KINEMATICS

1. INTRODUCTION TO KINEMATICS
Dynamics is the study of moving objects. The subject is divided into kinematics and
kinetics. Kinematics is the study of a bodys motion independent of the foces on the
body. It is the study of the geomety of motion !ithout consideation of the causes of
motion. Kinematics dea"s on"y !ith e"ationships among the position# ve"ocity#
acce"eation# and time. Kinetics dea"s !ith both foces and motion.
2. PARTICLES AND RIGID BODIES
$odies in motion can be consideed patic"es if otation is absent o insignificant.
%atic"es do not possess otationa" &inetic enegy. A"" pats of a patic"e have the same
instantaneous disp"acement# ve"ocity# and acce"eation.
A rigid body does not defom !hen "oaded and can be consideed as a combination of
t!o o moe patic"es that emain at a fi'ed# finite distance fom each othe.
3. COORDINATE SYSTEMS
The position of a patic"e is specified !ith efeence to a coordinate system.
A coodinate can epesent a position a"ong an a'is# as in the ectangu"a coodinate
system o it can epesent an ang"e# as in the po"a# cy"indica"# and spheica" coodinate
systems.
In genea"# the numbe of degrees of freedom is e(ua" to the numbe of coodinates
e(uied to comp"ete"y specify the state of an object. If each of the coodinates is
independent of the othes# the coodinates ae sho!n as holonomic coordinates.
4. CONVENTIONS OF REPRESENTATION
)o a given patic"e# position# ve"ocity# and acce"eation can be specified in thee
pimay foms* vecto fom# ectangu"a coodinate fom# and unit vecto fom.
The ectangu"a coodinate fom* +uantity F at ,'# y# -.
The vecto fom* F/)
'
i0)
y
j0)
-
&
1nit vecto fom* 2 2 2
- y '
-& yj 'i
)
+ +
+ +
= F
5. LINEAR PARTICLE MOTION
A linear or rectilinear system is one in !hich patic"e move on"y in staight "ines. The
e"ationship among position# ve"ocity# and acce"eation fo a "inea system ae given by

[ ]dt dt t a dt t v t s

= = . , . , . ,


= = dt t a
dt
t ds
t v . ,
. ,
. ,


2
2
. , . ,
. ,
dt
t s d
dt
t dv
t a = =

The aveage ve"ocity and acce"eation ove a peiod fom 3
t
to 2
t
ae

3 2
3 2
3 2
2
3
. ,
t t
s s
t t
dt t v
v
ave

=



3 2
3 2
3 2
2
3
. ,
t t
v v
t t
dt t a
a
ave

=
6. DISTANCE AND SPEED
displacement (or linear displacement. is the net change in a patic"es position# as
detemined fom the position function. Distance is a sca"a (uantity# e(ua" to the
magnitude of disp"acement. 4hen specifying distance# the diection is not
consideed.
5isp"acement /
. , . ,
3 2
t s t s
Simi"a"y velocity and speed have diffeent meanings* ve"ocity is a vecto (uantity6
Speed is a sca"a (uantity and is e(ua" to the magnitude of ve"ocity.
7. UNIFORM MOTION
The tem uniform motion means unifom ve"ocity. The ve"ocity is constant and the
acce"eation is -eo. )o a constant ve"ocity system# the position function vaies
"inea"y !ith time.
vt s t s + =
7
. ,
v t v = . ,
7 . , = t a
8. UNIFORM ACCELERATION
The acce"eation is constant in many cases. ,8avitationa" acce"eation# !hee
g a =
# is
a notab"e e'amp"e.. If the acce"eation is constant# !e have
a t a = . ,
at v dt a t v + =

=
7
. ,
2
7 7
2
2
3
. , at t v s dt a t s + + =

=
9:.3:
9. LINEAR ACCELERATION
Linear acceleration means that the acce"eation inceases unifom"y !ith time.
1. PRO!ECTILE MOTION
A projectile is p"aced into motion by an initia" impu"se.
Conside a genea" pojecti"e set into motion at an ang"e of

,fom the hoi-onta"

p"ane. and initia" ve"ocity 7
v
. Its range is ;# the ma'imum a"titude attained is <# and
the tota" f"ight time is T. In the absence of ai dag# the fo""o!ing u"es app"y to the
case of a "eve" taget.
. The tajectoy is paabo"ic.
. The impact ve"ocity is e(ua" to the initia" "aunch ang"e#

.
. The ange is ma'imum !hen
7
9= =
.
. The time fo the pojecti"e to tave" fom the "aunch point to the ape' is
e(ua" to the time to tave" fom ape' to impact point.
. The time fo the pojecti"e to tave" fom the ape' of its f"ight path to
impact is the same time an initia""y stationay object !ou"d ta&e to fa"" a
distance <.
11. ROTATIONAL PARTICLE MOTION
Rotational particle motion ,a"so &no!n as angular motion and circular motion. is
motion of a patic"e aound a cicu"a path.
;otating patic"e is defined by* angular position,

# angular velocity#

# and
angular acceleration#

# functions. These vaiab"es ae ana"ogous to the s ,t.# v ,t.#

and a ,t. functions fo "inea systems.

