Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe
The struggle to belong
Dealing with diversity in 21st century urban settings. Amsterdam, 7-9 July 2011 The Struggle for Social Autonomy: What a!e We "earnt a#out $r#an %olitics from S&uatting in 'uro(e ) *iguel *art+ne, %a(er (resented at the -nternational ./21 conference 2011 Session: 101 $r#an (olitics #et2een contention and control1 .T1012 .adical %otential1 *iguel *art+ne, Universidad Complutense de Madrid (Spain) Departamento Sociologa II Facultad de Ciencias Polticas Sociologa Campus de Somosaguas s/n 2!22" Madrid miguelam#cps$ucm$es %%%$miguelangelmartinez$net 3ote & 'irst re(ision o' t)is article )as *een made t)an+s to t)e +ind contri*ution o' &lan Moore$ Pre(ious ideas %ere presented and discussed in se(eral meetings o' S,-. (S/uatting -urope .ollecti(e) *et%een 2000 and 2011$ 1)us2 I am in de*t %it) all mem*ers o' t)is net%or+ 'or t)eir (alua*le contri*utions during t)ese encounters$ Despite o' m personal responsi*ilit 'or t)e present %riting2 man o' t)ese ideas too+ 'orm t)an+s to t)at collecti(e %or+$ 1 Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe A#stract S/uatting empt properties 'or li(ing or to de(elop pu*lic acti(ities )as lasted in -uropean cities 'or more t)an t)ree decades$ <)oug) local and national conte3ts di''er signi'icantl2 t)ere are also some general trends and patterns t)at deser(e sociological attention$ 4)en s/uatting occasionall appears in pu*lic de*ates2 contro(ers is generated and man gaps open *et%een academic2 social and political perceptions$ In t)is paper I use e(idence 'rom se(eral -uropean cities to argue t)at t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement )as produced an original impact in ur*an politics$ 1)e main 'eature o' t)is impact )as *een to legitimate a relati(el %ide autonomous and mainl non6institutional mode o' citizen participation2 protest and sel'6management$ 7o% )as t)is *een possi*le8 4)ic) are t)e speci'ic contri*utions made * t)is ur*an mo(ement8 I propose to ans%er t)ese /uestions * going a step *eond t)e le't radical claims e3pressed * political s/uatters$ 1)us2 'our modes o' articulation *et%een discourses2 practices2 conte3ts and actors in(ol(ed ma *e distinguis)ed9 1) opportunities and actions: 2) local and glo*al dimensions: ") social di(ersit2 %ea+ ties and contentious politics: ;) and t)e con'licti(e edge o' institutionalization$ 1)ese analtical dimensions are com*ined in order to e3plain *ot) t)e main 'actors2 conditions and opportunities *e)ind s/uatting in -urope2 and t)e (alua*le e''ects in ur*an politics t)at are usuall )idden2 misunderstood or %idel repressed * aut)orities$ -ntroduction 1)e occupation o' empt *uildings and )ouses in order to satis' )ousing needs or to de(elop social acti(ities2 )as *een a %idel spread practice all o(er -urope since t)e 10<0s2 alt)oug) it also occurred occasionall in t)e past (=aile 10<"2 4ates et al$ 10!02 Colin 2010)$ >arious aut)ors identi'ied t)is %a(e o' s/uatting during t)e last 'our decades as a ne% ur*an mo(ement (?o%e 10!@2 Auggiero 20002 PruiBt 200"2 Martinez 200<) rat)er t)an as isolated social practices c)aracterised *9 a) its mostl illegal nature (s/uatting as a (iolation o' pri(ate propert): *) t)e su*cultural aspects o' s/uatters5 dress2 discourse and li'estle: and c) e3clusi(el in(ol(ing oungsters$ &s an ur*an mo(ement2 s/uatting *egan to gro% in -uropean countries li+e Cet)erlands2 Derman2 Enited .ingdom2 France2 S%itzerland and Ital 'rom t)e late 10@0s and earl 10<0s on%ards$ 2 Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe Despite particular ccles o' e(olution in di''erent cities2 t)e tide o' s/uatting rolled t)roug) ot)er countries in t)e coming decades suc) as Denmar+2 Spain2 Dreece2 Poland2 etc$ 1)ere is good e(idence (.oopmans 100F2 7erreros 200;2 Martinez 2002) t)at t)is e3pansion %as due to transnational imitation and multiple personal connections %)ic) constituted di''use social and political net%or+s$ Since t)e seminal %or+ o' Castells (10!")2 de*ates on t)e de'inition o' ur*an mo(ements )a(e *een ongoing (Pic+(ance 200"2 Maer 200@)$ 4)ile Castells emp)asized t)e e''ects o' mo(ements on 5structural social c)ange5 and 5ur*an meaning52 ot)er aut)ors 'ocused more2 'or instance2 on constraints coming 'rom a %ider conte3t2 organisational resources and internal dnamics (>illasante 10!;: Pic+(ance 10!F2 10!@: Fainstein and 7irst 100F)$ 4)at are2 t)en2 t)e main 'eatures o' s/uatting as an ur*an mo(ement8 Firstl2 s/uatting o' empt *uildings encompasses *ot) )idden and (isi*le actions$ 1)e latter emerge %)en a set o' organised groups ma+es pu*lic claims 'or t)e legitimac o' s/uatting 66*anners and 'lags on t)e %alls2 or lea'lets distri*uted to neig)*ours are 're/uent indicators$ =ot) long6lasting political organizations 'or %)om s/uatting is a central struggle and coordination plat'orms set up * s/uats at cit %ide or district le(els2 are also proo's o' t)e consistenc o' social net%or+s lin+ing s/uatters %it) eac) ot)er$ In addition2 man in(isi*le s/uatters are )elped * political acti(ists and ma+e use o' in'ormal ties t)at allo% t)em to s/uat2 remain2 and oppose t)reats o' e(iction$ Secondl2 *eond t)e immediate satis'action o' s/uatters5 material needs2 a more general political 'rame underlies e(er %a(e o' s/uatting initiati(es$ &ccording to t)is 'rame2 s/uatting c)allenges )ousing s)ortages2 ur*an speculation2 a*solute pri(ate propert rig)ts2 and t)e capitalist production o' ur*an space as it is conducted * t)e State and pri(ate interests$ 1)us2 s/uatting 'its into t)e *road categor o' le't6li*ertarian social mo(ements (Della