Assignment on

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
WATER

BY

BILAL AHMAD SAJID

M.Phil/PhD-1st semester
Session: 2009

Submitted To:

Dr. M.RIAZ
Centre of Excellence in Geology

DEPARTMENT OF
ENVIRONMENTAL
 SCIENCES
UNIVERSITYOF PESHAWAR
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Fist of all, greatness, sanctity and glory to Almighty ALLAH, who blessed me to complete
my assignment. I will acknowledge prays and love of my parents which enabled me to
complete my assignment. I will also acknowledge the assistance, guidance and continuous
feed back from Mr. Muhammad Riaz professor in Centre of Excellence in Geology
University of Peshawar. It has been pleasure learning from all my class fellows. I will be very
thankful to the librarian in Centre of Excellence in Geology who provided me book in time. I
am grateful & thankful to The University of Peshawar which provided me a platform for
learning and brightening my future.

BILAL AHMAD SAJID

SUMMERY

1
Water is a cosmopolitan substance with its peculiar properties which are supporting all forms
of life on earth. It is colorless, odorless and tasteless and can be found in all three states of
matter i.e. solid (ice), liquid (water) and gas (vapor). It is responsible for the phenomenon of
evapotranspiration, condensation and precipitation. It’s freezing and thaw and hydraulic
action causes weathering of rocks and erosion. Its property of thermal expansion is a source
of geothermal hydropower energy from under the earth. It has maximum density at 4C and
below it on freezing it increases in volume by 9% and floats on water. This maintains a
constant temperature of 4C in the water below ice sheets and as a result maintain life in
water.

2
Table of Contents
Acknowledgement..................................................................................................i
Summery...............................................................................................................ii
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................1
2. OBJECTIVES.....................................................................................................1
3. WATER.............................................................................................................1
4. IMPORTANCE OF WATER..................................................................................2
5. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER...................................................................3
5.1. Color of Water...........................................................................................3
5.2. Taste and Odor.........................................................................................4
5.3. Cohesive & adhesive forces......................................................................5
5.3.1. Surface Tension..................................................................................5
5.3.2. Capillary action...................................................................................5
5.4. Viscosity....................................................................................................5
5.6. Density......................................................................................................6
5.7. Vapor pressure..........................................................................................7
5.8. Response to Temperature.........................................................................7
5.8.1. Freezing..............................................................................................7
5.8.2. Thermal expansion.............................................................................8
5.9. Hydraulic Action of Water.......................................................................10
5.9.1. Water erosion...................................................................................10
5.10. Specific heat capacity and heat of vaporization...................................11
5.11. Evaporation and Transpiration.............................................................11
5.12. Atmospheric Humidity, dew point and frost point................................12
5.13. Clouds formation and precipitation......................................................13
6. Conclusion.....................................................................................................14
BIBLIOGRAPHY.....................................................................................................15
Books................................................................................................................15
DVD Source......................................................................................................15
Online Source...................................................................................................15
 Figures………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………16
Online Source
 LIST OF FIGURES & TABLES
Figures
Page #
Figure 1: Distribution of Earth's
Water………………………………………………... 2

Figure 2: Drop of
Water……………………………………………………………………… 3

Figure 3:
Geyser……………………………………………………………………… 8
…………

Figure 4:
Fumarole………………………………………………………………… 8
…………..

Figure 3: Geothermal Power

Plant……………………………………………………… 9

Figure 6: Splash
Erosion…………………………………………………………………….. 10

Figure 7: Sheet
Erosion…………………………………………………………………… 10
…

Figure 4: Gully
Erosion…………………………………………………………………… 11
….

Figure 5: Illustrates the concept of relative

humidity…………………………. 12

Tables
Page #
Table 1: Density of Water Molecules at
various………………………………….. 6

Table 1: Temperature vs. Vapor Pressure of

Water……………………………. 7
1. INTRODUCTION
I have voluntarily selected this topic as an assignment in which I have tried to explain in
detail, although not all but maximum physical properties of water. Water is a common but
peculiar substance possessing many strange properties which are supporting all forms of life
on earth. Color, odor & taste, density i.e. floating of ice on water, response to temperature
and pressure i.e. thermal expansion (geysers, fumaroles and hot springs are source of
geothermal energy), and precipitation are some of the physical properties of water which I
have included in this topic.