= =
2
. , . , . , dt t a dt t w t

= = dt t
dt
t d
t w . ,
. ,
. ,

2
2
. , . ,
. ,
dt
t d
dt
t d
t

= =
The aveage ve"ocity and acce"eation ae

3 2
3 2
3 2
2
3
. ,
t t t t
dt t
ave

3 2
3 2
3 2
2
3
. ,
t t t t
dt t
ave

12. RELATION BET"EEN LINEAR AND ROTATIONAL VARIABLES

In genea"# the "inea vaiab"es can be obtained by mu"tip"ying the otationa"
vaiab"es by the path adius .
r v
t
=
cos cos
#
r v v
t t
= =
sin sin
#
r v v
t y t
= =
r
dt
dv
a
t
t
= =
If the path adius is constant# as it !ou"d be in otationa" motion# the "inea distance
,i. e.# the arc length. tave"ed is
r s =
13. NORMAL ACCELERATION
In genea" a estaining foce !i"" be diected to!ad the cente of otation.
4heneve a mass e'peiences a foce# acce"eation is acting. Since the in!ad
acce"eation is pependicu"a to the tangential velocity and tangential acceleration.
It is &no!n as noma" acce"eation# n
a
.

t
t
n
v r
r
v
a = = =
2
2
The resultant acceleration# a# is the vecto sum of the tangentia" and normal
!cceleration. The magnitude of the esu"tant acce"eation is
2 2
n t
a a a + =
The '> and y> components of the esu"tant acce"eation ae
cos sin
t n
a a a =
sin cos
t n y
a a a =
The noma" and tangentia" acce"eations can be e'pessed in tems of the '> and y>
Components of the esu"tant acce"eation.
cos sin
y n
a a a =
sin cos
y n t
a a a =
14. CORIOLIS ACCELERATION
Conside a patic"e moving !ith "inea adia" ve"ocity r
v
a!ay fom the cente of a
f"at disc otating !ith constant ve"ocity

. Since
r v
t
=
# the patic"es tangentia"
ve"ocity !i"" incease as it moves a!ay fom the cente of otation. This incease is
said to be poduced by the tangentia" coriolis acceleration# c
a
.

r c
v a 2 =
15. RELATIVE MOTION
The tem relative motion is used !hen motion of a patic"e is descibed !ith espect
to something e"se in motion. The patic"es position# ve"ocity# and acce"eation may
be specified !ith espect to anothe moving patic"e o !ith espect to a moving
frame of reference.
Conside t!o patic"es# A and $# ae moving !ith diffeent ve"ocities a"ong a staight
"ine. The sepaation bet!een the t!o patic"es at any specific instant is the
Relative position#
! "
s
# of $ !ith espect to A. ca"cu"ate as the diffeence bet!een
thei t!o absolute positions.
! " ! "
s s s =
Simi"a"y# the relative velocity and relative acceleration of $ !ith espect to A ae
the diffeences bet!een the t!o absolute velocities and absolute accelerations#
espective"y.
! " ! "
v v v =
A $ A $
a a a =
16. DEPENDENT MOTION
4hen the position of one patic"e in a mu"tip"e>patic"e system depends on the
position of one o moe othe patic"es# the motions ae said to be dependent. A
b"oc&>and>pu""ey system !ith one fi'ed ope end is a dependent system.
Since the "ength of the ope is constant# the sum of the ope segments
epesenting distances bet!een the b"oc&s and pu""eys is constant.
$y convention# the distances ae measued fom the top of the b"oc& to the
Suppot point. N?TE* Thee ae t!o opes suppoting b"oc& A# t!o
;opes suppoting b"oc& $# and one ope suppoting b"oc& C#
t tan cons s s 2 s 2
c $ A
= + +
The e"ative e"ationships bet!een the b"oc&s ve"ocities o acce"eations ae the
same as the e"ationships bet!een the b"oc&s positions.
7 v v 2 v 2
c $ A
= + +