Porta and Auc)t 100F)$ S/uatting is an ur*an mo(ement in %)ic) t)ere is a close connection *et%een a *road range o' political acti(ities (meetings2 demonstrations2 direct actions2 campaigning2 etc$) and a practical de(elopment o' collecti(e sel'6management on man dimensions o' li'e$ 1)ese include t)e re)a*ilitation o' *uildings2 t)e s)aring o' 'ood and (arious resources2 t)e et)ics o' do6it6oursel' and mutual6aid2 t)e promotion o' counter6cultural e3pressions and radical le't ideas2 etc$ (Mc.a100!2 Cotes 'rom Co%)ere 200") 1)is connection indicates t)e constitution o' a persistent autonomous and radical ur*an mo(ement %it) a pragmatic orientation2 alt)oug) some institutional " Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe *onds and constraints can also pla a signi'icant role in its e3pansion$ Strong repression and generalised attempts to legalise s/uats2 'or instance2 can reduce t)e autonom and radicalism o' t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement (Mi++elsen and .arpantsc)o' 2001)$ Pri(atization and outsourcing o' collecti(e consumption can also t)reaten t)e in'luential model o' sel'6organisation at s/uatted social centres (Moroni et al$ 100@2 Mem*retti 200<)$ &ccording to Castells (10!"9 "22)2 autonom means2 *asicall2 a neat separation o' institutionalised actors li+e political parties and unions$ 1)is also implies serious attempts to set up *ot) mo(ements5 o%n cultural identit and political2 local2 decentralised2 and sel'6managed institutions$ Mo(ements5 ideological and organizational autonom cannot a(oid connection to t)e societ at large t)roug) some institutional actors2 pro'essionals and communication media$ Since some aut)ors )a(e criticized t)e term 5autonom5 *ecause is c)arged %it) t)e *urden o' a li*eral and indi(idualistic a''iliation (=oo+c)in 100!)2 t)e e3pression 5social autonom5 can still preser(e t)e emp)asis on t)e dialectic dependence o' indi(iduals upon societ2 and (ice(ersa2 %)ic) is 'amiliar to 5social anarc)ism5 as t)e setting up o' an anti6capitalist ur*an communities o' e/uals (i*id$)$ Social autonom also recalls t)e Italian Gperaist re'usal o' an institutional representation o' class struggles (Mitropoulos 200<)2 and t)e Situationists5 claims 'or a total participation in ur*an a''airs (.na** 100<)$ S/uatting can *e understood also as an immediatist struggle in t)e sense t)at Foucault means it9 HIn suc) struggles people criticize instances o' po%er %)ic) are t)e closest to t)em2 t)ose %)ic) e3ercise t)eir action on indi(iduals$ 1)e do not loo+ 'or t)e 5c)ie' enem5 *ut 'or t)e immediate enem$ Cor do t)e e3pect to 'ind a solution to t)eir pro*lem at a 'uture date (t)at is2 li*erations2 re(olutions2 end o' class struggle)$I (Foucault 10!2) S/uatting is2 a*o(e all2 direct action aimed to satis' a collecti(e need t)roug) social diso*edience against t)e oppressi(e protection o' propert rig)ts$ 1)e mostl temporar appropriation o' a*andoned spaces is a partial attac+ on t)e unBust distri*ution o' ur*an goods2 *ut it is also a grassroots political inter(ention at t)e core o' ur*an politics$ S/uatters de' t)e rules o' t)e ur*an gro%t) mac)ine *ot) 'or t)e sa+e o' t)eir o%n needs and to promote citizens5 protests t)at can *e easil imitated until t)e last (acant space is reclaimed * t)ose %)o are dispossessed (Pi(en and Clo%ard 10<02 &l'ord and Friedland 10!F2 >itale 200<)$ Instead o' loo+ing at t)e speci'ic unintended conse/uences o' s/uatting in some processes o' ur*an rene%al and gentri'ication (Eitermar+ 200;2 7olm and .u)n 2010)2 or at ot)er internal ; Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe contradictions in terms o' segregation and t)e reproduction o' ine/ualities (?o%e 10!@2 &dil+no 100;2 Martinez 20022 G%ens 20002 &guilera 2010)2 in t)is paper I %ill emp)asize %)at made s/uatting possi*le and %)at social benefits it )as )ad 'or *ot) t)e people in(ol(ed and ur*an politics in general$ 1)is re'lection distinguis)es 'our modes o' articulation *et%een discourses2 practices2 conte3ts and actors in(ol(ed (see Figure 1)9 1) opportunities and actions (conditions 'or t)e mo(ement5s emergence and e3pansion): 2) local and glo*al dimensions (conte3t singularities): ") social di(ersit2 %ea+ ties and contentious politics (social construction o' identities): ;) t)e con'licti(e edge o' institutionalization (as part o' t)e di''erent impacts produced * t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement)$ For t)e sa+e o' *re(it2 I %ill concentrate m e''orts in ans%ering t)e t%o main /uestions 66%)at made s/uatting possi*le and %)at %as s/uatting 'or66 %)ile com*ining t)ese 'our analtical dimensions$ & s)ort remar+ on met)odolog9 I )a(e *een researc)ing on s/uatting in Spain since 100!2 collecting documents2 inter(ie%ing acti(ists2 attending acti(ities in s/uats and participating msel' as an acti(ist in se(eral s/uatted social centres$ In Januar 2000 S,-. (S/uatting -urope .ollecti(e) %as 'ounded2 and no% includes more t)an ;0 mem*ers$ 1)e meetings promoted * t)is net%or+ (in Madrid2 Milan2 ?ondon2 =erlin and &msterdam) ga(e me an opportunit to contrast m data and interpretations o' s/uatting in Spain %it) ot)er sc)olars and acti(ists across -urope$ Aegular de*ates2 site (isits and t)e reciprocal e3c)ange o' insig)t'ul papers %ere an e3cellent inspiration$ M present depiction o' a 'e% patterns o' t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement in -uropean cities is still a %or+ in progress2 *ut stems 'rom t)e participator acti(ist6researc) %e de(eloped in S,-. during t)e last t%o and a )al' ears$ &ccordingl2 I 'ound t)at /uestions a*out t)e social conditions o' possi*ilit