Basic Soil Mechanics

Dr Mohammad Rezania
Department of Civil Engineering

February 2014
Lecture 6
H21G11: Geotechnics 1
Basic soil mechanics
1. Introduction
1.1. Review of Stress
1.2. Review of Strain
1.3. Stress-Strain Analysis
2. Strength Analysis in Geotechnics
2.1. Shear Strength
2.2. Coulombs Failure
2.3. Mohr Stress Circle
3. Material Behaviour
4. Summary
Outline
1. Introduction
All civil engineering projects impart loads onto the ground
that supports them.
Loads produce stresses
Stresses might cause problems (when above soil strength),
such as failure or excessive settlement (deformation).
Introduction
Nicoll Highway Collapse
(Singapore)
Leaning
Tower of
Pisa
(Italy)
1.1. Introduction:
Stress
Stress - a medical term for a wide
range of strong external stimuli,
both physiological and
psychological.
Stress a mechanical measure of
force intensity, either within or on
the bounding surface of a body
subjected to loads
What is the definition of stress?
F
F
Area, A
F
v
Vertical Force
Cross Sectional Area
v
F
A
= = Unit: N/m
2
or Pa
usually use kPa (1000
kPa)
Note: in soil mechanics we
use a sign convention that
compressive normal stresses
are positive.
In Mechanics:
The intensity of force over an area is called stress
If we are simply concerned about the normal stress:
What is the definition of stress?
The concept of Stress = Force /Area was
introduced into theory of elasticity by Cauchy
in about 1822.
Universally used as an expedient in
engineering design and analysis.
Cannot be measured directly
Gives no indication how forces are transmitted
through a stressed material
Review of stress
Stresses in soils occur in all directions and to do
stability analysis it is often necessary to relate the
stresses in one particular direction to those in other
directions.
normal stress
= F
n
/ A
shear stress
= F
s
/ A
Review of stress (contd.)
3-D 2-D
Shear stress
Normal stress
(+)
(+)
()
The state of stress in the ground is
three dimensional.
Review of stress (contd.)
It will be discussed in
more details in Mohr
circle section.
1.2. Introduction:
Strain
When materials are subjected to stresses, they
respond by deforming.
Strain is an intensity of deformation given by a
displacement over a unit gauge length
= dL / L
0
(%)
Normal stresses produce normal strains and
shear stresses produce shear strains.
Review of strain
=
dZ
Z
Normal strain () is the change in length divided

by the initial length.
dZ
Z
Normal strain ( )
dH
Z
=
dH
Z
Shear strain ( ) is the angle of deformation

expressed in radians.
Shear strain ( )
1.3. Introduction:
Stress-Strain Analysis
normal strain
= z / z
o
shear strain
= h / z
o
Stress-strain analysis
Strains in soils occur in all directions and it is often
necessary to relate the strains in one particular
direction to those in other directions.
General case
Stress-strain analysis (contd.)
The state of stress in the ground is three dimensional.
The algebra for 3-D states becomes quite complex.
In practice, the majority of geotechnical
problems are simplified into 1-D or 2-D
conditions.
One-dimensional
Axisymmetric
Plane-strain
One-dimensional (Oedometric)- applicable to:
Ground conditions below wide foundation, embankments and
excavations
Consolidation tests in Oedometer
Geotechnics 3
Before loading
After loading
Geotechnics 3
Before loading
After loading
Before loading
After loading
Assume 1D for ground settlement calculation
(a simplified test for solving consolidation
problems).
h
=0
h
=0
H
H
0
In one-dimensional condition:
Horizontal strain (
h
) is assumed to be zero.
In one-dimensional condition:
Consider an element of soil where
initially V
s
=1.
e
0
is the initial void ratio (before stress
increment)
0 0
V H
V H
v

= =
1. Average volumetric
strain:
e
1
e
o
Time = 0
+
Time =
0
1
v
e
e

=
+
2. Average volumetric
strain:
0 0
H
H 1
e
e

=
+
Therefore:
h
=0
h
=0
H
H
0
At the beginning of 1-D compression test, the void
ratio and thickness of the specimen were 0.891 and
19mm, respectively.
Find the final void ratio e
f
if the soil consolidated by
3.52mm.
Task 1: One dimensional example
23
r
,
r
r
,
r
a
,
a
a

r

a

r
Axisymmetric (triaxial)- applicable to:
Ground conditions below circular foundation.
Shear tests in triaxial cell.