7 a a 2 a 2
c $ A
= + +
KINETICS
1. INTRODUCTION TO KINETICS
Kinetics is the study of motion and the foces causing motion.
2. RIGID BODY MOTION
The most genea" type of motion is rigid body motion#
@ $ure translation* the oientation of the object is unchanged as its position changes.
,Motion can be in staight o cuved paths.
@ rotation about a fied ais* A"" patic"es !ith in the body move in concentic
cic"es about he a'is of otation.
@ general plane motion* The motion can be epesented in t!o dimensions.
@ motion about a fied point* This descibes any thee dimensiona" motion !ith one
fi'ed point# such as a spinning top o a tuc& mounted cane. The distance fom a
fi'ed point to any patic"e in the body is constant.
@ general motion* This is any motion not fa""ing into one of the othe fou categoies.
3. STABILITY OF E#UILIBRIUM POSITIONS$
Stability is defined in tems of a bodys e"ationship !ith an e(ui"ibium position. Stable
e(ui"ibium e'ists if a body etuns to oigina" e(ui"ibium position afte e'peiencing a
disp"acement. %nstable e&uilibrium e'ists if the body moves a!ay fom the e(ui"ibium
position.
4. CONSTANT FORCES
)oces that do not vay !ith time ae constant forces#
'ternal forces ae esponsib"e fo the e'tena" motion of the body# (nternal forces ae the
foces that ho"d togethe pats of a igid body.
5%. LINEAR MOMENTUM
The vecto linear momentum ,usua""y just momentum. is defined by
mv p =
ASIB
c
g
mv
p =
A1.SB
Momentum has diection as the ve"ocity vecto. Momentum has the units of foce

time
,e.g.# "bf>sec o N.s..
Momentum is conseved !hen no e'tena" foces act on a patic"e. If no foces act on the
patic"e# the ve"ocity and diection of the patic"e ae unchanged. The law of conservation
of momentum states that the "inea momentum is unchanged if no unba"anced foces act
on the patic"e.
This does not pohibit the mass and ve"ocity fom changing# ho!eve# on"y the poduct of
=
f f o o
v m v m

5B. ENERGY AND "ORK
T&' '(')*+ ,- % .%// )'0)'/'(1/ 1&' 2%0%231+ ,- 1&' .%// 1, 4, 5,)6
R'2%77 -),. T&')., %(4 F7834/$

+ +

+ +

+ +

+ + =
in
2
out
2 2
g-
2
C p
u g-
2
C p
u g-
2
C
u
dt
d
4 +

F,) 4+(%.32/ 5' &%9' 5,)6 0)3(2307' '(')*+ ,)

+ =
3
2
2
2
g-
2
C
m g-
2
C
m 4
(,1'$
2
C
m Kinetic
2
= 'nergy
mgh %otentia" = 'nergy
F,) % /0)3(*$
2
&'
2
3
%otentia" = 'nergy
6. T:E BALLISTIC PENDULAM
"allistic pendulum* A pojecti"e of &no!n mass but un&no!n ve"ocity is fied into a
hanging taget ,the pendu"um.. The pojecti"e is captued by the pendu"um !hich moves
fo!ad and up!ad. Kinetic enegy is not conseved duing impact# because some of the
&inetic enegy is tansfomed into heat. <o!eve momentum is conseved duing impact.
Note* No e'tena" foces act on the b"oc& duing impact and momentum of the system is
conseved.
t afteimpac ct befoeimpa
% % =
pend pend poj poj poj
v . m m , v m + =
In tems of &inetic enegy !e have*
gh . m m , v . m m ,
2
3
pend poj
pend
2
pend poj
+ = +
gh 2 v
pend
=
7. ANGULAR MOMENTUM
The vector angular momentum ,a"so &no!n as moment of momentum. ta&en about a point
? is the moment of the "inea momentum vecto. Angu"a momentum has units distance

foce

time ,e.g.# ft>"bf>sec o N.m.s .. It has the same diection as the otation vecto
and can be detemined fom the vectos by the use of the ight hand u"e.
mv h
?
=
ASIB
c
?
g
mv
h

=
A1SB
)o igid body otating about an a'is passing though its cente of gavity "ocated at point
?# the sca"a va"ue of angu"a momentum is given by
= I h
? ASIB
c
?
g
I
h