2. OBJECTIVES
My major objectives of taking this assignment are

2.1. To understand clearly and in some detail, the physical properties of water.

2.2. To accept maximum responsibility, to know maximum, to explore maximum

and to utilize my talent fully by searching libraries and internet.

2.30 To build up my confidence by presenting this assignment in front of my class

fellows.

3. WATER
Water is an omnipresent chemical substance, composed of hydrogen and oxygen, that is
essential for the survival of many known forms of life. At 1 atmospheric pressure it has a
boiling point of 100C and freezing point of 0C. Its density is 1cc at room temperature while
has maximum density at 4C1.

In typical usage, water refers only to its liquid form or state, but the substance also has
a solid state, ice, and gaseous state, water vapor or steam. Water covers 71% of the Earth's
surface. On Earth, it is found mostly in oceans and other large water bodies, with 1.6% of
water below ground in aquifers and 0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of solid and
liquid water particles suspended in air), and precipitation. Saltwater oceans hold 97% of
surface water, glaciers and polar ice caps 2.4%, and other land surface water such
as rivers, lakes and ponds 0.6%. A very small amount of the Earth's water is contained within
biological bodies and manufactured products. Other water is trapped in ice caps, glaciers,
aquifers, or in lakes, sometimes providing fresh water for life on land2.

1 "Water." Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.

2 Water. (2009, July 31). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved July 31, 2009, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water&oldid=305251617

1
 Figure 6: Distribution of Earth's Water
Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/
Earth's_water_distribution.gif

4. IMPORTANCE OF WATER
Water is very unusual substance wit many strange and unique properties that are so important
to life on planet earth that without it, it would be almost impossible for the life to exist. How
does this simple molecule, composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, behave
the way it does and how does it support life? Some important familiar properties of water are:

4.1 It is colorless
4.2 It is odorless
4.3 It is tasteless
4.4 It feels wet
4.5 It dissolves nearly everything
4.6 It exists in three forms: liquid, solid, gas, ad is cycled through the water cycle
4.7 It can absorb a large amount of heat
4.8 It sticks together into beads or drops3
4.9 It flows and erodes the surface of earth: it moves sediments to form beaches,
river banks and bars

3 Manahan, S. E. (1995). Environmental Chemistry. 6th edition, Private Company, Headquarters Location 6000
Broken Sound Pkwy. NW, Ste. 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487, United States, pp-27

2
 4.10 It shapes lipid and protein molecules and give them their 3 dimensional form
which is critical to their function.
4.11 It is part of every living organism on the planet earth4

Water is a very strong solvent and is often referred to as the universal solvent. Substances
that dissolve in water, e.g. salts, sugars, acids, alkalis, and some gases – especially
oxygen, carbon dioxide (carbonation) – are known as "hydrophilic" (water-loving)
substances. All the major components in cells (proteins, DNA and polysaccharides) are also
dissolved in water. Through Capillary action water moves up a narrow tube against the force
of gravity. This property is relied upon by all vascular plants, such as trees. Water moves
continually through a cycle of evapotranspiration, precipitation and runoff, usually reaching
the sea5.

5. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER

5.1. Color of Water
Pure water is colorless but is often colored by many
foreign substances. The color of water and ice is,
intrinsically, a very light blue hue, although water
appears colorless in small quantities. Ice also appears
colorless, and water vapor is essentially invisible as a
gas.

Water is transparent, and thus aquatic plants can live

within the water because sunlight can reach them.
The color due to suspended substances is temporary
and can be removed if those substances are removed. Figure 7: Drop of Water
Source:
The color due to dissolved substances is known as http://weblogs.newsday.com/news/local
/longisland/politics/blog/water.jpg
true color and can not be removed by ordinary
methods. After contacting with organic debris such as leaves, weeds or wood, water takes on
yellowish-brown hues. Iron oxide cause reddish water color and manganese oxides cause
brown or blackish water. Industrial wastes from textile and dyeing operations, pulp and paper
production, food processing, chemical production, mining, refining and slaughterhouse
operations may also add significant coloration to the water in receiving streams.

4 Physical Properties of Water. (2008). Planet Water.au.com. Retrieved 28 July, 2009 from
http://www.ozh2o.com/h2phys.html

5 Water. (2009, July 31). Opt Cit.

2
Colored water is not aesthetically accepted to the general public. Highly colored water is
unsuitable for laundering, dyeing, paper making, beverages, dairy production and other food
processing, and textile and plastic production. Thus the color of water affects its value both
for domestic and industrial use.

