarbons.
2. Compressed natural gas is mainly composed of methane.
3. Producer gas has a predominant component of hydrogen with lesser proportion of
carbon monoxide.
4. Cetane number of fuel used in diesel engines in India is in the range of 80 to 90.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Q13. Consider the following statements regarding n-Cetane: [IES-1996]
1. It is a standard fuel used for knock rating of diesel engines.
2. Its chemical name is n-hexadecane
3. It is a saturated hydrocarbon of paraffin series.
4. It has long carbon chain structure.
Of the above correct statements are

Fuels


1. Ans. (a)
2. Ans. (a)

1. Ans. (b)
2. Ans. (a)
3. Ans. (c)
4. Ans. (d)
5. Ans. (d)
6. Ans. (c)
7. Ans. (c) Octane number of a fuel is defined as percentage by volume, of iso-octane in a
mixture of iso-octane and n-heptane.
8. Ans. (d) Reference fuel for knock rating of SI engine fuels would include n-heptane and iso-
octane.
9. Ans. (a) Both assertion and reason given are true. Also the reason R is the correct
explanation of the assertion.
10. Ans. (d) Two reference fuels for cetane rating are cetane and o -methyl naphthalene.
11. Ans. (b) Indian Diesel: Year 2000: CN48, Sulfur 0.25%
Year 2010: CN48, sulfur 350PPM will be Euro 3
Note: sulfur 50PPM will be Euro4
12. Ans. (a) Cetane number of fuel used in diesel engines in India is in the range of 55 to 65
13. Ans. (a)

Fuels

Q1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using hydrogen as an I.C. Engine
fuel?
Explain one method by which hydrogen can be used in C.I. Engine.
[IES-2006, 10-Marks]
Ans. Advantages of using hydrogen as I.C. engine fuel
(i) Low emission
(ii) Fuel availability; There are a number of different ways of making hydrogen,
including electrolysis of water.
(iii) Fuel leakage to environment is not a pollutant.
(iv) High energy content per volume when stored as a liquid. This would give a large
vehicle range for a given fuel tank capacity.

Disadvantages
(i) Storage problem; Hydrogen can be stored as a cryogenic liquid or as a
compressed gas. This will required a thermally super insulated fuel tank or high
pressure vessel.
(ii) Difficult to refuel & the possibility of detonation.
(iii) Poor engine volumetric efficiency.
(iv) Fuel cost would be high at present day technology and availability.
(v) High
X
No emission because of high flame temperature.
(vi) Can detonate.

Use of hydrogen in C.I. engine
Hydrogen is introduced directly into the cylinder at the end of compression. Since the
self ignition temperature of hydrogen is very high, the gas spray is made to impinge
on a hot glow plug in the combustion chamber, that is by surface ignition. It is also
possible to feed a very lean hydrogen air mixture during the entrance into an engine
and then inject the bulk of the hydrogen towards the end of hydrogen stroke.

Students Notes

5. Supercharging
The method of increasing the inlet air density, called supercharging is usually employed to
increase the power output of the engine. This is done by supplying air at a pressure higher
than the pressure at which the engine naturally aspirates air from the atmosphere by using a
pressure boosting devices called a supercharger.

The power output can also be increased by increasing the thermal efficiency of the engine, say
by increasing the compression ratio. However, this increases the maximum cylinder pressure.
The rate of increase of maximum cylinder pressure is less than the rate of increase of break
mean effective pressure in case of a supercharged engine. This means that for a given
maximum cylinder pressure more power can be obtained by supercharging as compared to that
obtained by increase in compression ratio. The rate of increase of maximum temp is also low in
case of supercharging. This results in lower thermal loads.

Objective of supercharging
The increase in the amount of air inducted per unit time by supercharging is obtained mainly
to burn a greater amount of fuel in a given engine and thus increase its power output. The
objects of supercharging include one or more of the following:
(1) To increase the power output for a given weight and bulk of the engine. This is important
for aircraft, marine and automotive engines where weight and space are important.
(ii) To compensate for the loss of power due to altitude. This mainly relates to aircraft engines
which lose power at an approximate rate of one percent per 100 metres altitude. This is
also relevant for other engines which are used at high attitudes.
(iii) To obtain more power from an existing engine.

Thermodynamic cycle with supercharging
The following fig shows the difference between the p - v diagrams of an unsupercharged and
supercharged engines.
Supercharging

Two important differences are -
(i) Increase in pressure over the unsupercharged cycle.
(ii) The pumping loop of a supercharged engine is positive instead of negative. Hence to get the
net IP the power represented by pumping loop is to be added instead of being substracted.

( )
mep
area 12341 area1567 spri ng number
I
length of the i n di cator di agram
+
=

The gain in the output of a supercharged engine is mainly due to increase in the amount of air
inducted for the same swept volume. An additional amount of air is also inducted due to
compression of residual volume to a higher pressure.
Supercharging also results in an increase in mechanical efficiency, and in better gas-
exchanger process. An engine should be designed from the start as a supercharged engine to
obtain performance with the desired life.

Effects of Supercharging
(I) Higher power output
(II) Greater induction of charge mass
(III) Better atomization of fuel
(IV) Better mixing of fuel and air
(V) Better scavenging of products
(VI) Better torque characteristic over the whole speed range
(VII) Quicker acceleration of vehicle
(VIII) More complete and smoother combustion
(IX) Inferior or poor ignition quality fuel usage
(X) Smoother operation and reduction in diesel knock tendency

Supercharing of S.I engines
As for as S. I engines are concerned, supercharging is employed only for aircraft and racing car
engines. This is because the increase in supercharging pressure increases the tendency to
detonate and pre-ignite.
Aprat from increasing the volumetric efficiency of the engine supercharging volumetric
efficiency of the engine supercharging results in increase in the intake temp of the engine.
Increased intake pressure and temp reduces ignition delay and increase flame speed. Both
these effects result in a greater tendency to detonate or pre-ignite. For this reason, the
supercharged petrol engines employ lower compression ratios. The use of lower compression
ratios and increased heat losses due to higher value of specific heats and dissociation losses at
Supercharging

higher temp results in lower thermal efficencies for such engine. Thus supercharged petrol
engines have greater fuel consumption than naturally aspirated engines.

Increased flame speeds make the petrol engine more sensitive to fuel air ratio and the engine
cannot run on weak mixtures without knock. Rich mixtures are used to control detonation.
This futher increases the specific fuel consumption of the engine.
Knocking can be controlled in highly supercharged engine by injection of water in the
combustion chamber. However, large amount of liquid needed for this purpose becomes
prohibitive. Another alternative is to use intercooling of the charge before it is fed to the
engine.
Because of poor fuel economy supercharged S I engine is not very popular.

Supercharging of CI Engines
Unlike S I engines supercharging does not result in any combustion problem, rather it
improves combustion, in a diesel engine. Increase in pressure and temp of the intake air
reduces ignition delay and hence the rate of pressure rise resulting in a better, quieter and
smoother combustion. This improvement in combustion allows a poor quality fuel to be used in
a diesel engine and it is also not sensitive to the type of fuel used. The increase in intake air
temp. Reduces volumetric and thermal efficiency but the increase in the density due to
pressure compensates for this and intercooling is not necessary except for highly supercharged
engines.

However, mechanical and thermal loading increases with an increase in supercharging. But
this increase in mechanical and thermal loading is only moderate because of the use of lower
compression ratios and the effect of supercharged engine. It is possible to use lower fuel-air
ratios in a supercharged engine as the increase in fuel flow is less than the increase in air flow.
This results in lower temp over the full engine cycle and reduced smoke from the engine. Low
fuel-air ratio and high expansion ratio results in lower exhaust temp. This results in increased
life of the exhaust valves.

If an unsupercharged engine is supercharged it will increase the reliability and durability of
the engine due to smoother combustion and lower exhaust temp. The degree of supercharging
is limited by the thermal and mechanical load on the engine and strongly depends on the type
of supercharger used and the design of the engines.

Effect of supercharging on the performance of the
engine
(1) Power output - The power output of a supercharged engine is higher than its naturally
aspirated counterpart due to the following reasons.
(a) The amount of air inducted per cycle for a given swept volume is increased.
(b) The mechanical efficiency is slightly improved.
(c) During the gas excharge process some of the work done on the supercharger is recovered.
(d) Supercharging results in better seavenging and reduced exhaust gas temp in the engine.

The reduced residual gas fraction helps in better combustion and reduced temp improve
volumetric efficiency.
The above-mentioned effects are common in both petrol and diesel engine. However, in petrol
engines supercharging results in tendency to knock. In contrast to this, the diesel engine runs
smoother and is able to utilise low F/A ratio if supercharged. Increased reliability, durability
and better fuel consumption are some other benefits of supercharging a diesel engines.

Supercharging

(ii) Mechanical efficiency - An increase in the supercharging pressure increases the gas load
and hence large bearing areas and heavier components are needed. This increases the
frictional forces. However, the increase in bmep is much more than increase in frictional
forces. Typical values are 11% and 7.5% increase in frictional forces for petrol and diesel
engines as compared to 40% increase in bmep for 60% supercharging.
Thus the mechanical effiences of supercharged engine are slightly better than the naturally
aspirated engines.

(iii) Fuel consumption - The power required to run the superchrger varies with different
arrangements of supercharging. If the supercharger is directly driven by the engine some of
the power developed by the engine will be used in running the supercharger. Moreover, at part
loads the compression of the supercharger is not fully utilized. This will result in greater loss,
hence the specific fuel consumption for mechanically driven superchargers will be more at port
loads.

In addition to this, the fact that highly supercharged Otto engines use very high rich mixtures
to avoid knock and pre-ignition will give rise to higher specific fuel consumption.
Thus in spite of better mixing and combustion due to reduced delay a mechanically
supercharged Otto engine will almost always have specific fuel consumption higher than a
naturally aspirated engine.
The specific fuel consumption for C.I engines is somewhat less than that for naturally
aspirated engines due to better combustion and increased mechanical efficiency.
Exhaust driven supercharges do not require any power from the engine. Moreover, a part of
the exhaust energy is utilized, thus giving about 5% better thermal efficiency at full load. This
increase in efficiency result in improved fuel consumption. All turbocharged engines, if
properly designed, give a specific fuel consumption lower than the naturally aspirated engines.

Types of Superchargers
Supercharger is a pressure-boosting device which supplies air (or mixture) at a higher
pressure. A centrifugal or axial flow or displacement type compressor is normally used. If the
supercharger is driven by the engine crankshaft, then it is called mechanically driven
supercharger. Some superchargers are driven by a gas turbine, which derives its power from
the engine exhaust gases. Such a supercharger is called turbocharger. There are types of
superchargers
(i) Centrifugal type
(ii) Roots type
(iii) Vane type

Turbochargers
Turbochargers are centrifugal compressors driven by the exhaust gas turbines. These are
nowadays extensively used for supercharging almost all types of two-stroke engines. By
Supercharging

utilizing the exhaust energy of the engine it recovers a substantial part of energy which would
otherwise goes waste. Thus the turbocharger will not draw upon the engine power.
Supercharging

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS (IES)

Objectives of supercharging
Q1. What is the main objective of supercharging of the engine? [IES 2007]
(a) To reduce the mass of the engine per brake power
(b) To reduce space occupied by engine
(c) To increase the power output of engine
(d) All of the above

Q2. What is the purpose of employing supercharging for an engine? [IES-2006]
(a) To provide forced cooling air
(b) To raise exhaust pressure
(c) To inject excess fuel for coping with higher load
(d) To supply an intake of air at a density greater than the density of the surrounding
atmosphere

1. Supercharging increases the power output of an engine.
2. Supercharging increases the brake thermal efficiency considerably.
3. Supercharging helps scavenging of cylinders.
(a) Only 1 and 2 (b) Only 2 and 3
(c) Only 1 and 3 (d) 1,2 and 3
Supercharging of CI Engine
Q4. Consider the following statements with reference to supercharging of I.C. engines:
1. Reciprocating compressors are invariably used for high degree of supercharging
2. Rotary compressors like roots blowers are quite suitable for low degree of
supercharging [IES-2004]
3. Axial flow compressors are most commonly employed for supercharging diesel
engines used in heavy duty transport vehicles
4. Centrifugal compressors are used for turbo -charging
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 4

Q5. Surging basically implies [IES-1996]
(a) Unsteady, periodic and reversed flow.
(b) Forward motion of air at a speed above sonic velocity.
(c) The surging action due to the blast of air produced in a compressor.
(d) Forward movement of aircraft.