1
,
1

2

2
= 0

3
,
3
Plane-Strain- applicable to:
Slopes, dams, embankments, retaining walls, etc.
Shear tests in plane-strain (biaxial) apparatus.
Tarbela Dam (Islamabad, Pakistan)
Earth dam can be idealised into a plane-strain problem.
2. Strength Analysis in
Geotechnics
Steel
Tensile
strength
Concrete
Compressive
strength
Soil
Shear
strength
void ratio & effective stress
(presence of pore water)
Complex
Behavior!
Strength of different materials (contd.)
Soil strength needs to be evaluated in many problems.
Failure under foundations
Failure under foundations (contd.)
A failure surface can be identified in many cases along which
shear stress reaches the shear strength of soil.
Failure under foundations (contd.)
At failure:
shear resistance = shear strength
=
f
n
Applied shear
stress
Soil shear
resistance
Shear strength (contd.)
Failure under foundations
Failure in slopes
Failure in slopes (contd.)
Failure in slopes (contd.)
Lower San Fernando Dam Failure, 1971
Failure in slopes
Failure in retaining walls
Failure in retaining walls (contd.)
Failure in retaining walls (contd.)
Failure in retaining walls
2. Shear Strength
At failure: =
f
n
Applied shear
stress
Soil shear
resistance
Soil generally fails in shear.
Shear strength
Direct Shear Test apparatus
Direct Shear Test apparatus (contd.)
Rollers
Porous plates
Top platen
Measured
Shear force
Normal load
Motor
drive
Motor
drive
Direct Shear Test apparatus (contd.)
Rollers
Porous plates
Top platen
Measured
Shear force
Normal load
Motor
drive
Direct Shear Test results
Example:
Dimensions of shear box: 100100100mm.
Horizontal Dial,
h
(mm)
Shear Force,
F
h
(N)
Vertical Dial,
v
(mm)
0 0 0
1 226 -0.2
2 290 0.1
4 338 1.2
6 322 2.2
10 296 3.9
15 275 5.9
20 262 7.1
25 253 7.8
30 251 8.1
35 250 8.2
Horizontal Dial,
h
(mm)
Shear Force,
F
h
(N)
Vertical Dial,
v
(mm)
0 0 0
1 27 -0.3
2 55 -0.6
4 92 -0.9
6 121 -1.2
10 158 -1.7
15 189 -2.4
20 209 -2.7
25 227 -3.0
30 234 -3.1
35 238 -3.1
Test 1: Dense sand, M = 2124g
Test 2: Loose sand, M = 1891g
Direct Shear Test results
Example: Granular soils
Mineral frictions
Interlocking
Mineral frictions
Dense:
Loose:
Critical State
(CS)
Important features of soil response can be summarised in
two general groups of soils.
Type I soils:
Loose sands, NC and lightly OC clays (OCR<2)
Type II soils:
Dense sands, and heavily OC clays (OCR>2)
Notes:
Preconsolidation stress or past max effective stress,
zc
, is the max vertical effective
stress that soil was subjected to in the past.
Normally consolidated soil is one that has never experienced vertical effective stresses
greater than its current vertical effective stress (
z
=
zc
).
Overconsolidated soil is one that has experienced vertical effective stresses greater than
its existing vertical effective stress (
zc
>
z
).
Overconsolidation ratio (OCR) is the ratio by which the current vertical effective stress
in the soil was exceeded in the past (OCR=
zc
/
z
).
Soil response in shearing
Important features of soil response can be summarised in
two general groups of soils.
Type I soils:
Loose sands, NC and lightly OC clays (OCR<2)
Type II soils:
Dense sands, and heavily OC clays (OCR>2)
Notes:
Preconsolidation stress or past max effective stress,
zc
, is the max vertical effective
stress that soil was subjected to in the past.
Normally consolidated soil is one that has never experienced vertical effective stresses
greater than its current vertical effective stress (
z
=
zc
).
Overconsolidated soil is one that has experienced vertical effective stresses greater than
its existing vertical effective stress (
zc
>
z
).
Overconsolidation ratio (OCR) is the ratio by which the current vertical effective stress
in the soil was exceeded in the past (OCR=
zc
/
z
).
Soil response in shearing
Effective stress concept will
be explained in coming
lectures.
Soils simple shear deformation
Type I soils
Type II soils
Effect of the normal stress level:
Low normal force
Dilates
High normal force
Shears off
Effect of the normal stress level:
Friction angle: will be
discussed in more
details, later!
Effect of OCR:
2.2. Coulombs Failure
In terms of stresses
Shear stress required to initiate
slip:
f
= tan (
n
)
f
Coulombs failure criterion
Coulombs frictional law
In terms of forces
Horizontal force required to initiate
movement: H
f
= W
W
N
H
H
n
'
n
'
: coefficient of static sliding friction
: friction angle = tan
-1
Coulombs failure criterion (contd.)