Some organic compounds causing true color may exert chlorine demand and reduce the
effectiveness of chlorine as a disinfectant. Most important are the product formed by the
combination of chlorine with some color producing organics. Phenolic compounds, common
constituents of vegetative decay products, produce very objectionable taste and odor
compounds with chlorine. Additionally some compounds of naturally occurring organic acids
and chlorine are known to be carcinogens6.

5.2. Taste and Odor

Water can dissolve many different substances, giving it varying tastes and odors. Substances
that produce an odor in water will also impart a taste as well. But there are many substances
which produce taste but no odor. Taste and odor producing substances include minerals,
metals and salts from soil, end products from biological reactions, and constituents of
wastewater. Inorganic substances are more likely to produce taste without any odor7. Alkaline
materials and metallic salts may give a bitter and salty taste to water. Organic material on the
other hand, is likely to produce both taste and odor. Biological decomposition of organics
may also cause taste and odor producing liquids and gases in water. The most important
among these are the reduced products of sulfur that impart a “rotten egg” taste and odor. The
combination of two or more such substances neither of which would produce taste and odor
individually may sometimes result in taste and odor problems. In fact, humans and other
animals have developed senses which are, to a degree, able to evaluate the potability of water,
avoiding water that is too salty or putrid. Humans also tend to prefer cold water to lukewarm
water; cold water is likely to contain fewer microbes. The taste advertised in spring
water or mineral water derives from the minerals dissolved in it, as pure H2O is tasteless and
odorless. As such, purity in spring and mineral water refers to absence of toxins, pollutants,
and microbes8.

6 Peavey,H., Rowe,D., & Tchobanoglous,G.(1985). Environmental Engineering. Mc Graw Hill Inc Longon. Pp.
18-17.

7 Water (properties). (2009, July 29). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved July 29, 2009, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_(properties)&oldid=304967583

8 Peavey,H. Rowe,D. Tchobanoglous,G.(1985). Opt Cit. Pp 20-21.

1
5.3. Cohesive & adhesive forces
Water has high force of cohesion and adhesion. The forces of attraction among the particles
of liquid are called cohesive forces or cohesion. For example surface is due to cohesion. The
force of attraction between a liquid and another surface is called adhesive force or adhesion.
For example, attraction between water molecules and particles of glass is called adhesion9.

5.3.1.Surface Tension
Water has a high surface tension. This is the ability of a substance to stick to itself. The
sticking together or the cohesive property of water is due to hydrogen bonding. The
molecules at the surface are attracted by many molecules from below it but not from above.
The molecules at the surface, therefore feel a net attraction inward. This attraction creates
surface tension. Surface tension of water decreases with increase in temperature because
increased kinetic energy of the molecules decreases the effect hydrogen bonding. Detergents
also reduce the surface tension of water by breaking up hydrogen bonding10.

5.3.2.Capillary action

The rise of liquid in a small capillary tube is called capillary action. Capillary action is due to
strong adhesion of water molecule with surface of the tube. Cotton and paper absorb water by
capillary action. Water rises in narrow channels of these materials. It is the capillary action
which causes rise of water from the soil to plants11.

The significance of this capillary action is that rock and soil pores tend to act like capillary
tube. If a soil or rock is wet a positive force or pressure must be applied to extract water from
it but if applied pressure is less than capillary force then you can not extract water from it12.

5.4. Viscosity
Water has the ability to flow because its molecules can slide over each other. The resistance
of liquid to its flow is called viscosity. The viscosity of water is due to internal friction among
different layers of molecules. Liquids which flow very slowly like honey or glycerin have
high viscosities as compared to water. Viscosity of water depends upon temperature and
density. Higher the temperature the lower will be the viscosity and higher the density the

9 Chaudhry, R. A. et al. (1993). Text Book of Chemistry. F.Sc Part 1. Peshawar: NWFP Text Book Board. Pp.
70-90.

10 Ibid.

11 Ibid.

12 Deming, D. (2002). Introduction to Hydrogeology. Mc Graw Hill Inc, New York: pp.143-145.

1
higher will be the viscosity and vice versa. The viscosity of water is taken as 1 centipoises at
25C13.