Q6. Which one of the following types of compressors is mostly used for supercharging of I.C.
engines? [IES-1996]
(a) Radial flow compressor (b) Axial flow compressor
(c) Roots blower (d) Reciprocating compressor
Supercharging

Effect of supercharging on performance of the engine
Q7. Assertion (A): The CI engine is basically more suitable for supercharging than the SI
engine. [IES-2000]
Reason (R): In the CI engine supercharging tends to prevent diesel knocking.

1. Supercharging increases the power output and increases the volumetric efficiency.
2. Supercharging is more suitable for S.I. engines than C.I. engines. [IES-2005]
3. The limit of supercharging for an S.I. engine is set by knock while that for a C.I.
engine is set by thermal loading.
(a) 2 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1 and 2
Supercharging


1. Ans. (d) All of the above are objective of supercharging. But main objective is to increase the
power output of engine.
2. Ans. (d)
3. Ans. (d)
4. Ans. (d)
5. Ans. (a)
6. Ans. (c) Roots blower is mostly used for supercharging of I.C. engines
7. Ans. (a)
8. Ans. (c) Supercharging is more suitable for C.I. engines than S.I. engines.

6. Jet Propulsion
Jet Propulsion
The principle of jet propulsion is obtained from the application of Newtons laws of motion. We
know that when a fluid is to be accelerated, a force is required to produce this acceleration in
the fluid. At the same time, there is an equal and opposite reaction force of the fluid on the
engine which is known as the thrust. Hence, it may stated that the working of jet propulsion is
based on the reaction principle. Thus all devices that move through fluids must follow this
basic principle.

Newtons Second Law: Rate of change of the momentum in direction is proportional to the
force acting in that direction.
Newtons Third Law: For every action there is equal and opposite reaction. Experience shows
that only two types of fluids are particularly suitable for jet propulsion.

(i) A heated and compressed atmospheric air- mixed with the products of combustion
produced by burning fuel in that air can be used for jet propulsion. The thermo chemical
energy of the fuel is utilize for increasing the temperature of the air to the desired value.
The jet of this character is called a thermal jet and the jet propulsion engine using
atmospheric air is called air breathing engines.

(ii) Another class of jet-propulsion engines use a jet of gas produced by the chemical
reactions of fuel and oxidizer. Each of them is carried with the system itself. The fuel-
oxidant mixture is called the propellant. No atmospheric air is used for the formation of
the jet. But the oxidant in the propellant is used for generating the thermal jet. A jet
produced in this way is known as rocket jet and the equipment wherein the chemical
reaction takes place is called a rocket motor. The complete unit including the propellant
is called a rocket engine.

The open cycle gas turbine is best suited far the jet propulsion. If the working fluid is
expanded in the turbine such that the power developed is only sufficient to drive the
compressor and accessories and rest expansion is achieved in a nozzle which is placed just
after the turbine. This unit will serve as a jet propulsion.

It is clear that jet-propulsion engines may be classified broadly into two groups.
(i) Air breathing engines and
(ii) Rocket engines

Gas Turbine Engines
All modern aircrafts are fitted with gas turbines. Gas turbine engines can be classified into
(i) ramjet engine,
(ii) pulse jet engine,
(iii) turbo jet engine,
(iv) Turboprop engine.
Jet Propulsion

The Turbojet Engine
The two pilot less air breathing engines, viz. ramjet and pulsejet are simple in construction.
However, their application is limited and, to date, they have not been used very extensively.
The most common type of air breathing engine apart from turboprop is the turbojet engine.
The important features are shown in Fig.

This engine is consists of the following components:
(i) a diffuser,
(ii) a mechanical compressor,
(iii) a mechanical turbine and
(iv) an exhaust nozzle.

The function of the diffuser is to convert the kinetic energy of the entering air into a static
pressure rise which is achieved by the ram effect. After this air enters the mechanical
compressor. The compressor used in a turbojet can be either centrifugal type or axial flow type.
The use of a particular type of compressor gives the turbojet typical characteristics. The
centrifugal compressor produces a high pressure ratio of about 4:1 to 5:1 in a single stage and
usually a double-sided rotor is used to reduce the engine diameter.
Basic cycle for turbo-jet engine

Figures show the basic thermodynamic cycle of a turbojet engine of p-V and T-s diagrams. This
is Joule of Brayton cycle. The turbojet is almost a constant thrust engine. The specific fuel
Jet Propulsion

consumption based on thrust power reduces because with almost constant thrust, the thrust
power increases as shown in Fig. As the altitude increases, the thrust decreases due to
decrease in density, pressure and temperature of the air. However, the rate of decrease of
thrust is less than the rate of decrease of density with altitude because some loss due to
reduced density is compensated by lesser drag. The thrust is maximum at sea level.

The operational range of turbojet engine is about 800 to 1100 km/h and the specific fuel
consumption is about 1.0 to 1.5kg/thrust h at cruising speeds and are still greater at lower
speeds. The altitude limit is about 10000m. Let us consider the control volume of a schematic
propulsive device shown in Fig. 7.16. A mass
i
m of air enters the control volume with a
velocity ci and pressure pi and the products of combustion of mass
j
m leaves the control
volume with a velocity cj and pressure pj. The flow is assumed to be steady and reversible
outside the control volume, the pressure and velocity being constant over the entire control
volume except that at the exhaust area Aj. Force F is the force necessary to balance the thrust
produced due to change in momentum of the fluid as it passes through the control volume.

Thrust power (TP) :- It is the rate at which work must be developed by the engine if the
aircraft is to be kept moving at a constant velocity (V
a
) against friction force or drag.

Ram effect in jet engines : - In a jet engine or turbojet the KE of the incoming air can be
used to obtain a ram compression the intake duct , thus raising overall efficiency.
Compression of the air by the conversion of the KE of the atmospheric air relative to the
aircraft is called ram effect.
Thrust, thrust power, propulsive efficiency and thermal
efficiency
Thermal efficiency of a propulsive device is an indication of the degree of utilization of energy
in fuel in accelerating the fluid flow and is defines as the ratio of propulsive power furnished
to exhaust nozzle to the heat supplied and is given by
Pr opulsi vepower
Thermaleffi ci ency
Fuel flow rate Calori fi c value of fuel
=

th
a i
P
m Q
q =
Where Qi = f CV = heat supplied to the engine per kg of air and
f a
f m / m = is the fuel-air
ratio and CV is the calorific value of the fuel.
The propeller produces thrust power by accelerating the air. The propeller itself is driven by
the engine. The efficiency of the propeller is defined as the ratio of the thrust power to the
shaft power.
Jet Propulsion

i
p
F c Thrustpower
Pr opeller effi ci ency
Shaftpower s
= =
In the case of turboprop engine the thrust power developed by the exhaust is also considered.
Thrustpower
Pr opeller effi ci ency
Pr opulsi ve power
=
As the turbojet engines operate at very low fuel-air ratios, f, very high air-fuel ratios), f may be
neglected, then
( ) j i i
p
2 2
j i
2 c c c
c c
q =

( )
( )
a j i i
2
2
j
i
a
m 1 f c c c
c
c
m 1 f
2 2
( +

=
(
( +

i
j i
2c 2
c c 1
o
= =
+ + o

i
j
c
where
c
o =
Overall Efficiency of a Propulsive System
qo = Thermal efficiency Transmission efficiency Propulsive efficiency
qo = qth qtr qp

Energy flow through a jet Engine
The flow of energy through a jet engine has certain similarities to that of a reciprocating
engine. However, the manifestation of the energy differs, and also the terminology employed.
In jet engine the heat energy supplied is converted into K. E. That portion of the heat supplied
to the combustion chamber which was utilised to effect the change in KE of the air is termed
the propulsive power. The difference between the heat supplied and the propulsive power
comprises the heat loss, and the thermal efficiency of the engine is expressed as the ratio of
the propulsive power to the heat supplied. That power which is the rate of the actual useful
work developed by the engine, termed thrust power, is equal to the propulsive power less the
KE losses. From this it can be deduced that the propulsive efficiency of the engine is the ratio
of the thrust power to propulsive power and the overall efficiency becomes the ratio of the
thrust power to the heat supplied. The propulsive and overall effencies of the jet engine are
then comparable to the mechanical and brake thermal effencies respectively of the
reciprocating engine. The turboprop is similar to the turbojet, except that most of the nozzle
gas pressure drives the turbine shaft by the time the gas gets past the turbine, theres very
little pressure left to create trust. Instead, the shaft is geared to a propeller which creates the
majority of the thrust. Jet helicopters work the same way, except that their engines are
connected to the main rotor shaft instead of a propeller.
Turboprops are more fuel efficient then turbojets at low altitudes, where the thicker air gives a
propeller a lot more traction. This makes them popular on planes used for short flights, where
the time spent at low altitudes represents a greater percentage of the overall flight time. It is a
known fact that an higher thrust per unit mass flow of fuel can be obtained by increasing the
mass flow of air which results in better fuel economy. This fact is utilized in a turboprop
engine which is an intermediate between a pure jet engine and a propeller engine. Turboprop
Jet Propulsion

engine attempts to increase the air flow by using a propeller drives by the turbine I addition
to a small thrust produces by the exhaust nozzle.

The engine consist of the following components:
(i) a diffuser,
(ii) a compressor,
(iii) a combustion chamber,
(iv) a turbine,
(v) an exhaust nozzle,
(vi) a reduction gear and
(vii) a propeller.

Turboprop Performance

(i) The turboprop has good take off characteristics and good climb characteristics in the lower
subsonic speed range due to the large thrust and power available.

(ii) The variation in the propulsive efficiency of the turboprop engine with flight velocity will
be a little lower than the propeller engine.

(iii) Since the thermal efficiency of turbojet and the turboprop are the same, the overall
efficiency of the turboprop i.e. the fuel economy will be superior to the turbojet engine at
speeds below 800 km /hr.
The Ramjet Engine

Jet Propulsion

The fact of obtaining very high pressure ratios of about 8 to 10 by ram compression has made
it possible to design a jet engine without a mechanical compressor. A deceleration of the air
from Mach number 3 at diffuser inlet to Mach number 0.3 in combustion chamber would cause
pressure ratio of more than 30. As the ram jet has no compressor hence the entire compression
depends upon the ram compression. The ram pressure ratio increases very slowly in the
subsonic speed range. That is why ram jet is boosted up to a speed of 290 km/hr by a suitable
means such as a turbojet or a rocket before the ram jet will produce any thrust and must be
boosted to even higher speeds before the thrust produced exceeds the drag. After the boasting
of ram jet, the velocity of air passing through the diffuser decreases and hence pressure
increases. This is called ram compression and a pressure barrier is created after the end of
the diffuser. The fuel is injected through injection nozzle into the combustion chamber where
is ignited by means of a spark plug. The expansion of gases toward the diffuser entrance is
restricted by the pressure barrier at the after end of the diffuser and as a result the gases are
constrauied to expand through the tail pipe and out of the exit nozzle at a high velocity. As the
ram jet engine has no turbine , the temp. of the gases of combustion is not limited to a
relatively low value as in the turbojet engine. The air fuel ratio is 15:1. The exhaust
temperature ranges 1800 C to 2100C. The jet action gives the necessary foward thrust to the
engine.

The basic characteristics of the Ram jet are
(i) Simple in construction.
(ii) No moving parts and hence free from unbalancing.
(iii) Greater thrust per unit engine weight than any other ropulsion engine at supersonic
speed except rockets.
(iv) The thrust per unit frontal area increases both with the efficiency and the air flow
through the engine, therefore, much greater thrust per unit area is obtainable at high
supersoinc speeds.
(v) The best performance of ram jet engine is obtained at flight speed of 1700 -2200 km/hr.
(vi) For successful operation the diffuser has to be carefully designed so that the KE
associated with high entrance velocity is efficiently converted into pressure.
(vii) At low and moderate speeds the fuel consumption is too large. However, the fuel
consumption decreases with flight speed.
(viii) The performance is independent of fuel technology and a wide range of fuels and a wide
range of fuels can be burned.
Pulse jet engine
It is somewhat simular to a ramjet engine with exception that a mechanical value (V - shaped
non return value) is used to present the hot gases of combustion from going out of the diffuser.
Jet Propulsion

Thus pulse jet like ram jet develops thrust by a high velocity jet of exhust gases without the
aid of compressor or turbine. It was invented by the German inventor Paul Schmidt in 1930.

Turbojet and Ram jet engine are continuous in operation and are based on the cnstant
pressure heat addition Brayton cycle. The pulse jet is an intermittent conbustion engine and
it operates on a cycle simular to a reciprocating engine and may be better compared.