The slip plane does not have to be horizontal!
f
vs. (
n
)
f
straight line OA if =
cs
Coulombs law: applicable at or near the CS!
What about the peak behavior?
( )
W
tan
H
f
n
f

= =
H
W
=
+ t an
1 t an
=
t an + t an
1 t an t an
Shear failure may be modeled using Coulombs frictional law.
F
x
= 0 H = N(sin + cos) (
F
z
= 0W= N(cos sin) (
( ) ( )
tan
f n
f

= +
( ) ( ) ( )
tan tan
tan
1 tan tan
f n n
f f

+

= = +

p cs p

= +
( ) ( )
tan
cs n cs
f

=
( )
( )
tan
p n p
f

=
The effect of dilation:
Increase of shear strength; curved failure envelope
>0 soil expands during shearing
Coulombs law:
Gives information about the soil shear strength when slip is initiated
No information on the strains at which soil failure occurs
Friction angle:
@ critical state: related to sliding friction
@ peak state: depends on the soils capacity to dilate
The effects of cohesion, soil tension and cementation:
2.3. Mohr Stress Circle
We can calculate
V
and
H
but
sometimes, we
need to calculate
stresses acting on
other planes, e.g.
the slip surface
along a slope.

nf

nf
Introduction
Definitions
Forces acting on soil:
Definitions (contd.)
Lets zoom in:
y
x
z
Lets zoom in:
Forces acting on a plane:
y
x
z
F
yx
F
xx
F
zx
Stresses:
A
x
=y.z
0 A
x
xx
xx
x
A
F
it lim

=
0 A
x
yx
yx
x
A
F
it lim

=
0 A
x
zx
zx
x
A
F
it lim

xx

xy

xz
yx

yy

yz
zx

zy

zz
=
Stresses in different planes
Stresses in different planes (contd.)
3-D Stresses:
y
x
z

xx

xy

xz

yx

yy

yz

zx

zy

zz
=

xz

zz

yz

xy

yy

zy

yx

xx

zx
2-D Stresses:
y
x
z

xz

zz

xx

zx

xx

xz

zx

zz
=
x
z

xz

zz

xx

zx

zz

xx

zx

xz
Sign conventions (reminder):
Normal stresses: compression positive
Shear stresses: counter-clockwise positive