5.6. Density
Density is defined as objects mass
per unit volume d= m/v. At 4°C
pure water has a density (weight or Density (grams
Temperature (degre
per cubic
mass) of about 1 g/cu.cm or 1 g/ml es Celsius)
centimeter)
or 1 kg/liter. When water freezes it 0 (solid) 0.9150
expands rapidly adding about 9 % 0 (liquid) 0.9999
by volume. Fresh water has a 4 1.0000
maximum density at around 4° 20 0.9982
40 0.9922
Celsius14. Water is the only
60 0.9832
substance where the maximum
80 0.9718
density does not occur when 100 (gas) 0.0006
solidified. This results in an Table 1: Density of Water Molecules at
various Temperatures
unusual phenomenon: water's solid Source:
form, ice, floats upon water, http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/
8a.html
allowing organisms to survive
inside a partially-frozen water
body because the water on the bottom has a temperature of around 4 °C15.

5.7. Vapor pressure

It is the pressure exerted by vapors in equilibrium with its pure liquid at a given temperature.
It means that in a closed the pressure exerted by water vapors will be equal to the pressure
exerted by pure water. This vapor pressure increases with temperature16.

13 Chaudhry, R. A. et al. (1993). Opt Cit.

14 Density Specific Weight Gravity. (2008). The Engineering Toolbox. Retrieved 28 July, 2009 from
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/density-specific-weight-gravity_290.html

15 Physical Properties of Water. (2008). SiMetric. Retrieved 28 July, 2009 from

http://www.simetric.co.uk/si_water.htm

16 Chaudhry, R. A. et al. (1993). Opt Cit.

2
 Vapor Pressure (mm of
Temperature ( C )
Hg)

0 5

20 18

40 55

60 149

80 355

100 760

120 1489
Table 2: Temperature vs. Vapor Pressure of Water

Source: Text Book of Chemistry

5.8. Response to Temperature

5.8.1.Freezing
Water is the chief agent of weathering, both chemical and mechanical. The mechanical
weathering results in disintegration of rocks & is due to frost. It occurs in colder and
temperate climates where rocks get soaked with rain water, which is frozen into ice at night.
During the day it again melts. On being frozen its volume increases by 9% and the result is
that cracks and fissures are formed in the rocks, which finally breaks into blocks along lines
of weakness17.

5.8.2.Thermal expansion
Water expands on heating from 4C to onwards. On reaching the temperature of 100C it boils
and starts converting to vapors. This phenomenon is responsible for the formation of geysers,
hot springs and fumaroles in volcanic areas of the world. Geysers are caused when
underground chambers of water are heated to the boiling point by volcanic rock.

17 Gupta, D. A., & Kapoor, N. A. (1991). Principles of Physical Geography. 9th edition. New Delhi: S.Chand
& Company Ltd. Pp. 279.
Figure 4: Fumarole
Source:
Figure 3: Geyser 2
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
Source:
commons/4/49/Steam_Phase_eruption
http://www.aroundhere.ca/Gallery/Old-
_of_Castle_geyser_with_double_rainbo
Faithful-Geyser-Yellowstone.jpg
w.jpg
When heat causes the water to boil, pressure forces a superheated column of steam and water
to the surface. The initial amount of water released at the surface lessens the column’s
weight, which also lowers its boiling point. When the boiling point drops, the entire column
of water vaporizes at once, shooting out of the ground in a spectacular eruption. Fumaroles
are similar to geysers, but release bursts of hot gases instead of water. Hot springs are
supplied by the same sources as geysers, but these systems are under lower pressure, which
causes water to bubble and pool at the surface instead of erupting18.

These geysers, hot springs and fumaroles are most easily exploited sources of geothermal
energy. Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source because the water is replenished by
rainfall and the heat is continuously produced inside the earth. This pressurized water and
steam is used to produce electricity by the use of turbine19.

18 “Geyser.” Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.

19 “ Geothermal Energy, Energy from the Earth's Core” (2009). Energy Information Administration, Official
Energy Statistics from U.S Government. Retrieved 26 July, 2009 from
http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/geothermal.html

3
 Figure 8: Geothermal Power Plant
Source: http://alternateformsofenergy.com/Geothermal/images/How-a-
Geothermal-Power-Plant-Works_clip_image003.gif

Geothermal plants are in operation in Italy, New Zealand, Japan, Iceland, Mexico and
the United States etc. Geothermal plant does not use fuel for power generation so is
producing less pollution20.

20 Namzer, Marilyn Levin, Carter, Anna, and Nemzer, Kenneth Press. (2008). “Geothermal Energy”
Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation.