Advantages :-
(i) Pulse jet engine is very inexpensive compased to turbojet engine.
(ii) The pulse jet produces static thrust and produces thrust in excess of drag at uch lower
speeds than a ram jet.

Disadvantages :-
(i) Apparent noise.
(ii) Serious limitations to mechanical valve arrangements.
(iii) High rate of fuel consumption and low thermodynamic efficiency.
(iv) The operating attitude is limited by air density considerations.
(v) Severe vibrations.

Rocket Engines
One very important use for the nozzle is as a means of propulsion. Since the fluid flowing
through the nozzle is accelerated relative to the nozzle, then by Newtons thrid low of motion
the fluid exerts a thrust on the nozzle in the opposite direction to the fluid flow.

In jet planes the atmospheric air is drawn in, compressed, heated and allowed to expand
through a nozzle at a very high velocity resulting in forward thrust. In order to achieve jet
propelled flight in space where there is no atmosphere to be drawn into the vehicle, it is
necessary that the fuel plus its axident should be carried. This is known as rocket propulsion.
The two substance i.e. fuel and oxidant together is termed as propellants. The propellants may
be of two types - solid and liquid.

Rockets are of two types
(i) Solid rockets and
(ii) Liquid rockets.
This classification is based on the types of fuel usd.

Jet Propulsion

Solid rocket consists of
Propellant,
Casing or chamber
Nozzle and
Ignition system.

Liquid rockets consist of

Liquid tanks
Pumps or pressure bottle
Combustion chamber
Nozzle.

Liquid fuel can be fed to the combustion chamber by means of a pump or by pressurised N
2
,
Rocket engines are best suited for high speed and altitudes. At any given throttle, the thrust
and efficiency of a rocket motor improves slightly with increasing altitude ((because the back-
pressure falls thus increasing net thrust at the nozzle exit plane), whereas with a turbojet(or
turbofan) the falling density of the air entering the intake (and the hot gases leaving the
nozzle) causes the net thrust to increase with increasing altitude. Rocket engines are more
efficient than even scramjet above roughly Mach no 15.

Jet Propulsion



Applications of rockets
Q1. An air breathing aircraft is flying where the air density is half the value at ground
level. With reference to the ground level, the air-fuel ratio at this altitude will be
[GATE-1998]
3
( ) 2 ( ) 2 ( ) 2 ( ) 4 a b c d

Turbo-jet
In open cycle turbo-jet engines used in military aircraft, reheating the exhaust gas from
the turbine by burning more fuel is used to increase.
1. Thrust 2. The efficiency of engine 3. The range of aircraft.

Q2. Which one of the following is correct?
The turbine of the turbo-prop engine as compared to that of the turbojet engine is
(a) Similar (b) Smaller
(c) Bigger (d) Unpredictable [IES 2007]

Q3. The propulsive efficiency of a turbojet aircraft approaches 100% when the thrust
approaches [IES-2003]
(a) Maximum (b) 50% of the maximum
(c) 25% of the maximum (d) Zero

Q4. Assertion (A): Compared to a turbo-jet engine, a turbo-prop engine has a higher power
for take-off and higher propulsive efficiency at low speeds. [IES-1997]
Reason (R): By mounting the propeller on the turbine shaft, the propeller can be run at
a very high speed to obtain higher efficiency.

Q5. In a turbojet engine, subsequent to heat addition to compressed air, to get the power
output, the working substance is expanded in [IES-1996]
(a) Turbine blades, which is essentially an isentropic process.
(b) Turbine blades, which is a polytropic process.
(c) Exit nozzle, which is essentially an isentropic process.
(d) Exit nozzle, which is a constant volume process.

Jet Propulsion

Q6. Assertion (A): In the subsonic range the propulsive efficiency of a rocket is less than
that of a turbojet. [IES-1995]
Reason (R): The jet velocity of rocket is independent of forward motion.

Q7. The absolute jet exit velocity from a jet engine is 2800 m/s and the forward flight
velocity is 1400 m/s. The propulsive efficiency is [IES-2003]
(a) 33.33 % (b) 40 % (c) 66.67 % (d) 90 %
Thrust, thrust power, propulsive efficiency and thermal
efficiency
Q8. Propulsion efficiency of a jet engine is given by (where u is flight velocity and V is jet
velocity relative to aircraft). [IES-1995]
(a) 2u/(V u) (b) (V + u)/2u (c) 2u/(V + u) (d) (V-u)/2u

Q9. For a jet propulsion unit, ideally the ratio of compressor work and turbine work is
[IES-2002]
(a) 2 (b) 1
(c) not related to each other (d) unpredictable

In a turbojet engine, thrust may be increased by [IES-1998]
1. Increasing the jet velocity
2. Increasing the mass flow a rate of air
3. After burning of the fuel.
Of these statements

Q11. Assertion (A): After burning increases the thrust of a jet engine.
Reason (R): The air fuel ratio of jet engine is high. [IES-2009]
(c) A is true but R is false.
(d) A is false but R is true.

Q12. If Vj is the jet velocity and Vo is the vehicle velocity, the propulsive efficiency of a rocket
is given by [IES-1994]
(a)
( )
2
2 /
1
o j
o
j
V V
V
V
| |
+
|
|
\ .
(b)
2
/
1
o j
o
j
V V
V
V
| |
+
|
|
\ .
(c)
o
o j
V
V V +
(d)
j
o j
V
V V +

13. Which one of the following is the correct expression for the propulsion efficiency of a jet
plane (neglecting the mass of fuel)? [IES-2005]
Jet Propulsion

(a)
2
1
p
a
j
V
V
q =
| |
+
|
|
\ .
(b)
2
1
p
j
a
V
V
q =
| |
+
|
\ .
(c)
2
1
p
a
j
V
V
q =
| |
|
|
\ .
(d)
2
1
p
j
a
V
V
q =
| |
|
\ .

(Where Vj = velocity of jet relative to plane, Va = velocity of the plane)

Q14. Consider the following statements regarding performance of turbojet engines:
1. The thrust decreases at higher altitude due to reduced density of air and
consequently lower mass flow of air. [IES-2004]
2 At subsonic speeds, the effect of increased velocity is to increase the air flow and the
thrust increases.
3. The relative velocity of jet with respect to the medium decreases at higher speeds
which tends to reduce the thrust.
4 For turbojet engine the thrust of jet at subsonic speeds remains relatively constants.
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 1, 2 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4

Q15. The theoretical mechanical efficiency of a jet engine (neglecting frictional and thermal
losses), when driving a vehicle, has its maximum [GATE-1992]
(a) Only when the vehicle moves at sonic velocity
(b) When outlet gases approach zero absolute velocity
(c) When the vehicle speed approaches the magnitude of the relative velocity of gases at
nozzle exit
(d) Only when the relative velocity at nozzle exit is at its maximum.

Q16. An aircraft flying horizontally at a speed of 900 km/h is propelled by a jet leaving the
nozzle at a speed of 500 m/s. The propulsive efficiency is
(a) 0.334 (b) 0.426 (c) 0.556 (d) 0.667 [IES-1999]

Q17. The efficiency of jet engine is [IES-2003]
(a) Higher at high speeds (b) lower at low speeds
(c) Higher at high altitudes (d) same at all altitudes

Q18. Assertion (A): Propulsion efficiency of propeller driven aircraft is low at very high
speeds.
Reason (R): At high speeds, shock waves are formed over propeller blades. [IES-1998]

Q19. Assertion (A): A bypass jet engine gives a better propulsive efficiency and better fuel
economy than a straight jet engine. [IES-1998]
Reason (R): A bypass jet engine gives lower velocity of jet efflux than a straight jet
engine.

Q20. The thrust of a jet propulsion power unit can be increased by [IES-1993]
(a) Injecting water into the compressor
(b) Burning fuel after gas turbine
Jet Propulsion

(c) Injecting ammonia into the combustion chamber
(d) all of the above
Turbo-prop
Q21. Assertion (A): The thrust of a turboprop engine increases with the increase in flight
speed.
Reason (R): With the increase in flight speed, there is an increase in the pressure and
density of the air at the compression inlet due to the ram effect. [IES-1993]

As compared to a turboprop, a turbojet
1. Can operate at higher altitudes
2. Can operate at higher flight velocities
3. Is more fuel efficient at lower speeds
Of these statements
(a) 1, 2 and 3 are correct (b) 1 and 2 are correct
(c) 2 and 3 are correct (d) 1 and 3 are correct.

Q23. In turbo prop, the expansion of gases takes place approximately [IES-2000]
(a) 100% in the turbine
(b) 80% in the turbine and 20% in the nozzle
(c) 50% in the turbine and 50% in the nozzle
(d) 100% in the nozzle

Q24. Which one of the following is the correct sequence of the position of the given
components in a turboprop? [IES-1998]
(a) Propeller, Compressor, Turbine, Burner
(b) Compressor, Propeller, Burner, Turbine
(c) Propeller, Compressor, Burner, Turbine
(d) Compressor, Propeller, Turbine, Burner

Q25. Assertion (A): The use of turboprop engine is limited to medium speed applications.
Reason (R): The efficiency of a turboprop engine decreases at higher speed.[IES-1999]

Q26. Assertion (A): Turbojet engine is superior to turboprop engine at all operating
conditions. [IES-1994]
Reason (R): Efficiency of the propeller is low at high altitude and at high speeds.

Q27. A turbo prop is preferred to turbo-jet because [IES-1992]
(a) It has high propulsive efficiency at high speeds
(b) It can fly at supersonic speeds
Jet Propulsion

(c) It can fly at high elevations
(d) It has high power for take off
Rocket engines
Q28. Consider the following statements about a rocket engine: [IES-1997]
1. It is very simple in construction and operation.
2. It can attain very high vehicle velocity.
3. It can operate for very long duration.
Of these statements

Q29. Consider the following statements relating to rocket engines: [IES-1996]
1. The combustion chamber in a rocket engine is directly analogous to the reservoir of
a supersonic wind tunnel.
2. Stagnation conditions exist at the combustion chamber.
3. The exit velocities of exhaust gases are much higher than those in jet engines.
4. Efficiency of rocket engines is higher than that of jet engines.

Q30. Only rocket engines can be propelled to 'SPACE' because [IES-1996]
(a) They can generate very high thrust.
(b) They have high propulsion efficiency.
(c) These engines can work on several fuels.
(d) They are not air-beating engines.

Q31. Which of the following performance advantages does a rocket engine have as compared
to a turbojet engine? [IES-2009]
1. No altitude limitation 2. Higher efficiency
3. Longer flight duration 4. No ram drag
Select the correct answer from the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2, 3 and 4
Requirements of an ideal rocket propellant
Q32. Assertion (A): Liquid oxygen-liquid hydrogen propellant system has a higher specific
impulse relative to the liquid oxygen-hydrocarbon system. [IES-1993]
Reason (R): Hydrogen has a higher burning velocity than hydrocarbons.