o' s/uatting and a*out its social and political impacts2 %ere some o' t)e most rele(ant ones 'or *ot) acti(ists and researc)ers$ 1)ere'ore I re'lect on t)em no% and s+ip ot)er aspects or side e''ects o' t)is mo(ement$ F Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe 4igure 11 Analytical frame2or5 for researching on the s&uatters6 mo!ement Source9 aut)or$ 17 What ma5es s&uatting (ossi#le) &*o(e all2 s/uatting consists o' a set o' collecti(e actions aimed to use empt or a*andoned properties 'or )ousing purposes and/or 'or t)e promotion o' social acti(ities$ 1)e +ind o' o%ner and t)e duration o' (acanc (aries$ 1)e important condition )ere is t)e e3istence o' a su''icient amount o' *uildings a*le to *e occupied directl or a'ter lig)t %or+s o' re)a*ilitation$ S/uatters tend to do a serious researc) on t)e speci'ic legal and economic situation o' eac)2 apparentl in disuse2 *uilding$ Fre/uentl2 neig)*ours are t)e *est source o' in'ormation$ 7ig)er proportions o' (acanc correlate %it) se(eral 'actors apart 'rom t)e acti(ists5 %is)es9 economic crisis and slumping construction2 reduction in rental )ousing stoc+2 pri(atization o' 'ormerl pu*lic )ouses2 increasing le(els o' pri(ate o%ners)ip o' )ousing2 c)anges o' use in speci'ic *uildings2 decline o' industrial acti(ities2 ur*an rene%al processes2 etc$ &ccordingl2 t)e opportunities 'or s/uatters see+ing a place depend upon t)ese macro dnamics to pro(ide a /uantit o' e''ecti(e spaces read to *e s/uatted$ @ Ccles o' e(olution o' t)e S/uatters5 Mo(ement Socio6Cultural2 Er*an2 Political K ?egal /onte8t Singularities /onditions and 9((ortunities 'or -mergence and -3pansion Social /onstruction of -dentities9 Practices2 Discourses and Cet%or+s -nstitutionali,ation .egimes9 Interactions *et%een &cti(ists / State / G%ners Social, %olitical and $r#an -m(acts9 Socialization2 Inno(ation2 Participation2 Protest2 Socio6Spatial Aestructuring Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe Fortunatel 'or s/uatters2 capitalist ur*an speculation is *ased on a con(enient stoc+ o' empt *uildings %)ic) allo%s o%ners to dela %or+s or sales 'or a certain period o' time2 %)ile negotiating t)e *etter price$ 1)e ideal speculator %ants )is or )er o%ners)ip to *e rene%ed2 sold or rented at t)e )ig)est price and at t)e earliest moment$ 1)is %ould result in a total occupation o' t)e *uilt en(ironment in a gi(en moment2 %it)out an loss or %aste o' o%ned space2 and s/uatting %ould *e impossi*le$ ,uite t)e contrar2 t)at ideal situation ne(er occurs and permanent *lac+ )oles %it)in pri(ate and pu*lic real6estate mar+ets are usuall protected * la%s$ &s a conse/uence2 all t)e in'ormation t)at s/uatters o*tain a*out t)at essential gap and tensions %it)in t)e process o' capitalist accumulation (7ar(e 10!F9 1F0)2 %ill open a %indo% 'or going a)ead %it) s/uatting actions (Martnez 200;2 PLc)u 200@)$ 1)e crucial 'actor o' emptiness o'ten depends upon ur*an planning and restructuring o' speci'ic areas$ Displacement o' industrial 'actories2 (acant sc)ools or pu*lic 'acilities %)ic) )a(e mo(ed to a di''erent location2 residential units su*Bect to ne% regulations 6all o'ten occur %)en a %)ole area )as *een designed 'or accomplis)ing ne% 'unctions$ &ut)orities2 planners and in(estors %ould argue t)at old6'as)ioned areas2 po(ert2 crime2 ruins2 su*6standard )ousing and pollution demand a trans'ormation o' pu*lic space and2 simultaneousl2 o' t)e residential *uildings and e3isting population t)ere in$ Ce% roads or mega proBects (li+e museums2 stadiums2 %ater'ronts2 commercial malls2 etc$) ma also account 'or t)e elites6dri(en (acanc o' a great part o' d%ellings in a particular ur*an area (Fainstein 100;2 Martin and Moroni 200<)$ 1)e slo%er is t)e r)t)m o' t)ese recon'igurations2 t)e )ig)er are t)e opportunities 'or s/uatting and campaigning against t)e plans$ Gld o%ners and tenants appear as t)e natural allies o' s/uatters opposing t)e aut)oritarian (or e(en t)e restricted participator) manner o' t)ese ur*an inter(entions (Maer 100")$ Since I contend t)at s/uatting in -urope is deploed as an ur*an mo(ement and t)is is more t)an t)e sum o' indi(idual s/uatting actions2 I suggest a t)ird condition o' possi*ilit9 s/uatters pursue multiple goals o' social c)ange *eond t)e rig)t to a 'ree or a''orda*le (mostl ur*an) space$ 1)is is a common ingredient o' radical le't and countercultural mo(ements (Auc)t 10002 .oopmas 100F9212 "26"F) in contrast to t)e single6issue orientation attri*uted to ot)er ne% social mo(ements suc) as en(ironmentalists2 %omen and paci'ists (G''e 10!F)$ Dlo*al (or2 *etter2 alter6glo*al) concerns and t)e contestation o' li*eral democracies and capitalism are usuall claimed * s/uatters (4a+e'ield 100F2 Cotes 'rom Co%)ere 200"2 Martinez 200<)$ 1)is implies a coe3istence o' *ot) < Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe local and glo*al perspecti(es$ -ac) s/uat )as local6ur*an roots in a speci'ic neig)*our)ood$ S/uatting is2 t)us2 an end itsel' once is pu*licl claimed and de'ended$ 4it)out losing t)is local ground2 s/uatting is also a means to 'oster ot)er local protests2 *ut some more general class and glo*al struggles too$ 1actics and strateg2 t)en2 rein'orce eac) ot)er$ 1)is discourse per(ades t)e pu*lic 'ace o' most political s/uatters2 *ut it is not necessaril accepted or reproduced * man o' t)e di''erent groups %)o s/uat or participate in s/uats$ &mong t)e internal di(ersit o' s/uatters2 some can emp)asize s/uatting onl as an ends2 %)ile ot)ers emp)asize s/uatting solel as a means$ In addition2 t)ese di''erent political identities %it)in t)e mo(ement are im*ricated %it) conte3t 'actors relating to