xz

xz

z

x

xz

z

x

xz
x
z
+ive
-ive

xz

xz

z

x

xz

z

x

xz
x
z
-ive
+ive

xz

xz

z

x

xz

z

x

xz
x
z

xz

xz

z

x

xz

z

x

xz
x
z

n

n

A
B
O
|AO| = |AB| cos
|BO| = |AB| sin
Equilibrium of forces:

xz

xz

z

x

xz

z

x

xz
x
z

n

n

A
B
O
|AO| = |AB| cos
|BO| = |AB| sin

n
|AB|=
x
|BO|sin +
z
|AO|cos +
xz
|BO|cos +
xz
|AO|sin

n
|AB|=
x
|AB|sin
2
+
z
|AB|cos
2
+
xz
|AB|sin cos +
xz
|AB|sin cos

n
=
x
sin
2
+
z
cos
2
+ 2
xz
sin cos
+

+
+
= 2 sin 2 cos
2 2
xz
x z x z
n

n
|AB|= -
x
|BO|cos +
z
|AO|sin
+
xz
|BO|sin -
xz
|AO|cos

n
= -
x
sin cos +
z
cos sin
+
xz
sin
2

xz
cos
2

= 2 cos 2 sin
2
xz
x z
n
(1)
(2)
Defined as
n
that act on the surfaces where there is no
shear stress, i.e.
n
= 0:
Principal stresses

n
A
B
O

xz

x

z

xz
x
z

n

= 2 cos 2 sin
2
xz
x z
n
Principal stresses (contd.)
x z
xz
2
2 tan

=
A
B
O

xz

x

z

xz
x
z

1,3

= 2 cos 2 sin
2
xz
x z
n
0 =
Defined as
n
that act on the surfaces where there is no
shear stress, i.e.
n
= 0:
(3)
xz
2
2
x z x z
1
2 2
+

+
+
=
Major principal stress:
xz
2
2
x z x z
3
2 2
+
+
=
Minor principal stress:
substituting Eq.(3) into Eq.(1):
xz
2
2
x z x z
1
2 2
+

+
+
=
Major principal stress:
xz
2
2
x z x z
3
2 2
+
+
=
Minor principal stress:
There are always 2 planes on which there is no shear
stress. These planes are called principal planes and the
normal stresses applied on them are principal stresses.
3
1

1

3

1

3
It is now possible to calculate the
normal stress
n
and shear stress

n
on any plane, as long as we
know the principal stresses.
n
=

1
+
3
2
+
1

3
2
cos2
n
=

1

3
2
sin2
Stresses on other planes based on the principal planes:
Assuming
y
=
1
and
x
=
3
it is possible to write Eqs. (1)
and (2) in terms of principal stresses.
is measured counter-clockwise
w.r.t. the major principal plane.

3

1
3
1

n

n

These equations are known as the double angle
equations and are awkward to use in the practice.
It is easier to use a graphical procedure based on
Mohr circle of stress (Mohr 1882) plotted in the -
space.
Mohr circle represents the state of stress at a point
of equilibrium.
It applies to any material, not just soil.
Mohr circle
(+)
()
Mohr circle (contd.)

3

1
3
1

n

n

()
(+)
Mohr circle (contd.)

3

1
3
1

n

n

n
2 2 2 2
n
=

1
+
3
2
+
1

3
2
cos2
n
=

1

3
2
sin2
1 3
2

radius =
1 3
2
+
centre =
Mohr circle - Pole method

3

1
3
1

n

n

Pole or Origin of Planes - a very useful property:
Any straight line drawn through the pole will intersect the
Mohr circle at a point which represents the state of stress on a
plane inclined at the same orientation in space as the line.

1

3

3

1
3
1

n

n

Pole or Origin of Planes - a very useful property:
Any straight line drawn through the pole will intersect the
Mohr circle at a point which represents the state of stress on a
plane inclined at the same orientation in space as the line.

1

3
OP
Pole or
Origin of Planes
Mohr circle - Pole method (contd.)
Task 2: Mohr circle example 1
Stresses on the 30
o
plane?
3
1

3
=20

1

3

1
=40
30
o
??
Task 3: Mohr circle example 2
Stresses on the 35
o
plane on
the 20
o
inclined surface?