Q33. Match List I with List II in respect of chemical rocket engine and select the correct
answer
List I List II
A. Ethyl alcohol 1. Liquid oxidizer [IES-1994]
B. Nitrocellulose 2. Liquid fuel
C. Ammonium per chlorate 3. Solid oxidizer
D. Hydrogen peroxide 4. Solid fuel
(a) 1 3 2 4 (b) 2 3 4 1
Jet Propulsion

(c) 2 4 3 1 (d) 4 1 2 3

lists:
(Name of Propellant) (Type of propellant)
A. Nitric acid 1. Fuel
B. Hydrogen 2. Monopropellant
C. Fuming nitric acid-hydrazine 3. Oxidizer
D. Methyl nitrate methyl alcohol 4. Compounded liquid monopropellant
5. Hypergolic propellant
Codes:
A B C D A B C D
(a) 2 1 4 5 (b) 1 2 5 4
(c) 3 1 5 4 (d) 3 1 4 5

Q35. In solid propellants rockets, ammonium picrate is usually added as:
(a) An additive (b) an inhibitor [IES-1992]
(c) A darkening agent (d) a plasticizer

Thrust work, propulsive work and propulsive efficiency
Q36. The relative jet exit velocity from a rocket is 2700 m/s. The forward flight velocity is
1350 m/s. What is the propulsive efficiency of the unit?
(a) 90% (b) 66.66%
(c) 50% (d) 33.33% [IES-1998; 2004]

Q37. Consider the following statements indicating a comparison between rocket and jet
propulsion systems:
1. Both rocket and jet engines carry the fuel and oxidant. [IES-2006]
2. Rockets do not employ compressor or propeller.
3. Rockets can operate in vacuum also.
4. Rockets can use solid fuels and oxidants.
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) Only 1 and 2 (c) Only 2, 3 and 4 (d) Only 1, 3 and 4

The thrust of a rocket engine depends upon [IES-1998]
1. Effective jet velocity
2. Weight of the rocket
3. Rate of propellant consumption
Of these statements

Q39. Assertion (A): A rocket engine can operate even in vacuum and in any fluid medium.
Reason (R): Rocket engine is a pure reaction engine, wherein a propulsive thrust is
obtained as a reaction of momentum of ejected matter. [IES-1994]
Jet Propulsion


1. Ans. (c)

1. Ans. (b)
2. Ans. (c) Though turbo-prop engine used in small aircraft due to its large number of stages
its size is Big for same power.
3. Ans. (d)
( )
2
Propulsive efficiency
1
p
j
a
C
C
q =
+
and Thrust power (TP) = (Cj - Ca) Ca
Propulsive efficiency increases with increase in aircraft velocity (Ca), i.e. efficiency is
maximum when thrust approach is zero.
4. Ans. (c)
5. Ans. (b)
6. Ans. (b) Both A and R are true but R is not correct explanation of A.
7. Ans. (c)
( )
2 2
Propulsive efficiency 0.6667
2800
1
1
1400
p
j
a
C
C
q = = =
+
+

8. Ans. (c)
9. Ans. (b)
10. Ans. (d)
11. Ans. (b)
12. Ans. (a)
13. Ans. (b)
14 Ans. (d) The turbojet is almost a constant thrust engine.
15. Ans. (c)
16. Ans. (d)
( )
( )
a
2xVelocityofapproach of air V
Propulsive efficiency ( )
Velocityof jet relative to air plane V V
q =
+
p
j a

Jet Propulsion

a j
p
5
V = 900km/hr = 900 = 250 m/s; V = 500 m/s
18
2250
= = 0.667
500+250

17. Ans. (a)
18. Ans. (a)
19. Ans. (a
20. Ans. (a) The thrust of a jet propulsion power unit can be increased by injecting water into
the compressor.
21. Ans. (d) The thrust of turboprop engine is proportional to
j a
V V
(Vj = velocity of jet relative to engine and Va = velocity of approach of air)
Further propulsive efficiency,
2
1
p
j
a
V
V
q =
+

Therefore with increase in Va, p increases but thrust decreases. Thus assertion A is
false.
However reason R is true.
22. Ans. (b)
23. Ans. (b)
24. Ans. (c)
25. Ans. (c) In fact the efficiency increases with speed but thrust keeps on decreasing.
26. Ans. (d) A is false but R is true.
27. Ans. (d)
28. Ans. (d) All statements are correct.
29. Ans. (c)
30. Ans. (d) Rocket engines can be propelled to space because they are not air breathing
engines
31. Ans. (b)
32. Ans. (a) Both assertion and reason are true and also R provides correct explanation for A.
33. Ans. (c)
34. Ans. (c)
35. Ans. (a)
36. Ans. (b)
propulsive
j
a
2 2
66.66%
C 2700
1
1
1350
C
q = = =
+
+

37. Ans. (c) 1 is false, jet engines absorb oxygen from atmosphere.
38. Ans. (b)
39. Ans. (a) Both A and R are true and R provides correct explanation for A.

Students Notes

7. IC Engine Performances
Engine Performance Parameters
The engine performance is indicated by the term efficiency, q. Five important engine
efficiencies and other related engine performance parameters are given below:
(i) Indicated thermal efficiency (qith)
(ii) Break thermal efficiency (qbth)
(iii) Mechanical efficiency (qm)
(iv) Volumetric efficiency (qv)
(v) Relative efficiency of Efficiency ratio (qrel)
(vi) Mean effective pressure (Pm)
(vii) Mean piston speed
( )
p
s
(viii) Specific power output (Ps)
(ix) Specific fuel consumption (sfc)
(x) Inlet-valve Mach Index (Z)
(xi) Fuel-air or air-fuel ratio (F/A or A/F)
(xii) Calorific value of the fuel (CV)

Energy distribution in an IC engine

Indicated Thermal Efficiency (q
ith
)
Indicated thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the indicated power, ip, to the input fuel
energy in appropriate units.

( )
| |
| |
i th
i p kJ / s
ht
energy i n fuel per sec ond kJ / s
q =
i p
mass of fuel / s calori fi c value of fuel
=
IC Engine Performances

Friction Power
The difference between the indicated and the brake power of an engine is known as friction
power. The internal losses in an engine are essentially of two kinds, viz., pumping losses and
friction losses. Following methods are used to find the friction power to estimate the
performance of the engine.

(i) Willians line method
(ii) Morse test
(iii) Motoring test
(iv) From the measurement of indicated and brake power
(v) Retardation test

(a) Willains Line Method (Mainly to C I Engine)
This method is also known as fuel rate extrapolation method. A graph connecting fuel
consumption (Y-axis) and brake power (X-axis) at constant speed is drawn and it is
extrapolated on the negative axis of brake power. The interoept of the negative axis is taken as
the friction power of the engine at that speed. The method of extrapolation is shown in figure
(dotted lines)

Willans Line
As seen from the fig, since, in most of the power range the relation between the fuel
consumption and brake power is linear which permits extrapolation.

Further, when the engine does not develop any power, i.e bp = 0, it consumes a certain amount
of fuel. The energy would have been spent in overcoming the friction. Hence, the extrapolated
negative intercept of the x-axis will be the work representing the combined losses due to
mechanical friction, pumping and blowing and as a whole it is termed the frictional loss of the
engine.
The measured frictional power by this method will hold good only for a particular speed and is
applicable mainly to C.I engines.

The main drawback of this method is the long distance to be extrapolated from data obtained
between 5 and 40% load towards the zero line of fuel input. The directional margin of error is
rather wide because the graph is not exactly linear.

The changing slope along the curve indicates the effect of part load efficiency of the engine.
The pronounced change in the slope of this line near full load reflects the limiting influence of
the air-fuel ratio and of the quality of combustion. Similarly, there may be slightly curvature
at light loads. This is perhaps due to the diffulty in injecting accurately and consistently very
small quantities of fuel per cycle.
Therefore, it is essential that great core should be taken in extrapolating the line and as many
readings as possible should be taken at light loads to establish the true nature of the curve.
The accuracy obtained in this method is reasonably good and compares with other methods if
extrapolation is carefully done.

(b) Morse Test (for Multi cylinder engines only)
In Morse test consists of obtaining IP of the engine without any elaborate equipment. The test
consists of making imperative in turn, each cylinder of the engine and noting the reduction in
B.P developed.
With a gasoline engine each shorting the spark plug of the cylinder; with a diesel engine by
cutting off the supply of fuel to each cylinder.This test is applicable only to multi cylinder
engines.

Referring to the above figure, the unshaded area of the indicator diagram is a measure of the
gross power (gp), develop by the engine, the dotted area being the pumping power (pp).
Net IP/ cylinder = gp - pp

(c) Motoring Test
In motoring test the engine is steadily operated at the rated speed by its own power and
allowed to remain under the given speed and load conditions for sufficient time so that the
temp of the engine components lubricating oil and cooling water reaches a steady stable.
A swinging field type electric dynamometer is used to absorb the power during this
period which is most suitable for this test. The ignition is then cut-off and by suitable electric
switching devices the dynamometer is converted to run as a motor so as to crank the engine at
the same speed at which it was previously operating. The power supply from the above
dynamometer is measured which is a measure of the F.P of the engine at that speed. The

water supply is also cut-off during the motoring test so that the actual operating temps are
maintained to the extent possible.

This method though determines the F.P at conditions very near to the actual operating temps
at the test speed and load, it does not give the true losses occurring under firing conditions due
to following reasons -
(1) The temps. in the motored engine are different from those in a firing engine.
(2) The pressure on bearings and piston rings is lower than in the firing engine.
(3) The clearance between piston and cylinder wall is more (due to cooling) and this reduces
the piston friction.
(4) The air is drawn at a temp. much lower than when the engine is firing because it does not
get heat from the cylinder (rather losses heat to the cylinder)
Motoring method, however, gives reasonably good results and is very suitable for
finding the losses imparted by various engine components. This insight of the losses caused by
various components and other parameters is obtained by progressive stripping off of the
engine.

(d) From the measurement of IP and BP

FP = IP - BP
This is an ideal method by which FP is obtained by computing the difference between IP
obtained from an indicator diagram and BP obtained from a dynamotor. This method is mostly
used in research laboratories at it is necessary to have elaborate equipment to obtain accurate
indicator diagrams at high speeds.

(e) Retardation Test
This test involves the method of retarding the engine by cutting the fuel supply. The engine is
made to run at no load and rated speed taking into all usual steady operating conditions the
supply of fuel is cut-off and simultaneously the time of fall in speeds by say 20%, 40%, 60%
and 80% of the rated speed is recorded. The tests are repeated once again with 50% load on the
engine.

Comparison of Various methods
The Willans line method and Morse tests are comparatively easy to conduct. However, both
these tests give only an overall idea of the losses whereas motoring test gives a very good
insight into the various causes of losses and is a much more powerful tool. As for as accuracy

is concerned, the IP-BP method is the most accurate if carefully done. Motoring method
usually gives a higher value of FP as compared to that given by the Willians line method.
Retardation method, though simple, requires accurate determination of the load torque and
the time for the fall in speed for the same range.

Brake Power
Measurement of BP is one of the most important measurement is the test schedule of an
engine. It involves the determination of the torque and the angular speed of the engine output
shaft. The torque measuring device is called a dynamometer.

The above fig shows the basic principle of a dynamometer. A rotor driven by the engine under
test, is mechanically, hydraulically or electromagnetically coupled to a stator. For every
revolution of the shaft, the rotor periphery moves through a distance 2tR against the coupling
force, F. Hence the work done per revolution is
W = 2tRF

The external moment or torque is equal to S x L, where S is the scale reading and L is the arm
length. This moment balanced the turning moment R x F, i.e.,
S x L = R x F
Therefore
Work done/revolution = 2t SL
Work done/minute = 2t SLN
Hence brake power is given by
bp = 2t NT Watts
where T is the torque and N is rpm.

Dynamometers can be broadly classified into two main types.

Absorption Dynamometer
These dynamometers measure and absorb the power output of the engine to which they are
coupled. The power absorbed is usually dissipated as heat by some means.
Examples - Porny brake, rope brake, hydraulic, eddy current dynamometers etc.
Transmission dynamometer:- In transmission the power is transmitted to the load coupled
to the engine after it is indicated on some type of scale. These are also called torque meters.
The terms brake and dynamometer mean the same. A dynamometer is also a brake
except the measuring devise are including to indicate the amount of force required in
attempting to stop the engine.


Fuel Consumption
There are two ways of expressing fuel consumption viz by volume or by weight during a
specified time. For automobiles it is expressed in terms of kilometers per liter.
Accurate measurement of fuel consumption is very important in engine testing work. Though
this seems to be a simple matter, it is by no means so as apparent from the occurrence of the
following phenomena: -

(a) Due to engine heat, vapor bubbles are formed in the fuel line. When the bubble grows the
fuel volume increases and back flow of fuel take place. Some fuel flow meters measure this
backflow as it if was forward flow. Some meters do not count backward flow but when place
which is counted.
(b) If bubbles are formed before or inside the flow meter the measured flow can be much
higher than actual.
(c) If there is any swirl in the fuel flow especially in the case of turbine type flow meter is may
register a high flow rate.
(d) The density of the fuel is dependent on temp which can vary over a wide range
(- 10
0
C to 70
0
C) giving rise to a error in measurement.
(e) Some flow meters which use a light beam, the measurements may be affected by the colour
of the fuel.
(f) The needle valve in the float bowl of the carburetor opens and closes periodically allowing
fuel to surge into the float bowl. This way cause water hammer type effect making the
turbine type flow meter to continue to rotate even when fuel flow has stopped, thereby
producing errors in flow measurements.

Two basic type of measurement methods are -
(a) Volumetric type
(b) Gravimetric type

Air Consumption
(A/F ratio) The diet of an engine consists of air and fuel. For finding out the performance of the
engine accurate measurement of both the quantities is essential.
In I.C engines the satisfactory measurement of air consumption is quite difficult because the
flow is pulsating is quite difficult because the flow is pulsating due to the cycle nature of the
engine and because the air is a compressible fluid. Therefore, the simple method of using an
orifice in the induction pipe is not satisfactory since the reading will be pulsating and
unreliable.
Methods used are - (i) Air Box method (ii) Viscous-flow air water.