t)e cit or t)e %orld at large$ 1)e easiest %a o' disco(ering t)is im*rication is attending to t)e multiple connections t)at s/uatters )a(e %it) ot)er alternati(e or counter6cultural social mo(ements$ 1)e latter2 as I %ill argue later2 is %ell pro(en %)en 5social centres5 ac/uire a prominent (isi*ilit %it)in and outside t)e mo(ement (Martinez 200;2 Mudu 200;2 7od+inson and C)atterton 200@, Mem*retti 200<)$ Concerning t)e legal issues t)ere are2 t)eoreticall2 t)ree options9 a) strong criminal persecution2 *) lig)t criminal persecution2 c) speci'ic legal re/uirements t)at permit s/uatting occasionall$ 4)en t)e 'irst option applies and aut)orities %or+ )ard to implement t)at legislation2 s/uatting *ecomes too di''icult2 marginal and in're/uent2 alt)oug) not a*solutel impossi*le$ Denmar+2 Derman and S%eden2 'or e3ample2 are t)e national conte3ts %)ere t)is polic rules$ 7o%e(er2 it is important to note t)at t)e s/uatted communit o' C)ristiania in Copen)agen sur(i(ed in a di''icult en(ironment %)ere almost all s/uatting %as repressed %it)out concessions (Mi++elsen and .arpantsc)o' 20012 7ellstrMm 200@2 Fo3 2010)$ In Derman t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement gained great strengt) during its 'irst p)ases2 and could preser(e part o' its radical identit and sel'6managed practices a'ter %a(es o' eit)er )ard repression or compre)ensi(e negotiation too+ place (in t)e earl 10!0s in general and in t)e earl 1000s also in =erlin) (Maer 100"2 Sa*atL 200<2 7olm and .u)n 2010)$ ?egislation and /uic+ repression o' attempts to s/uat )a(e pre(ented t)e emergence o' a s/uatters5 mo(ement in S%eden %)ere2 not%it)standing2 social )ousing %as easil accessi*le 'or t)e maBorit o' population (1)Mrn 200!)$ Spain and France e3perienced criminal prosecution o' s/uatting %it) signi'icantl di''erent outcomes$ 4)ile t)e Frenc) case is close to t)e Derman one due to t)e urgent negotiations imposed * aut)orities a'ter e(er s/uatting occurs2 some special conditions appl suc) as a legal e3ception ! Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe t)at a(oids e(ictions during t)e %inter term (&guilera 20102 Colin 2010)$ &n e/ui(alent light restriction applies in Spain %)en Budges are not a*le to clearl identi' %)o )as t)e will to remain and to o*tain t)e possession o' a s/uatted *uilding (=aucells 10002 Martinez 20029 !;60;)$ 1)us2 e(en %)en e(ictions increased a'ter 100F (%)en t)e criminal la% %as passed on)2 'e% people %as 'inall sentenced to Bail$ 1)e Cet)erlands is e3periencing a ne% situation a'ter t)e criminalization o' s/uatting in 2010$ S/uatting is still possi*le and encouraged * 'ormer political organizations2 *ut it is rapidl repressed$ 1)ere2 s/uatters enBo t)e )eritage o' t)ousands o' s/uatted places s/uatted in t)e past decades %)en t)ere %as a greater tolerance$ S/uatting %as legal in t)e case o' liveable *uildings le't (acant 'or more t)an one ear and2 cruciall2 in case t)e o%ner )ad no read6to6act plan 'or t)e *uilding$ 1)is legac2 t)e accumulation o' e3periences2 can *e s)arpl reduced *ut cannnot *e easil destroed in t)e s)ort run (G%ens 20002 PruiBt 2010)$ 1)e Enited .ingdom is t)e sole -uropean countr t)at still 'its t)e t)ird categor2 alt)oug) t)e coalition o' conser(ati(es and li*erals in t)e central go(ernment intends to legislate against s/uatting 'ollo%ing t)e pat) o' t)e Dutc) go(ernment$ In conclusion2 not onl s)ould t)e legal 'rame%or+ *e not too restricti(e in order to allo% a certain degree o' s/uatting (to open a *uilding and remain 'or some %ee+s or mont)s2 at least)2 *ut also t)e Budicial mac)ine and t)e police repression must not act too 'ast and in an ine''icient manner so t)at s/uatters can ris+ part o' t)eir assets to de' t)e la%$ & 'inal strand o' t)e constitution o' an autonomous ur*an mo(ement is independence 'rom political parties2 la*our unions2 'ormal organisations2 pri(ate companies2 State *ureaucracies2 pro'essionals and mass media (Castells 10!"2 Maer 200@2 1oret et al 200!)$ 1)is does not mean a complete impermea*ilit or t)e a*sence o' an mutual lin+s$ -(er group o' s/uatters )as t)e po%er to de'ine a proper strateg in order to de'end t)eir sta (Martinez 2010)$ 1o pa an attorne is a tpical forced participation in t)e State apparatus2 e(en t)oug) some s/uatters also re'use to do it$ <ernati(e and independent media are pre'erred o(er commercial media2 *ut all means are li+el to *e used %)en tension is at its pea+$ In case o' negotiations2 punctual contacts %it) and support 'rom 'riendl political parties and ci(il societ associations can *e e3tremel )elp'ul$ 1)e autonom o' t)e mo(ement2 t)en2 resides in t)is unsta*le *alance$ Gn t)e one )and2 s/uatters need to strengt) on t)e internal cooperation among acti(ists and smpat)isers2 and t)e transmission o' e3perience 'rom pioneers to ne%comers$ Gn t)e ot)er )and2 t)e %ea+ness o' ties and resources o' t)e core group 6 6alt)oug) surrounded * t)ousands o' participants2 users2 (isitors2 'riends2 ot)er mo(ements5 militants and supporters (Moroni et al$ 100@)66 re/uires occasional alliance %it) more sta*le social 0 Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe structures (1arro% 100!)