1
=52

3

1

3
=12
20
o
No simple method exists for drawing Mohr circles
to represent the general 3-D case, in which both
normal and shear stresses act on all six faces of the
cubical element.
There is one simple case, however, which can be
represented by three Mohr circles:
Cubical element which has only principal stresses acting
on the six faces.
Mohr circle for 3-D
Mohr circle for 3-D (contd.)
6. Material Behaviour
The analyses developed for stresses and strains
using Mohr circles are independent of the
material and they are equally applicable to steel,
concrete, soil or rock.
In order to analyse any kind of structure or solid it
is necessary to have relationships between stresses
and strains for a specific material. These are called
constitutive relationships.
The link between stresses and strains is governed by
the properties of the material.
Introduction
Strain,
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Linear Elastic
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Strain,
Nonlinear Elastic
Stress-strain relationships
Strain,
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Elasto-plastic
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Strain,
Elastic Perfectly
Plastic
Stress-strain relationships (contd.)
Strain,
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Elasto-Plastic
Strain Hardening
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Strain,
Elasto-Plastic
Strain Softening
Stress-strain relationships (contd.)
Elasticity: all of the work done by external stresses during
an increment of deformation is recovered on unloading.
The response of an isotropic linear-elastic material is
described using two independent elastic constant
Youngs modulus (E)
Poissons ratio ()
uniaxial stress increment d
E = =
uniaxial strain increment d
d -(lateral strain increment)

= =
axial strain increment d
Elasticity
Volumetric strain,
v
I
s
o
t
r
o
p
i
c

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

d
d
v
Shear strain,
S
h
e
a
r

s
t
r
e
s
s
,

d
d
Elasticity (contd.)
An alternative to the use of the practical parameters E and is
to use the more fundamental parameters G and K.
Shear modulus (distortional deformation) G = d /d
Bulk modulus (volumetric deformation) K = d /d
v
E
G=
2(1+ )
E
K =
3(1- 2)
Elasticity (contd.)
In soil mechanics G and K are preferable to E and
because it is important to consider shearing (change
of shape) separately from compression (change of
size).
Therefore, it is useful to be able to convert from E
and into G and K.
For isotropic elastic materials the elastic constants
G and K can be expressed in terms of E and in the
following manner:
9KG
E =
G+ 3K
3K- 2G
=
2(G+ 3K)
Elasticity (contd.)
Knowing any two elastic quantities we can recover
any other elastic parameters
For example, if we know K and G; E and can be
obtained from:
Task 4: Elastic parameters example
In a triaxial compression test on an isotropic and elastic sample
of soil, the radial stress is held constant at
r
= 200kPa and the
axial stress is changed from
a
=350kPa to 360kPa. The strains
for this increment were d
a
=0.05% and d
r
=-0.01%. Determine
E, , G and K.
Stiffness: the gradient of the stress-strain curve
Strain,
S
t
r
e
s
s
,

Gradient = stiffness
Stiffness
Stiffness (contd.)
7. Summary
Summary
The state of stress in the ground is three dimensional.
The majority of geotechnical problems are simplified
into 1-D or 2-D conditions.
Soil strength is the maximum shear stress that it can
sustain.
Principal stresses are normal stresses on planes with
no shear stress.
Knowing the principal stresses, the stresses on any
other plane can be determined using the Mohr circle.
Pole method is a practical way to calculate stresses
on any plane from known principal stresses.
Tools for Mohr Circle
Compass
Protractor
Ruler

Basic Soil Mechanics

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Basic Soil Mechanics

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Dr Mohammad Rezania

Department of Civil Engineering

Normal strain () is the change in length divided

Shear strain ( ) is the angle of deformation

Coulombs failure criterion (contd.)

Coulombs failure criterion (contd.)

d -(lateral strain increment)

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