Speed
Speed measurement is an art Speed of the engine is widely used in the computation of power
design and development. Measurement of speed is accomplished by instruments like
mechanical counters and timers, mechanical tachometers, stroboscope, electric counters
tachometers, electric generators, electronic pulse counters, etc.
The best method of measuring speed is to count the number of revolution in a given
time. This gives an accurate measurement of speed. Many engines are fitted with such
revolution counters. A mechanical or electrical tachometer can also be used for measuring
speed. Both these types are affected by temp. Variations and are not very accurate.
For accurate and continuous measurements of speed a magnetic pick-up placed near a
toothed wheel coupled to the engine shaft can be used. The magnetic pick-up will produce a
pulse for every revolution and a pulse counter will accurately measure the sped.


Exhaust and coolant temperature
Simplest way of measuring the exhaust temp is by means by a thermocouple. Nowadays
electronic temp sensitive transducer and ultra-violet radiation analyzes are also in use.
Coolant temperature are normally measured using suitable thermometers.

Break Thermal Efficiency (qbth)
Break thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the brake power, bp, to the iput fuel energy
in appropriate units.
bth
bp
Mass of fuel / s calori fi c value of the fuel
q =

Mechanical Efficiency (qm)
Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of break power (delivered power) to the indicated
power (power provided to the piston).

m
bp bp
i p bp fp
q = =
+

fp = ip bp
It can also be defined as the ratio of the brake thermal efficiency of the indicated thermal
efficiency.

Volumetric Efficiency (q
v
)
This is one of the very important parameters which decided the performance of four-stroke
engines. Four-stroke engines have distinct suction strike and therefore the volumetric
efficiency indicates the breathing ability of the engine. It is to be noted that the utilization of
the air is what going to determine the power output of the engine. Hence, an engine must be
able to take in as much air as possible.
Volumetric efficiency is defined as the volume flow rate if air into the intake system divided by
the rate at which the volume is displaced by the system.

a
v
a di sp
m
p V N / 2
q =

Where pa is the inlet density
The normal range of volumetric efficiency at full throttle for SI engines is between 80 to 85%
where as for CI engine it is between 85 to 90%. Gas engines have much lower volumetric since
gaseous fuel displaces air and therefore the breathing capacity of the engine is reduced.

Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio (q
rel
)
Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio is the ratio of thermal efficiency of an actual cycle to that
of the ideal cycle. The efficiency ratio is a very useful criterion which indicates the degree of
development of the engine.

rel
Actual thermal effi ci ency
Ai r s tan dard efi ci ency
q =

Mean Effective Pressure (P
m
)

Mean affective pressure is the average pressure inside the cylinders of an internal combustion
engine based on the calculated or measured power output. It increases as manifold pressure
increases. For any particular engine,

i m
p LAnK
ip
60 1000
=

im
60000 ip
p
LAnK
=
Where ip = indicated power (kW)
pim = indicated mean effective pressure (N/m
2
)
L = length of the stroke (m)
A = area of the piston (m
2
)
N = speed in revolutions per minute (rpm)
n = Number of power stroke N/2 for 4-stroke and N for 2-stroke
engines K = number of cylinders
Another way of specifying the indicated mean effective pressure pim is from the knowledge of
engine indicator diagram (p-V diagram). In this case, pim, may be defined as

i m
Area of the i ndi cator di agram
p
Length of the i ndi cator di agram
=

Mean Piston Speed (
p
s )
An important parameter in engine applications is the mean piston speed,
p
s . It is defined as
p
s = 2LN
Where L is the strike and N is the rotational speed of the crankshaft in rpm.

Specific Power Output (P
s
)
Specific power output of an engine is defined as the power output per unit piston area and is a
measure of the engine designers success in using the available piston area regardless of
cylinder size. The specific power can be shown to be proportional to the product of the mean
effective pressure and mean piston speed.

Specific power output, Ps = bp/A
Specific Fuel Consumption (sfc)
The fuel consumption characteristics of an engine are generally expressed in team of specific
fuel consumption in kilograms of fuel per kilowatt.-hour. It is an important parameter that
reflects how good the engine performance is. It is inversely proportional to the thermal
efficiency of the engine.

Fuel consumption per unit time
sfc
Power
=

Inlet-Valve Mach Index (Z)
In a reciprocating engine the flow of intake charge takes place through the intake valve
opening which is varying during the induction operation. Also, the maximum gas velocity
through this area is limited by local sonic velocity. Thus gas velocity is finally chosen by the
following equation,
p
p
i i
A
V
C A
=

When = gas velocity through the inlet valve at smallest flow area
Ap = piston area
Ai = nominal intake valve opening area
Ci = inlet valve flow co-efficient

Fuel-Air (F/A) or Air-Fuel Ratio (A/F)
The relative proportions of the fuel and air in the engine are very important from the
standpoint of combustion and the efficiency of the engine. This is expressed either as a ratio of
the mass of the fuel of that of the air or vice versa.
Air ratio. A mixture having more fuel than that in a chemically correct mixture is termed as
rich mixture and a mixture that contains less fuel (or excess air) is called a lean mixture. The
ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is called equivalence ratio and is
denoted by |
Actualfuel airratio
Stoichiometricfuel airratio
|=

Accordingly, | = 1 means stoichiometric (chemically correct) mixture, | <1 means lean mixture
and | >1 means rich mixture.

Calorific Value (CV)
Calorific value of a fuel is the thermal energy released per unit quantity of the fuel when the
fuel is burned completely and the products of combustion are cooled back to the initial
temperature of the combustible mixture. Other terms used for the calorific value are heating
value and heat of combustion.

Engine Performance Characteristics
Engine performance characteristics are a convenient graphical presentation of an engine
performance. They are constructed from the data obtained during actual test runs of the
engine and are particularly useful in comparing the performance of one engine with that of
another. In this section some of the important performance characteristics of the SI engines
are discussed.
It is to be noted that there is a certain speed, within the speed range of a particular engine, at
which the change inducted per cylinder per cycle will be the maximum. At this point, the
maximum force can therefore be exerted on the piston. For all practical purposes, the torque,
or engine capacity to do work, will also be maximum at this point. Thus, there is a particular
engine speed at which the charge per cylinder per cycle is a maximum, and at approximately
this same speed, the torque of the engine will be a maximum.
As the speed of the engine is increased above this speed the quantity of the indicated charge
will decrease. However, the power output of the engine increases with speed due to more
number of cycles are executed per unit time. It should be noted that the air consumption will
continue to increase with increased engine speed until some point is reached where the charge
per cylinder per stroke decreases very rapidly than the number of strokes per unit time is
increasing. Engine are so designed that the maximum air consumption point is not reached
within the operation speed of the engine. Increase in air consumption means that increased
quantities of fuel can be added per unit time increasing the power output. In fact the ip
produced in the cylinder is almost directly proportional to the engine air consumption.
The relationship between air charge per cylinder per cycle and torque, as well as air
consumption and ip is illustrated in Fig. Note that the maximum torque occurs at a lower
speed than the maximum ip. Figure shows some of the other important performance
characteristics for a typical SI engine. In this figure, torque, ip,bp and fp are plotted against
engine speed throughout the operating range of the engine, at full throttle and variable load.


The difference between the ip produced in the cylinder, and the bp realized at the drive-shaft,
is the fp. At low engine speed, the fp is relatively low, and bp is nearly as large as ip. As engine
speed increases, however, fp increases at a greater rate. At engine speed above the usual
operating range, fp increases very rapidly. Also, at these higher speeds, Ip will reach a
maximum and then fall off. At some point, ip and fp will be equal, and bp will then drop to
zero. Note that the torque reaches a maximum at approximately 60% of the rated rpm of the
engine, while the ip has not reached maximum even at the rated speed.
Figure shows fuel consumption and bsfc plotted against the engine speed, for the same engine
operating under the same conditions. The quantity of fuel consumed increases with engine
speed. The bsfc, on the other hand, drops as the speed is increased in the high speed range. At
low speeds, the heat loss to the consumption chamber walls is greater and combustion
efficiency is poor, resulting in higher fuel consumption for the power produced. At the high
speeds, the fp is increasing at a rapid rate, resulting in a slower increase in bp than in fuel
consumption, with a consequent increase in bpfc.
The bsfc curve is for full throttle, variable speed operation. At any one speed, it represents the
bsfc which will result when the engine is carrying its maximum load. By reducing throttle
opening and load, that same speed may be obtained, but at loads less than the maximum. A
family of curves for various speeds can be obtained, each showing the effect on bsfc of varying
the load at constant speed. Under these conditions of constant speed and variable load, and at
a constant air-fuel ratio, the bsfc will rise consistently and rapidly as the load (and throttle
opening) is decreased. The reason for the rapid increase in bsfc with the reduction in throttle
opening is that the fp remains essentially constant, while the ip is being reduced. The bp drops
more rapidly than fuel consumption, and there by the bsfc rises.





Q1. During a Morse test on a 4 cylinder engine, the following measurements of brake power
were taken at constant speed. [GATE-2004]
All cylinders firing 3037 kW
Number 1 cylinder not firing 2102 kW
The mechanical efficiency of the engine is
(a) 91.53% (b) 85.07% (c) 81.07% (d) 61.22%

Q2. With increasing temperature of intake air, IC engine efficiency [GATE-1998]
(a) Decreases (b) increases
(c) Remains same (d) depends on other factors

Q3. Brake thermal efficiency of the three types of reciprocating engines commonly used in
road vehicles are given in the increasing order as
(a) 2 stroke Sl engine, 4 stroke Sl engine, 4 stroke Cl engine [GATE-1992]
(b) 2 stroke Sl engine, 4 stroke Cl engine, 4 stroke Sl engine
(c) 4 stroke Sl engine, 2 stroke SI engine, 4 stroke Cl engine
(d) 4 stroke Cl engine, 4 stroke Sl engine, 2 stroke Sl engine

Q4. An automobile engine operates at a fuel air ratio of 0.05, volumetric efficiency of 90%
and indicated thermal efficiency of 30%. Given that the calorific value of the fuel is 45
MJ/kg and the density of air at intake is 1 kg/m
3
, the indicated mean effective pressure
for the engine is [GATE-2003]
(a) 6.075 bar (b) 6.75 bar (c) 67.5 bar (d) 243 bar


Q1. In a variable speed S.I. engine, the maximum torque occurs at the maximum
(a) Speed (b) brake power [IES-1999]
(c) Indicated power (d) volumetric efficiency

Q2. In a Morse test for a 2-cylinder, 2-stroke, spark ignition engine, the brake power was 9
kW whereas the brake powers of individual cylinders with spark cut of were 4.25 kW
and 3.75 kW respectively. The mechanical efficiency of the engine is
[IES-1999]
(a) 90% (b) 80% (c) 45.5% (d) 52.5%

I. The performance of an S.I. engine can be improved by increasing the compression
ratio.
II. Fuels of higher octane number can be employed at higher compression ratio.
Of these statements
(a) Both I and II are true (b) both I and II are false
(c) I is true but II is false (d) I is false but II is true

Q4. Besides mean effective pressure, the data needed for determining the indicated power
of an engine would include [IES-1993]
(a) Piston diameter, length of stroke and calorific value of fuel
(b) Piston diameter, specific fuel consumption and calorific value of fuel
(c) Piston diameter, length of stroke and speed of rotation
(d) Specific fuel consumption, speed of rotation and torque

Q5. The method of determination of indicated power of multi-cylinder SI engine is by the
use of [IES-1995]
(a) Morse test (b) Prony brake test
(c) Motorint test (d) Heat balance test.

lists:
List-I List-II [IES-2001]
A. Supercharging 1. Multi-cylinder engine
B. Morse test 2. C.I. engine
C. Heterogeneous combustion 3. Calorific value
D. Ignition quality of petrol 4. Aircraft engine
5. Octane number
6. Single cylinder S.I. engine
A B C D A B C D
(a) 4 1 2 5 (b) 1 3 4 2
(c) 5 4 2 3 (d) 1 4 2 3

Q7. Which one of the following figures correctly represents the variation of thermal
efficiency (y-axis) with mixture strength (x-axis)? [IES-1997]

Q8. For a typical automobile C.I. engine, for conditions of increasing engine speed match
List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists :
[IES-1993]

List I List II
(Performance parameter) (Tendency, qualitatively)
A. Power output 1. Increasing and then decreasing,
B. Torque 2. Decreasing and then increasing
C. Brake specific fuel consumption 3. Increasing throughout the range
4. Decreasing throughout the range

Codes: A B C A B C
(a) 1 2 3 (b) 1 4 3
(c) 2 3 4 (d) 3 1 2

Q9. Match List-I (Performance Parameter Y) with List-II (Curves labelled 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
BHP vs. Y) regarding a C.I engine run at constant speed and select the correct answer
List-I List-II
(Performance Parameter Y) (Curves BHP vs. Y)
A. Total fuel consumption rate
B. Mechanical efficiency
C. Indicated power
D. Brake specific fuel consumption

A B C D A B C D
(a) 5 3 4 2 (b) 1 3 4 2
(c) 5 4 2 3 (d) 1 4 2 3

Q10. The curve show in the given figure
is characteristic of diesel engines.
What does the Y-axis represent?
(a) Efficiency
(b) Specific fuel consumption
(c) Air-fuel ratio
(d) Total fuel consumption

[IES-1995]

Q11. Keeping other parameters constant brake power of a diesel engine can be increased by
[IES-1995]
(a) decreasing the density of intake air (b) increasing the temperature of intake air
(c) Increasing the pressure of intake air (d) decreasing the pressure of intake air.