$ 1)ere'ore2 a regular and not too aggressi(e mass media co(erage2 e(en i' it treats s/uatters %it) some un'air stereotpes2 can legitimate t)e struggle in t)e ees o' a %ide audience$ 27 What is s&uatting for) During t)e (alle stages o' t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement ccle (see Figure 1)2 academic de*ates o*literate t)e %)ole picture o' its e(olution2 intentions and conse/uences$ Contro(ersies tend to 'ocus on some unintended e''ects o' s/uatting li+e t)eir consideration o' earl gentri'iers$ 7o%e(er2 t)ese e''ects are due to di''erent interacting 'actors o' neoli*eral policies and pressures to restructure cities2 rat)er t)an solel to t)e actions o' s/uatters$ I %ill set aside t)is discussion no%2 and *rie'l loo+ at t)e beneficial conse/uences o' s/uatting 'or s/uatters t)emsel(es2 *ut also 'or ot)er social groups and t)e democratic /ualit o' ur*an politics in general$ Follo%ing PruiBt5s (200;a) classi'ication I )a(e tried to associate t)e autonomy and radicalism o' t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement %it) t)e strategic2 persistent2 net%or+ed and openness tendencies o' t)e initiati(es and circles o' people in(ol(ed (see Figure 2)$ 10 Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe 4igure 21 Ty(es of s&uatting and autonomous-radical orientation of the s&uatters6 mo!ement Source9 aut)or$ S/uatted social centres are placed in t)e centre o' t)e grap) *ecause t)e accomplis) t%o *asic 'unctions 'or t)e constitution o' t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement9 a) t)e pro(ide a pu*lic resource 'or meetings2 in'ormation2 leisure2 e3pression and socia*ilit %)ic) are essential *ot) to get in touc) %it) +indred people and to launc) ne% s/uats: *) *eond its (alue as a material in'rastructure 'or acti(ists2 s/uatted social centres are t)e most (isi*le e3amples o' s/uatting (pu*lic opinion2 mass media2 local aut)orities and neig)*ours)2 and t)e most open to recruit ne% acti(ists2 and attract participants2 (isitors and smpat)isers %it) lesser degrees o' commitment$ Some o' t)e *uildings %or+ing as social centres )ost man political discourses and e(ents closel related to ot)er social mo(ements (migrants5 and precarious %or+ers5 rig)ts2 )ac+ti(ism and arti(ism2 ur*an gardens and organic 'ood2 etc$)$ 1)e also o''er t)eir 'acilities to di''erent social and political organizations$ Some ot)ers com*ine %ea+er political concerns %it) a stronger dedication to organising music concerts2 %or+s)ops or c)eap meals and drin+s$ &rtists2 militants and se(eral social groups mi3 toget)er in most o' t)e counter6cultural or entrepreneurial social centres2 *ut t)e can also split o'' into more specialised (enues$ 11 Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe Conservational s/uatting reclaims and preser(es )istorical sites or ur*an areas so t)at s/uatting o' )ouses2 e(ents at t)e pu*lic space and social centres can *e com*ined as in ot)er tpes o' s/uatted *uildings$ 4)en residence and social centre coe3ist %it)in t)e same *uilding2 a neat separation o' *ot) acti(ities tends to *e esta*lis)ed$ 1)ere'ore2 sel'6managed social centres pla a crucial role in t)e sm*olic legitimation and promotion o' s/uatting as a radical tool 'or grassroots ur*an inter(ention$ In Ital2 Spain and t)e E.2 acti(ists and sc)olars sometimes re'er to a 5social centre mo(ement5 (Mudu 200;2 7od+inson and C)atterton 200@2 1oret et al$ 200!) more t)an to an am*iguous s/uatters5 mo(ement as suc)$ -(en %)en social centres are not s/uatted an more2 t)e can *e considered part o' t)e autonomous and s/uatters5 mo(ement / scene i' t)e continue %it) a similar stle o' sel'6management and political priorities$ Social centres o'ten su*stitute 'or t)e lac+ o' esta*lis)ed organizations and cit coordination o' s/uats$ Social net%or+s o' acti(ists arise 'rom demonstrations and in'ormal encounters2 *ut social centres add a direct and tangi*le e3ample o' )o% t)ings can *e managed collecti(el and2 )ope'ull %it)out paing a rent$ 1)ese (alua*le outcomes are more di''icult to attain 'or t)e s/uats %)ic) are ta+en Bust 'or li(ing space$ 1)e less %ell connected s/uatters are among t)em and %it) t)e nodal point o' social centres2 t)e less pro*a*ilit to stand * eac) ot)er2 and to create a co)esi(e and po%er'ul mo(ement$ Pu*lic (isi*ilit is also a *igger c)allenge 'or s/uatted )ouses t)an 'or s/uatted social centres$ 1)ese needs can *e 'illed * )ousing and 'ormal organizations %)o occasionall support s/uatting2 *ut t)e also /uit supporting t)at tactic as soon as t)e get su*sidies or accessi*le social )ousing 'or t)eir mem*ers (=aile 10<"2 Corr 10002 PruiBt 200"2 &guilera 2010)$ Aadical s/uatters do not al%as e3pect to s/uat during t)e entiret o' t)eir li(es: t)is is2 in 'act2 (er unli+el (4a+e'ield 100F2 ?lo*et 200F2 De Sario 20002 G%ens 2000)$ For most people %)o s/uat 'or li(ing2 s/uatting is a stage along t)e %a to a permanent residence$ 1)e more depri(ed t)e are in t)e )ousing mar+et2 t)e more t)e are li+el to consider s/uatting as a tactic political tool or means (illegal immigrants2 'or e3ample9 =ouillon 2000)$ Droups2 organizations and net%or+s o' radical acti(ists consider s/uatting strategicall %)en s/uatting is 'or t)em *ot) means and end$ ?ong6lasting s/uats2 eit)er )ouses or social centres2 o''er solid and strategic e3amples2 sm*ols2 o' t)e mo(ement5s success2 alt)oug) a*undant 'lo%s o' communication among acti(ists and %it) t)e rest o' societ (i$e$ (isi*ilit and net%or+ing) e/uall en)ance t)e s/uatters5 social 12 Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe portrait$ 1)e itboe! (4)ite =oo+) pu*lis)ed * Dutc) s/uatters *e'ore t)e *an on s/uatting in 20102 and a recent pu*lication made * -nglis) s/uatters 'acing a similar t)reat (S,E&S7 2011)2 constitute e3cellent responses to t)e strategic c)allenge o' communicating t)e goal t)at nurtures t)e core o' t)is mo(ement$ 4it) t)e centralit o' s/uatted2 and some non6s/uatted2 social centres and t)e emerging structures o' coordination o' s/uatted )ouses2 %e can see some o' t)e least +no%n contri*utions o' s/uatting to s)aping an autonomous