1
5.9. Hydraulic Action of Water
5.9.1.Water erosion

1
Figure 6: Splash Erosion
http://www.vbco.org/media/planningeduc
/tn_raindrp.jpg

Figure 7: Sheet Erosion

Source:
http://image61.webshots.com/161/
5/98/41/540559841ZonHRJ_fs.jpg
2
 Figure 7: Sheet Erosion
Source:
http://image61.webshots.com/161/
5/98/41/540559841ZonHRJ_fs.jpg

Erosion is the detachment of earth material from the surface. Once detached, agents like
water or wind transport the material to a new location where it is deposited. The most
important form of erosion is that done by water.

Heavy rain and running water are the chief agents of erosion. Heavy rain hits the soil like
hammer, removing and carrying the upper loose soil particle while simultaneously filling the
pores in next layer of soil and compact it reducing the infiltration. As the infiltration reduces
surface runoff starts often starting sheet erosion. Running water carry this eroded material
and on the way grinds the material into finer particles as well as cutting the surface over
which it is being transported and deposits it at certain places in the form of layers or strata
forming stratified or sedimentary rocks21.

21 “Erosion” Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.

3
 Figure 9: Gully Erosion
Source: http://lh4.ggpht.com/_8WHwy-
0YGBc/RrcYj6aN7mI/AAAAAAAAAF8/kom7uqAQybM/P1
110630.JPG

5.10. Specific heat capacity and heat of vaporization

Specific heat capacity of water is 4184 J /Kg at 0C temperature and 1 atmospheric pressure
and is defined as the amount of heat energy necessary to raise the temperature of known mass
of water by one degree Celsius. Water has the second highest specific heat capacity of any
known substance, after ammonia, as well as a high heat of vaporization , both of which are a
result of the extensive hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These two unusual
properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in
temperature.

The heat of vaporization of water is 2.26x106 J/Kg and is defined as the amount of heat
required to convert one mole of water into vapors at the same temperature. It is due to this
large value of heat of vaporization that steam produces more severe burns than does boiling
water22.

5.11. Evaporation and Transpiration

Water is removed from the surface of the Earth to the atmosphere by two distinct
mechanisms: evaporation and transpiration.

22 David Deming (2002). Opt Cit. pp.109-111.

5
Evaporation can be defined as the process where liquid water is transformed into a gaseous
state. Evaporation can only occur when water is available. It also requires that the humidity
of the atmosphere be less than the evaporating surface (at 100% relative humidity there is no
more evaporation). The evaporation process requires large amounts of energy. For example,
the evaporation of one gram of water requires 600 calories of heat energy. Transpiration is
the process of water loss from plants through stomata. It is often difficult to distinguish
between evaporation and transpiration. So we use a composite term evapotranspiration23.

5.12. Atmospheric Humidity, dew point and frost point

The term humidity describes the fact that the atmosphere can contain water vapor. The
amount of humidity found in air varies because of a number of factors. Two important factors
are evaporation and condensation. At the water/atmosphere interface over our planet's oceans
large amounts of liquid water are evaporated into atmospheric water vapor. This process is
mainly caused by absorption of solar radiation and the subsequent generation of heat at the
ocean's surface. In our atmosphere, water vapor is converted back into liquid form when air
masses lose heat energy and cool24.

This Figure 10: Illustrates the concept of relative humidity process

Source: http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8c.html
is

responsible for the development of most clouds and also produces the rain that falls to the

23 Pidwirny, M. (2006). "Evaporation and Transpiration". Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition.
Retrieved 28 July, 2009 from http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8i.html

24 Pidwirny, M. (2006). "Atmospheric Humidity". Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition.

Retrieved 27 July, 2009 from http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8c.html

2
Earth's surface. The most commonly used measure of humidity is relative humidity. Relative
humidity can be simply defined as the amount of water in the air relative to the saturation
amount the air can hold at a given temperature multiplied by 100. Air with a relative
humidity of 50% contains a half of the water vapor it could hold at a particular temperature.
Associated with relative humidity is dew point (if the dew point is below freezing, it is
referred to as the frost point). Dew point is the temperature at which water vapor saturates
from an air mass into liquid or solid usually forming rain, snow, frost, or dew. Dew point
normally occurs when a mass of air has a relative humidity of 100%. This happens in the
atmosphere as a result of cooling through a number of different processes25.

5.13. Clouds formation and precipitation

Condensation or deposition of water above the Earth's surface creates clouds. In general,
clouds develop in any air mass that becomes saturated (relative humidity becomes 100%)26.
Water is available on the Earth in the following three forms: vapor; liquid; and solid. In the
atmosphere, three processes act to create water droplets or ice crystals. These three processes
are:

Condensation - water moving from a vapor to a liquid state.