Q12. In the context of performance evaluation of I.C. Engine, match List I with List II and
select the correct answer. [IES-1996]

List I (Parameter) List II (Equipment for measurement)
A. Brake power (B.H.P.) 1. Bomb calorimeter
B. Engine speed 2. Electrical tachometer
C. Calorific value of fuel 3. Hydraulic dynamometer
D. Exhaust emissions 4. Flame lonization detector
(a) 3 1 2 4 (b) 4 2 1 3
(c) 3 2 1 4 (d) 2 3 4 1

Q13. Match List I (performance curves, labelled A, B, C and D, for a constant speed diesel
engine) with List II (performance parameter) and select the correct answer.
[IES-1994]
List I List II

1. Smoke level
2. Brake specific fuel consumption.
3. Brake thermal efficiency
4. Brake power
(a) 3 4 1 2 (b) 3 4 2 1
(c) 4 3 1 2 (d) 4 3 2 1

Q14. Which one of the following quantities is assumed constant for an internal combustion
engine while estimating its friction power by extrapolation through Willan's line?
[IES-1994]
(a) Brake thermal efficiency (b) Indicated thermal efficiency.
(c) Mechanical efficiency (d) Volumetric efficiency.

Q15. An engine produces 10 kW brake power while working with a brake thermal efficiency
of 30%. If the calorific value of the fuel used is 40, 000 kJ/Kg, then what is the fuel
consumption? [IES-2005]
(a) 1.5 kg/hour (b) 3.0 kg/hour (c) 0.3 kg/hour (d) 1.0 kg/hour

Q16. A 40 kW engine has a mechanical efficiency of 80%. If the frictional power is assumed
to be constant with load, what is the approximate value of the mechanical efficiency at
50% of the rated load? [IES-2005]
(a) 45% (b) 55% (c) 65% (d) 75%



1. Ans. (c)

2. Ans. (a)
3. Ans. (a)
4. Ans. (a)

1. Ans. (c) The torque developed by an engine is directly proportional to the indicated power.
Thus maximum torque will occur corresponding to maximum indicated power.
2. Ans. (a) Indicated power of second cylinder is 9 - 4.25 = 4.75 kW and of first engine is 9 -
3.75 = 5.25 kW.
Thus total indicated power of engine is 4.75 + 5.25 = 10 kW.
:. Mechanical efficiency of engine =
9
100
10
= 90%
3. Ans. (d) The performance of S.I. engine can't be improved by increasing the compression
ratio because of pre-ignition and detonation.
Since high octane number tends to suppress detonation, t6 some extent fuels of higher
octane number will be helpful at higher compression ratio.

4. Ans. (c) Indicated power is concerned with PmLAN, i.e. mean effective pressure, length of
stroke, piston diameters and speed of rotation.
5. Ans. (a) Morse test is used to determine indicated power of multi-cylinder S.I. engine
6. Ans. (a)
7. Ans. (a) For higher thermal efficiency, the mixture strength should be little leaner than
stoichiometric
8. Ans. (d)
9. Ans. (a)
10. Ans. (d) Y-axis represents total fuel consumption.
11. Ans. (c) Brake power of diesel engine can be increased by increasing pressure of intake air.
Supercharging.
12. Ans. (c)
13. Ans. (b)
14. Ans. (b)
15. Ans. (b)
( ) ( )
bt f
t bt
f f
B.P. B.P 3600 10 3600
or m 3600 3kg / hr
m. cv cv 0.3 40000
q
q

= = = =

16. Ans. (c)

40
0.8 or F 10kW
40 F
20
67%
20 10
q
= =
+
= =
+


Q1. A four stroke diesel engine of 3000 cc capacity develops 14 kW per m
3
of free air
induced per minute. When running at 3500 rev/min it has a volumetric efficiency of
85 per cent referred to free air-conditions of 1.013 bar and 27 C . It is proposed to
boost the power of the engine by supercharging by a blower (driven mechanically from
the engine) of pressure ratio 1.7 and isentropic efficiency of 80 per cent. Assuming
that at the end of induction the cylinders contain a volume of charge equal to the
swept volume, at the pressure and temperature of the delivery from the blower,
estimate the increase in bp to be expected from the engine. Take overall mechanical
efficiency as 80 per cent. r for air = 1.4, R = 0.287 kJ/kg K.
[IES-2009, -13-Marks]
Ans. Swept volume,
S
V

6
3500
3000 10
2
=

3
5.25 m / mi n =
Actual volume of air Inducted
a S
V V = Volumetric efficiency ( )
v
q

S v
3
V
5.25 0.85
4.4625 m / mi n
4.4625 14
62.475 kW
= q
=
=
=
=

Delivered pressure from the compressor,

a
p 1.013 1.7 1.7221 bar = =
Assuming isentropic compressor, we have

( )
( ) ( )
1
0.4
d d
1.4
a a
0.4
0.287
1.4
d a
T p
1.7
T p
T T 1.7 300 1.7
349.349 K

| |
= =
|
\ .
= =
=

Isentropic efficiency of the compressor

c
S
ac
ac
ac
Isentropi c temperature ri se
Actual temperature ri se
T
T
349.349 300
0.8 =
T 300
T 361.68 K
q =
A
=
A
=

Actual volume of air induced corresponding to swept volume at atmospheric condition
by the engine

5.25 1.7221 300
1.013 361.68

=

3
7.403 m / mi n =
So increase intake volume of air

3
7.403 5.25 2.153 m / mi n = =

Increase in input pressure due to supercharging
= 2.153 14 = 30.14 kW
Increase in input pressure due to increase in intake pressure because of
supercharging

( )
S
5
p V
60 1000
1.7 1 1.013 10 5.25
60 1000
6.204 kW
A
=
=

Total increase in input pressure
= 30.14 + 6.204
= 36.344 kW
Increase in bp
= Mechanical efficiency input pressure
= 0.8 36.344 = 29.0752 kW

Q2. The following data are known for a four cylinder four stroke petrol engine: cylinder
dimensions: 11 cm bore, 13 cm stroke; engine speed : 2250 rpm; brake power: 50 kW;
friction power : 15 kW; fuel consumption rate: 10.5 kg/h; calorific value of fuel: 50,000
kJ/kg; air inhalation rate: 300 kg/h; ambient condition : 15C, 1.03 bar.
Estimate
(i) brake mean effective pressure
(ii) Volumetric efficiency
(iii) Brake thermal efficiency, and
(iv) Mechanical efficiency. [IES-2008, 10-Marks]
Ans. Given,
D = Cylinder bore = 11 cm
L = Length of stroke = 13 cm
N = rpm of engine = 2250
B.P. = 50 kW
Friction power =
p
f 15 kW =
Fuel consumption rate = f m 10.5 kg/hr =
Colorific value of fuel = CV = 50000 kJ/kg
Air inhalation rate = a m 300 kg/hr =
Ambient condition, P = 1.03 bar,

amb
T 15 C 288 K = =
(i) Now, Swept volume,
s
V
( ) ( )
2
2
6 3
3
D L
4
11 13 10 m
4
0.001235 m
t
=
t
=
=

Total swept volume for 4 cylinder = 4 0.001235
3
m


bm
bm
P LAnK
But b.p. =
60000
where,
P brake mean effecti ve pressure
N
n = for 4- stroke engi ne
2
K = number of cyli nder = 4(gi ven)
=

( )
bm
2
2
2 4
4 6 3
5 2
bp 60000
P
LAn K
50 60000
N/m
2250
13 10 11 10 4
4 2
5.396 10 10 10
5.396 10 N/m
5.396 bar

=
t

=
=
=

(ii) swept volume per minute,

2
s
3
a
V D LnK
4
2250
4 0.001235
2
5.558 m /mi n
Agai n, m 300 kg/hr
300
= kg / mi n 5kg / mi n .
60
t
=
=
=
=
=

volume flow rate of air at intake condition,

a
a
5
3
v
a
m RI 5 287 288
V
P 1.03 10
4.0124 m / mi n
volume tri c e ffi ci e ncy
=
V
swe pt volume /mi n
4.0124
72.19%
5.558

= =
q
=
= =

(iii) Brake thermal efficiency,


(i v) Si nce bp = 50 kW
fp = 15 kW

ip = bp + fp = 65 kW
mechani cal effi ci ency,

m
bp 50
76.92%
i p 65
q = = =

Students Notes

8. Engine Cooling
Necessity of Engine Cooling
The question remains as to why cooling is required at all? The cooling of the engine is
necessary for the following reasons:
1. The lubricating oil used determines the maximum engine temperature that can be
used. Depending upon the type of lubricating oil used, this temperature ranges from
160
o
C to 200
o
C. Above these temperatures the lubricating oil deteriorates very rapidly
with temperature increase, and it might even evaporate and burn, injuring piston and
cylinder surface. Piston seizure due to overheating resulting from the failure of the
lubrication is quite common.
2. The strength of the materials used for various engine parts usually decreases with an
increase in temperature, and thus established an upper limit for the temperatures at
various points of the engine. For example, for water- cooled engines the temperature of
the cylinder head should not exceed about exceed about 270
o
C while for air- cooled
engines, which use light alloys, this limit is as low as 200
o
C. The high local
temperatures, in addition to decreasing the strength of the materials, may result in
excessive thermal stress due to uneven expansion of various engine parts and may
result in cracking .
3. High engine temperatures may result in very hot exhaust valve, which in turn, may
give rise to pre-ignition and detonation.
4. If the cylinder head temperature is high, the volumetric efficiency and hence the power
output of the engine is reduced.
Thus, it is clear that some form of the cooling must be provided to keep the temperature of the
engine low in order to avoid the loss of volumetric efficiency, and, hence, power, engine seizure
and to avoid danger of engine failure.

Disadvantages of overcooling
Should we cool the engine as much as, we can? No. The engine must never be overcooled. The
engine must always be kept sufficient hot to assure smooth and efficient operation. At too low
engine temperatures starting may be difficult and above all, the low temperature corrosion
assumes such a significant magnitude (see Fig. 15.2) that the engine life is greatly reduced. At
low temperatures, the sulphurous and sulphuric acid resulting from combustion of fuel (fuel
always contains some sulphure) attack the cylinder barrel. The due points of these acids vary
with pressure and hence the critical temperature, at which corrosion assumes significant
proportions, varies along the cylinder barrel. To avoid condensation of acid the coolant
temperature should be greater than 70
o
C. Thus, the cooling system should not only cool but
must also keep the cylinder liner temperature above a minimum level to avoid corrosion and
ensure good warm up performance of the engine.

Cooling Systems
All the heat rejected from the engine ultimately goes to air. Nevertheless, two basic systems
are used to cool the engine. These are :
1. Air cooling
2. Water cooling or indirect air cooling using water as a transfer medium.
Engine Cooling

Application of air cooling
Air cooling is usually used for small engines and for engines whose application gives extreme
areas for importance to weight such as aircraft engine. Other areas for air-cooled engines are
industrial and agricultural engines where there can be a strong objection to use of water as
coolant.
For air cooling the cylinder heat transfer area is increased by finning and air is passed over
these fins to affect cooling.

Application of water cooling
In case of water-cooling engines the cylinder and the cylinder-heat are enclosed in a water
jacket. This water jacket is connected to a radiator (heat exchange). Water is caused to flow in
the jacket where it cools the engine, then it gives up this heat to air in the radiator and is
again circulated in the water jacket.