arena in ur*an politics$ First o' all2 s/uats pro(ide spaces %)ere acti(ists *elonging to di''erent social mo(ements can meet$ 1)is pro(ision is administered t)roug) collecti(e principles o' )orizontal and direct democrac2 sel'6management2 non6*ureaucratic regulation or State control (Piazza 200<)2 and 'ree or c)eap access to goods and ser(ices$ Aeccling2 dumpster di(ing and s)aring resources s)o% )o% to li(e at lo% cost and to *e en(ironmentall 'riendl in ur*an settings$ Moreo(er2 social centres and s/uatters5 organizations encourage people to e3periment %it) alternati(e modes o' li(ing %)ic) are outside o' t)e mainstream o' culture2 politics2 econom and social relations)ips$ S/uatting o''ers immediate results in t)e practice o' direct action and social diso*edience against t)e unBust distri*ution o' %ealt)$ =ot) * means o' creati(e cultural e3pressions2 and t)roug) organized opposition around *roadl censored issues (police *rutalit2 political corruption2 current situation in Bails2 un'air glo*al trade2 etc$)2 s/uatted places e3pand t)e consciousness o' t)eir participants into t)e realm o' dissidence2 resistance2 temporalit and uncertaint$ &ccording to one pu*lication put out * =arcelona s/uatters (>>&& 200;)2 s/uatted socials centres in(ol(e9 Hstruggles against t)e destruction o' neig)*our)oods * speculatorsI2 H%or+s)ops 'or collecti(e learning %it)out moneI2 Hraising 'unds 'or t)e social centre and ot)er proBectsI2 Hpopular cultureI2 Hnon6commercial leisureI2 Hassem*lies and meetingsI2 Hnet%or+s o' a''ects and solidaritI2 Hindependent and )orizontal media communicationI2 and Hconstructi(e resistanceI$ For t)e )omeless2 depri(ed2 under6pri(ileged2 %or+ing6class2 unemploed and dropouts o' t)e institutional sstems 6 6education2 aslums2 Bu(enile )omes2 etc$662 s/uatting 'orms a +e sur(i(al tactic and sometimes strateg$ Cot onl can an a''orda*le s)elter *e con/uered2 *ut also one can *e acti(el in(ol(ed in t)e satis'action o' *asic needs$ 1)is is usuall ac)ie(ed t)an+s to t)e interaction %it) %ealt)ier and more s+illed indi(iduals2 resulting in a clear increase o' social capital and mutual learning 'or all$ Most o' t)ose engaged in s/uatting *ene'it 'rom t)e empo%erment2 s+ills2 1" Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe opportunities and sel'6con'idence t)at t)ese collecti(e actions entail (4a+e'ield 100F2 Martinez 20022 PruiBt 200;2 ?lo*et 200F2 7ellstrMm 200@2 =ouillon 2000)$ It )as not *een %idel recognised t)at2 in comparison to ot)er 'orms o' acti(ism2 s/uatting comprises almost t)e %)ole e(erda li'e o' t)e people in(ol(ed$ Domestic tas+s2 gender relations and t)e emotional dimensions o' acti(ism are regularl tac+led2 o*liging s/uatters to trans'orm t)eir pre(ious approac)es to t)ese /uestions$ &mong t)e s+ills s/uatters gain is t)e capa*ilit to deal %it) t)eir o%n p)sical space in t)e conte3t o' ur*an a''airs o' t)e local neig)*our)ood2 t)e cit and t)e metropolitan area$ Pri(ate li'e and communal li(ing demands as muc) e''ort as pu*lic li'e and ur*an struggle2 especiall in relations %it) t)e cit councils2 o''icials2 politicians2 Budges2 la%ers2 pri(ate o%ners2 companies2 real estate de(elopers2 Bournalists2 researc)ers and all +inds o' neig)*ours2 *e t)e in 'a(our o' s/uatters2 against t)em2 or seemingl indi''erent$ /onclusions 1)e main argument in t)is paper is t)at t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement )as e(ol(ed in -urope during t)e last 'our decades as a genuine autonomous ur*an mo(ement$ Its practices around collecti(e consumption2 )ousing s)ortages2 and alter6glo*al mo(ements2 contri*uted to t)e satis'action o' social needs and to t)e legitimation o' a radical democratic approac) to ur*an politics$ &s I )a(e argued a*o(e2 t)e mi3 o' s/uatters enduring (arious degrees o' precariousness2 and t)e ric) set o' political e3periences t)e displa cannot support la*elling s/uatting as simpl li'estle anarc)ism or as a (ague le'tist and radical discourse$ &long t)e last decades2 most o' t)e -uropean countries )a(e appro(ed legislation t)at 'or*ids s/uatting2 %it) 7olland and Enited .ingdom until recentl t)e most tolerant$ &t t)e same time t)is general prosecution o' s/uatting opened room 'or institutional arrangements allo%ing some cases to *e legalized$ Far 'rom losing autonom or *ecoming isolated 'rom ot)er social mo(ements2 man 'ormer s/uatters remain in(ol(ed in ur*an politics$ Still2 t)e 'irm conclusion o' t)is analsis is t)at %)ere(er t)e a'orementioned structure o' political2 ur*an and cultural opportunities 6 6 despite constraints6 6 appears2 it is li+el t)at groups o' s/uatters %ill ta+e ad(antage o' it$ 1)is means t)at e(en in a repressi(e conte3t2 +e in'ormation and actions carried out * s/uatters ma+e use o' 'a(oura*le conditions suc) as a su''icient amount o' a*andoned properties2 t)e slo% r)t)m o' 1; Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe restructuring and rene%al o' ur*an areas2 connections and 'ruit'ul e3c)anges %it) alternati(e social mo(ements2 appeal to rig)ts and e3ceptions %it)in t)e legal 'rame%or+s2 strengt) and internal co)esion2 and a not too critical co(erage * mass media$ In addition2 t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement )as spread out according to di''erent con'igurations$ Social centres and political s/uatting pro(ided pu*lic (isi*ilit2 political legitimation and strategic ur*an locations capa*le o' interconnecting t)e di''erent and specialised 'orms o' s/uatting$ Cet%or+s in(ol(e *ot) s/uatted social centres and )ouses2 *ut also non6s/uatted social centres2 rural s/uatting and tactical s/uatting$ <)oug) ties %it) ot)er mo(ement