Freezing - water moving from a liquid to a solid state.

Deposition - water moving from a vapor to a solid state.

The formation of water droplets and ice crystals takes place when the water in the atmosphere
is cooled. As air containing water vapor cools, the relative humidity of the air parcel
increases until the dew or frost point is reached. At dew point (relative humidity = 100%)
water begins to condense into droplets. If 100% relative humidity is reached below 0° Celsius
deposition occurs and ice crystals form27.

6. Conclusion
Water is of great importance and it is due to its peculiar physical properties. This discussion
lead us to conclude that water is colorless, odorless and tasteless substance occurring

25 Ibid.

26 Pidwirny, M. (2006). “Condensation, Freezing, and Deposition”. Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd
edition. Retrieved 25 July, 2009 from http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8d.html

27 Ibid.

2
everywhere on earth in all three forms i.e. solid, liquid and gas,. It has a positive role in
modifying weather by the process of cloud formation and precipitation. It is also a source of
geothermal energy. Without water there will be no life on earth.

2
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
Chaudhry, R. A. et al. (1993). Text Book of Chemistry. F.Sc Part 1. Peshawar: NWFP Text
Book Board.

Deming, D. (2002). Introduction to Hydrogeology. New York: Mc Graw Hill Inc.

Gupta, D. A., & Kapoor, N. A. (1991). Principles of Physical Geography. 9th edition. New
Delhi: S.Chand & Company Ltd.

Manahan, S. E. (1995). Environmental Chemistry. 6th edition. Boca Raton: Private Company.

Peavey,H., Rowe,D., & Tchobanoglous,G.(1985). Environmental Engineering. London:

McGraw Hill Inc.

DVD Source
Erosion. Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.

Geyser. Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.

Namzer, Marilyn Levin, Carter, Anna, and Nemzer, Kenneth Press. (2008). “Geothermal
Energy” Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation.

Water. Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.

Online Source
Density Specific Weight Gravity. (2008). The Engineering Toolbox. Retrieved 28 July, 2009
from http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/density-specific-weight-gravity_290.html

Geothermal Energy, Energy from the Earth's Core. (2009). Energy Information
Administration, Official Energy Statistics from U.S Government. Retrieved 26 July, 2009
from http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/renewable/geothermal.html

Physical Properties of Water. (2008). Planet Water.au.com. Retrieved 28 July, 2009 from
http://www.ozh2o.com/h2phys.html

3
Physical Properties of Water. (2008). SiMetric. Retrieved 28 July, 2009 from
http://www.simetric.co.uk/si_water.htm

Pidwirny, M. (2006). “Condensation, Freezing, and Deposition”. Fundamentals of Physical

Geography, 2nd edition. Retrieved 25 July, 2009 from
http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8d.html

Water (properties). (2009, July 29). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved July 29,
2009, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water_(properties)&oldid=304967583

Water. (2009, July 31). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved July 31, 2009, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Water&oldid=305251617

Figures

Gully Erosion. (2007). Picasa Web Albums. Retrieved 30 July, 2009 from
http://lh4.ggpht.com/_8WHwy-
0YGBc/RrcYj6aN7mI/AAAAAAAAAF8/kom7uqAQybM/P1110630.JPG

Hydrothermal Power Systems. (2008). Geothermal Technologies Program. U.S. Department

of Energy. Retrieved 27 July, 2009 from
http://alternateformsofenergy.com/Geothermal/images/How-a-Geothermal-Power-Plant-
Works_clip_image003.gif

Major Categories of Erosion. (2003). Van Buren County Community Center. Retrieved 30
July, 2009 from http://www.vbco.org/media/planningeduc/tn_raindrp.jpg

Old Faithful Geyser. (2003). Photo gallery. Aroundhere.ca. Retrieved 27 July, 2009 from
http://www.aroundhere.ca/Gallery/Old-Faithful-Geyser-Yellowstone.jpg

Sheet Erosion. (2006). Webshots. Retrieved 30 July, 2009 from

http://image61.webshots.com/161/5/98/41/540559841ZonHRJ_fs.jpg

Water Water Everywhere. (2008). Conveyerblog.com. Retrieved 27 July, 2009 from

http://weblogs.newsday.com/news/local/longisland/politics/blog/water.jpg