Air cooling
As already stated, for air cooling of the engine the heat transfer area is increased by finning
the cylinder and cylinder head and air is passed over them. Since the heat is directly
transferred to air, this result in a vary large temperature gradient between the gases and air
for heat transfer, thereby reducing the surface area required. Fig. shows the two fins used to
cover the cylinder. The length of the fins and the spacing between them is quite important for
efficient cooling. Larger inter-spacing between the fins offers larger area for cooling air but the
heating of the air is less, so more cooling air is required. Smaller interspacing between the fins
result in smaller flow area for cooling air and hence air is heated more and input to the cooling
air is less. However, the pressure drop require for flow is more. If the distance between two
fins is quite small the laminar layers of the opposite areas come in contact with each other and
the efficiency of the fins is reduced very much. Therefore, a spacing less than 2.5mm is not
used. The height of the fins controls the distance between the two cylinders and hence, the size
of the engine, Usually the fin height varies from 15 to 25mm. While fixing the fins care must
be taken that the most heavily thermally stressed parts such as exhaust valve and exhaust
manifold, etc. are adequately finned. Air cooling results in higher engine temperature. This
necessitates the provision of bigger clearance between the various parts, especially between
piston and cylinder, and between valve and the rocker arm. The clamping of the cylinder heat
to cylinder requires great care to avoid distortion. The upper part of the cylinder barrel is
most critical part of the air-cooled engine and usually limits the engine rating. Fig. 15.25
shows the relationship between the specific output and the cylinder barrel fin spacing for cast
iron and light alloys fin. It can be seen that with light alloys higher specific outputs can be
obtained.

Water cooling

Engine Cooling

In case of water-cooled engines the cylinder heat and the cylinder are closed in a water jacket.
Water is circulated through this jacket to affect cooling. The local velocity of water as well as
the bulk rate of water passed through the jacket are important. The flow path as well as the
local velocity should be carefully planned to cool highly thermally-stressed areas. Local
velocities greater than 3 to 4 m/sec are used to provide a reasonable heat transfer. The water
passage should be designed to bring the water as close as possible to the gas side. The cast
surfaces are usually machined to improve the heat transfer coefficient. Sometimes drilled
coolant passages are provided to cool highly stressed parts.
For ease of cold starting many types and anti-freeze solutions are added to the water.
Commonly used anti-freeze materials are:
(i) Keroserne,
(ii) Wood alcohol,
(iii) Denatured alcohol,
(iv) Glycerine,
(v) Sugar solution,
(vi) Calcium or magnesium chloride,
(vii) Ethylene glycol and propylene glycol.

In additional some oils are also used as anti-freeze solutions form the sticky deposits on the
water side of the cylinder and reduce the heat transfer coefficient drastically and may result in
overheating of the prevent deposits.
Various methods are used for circulating the water around the cylinder and cylinder head.
Thses are:
1. Thermo-syphon cooling.
2. Forced or pump cooling.
3. Cooling with thermostatic regulator.
4. Pressurised water cooling.
5. Evaporative cooling.

Thermo-syphon cooling
Engine Cooling

The fact that the water becomes light on heating is used as the basis of this type of cooling.
Fig. 15.26 show the thermo-syphon cooling arrangement. The top of the radiator is connected
to the top of the water jacket by a pipe and bottom of the radiator to the bottom of the water
jacket. Water travels down the radiator across which air is passed to cool it. The sir flow can
take place due to vehicle motion or a fan can be provided for the purpose.
The main drawback of this system is that cooling depends only on the temperature and is
independent of the engine speed. The rate of the circulation is slow and insufficient. The
circulation of water starts only water the starts only after the engine has become hot enough
to cause thermo-syphon action. This system requires that the radiator be above the engine for
gravity flow of water to engine.

Forced or pump system

In the forced or pump system a pump is used to cause positive circulation of water in the water
jacket. This is shown in Fig. 15.27. Usually the pump is belt driven from the engine. The
advantages of forced system are that the cooling is ensured under all conditions of operation.
The main drawback of the system are:

(i) The cooling is independents of temperature. This may, under certain circumstances,
result in overcooling the engine.
(ii) While moving uphill the cooling requirements is increased because more fuel is
burned. However, the coolant circulation is reduced which may result in
overheating the engine.
(iii) As soon as the engine is stopped the cooling also ceases. This is undesirable because
cooling must continue till the temperatures are reduced to normal values.
Thermostat cooling

Engine Cooling

As already discussed, too low a cylinder barrel temperature, may result in serve corrosion
damage due to condensation of acid on the barrel wall. To avoid such a situation it is
customary to use a thermostat (a temperature controlling device) to stop flow of coolant below
a preset cylinder barrel temperature.
Most modern cooling system embody a thermostatic device which prevents the water in the
engine jackets from circulating through the radiator for cooling until its temperature has
reached to a value suitable for efficient engine operation.

a schematic diagram of a thermostatically controlled cooling system. Also shown is a typical
car thermostat. The thermostat bypass valve is fitted between the engine and the radiator top.
The thermostat valve is operated by a small element filled with wax. As the temperature
increases, the wax melts and valve is opened to allow coolant to go to the radiator. Under
normal operating temperatures the valve remains open. When the temperature falls, the valve
is closed bypassing the water and, thus , cooling is automatically ceased. Fig. shows the two
positions of a typical thermostat.

The main advantages of this system is that engine warms up quickly after starting.
However, if the engine becomes very hot there is no method to increase cooling action. The
only alternative is to stop the engine and let it cool. To increase the rate of cooling under such
situations another arrangement, shown in Fig. is used. In this system shutters are provided on
the radiator. These shutters may be closed or opened automatically by a thermostat. When
shutters are opened more air is allowed to flow and, thus, more cooling can be obtained.

Pressurized water cooling
The boiling point of the coolant can be increased by increasing its pressure- for two bars, it is
121
o
C, for 5bars it is 153
o
C and for 10 bars it is 180
o
C. This allows a greater heat transfer to
occur in the radiator due to a large temperature differential.

Usually the water pressure is kept between 1.5 bars to 2.0 bars bars. Use of pressurized water
cooling requires an additional valve, called vaccum valve, to avoid formation of vaccum when
the water is cooled after engine has been stopped. This is shown in Fig. 15.30.
A safety valve in the form of pressure relief valve, is provided so that whenever the filler cap is
opened the pressure is immediately relieved.

Engine Cooling

Evaporative cooling
In evaporative cooling, also called steam of vapour cooling, the temperature of the cooling
water is allowed to reach a temperature of 100
o
C. This method of cooling utilizes the high
latent heat of vaporization of water to obtain cooling with minimum of water. Fig.15.31 shows
such a system. The cooling circuit is such that the coolant is always liquid but the steam
formed is flashed off in a separate vessel. The make-up water so formed is sent back for
cooling. This system is used for cooling of many types of industrial engines.

Comparison of air and water cooling systems
The allowing is a brief comparison of air and water cooling systems.

Advantages of air cooling
1. The direct transfer of heat from engine to air eliminates the use of water as a coolant.
No water jacket, radiator and water pump are required. This many mean a reduction in
weight by as much as 20%. The size of the engine is also small.
2. The engine design becomes much simpler.
3. The air-cooled engine is less sensitive to climatic conditions. No anti-freeze solution is
needed. Due to greater temperature difference between the cooling air and cylinder, the
cooling is hot weather does not deteriorate.
4. Due to high average cylinder temperature is the air-cooled engine thermal losses are
small. This results in lower specific fuel consumption.
Engine Cooling

5. The warm-up performance to the air-cooled engine is better. This results is low wear to
cylinders.
6. Since the temperature difference between cooling air and cylinder is more, less amount
of cooling air is required.
7. Higher mean cylinder temperature mean reduced carbon deposits on combustion
chamber wall. This gives sustained engine performance.
8. An air-cooled engine can take up some degree of damage. A broken fin does not affect
much while a hole in the radiator may stop a water-cooled engine.
9. The control of cooling system is much easier than a water-cooled engines.

Disadvantages of air cooling
1. Due to the absence of the water passage the combustion noise is not attenuated.
Rather, the air fan is an additional source of noise.
2. The volumetric efficiency of an air-cooled engine is lower due to higher cylinder head
temperatures.
3. High specific output engines cannot be air-cooled due to the complex nature of the fins
that are required.

Advantages of water-cooled engines
1. High specific output engines pose no problem with water cooling. The heat transfer
coefficient of water is about 350 times that of air. This results in compact design.
2. Due to the high latent heat of water the water-cooling system allows greater amount of
heat from any local hot spot. This acts as a useful safety valve for overheating troubles.
3. The water-cooled engine can be installed anywhere in the vehicle.
4. The volumetric efficiency of water-cooled engines is higher than that of air-cooled
engines.

Disadvantages of water-cooled engines
1. The need for a radiator and the pump increase the weight and the dimensions of the
engine. Due to the presence of radiator the frontal area of the vehicle is increased
resulting in greater air resistance.
2. Water-cooling system requires more maintenance. A slight leakage of the radiator may
result in breakdown of the engine.
3. The engine performance becomes more sensitive requires use of anti-freeze solutions
which may, sometimes, result in the deposits on the water side of the cylinder and in
reduced heat transfer.
4. The warm-up performance is poor. This result in greater cylinder wear.
5. The power absorbed by the pump is slightly higher than that necessary from air-cooled
engines.

Engine Cooling

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS (IES)


Q1. Assertion (A): Cooling system in an IC engine must be such that there is no excessive
cooling.
Reason (R): Overcooling would result in increased viscosity of the lubricant due to
which the overall efficiency of the engine will decrease. [IES-1998]

Q2. Consider the following statements in respect of automobile engine with thermo-syphon
cooling: [IES-2003]
1. Heat transfer from gases to cylinder walls takes place by convection and radiation.
2. Most of the heat transfer from radiator to atmosphere takes place by radiation.
3. Most amount of heat transfer from radiator to atmosphere takes place by convection.
4. Heat transfer from cylinder walls takes place by conduction and convection.
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4 (c) 2, 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 2

Engine Cooling



1. Ans. (c) Disadvantages of overcooling:
- At too low engine temperatures starting may be difficult and above all,
- The low temperature corrosion assumes such a significant magnitude that the engine
life is greatly reduced.
- At low temperatures, the sulphurous and sulphuric acids resulting from combustion of
fuel (fuel always contains some sulphur) attack the cylinder barrel.
- The dew points of these acids vary with pressure and hence the critical temperature, at
which corrosion. Assumes significant proportions, varies along the cylinder barrel.
- To avoid condensation of acids the coolant temperature should be greater than 70C.
- The cooling system should not only cool but must also keep the cylinder liner
temperature above a minimum level to avoid corrosion and ensure good warm up
performance of the engine
2. Ans. (c)

Students Notes

9. Emission & Control
Emission & Control
I C engine generates undesirable emission during the combustion process. In this ,both SI and
CI engines are equally responsible. The major cause for these emission are non-stoichiometric
combustion, dissociation of nitrogen, and impurities in the fuel and air. The emission of
concern are: unburnt hydrocarbon(HC), oxides of nitrogen(NOx), oxide of carbon(COx), oxide of
sulphur(SOx), and solid carbon particulates.

Pollutions from Gasoline Engines

SI Engine Emission

CI Engine Emission
Emission & Control

There are four possible sources of atmospheric pollution form a petrol engine powered vehicle:
the fuel tank, the carburetor, the crankcase and the exhaust pipe.

The evaporative losses are the direct losses of raw gasoline from the engine fuel system; the
blowby gases are the vapours and the gases leaking into the crackcase from the combustion
chamber and the pollutants from the exhaust pipe are due to incomplete combustion.

Evaporative Losses
Evaporative emissions account for 15 to 25 percent of total hydrocarbon emission from a
gasoline engine. The two main sources of evaporative emissions are the fuel tank and the
carburetor.

(i) Fuel tank losses
Fuel tank losses occur by displacement of vapour during filling of petrol tank, or by
vaporization of fuel in the tank, forcing the vapour through a breather went to the
atmosphere. Where the temperature is low the fuel tank breaths in air. When the temperature
goes high it breathes out air loaded with petrol vapour. Fuel tank losses occur because the
tank temperature is increased during the vehicle operation which cause an increase in the
vapour pressure and thermal expansion of tank vapour.

(ii) Carburetor losses
Carburetor losses result from (a) external venting of the float bowl relieving the internal
pressure as the carburetor heats, and (b) hot soak losses which occur after the engine has
been stopped, as a result of evaporation of petrol stored in the bowl, loss being through vent
pipe or through the air cleaner. Most of the loss from the carburetor occurs due to direct
boiling of the fuel in the carburetor bowl during hot soak.

Crankcase Blowby
The blowby is the phenomenon of the leakage pat the piston and piston rings from the
cylinder to the crankcase. The blowby HC emissions are about 20 percent of the total HC
emission from the engine. This is increased to about 30 percent if the rings are worn.