organizations are %ea+2 t)e persistence o' t)e %)ole net%or+ indicates a signi'icant strengt) *ased on speci'ic impacts on t)e ur*an politics o' eac) cit$ In particular2 s/uatted social centres constitute accessi*le meeting spaces 'or man indi(iduals2 groups and mo(ements$ =esides2 t)e %)ole domain o' e(erda li'e is a''ected * t)e collecti(e practices o' sel'6management$ Cot t)e least2 s/uatting 'or li(ing purposes o''ers a''orda*le )ousing and empo%er people %it) ne% s+ills o' sel'6)elp and social cooperation$ &ll o' t)ese transnational patterns deser(e more care'ul and ongoing researc)$ Aele(ant internal di''erentiation2 t)e need o' acting toget)er at di''erent spatial scales and speci'ic local coalitions %it) ot)er citizens5 and *roader social mo(ements2 can set t)e 'uture agenda$ Conet)eless2 ne% political issues and inno(ati(e repertoires o' action con'ronting t)e ongoing %a(e o' neoli*eral ur*an go(ernance2 also pa(e t)e %a 'or more in6dept) insig)ts on t)e conditions and impacts o' t)e s/uatters5 mo(ement$ .eferences &DI?.CG 100; N1000O Crac!ing the movement" Squatting beyond the media" Ce% Cor+9 &utonomedia$ &DEI?-A&2 1)omas (2010) #ouverner l$illegal : les politiques urbaines face au% squats & 'aris" MLmoire de rec)erc)e2 Master StratLgies 1erritoriales et Er*aines$ Paris9 SciencePo$ &?FGAD2 Ao*ert A$2 FAI-D?&CD2 Aoger (10!F) 'owers of Theory" Capitalism( the State( and )emocracy" Cam*ridge9 Cam*ridge Eni(ersit Press$ =&I?-P2 Aon (10<") The Squatters" 7armonds%ort)9 Penguin$ =&EC-??S2 J$ (1000) ?5ocupaciQ d5immo*les en el nou Codi Penal$ In &SS-M=?-& D5G.EP-S D- 1-AA&SS& (ed$) *!upaci+( repressi+ i moviments socials" =arcelona9 .asa de la Muntana6Diatri*a$ =GG.C7IC2 Murra (100!) Social Anarchism or ,ifestyle Anarchism: An Unbridgeable Chasm" San Francisco9 &. Press$ 1F Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe =GEI??GC2 Florence (2000) Squats" Un autre point de vue sur les migrants" Paris9 <ernati(es$ C&S1-??S2 Manuel (10!") The City and the #rassroots" A Cross-Cultural Theory of Urban Social Movements$ =er+ele9 Eni(ersit o' Cali'ornia Press$ CG?IC2 =aptiste (2010) R Pas de /uartier pour les s/uatters S T ?Uespace contro(ersL des s/uatts 9 repVres de militance ou repaire de militants 8 In =ar*ara &iosa2 FaWza CaWt6=ouda et Marie 1)L(enon (dir$)9 .ep/res et Espace0s1" )e la pluralit2 & la polys2mie" Dreno*le9 Presses Eni(ersitaires de Dreno*le2 2F262@@$ CGAA2 &ndre% (1000) 3o trespassing" Squatting( rent stri!es and land struggles worldwide$ Cam*ridge2 M&9 Sout) -nd Press$ D- S&AIG2 =eppe (2000) .esisten4e innaturali" Attivismo radicale nell$5talia degli anni $67" Milan9 &genzia X$ D-??& PGA1&2 Donatella: AEC712 Dieter (100F) ?e't6?i*ertarian Mo(ements in Conte3t9 a comparison o' Ital and 4est Derman 10@F61000$ -n J-C.ICS2 J$C$: .?&CD-AM&CS2 =$ (eds$) The politics of social protest" Comparative perspectives on states and social movements2 ?ondon9 EC? Press$ F&ICS1-IC2 Susan S$ (100;) The City 8uilders: 'roperty( 'olitics( and 'lanning in ,ondon and 3ew 9or!" G3'ord9 =lac+%ell$ F&ICS1-IC2 Susan S$ K C$ 7IAS1 (100F) Er*an social mo(ements$ In D$JEDD- et al (ed$) Theories of Urban 'olitics" ?ondon9 Sage$ FGEC&E?12 Mic)el (10!2) 1)e Su*Bect and Po%er$ Critical 5nquiry (!) ;$ FGX2 Porter (2010) 1)e ?ast Stand o' Free 1o%n$ The 8eliever (!) F9 "611$ 7&A>-P2 Da(id (10!F) 1)e Deopolitics o' Capitalism$ In Dregor2 D-A-.2 Jo)n EAAP (ed$) Social .elations and Spatial Structure$ ?ondon9 Macmillan$ 12!61@"$ 7-??S1AYM2 Maria (200@) Steal this 'lace" The Aesthetics of Tactical :ormlessness and ;The :ree Town of Christiania<" &lnarp9 S%edis) Eni(ersit o' &gricultural Sciences NP)D 1)esisO$ 7-AA-AGS2 1omZs (200;) Mo(imiento de las o+upaciones mo(imientos sociales9 elementos de anZlisis para el caso de Catalu[a$ In &dell2 A$2 Martnez2 M$ (eds$)$ =)+nde est>n las llaves? El movimiento o!upa: pr>cticas y conte%tos sociales" Madrid9 ?a Catarata2 12061;0$ 7GD.ICSGC2 Stuart2 C7&11-A1GC2 Paul (200@) &utonom in t)e Cit8 Ae'lections on t)e social centres mo(ement in t)e E.$ City 102 "2 pp$ "0F6"1F$ 7G?M2 &ndreB2 .E7C2 &rmin (2010) S/uatting and Er*an Aene%al9 1)e Interaction o' S/uatter Mo(ements and Strategies o' Er*an Aestructuring in =erlin$ 5nternational @ournal of Urban and .egional .esearch DGI9 10$111/B$1;@!6 2;2<$2010$001000$3$ .C&==2 .en (100<) The @oy of .evolution" )ttp9//%%%$*opsecrets$org/PS/inde3$)tm .GGPM&CS2 A$ (100F) )emocracy from 8elow" 3ew Social Movements and 'olitical System in est #ermany" Colorado9 4est(ie%$ ??G=-12 Marta (200F) ,Ao!upaci+ com espai-s de creativitat social" =arcelona9 Eni(ersitat de =arcelona NP)D 1)esisO$ ?G4-2 S$ (10!@) Urban Social Movements" The City after Castells" ?ondon9 Macmillan$ M&A1\C-]2 Miguel (2002) *!upaciones de viviendas y centros sociales" Autogesti+n( contracultura y conflictos urbanos( =arcelona9 >irus$ 1@ Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe M&A1\C-]2 Miguel (200;) Del ur*anismo a la autogestiQn9 una )istoria posi*le del mo(imiento de o+upaciQn en -spa[a$ In &D-??2 AamQn2 M&A1\C-]2 Miguel (coords$)$ =)+nde est>n las llaves? El movimiento o!upa: pr>cticas y conte%tos sociales" Madrid9 ?a Catarata$ M&A1\C-]2 Miguel (200<) 1)e S/uatters5 Mo(ement9 Er*an Counter6Culture and <er6Dlo*alization Dnamics$ South European Society and 'olitics2 129"2 "<0 ^ "0!