Exhaust Emission
Tail pipe exhaust emissions are the major source of automotive emissions. Petrol consists of a
mixture of various hydrocarbons and if we could get perfect combustion then the exhaust
would consist only of carbon dioxide and water vapours plus air that did not enter into the
combustion process. However, for several reasons combustion is incomplete and hence we also
get carbon monoxide, a deadly poison-ous gas, and unburnt hydrocarbons (UBHC) in exhaust.
Hydrocarbons paly an active part in the formation of smog.

In additional to CO and HC, the third main pollutant is oxides of nitrogen (NOx). The air
supplied for combustion contains about 77 percent of nitrogen. At lower temperature is inert
but at temperature higher than 1100
o
C nitrogen reacts with oxygen. During the combustion
process some of the nitrogen in the fuel-air mixture due to the high temperatures in the
combustion chamber, unites with oxygen to form various oxides of nitrogen. Some of the oxides
of nitrogen are very toxic and harmful. The different oxides of nitrogen are referred by the
chemical symbol NOx
,
with x standing for the varying amount of oxygen.

(a) Carbon monoxide (CO)
Emission & Control

Carbon monoxide occurs only in engine exhaust. It is a product of incomplete combustion due
to the insufficient amount of air in the air-fuel mixture or insufficient time in the cycle for
completion of combustion.

(b) Hydrocarbons
Unburnt hydrocarbon emissions are the direct result of incomplete combustion. The pattern of
hydrocarbon emission is closely related to many design and operating variables. Two of the
important design variables are induction system design and combustion chamber design, while
main operating variables are air-fuel ratio, speed, land and mode of operation. Maintenance is
also an important factor.

(c) Particular matter and partial oxidation product
Organic and inorganic compounds of higher molecular weights and lead compounds resulting
from the use of TEL are exhausted in the form of very small size particles of the order of 0.02
to 0.06. About 75 percent of the lead burned in the engine is exhaustion into the atmosphere
in this form and rest is deposited on engine parts.

(d) Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)
Oxides of nitrogen which also occur only in the engine exhaust are a combination of nitric
oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitrogen and oxygen react at relatively high
temperature s. Therefore, high temperatures and availability of oxygen are the two main
reasons for the formation of NOx.

Gasoline Engine Emission Control

Engine design modification
Table 20.2 shows the effect of design and operating variables on exhaust emissions. Table 20.3
shows the desirable design characteristics of a petrol engine for reduced exhaust emissions.

(1) Use of leaner air-fuel ratios:- The carburetor may be modified to provide relatively lean
and stable air-fuel mixtures during idling and cruise operation. With this modification idle
speed needs to be increased to prevent stalling and rough idle associated with leaner fuel-
air ratios. Fuel distribution is improved by better manifold design, inlet air heating, raising
of coolant temperature and use of electronic fuel injection system.

(2) Retarding ignition timing:- Retarding ignition timing allows increased time for fuel
burning. The controls are designed to retard the spark timing at idle while providing
normal spark advance during acceleration and cruising. Retarding the spark reduces NOx
emission by decreasing the maximum temperatures. It also reduces HC emission by
causing higher exhaust temperatures. However, retarding the ignition timing results in
greater cooling requirement and three is some loss in power and fuel economy.

(3) Modification of combustion chamber configuration to reduce quench areas:- Modification of
combustion chamber using attempts to avoid flame quenching zones where combustion
might otherwise be incomplete and resulting in high HC emission. This includes reducing
surface to volume ratio, reduced squish area, reduced deal space around piston ring and
reduced distance of the top piston ring fro the top of the piston. Fig. shows an example of a
modified combustion chamber where the surface to volume ratio has been reduced.

Emission & Control

(4) Lower compression ratio:- The lower compression ratio reduces the quenching effect by
reducing the quenching area, thus reducing HC. Lower compression ratio also reduces NOx
emissions due to lower maximum temperature. However, reducing the compression ratio
results in some loss in power and fuel economy. But there is advantage of reduced octane
number which will make it easier to phase the lead out of petrol, i.e., use of unleaded
gasoline.

(5) Reduced valve overlap:- Increased valve overlap allows some mixture to escape directly and
increase emission level. This can be controlled by reducing valve overlap.

(6) Alternation in induction system:- The supply of designed air-fuel ratio to all cylinders
under all operating conditions can be affected by alterations in induction system which
includes inlet air heating use of carburetors which have closer carburetion tolerance and
special type of carburetors, e.g., high velocity carburetors or multi-choke carburetors. This
also includes the fuel injection in manifold.

Exhaustion gas oxidation
Exhaust gas from the engine manifold is treated to reduce HC/CO emissions. A number of
devices have been used. They are given below:

(a) After burner:- An addition of an after-burner to the exhaust system as shown in Fig. can
completely burn the partially burned HC in the exhaust gases. After-burners have not been
successful in curbing the emission due to the difficulty in sustaining the combustion during
low HC emission because of high heat losses over a large area.

(b) Exhaust manifold reactor:- All these reactors work on the fact that it air is mixed into the
high temperature HC they will react to complete the oxidation of the HC. This is actually
development of the after-burner concept. The changes in design of the after-burner to
minimize the heat loss have lead to the treatment of exhaust gases just after the manifold.
And the need of providing sufficient time for oxidation and mixing through different shapes
have been evolved. In an earlier type of reactor developed by Du Pont, the entry of exhaust
gases was radial and the air flow peripheral.

(c) Catalytic converter:- Catalytic converter is a honeycomb structure. It consist of two
separate elements one for NOx and other for HC/CO emission. Frist comes reducing bed
because it require the presence of CO to convert NOx into N2and O2 and the O2 produce will
be utilize in the oxydising bed to convert HC and CO into CO2 and H2O. the catalyst
material most commonly used are platinum, palladium and rhodium. Palladium and
platinum promots the oidation of CO and HC with platinum especially in hydrocarbon
reaction. Rhodium promotesthe reaction of NOx.

Catalytic Converter

Blowby control
Emission & Control

The basic principle of all type of crankcase blowby control is recirculation of the vapours back
to the in take air cleaner. There are a large number of different systems in use. In the PCV
system the draft tube is eliminated and the blowby gases are reduced back in to the intake
manifold or inlet of the carburetor. The blowby gases are consequently reintroduced into the
combustion chamber where they are burned along with fresh incoming air and fuel. Since the
blowby headling devices place the crankcase under a slight vacuum, they quickly became
known as positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) systems.
Emission & Control



Q1. Global warming is caused by [GATE-2000]
(a) Ozone (b) carbon dioxide
(c) Nitrogen (d) carbon monoxide

Q2. The silencer of an internal combustion engine [GATE-1999]
(a) Reduces noise (b) decrease brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC)
(c) Increase BSFC (d) has no effect on its efficiency


Q1. Which one of the following set of materials is most commonly used in catalytic
converters for CI engines? [IES-2008]
(a) Platinum, palladium and rhodium
(b) Palladium, rhodium and ruthenium
(c) Rhodium, ruthenium and platinum
(d) Ruthenium, platinum and palladium

Q2. The three way catalytic converter cannot control which one of the following?
(a) HC emission (b) CO emission [IES-2008]
(c) NOx emission (d) PM emission

Q3. Which one of the following cannot be controlled by a three-way catalytic converter?
(a) HC emission (b) CO emission
(c) NOx emission (d) SPM emission [IES-2005]

Q4. Which of the following symptoms shows that the combustion is necessarily complete?
[IES-2009]
(a) Presence of free carbon in exhaust (b) Presence of CO in exhaust
(c) Presence of oxygen in exhaust (d) Presence of nitrogen in exhaust

Q5. The graph shown in the given
figure represents the emission of
a pollutant from an SI engine for
different fuel/air ratios. The
pollutant in question is
(a) CO
(b) CO2
(c) hydrocarbons
(d) NOx

[IES-1998]

Q6. With respect to I.C. engine emissions, consider the following statements:
1. Evaporative emissions have no carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen.
Emission & Control

2. Blow by emissions is essentially carbon monoxide and suspended particulate matter.
[IES-2001]
3. Exhaust emissions contain 100% of carbon monoxide, 100% of oxides of nitrogen and
around 50-55% of hydrocarbons emitted by the engine.
4. There are no suspended particulates in the exhaust.
Of these statements are correct
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 1 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3, and 4

Q7. Which one of the following automobile exhaust gas pollutants is a major cause of
photochemical smog?
(a) CO (b) HC (c) NOx (d) SOx [IES 2007]

Q8. Consider the following emissions of an IC engine: [IES-1999]
1. CO2 2. HC 3. NOx 4. Particulates
Which of these emissions cause photochemical smog?

Q9. The presence of nitrogen in the products of combustion ensures that:
(a) Complete combustion of fuel takes place [IES-1997]
(b) Incomplete combustion of fuel occurs
(c) Dry products of combustion are analyzed
(d) Air is used for the combustion

Exhaust emissions of carbon monoxide from spark ignition engine is
1. mainly fuel-air mixture strength dependent
2. in the range of zero to 10%
3. measured with the help of an instrument working on the principle of non-dispersive
infra-red analysis
4. controlled by the use of a two way catalytic convertor
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Q11. An engine using octane-air mixture has N2, O2, CO2, CO and H2O as constituents in the
exhaust gas. Which one of the following can be concluded?
(a) Supply mixture is stoichiometric [IES-2004]
(b) Supply mixture has incomplete combustion
(c) Supply mixture is rich
(d) Supply mixture is lean

Q12. Which of the following factors are responsible formation of NO, in spark ignition engine
combustion: [IES-1996]
1. Incomplete combustion
2. High temperature
3. Availability of oxygen.
Select the correct answer.

Emission & Control

Q13. Exhaust emissions vs air fuel
ratio curves for a petrol engine
are shown in the given figure.
The curve C represents
(a) Hydro carbon
(b) Carbon dioxide
(c) Carbon monoxide
(d) Oxides of nitrogen

[IES-2003]

Q14. The discharge of hydrocarbons from petrol automobile exhaust is minimum when the
vehicle is: [IES-2005]
(a) Idling (b) Cruising (c) Accelerating (d) Decelerating

Q15. Consider the following statements for NOx emissions from I.C. engines:
1. Formation of NOx depends upon combustion temperature [IES-2004]
2. Formation of NOx depends upon type of coolant used
3. Exhaust gas recirculation is an effective means for control of NOx
4. Activated Platinum is used for reduction of NOx
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (d) 1 and 3

Q16. Assertion (A): Catalytic converters for reduction of oxides of nitrogen in engine exhaust
cannot be used with leaded fuels. [IES-2000]
Reason (R): Catalyst will be removed due to chemical corrosion by lead salts.

Q17. Assertion (A): In Infrared gas analyser, the amount of absorption is the function of
concentration of the gas and the length of the absorption path. [IES-1999]
Reason (R): Different gases are characterized by distinctive absorption bands within
the infrared range.


Q1. Which of the following symptoms show that the combustion in air is necessarily
complete?
(a) Absence of Oxygen in exhaust
(b) Absence of Nitrogen in exhaust [IAS-2002]
(c) Absence of free carbon in exhaust
(d) Absence of carbon monoxide in exhaust

Emission & Control



1. Ans. (b) carbon di-oxide acts as thermal shield to atmosphere.
2. Ans. (a)


1. Ans.(a)
2. Ans. (d)
3-way catalytic converter
Palladium CO
Rhodium NOX
Platinum HC
3-way catalytic converter consist platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd) and Rhodium (Rb).
Rhodium first convert NOX into N2 and O2. Platinum convert hydrocarbon (HC) into
H2O and CO2. Palladium convert CO (carbon mono-oxide) into CO2. It has a honey comb
structure.
3. Ans. (d)
4. Ans. (c)
5. Ans. (d) Maximum temperature is produced at slightly rich air mixture and NOx emission is
proportional to temperature.
6. Ans. (c) Evaporative emissions account for 15 to 25 per cent of total hydrocarbon emission
from a gasoline engine. The two main sources of evaporative emissions are the fuel tank and
the carburettor.
7. Ans. (c) In bright sunlight (i) NOx, (ii) HC, (iii) O2 intact chemically to produce powerful
oxidants like ozone (O3) and peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN). It is photochemical smog.
8. Ans. (c)
9. Ans. (d) Nitrogen in flue gas means air is used for combustion
10. Ans. (d)
11. Ans. (b)
12. Ans. (a) NOx is formed due to incomplete combustion and at high temperature.
13. Ans. (d)

14. Ans. (b)
15. Ans. (b)
16. Ans. (c) Catalytic converters requires a non-leaded fuel because the lead compound, along
with its scavengers, affects the performance of the catalysts.
17. Ans. (a)

Emission & Control


1. Ans. (d)

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