$ M&A1\C-]2 Miguel (2010) ?os procesos de institucionalizaciQn en el mo(imiento de o+upaciones$ -strategias2 discursos e3periencias$ In DGM\CDE-]2 Mario2 M&A1\C-]2 Miguel2 ?GA-C]I2 -lsa*et) (2010) *!upaciones en movimiento" )erivas( estrategias y pr>cticas" Madrid9 1ierra de Cadie$ M&P-A2 Margit (100") 1)e career o' ur*an social mo(ements in 4est Derman$ In FIS7-A2 A$2 .?ICD2 J$ (eds$) Mobili4ing the community: local politics in the era of the global city$ Ce%*ur Par+9 Sage$ M&P-A2 Margit (200") 1)e Gn%ard S%eep o' Social Capital9 Causes and Conse/uences 'or Enderstanding Cities2 Communities and Er*an Mo(ements$ 5nternational @ournal of Urban and .egional .esearch 2<61$ M&P-A2 Margit (200@) Manuel Castells5 The City and the #rassroots$ 5nternational @ournal of Urban and .egional .esearch "0612 202620@$ MC.&P2 D$ (ed$) (100!) )i9 Culture" 'arty B 'rotest in 3ineties 8ritain" ?ondon2 >erso$ M&A1IC2 Jo)n C$2 MGAGCI2 Primo (200<) ,a luna sotto casa" Milano tr rivolta esisten4iale e movimenti politici" Milano9 S)a+e$ M-M=A-11I2 &ndrea (200<) Centro Sociale ?onca(allo$ =uilding Citizens)ip as an inno(ati(e ser(ice$ European urban and .egional Studies 1;(")2 pp$ 2FF62@@$ MI..-?S-C2 Flemming: .&AP&C1SC7GF2 Aene (2001) Pout) as a political mo(ement9 De(elopment o' S/uatters5 and &utonomous Mo(ement in Copen)agen2 10!160F2 5nternational @ournal of Urban and .egional .esearch 2F (")2 @006@2!$ MI1AGPGE?GS2 &ngela (200<) &utonom2 Aecognition2 Mo(ement$ In Ste(p)en S)u+aitis and Da(id Drae*er (ed$) Constituent 5magination" Militant 5nvestigations CC Collective Theori4ation" Ga+land9 &. Press2 12<61"@$ MGAGCI P$ et al$ (100@) Centri Sociali: #eografie del desiderio" )ati( statisctiche( progetti( mappe( divenire" Milano9 S)a+e$ MEDE2 Pierpaolo (200;) Aesisting and C)allenging Ceoli*eralism9 1)e De(elopment o' Italian Social Centers$ Antipode "@(F)2 01<60;1$ CG1-S FAGM CG47-A- (200") e are everywhere" The irresistible rise of global anticapitalism" ?ondon9 >erso$ GFF-2 Claus (10!F) Ce% Social Mo(ements9 C)allenging t)e *oundaries o' institutional politics$ Social .esearch F22 ;9 !1<6@!$ G4-CS2 ?nn (2000) Crac+ing Under 'ressure" 3arrating the )ecline of the Amsterdam Squatters$ Movement" &msterdam9 &msterdam Eni(ersit Press$ P_C7E2 CLcile (200@) )roit Au ,ogement( gen/se et sociologie d$une mobilisation" Paris9 Dalloz$ PI&]]&2 Dianni (200<) Inside t)e radical le't o' t)e Dlo*al Justice Mo(ement9 t)e S/uatted and/or Sel'6Managed Social centres in Ital$ Paper presented at -CPA Con'erence2 Pisa$ PIC.>&CC-2 C)ristop)er (10!F) 1)e rise and 'all o' ur*an mo(ements and t)e role o' comparati(e analsis$ Environment and 'lanning ): Society and Space( (ol$ "$ PIC.>&CC-2 C)ristop)er (10!@) Concepts2 conte3ts and comparison in t)e stud o' ur*an mo(ements9 a repl to M$ 1< Miguel Martinez // 2011 // The Struggle for Social Autonomy: Squatting in Europe Castells$ Environment and 'lanning ): Society and Space( (ol$ ;$ PIC.>&CC-2 C)ristop)er (200") From Er*an Social Mo(ements to Er*an Mo(ements2 5nternational @ournal of Urban and .egional .esearch( 2<612 1026100$ PI>-C2 Francis F$: C?G4&AD2 Aic)ard &$ (10<0) 'oor 'eople$s Movements" hy they succeed( how they fail" Ce% Por+9 >intage$ PAEIJ12 7ans (200") Is t)e institutionalisation o' ur*an mo(ements ine(ita*le8 & comparison o' t)e opportunities 'or sustained s/uatting in Ce% Por+ Cit and &msterdam$ 5nternational @ournal of Urban and .egional .esearch 2<2 1""6 1F<$ PAEIJ12 7ans (200;a) G+upar en -uropa$ -n &D-??2 AamQn2 M&A1\C-]2 Miguel (coords$)$ =)+nde est>n las llaves? El movimiento o!upa: pr>cticas y conte%tos sociales" Madrid9 ?a Catarata$ PAEIJ12 7ans (200;*) S/uatters in t)e Creati(e Cit9 AeBoinder to Justus Eitermar+$ 5nternational @ournal of Urban and .egional .esearch D6"E( pp$ @006<0F$ PAEIJ12 7ans (2010) 1)e creati(e cit2 re(anc)ism2 moral panics and culture %ars$ Deograp)ic dimensions o' legitimac and institutionalization in t)e case o' Dutc) anti6s/uatting legislation$ FG55 5SA orld Congress of Sociology2 Dot)en*urg$ AEC712 Dieter (1000) -strategias 'ormas de acciQn de los nue(os mo(imientos sociales$ -n D&?1GC2 A$J$2 .E-C7?-A2 M$ (comp$)$ ?os nue(os mo(imientos sociales$ En reto al orden poltico$ >alencia9 &l'ons el Magn`nim$ AEDDI-AG2 >$ (2000) Ce% social mo(ements and t)e 5centri sociali5 in Milan$ Sociological .eview ;!(") 1@<61!F$ S&=&1_2 Irene (2000) Ein Huhause" EtnografIa del aprovisionamiento de vivienda en el barrio berlin2s de :riedrichshain( =arcelona9 Eni(ersidad de =arcelona NP)D 1)esisO$ N)ttp9//%%%$tesisen3ar3a$net/1-SISaE=/&>&I?&=?-/1DX60;201006110<1F/01$ISMa1-SIS$pd'O S,E&S7 (S/uatters5 &ction 'or Secure 7omes) (2011) Criminalising the vulnerable" hy we can$t criminalise our way out of a housing crisis" A 'arliamentary briefing" )ttp9//%%%$s/uas)campaign$org 1&AAG42 Sidne (100!) 'ower in Movement: Social movements and contentious politics$ Cam*ridge9 Cam*ridge Eni(ersit Press$ 17YAC2 Cat)aria (200!) Inter(ention or 1)e Ceed For a Ce% Cultural Criti/ue$ Art Monitor F2 ;!6@@$ 1GA-12 Ja(ier et al$ (eds$) (200!) AutonomIa y metr+polis" )el movimiento o!upa a los centros sociales de segunda generaci+n( MZlaga9 E?-X DiputaciQn Pro(incial de MZlaga$ EI1-AM&A.2 Justus (200;) 1)e Co6optation o' S/uatters in &msterdam and t)e -mergence o' a Mo(ement Meritocrac9 & Critical Aepl to PruiBt$ 5nternational @ournal of Urban and .egional .esearch D6"E( pp" @!<60!$ >&AIGES &E17GAS (200;) Centres Socials *!upats" Una historia de rest/ncies( vides i lluides$ =arcelona9 underground edition$ >I??&S&C1-2 1$ A$ (10!;) Comunidades locales" An>lisis( movimientos sociales y alternativas" I-&?2 Madrid$ >I1&?-2 1ommaso (ed$) (200<) 5n nome di chi? 'artecipa4ione e rappresentan4a nelle mobilita4ioni locali$ Milano9 Franco&ngeli$ 4&.-FI-?D2 Stac2 DAAA1 (100F) 3ot for .ent" Conversations with Creative Activists in the U"J" Ce% Por+9 -(il 1%in$ 4&1-S2 Corman: 4G?M&A2 C$ (eds$) (10!0) Squatting" The real story( ?ondon9 =a ?ea' =oo+s$ 1!