=
A1.SB
8. NE"TON;S FIRST LA" OF MOTION
)irst Law* A patic"e !i"" emain in a state of est o !i"" continue to move !ith constant
ve"ocity un"ess an unba"anced e'tena" foce acts on it.
Law of conservation of momentum fom* If the esu"tant e'tena" foce acting on a
patic"e is -eo# then the "inea momentum % of the patic"e is constant.
9. NE"TON;S SECOND LA" OF MOTION
*ewton+s Second Law* The acce"eation of a patic"e is diect"y popotiona" to the foce
acting on it and invese"y popotiona" to the patic"e mass. The diection of acce"eation
is same as the foce of diection.
This "a! can be stated in tems of the foce vecto e(uied to cause a change in
momentum. The esu"tant foce is e(ua" to the ate of change of "inea momentum.
dt
d%
) =
If the mass is constant !ith espect to time# The sca"a fom ) is
ma
dt
dv
m ) = =
ASIB
c c
g
ma
dt
dv
g
m
) = =
A1.SB
)o a otating body# the to(ue T# e(uied to change the angu"a momentum is
dt
dh
T
o
=
If the moment of inetia is constant# the sca"a fom is
=

= I
dt
d
I T
c c
g
I
dt
d
g
I
T

=

=
1. CENTRIPETAL FORCE
Ne!tons second "a! says that thee is a foce fo eveything that a body e'peiences. )o
a body moving aound a cuved path# the tota" acce"eation can be sepaated into
tangentia" and noma" components. The foce associated !ith the noma" acce"eation is
&no!n as the centripetal force.

mv
ma )
2
t
n c
= =
ASIB

g
mv
)
c
2
t
c
=
A1.S.B
The so>ca""ed centrifugal force is an appaent foce on the body diected a!ay fom the
cente of otation. The centipeta" and the centrifugal forces ae e(ua" in magnitude and
opposite in diection.
11. NE"TON;S T:IRD LA" OF MOTION
,hird law* )o evey acting foce bet!een t!o bodies# thee is an e(ua" but opposite
eacting foce on the same "ine of action.
acting eacting
) ) =

12. DYNAMIC E#UILIBRIUM
An acce"eating body is not in static e(ui"ibium. Accoding"y# the fami"ia e(uations of
statics ,
7 =

)
and
7 =

-
. do not app"y. <o!eve# if the so>ca""ed inertial force ma# is
inc"uded in the static e(ui"ibium e(uation# the body is said to be in dynamic e&uilibrium.
7 ma ) =
ASIB
7
g
ma
)
c
=
A1.S.B
13. FLAT FRICTION
)iction is a foce that a"!ays esists motion o impending motion. It a"!ays acts paa""e"
to the contacting sufaces. The fictiona" foce#
f
)
# e'ets on a stationay body is &no!n
as static friction# .oulomb friction, and fluid friction. If the body is moving# the fiction
is &no!n as dynamic fiction and is "ess than the static fiction.
The actua" magnitude of the fictiona" foce depends on the normal force# *, and the
coefficient of friction# f# bet!een the body and the suface. )o a body esting on a
hoi-onta" suface# the noma" foce is the !eight of the body.
N ) =
17. BELT FRICTON
)iction bet!een a be"t# ope# o band !apped aound a pu""ey o a sheave is esponsib"e
fo the tansfe of to(ue. The basic e"ationship bet!een these be"t tensions and the
coefficient of fiction neg"ects centifuga" effects and is given by the e(uation

=
f
min
ma'
e
)
)
the net tansfe to(ue is
. ) ) , T
min ma'
=
The po!e tansmitted by the be"t unning at tangentia" ve"ocity t
v
is given by
t
v ) ) p . ,
min ma'
=
18. ROLLING RESISTANCE
Rolling resistance opposes motion# but it is not fiction. ;athe it is due to the
defomation of the o""ing body and the suppoting suface. ;o""ing esistance is
chaactei-ed by a coefficient of rolling resistance# a# !hich has units of "ength. Since this
defomation is vey sma""# the o""ing esistance in the diection of motion is

mga
)

=
ASIB
r
a w
rg
mga
)
c
r

= =
A1.S.B
19. MOTION OF RIGID BODIES
4hen a igid body e'peiences pue tans"ation# its position changes !ithout any change
in oientation. At any instant# a"" points on the body have same disp"acement# ve"ocity and
acce"eation. The behavio of a igid body in tans"ation is given by E(s. be"o!#

ma ) =

ASIB 99.:D
y y
ma ) =

ASIB 99.:E
4hen the to(ue acts on a igid body !e have*
= I T
ASIB

c
g
I
T

=
A1.SB
2. IMPULSE
Impu"se# Imp# is a vecto (uantity e(ua" to the change in momentum. 1nits of linear
impulse ae the same as fo "inea momentum* "bf>sec and N.s. 1nits of "bf>ft>sec and
N.m.s ae used fo angular impulse. The sca"a magnitudes of "inea impu"se and the
angu"a impu"se is

=
2 t
3 t
)dt p Im
A"ineaB

=
2 t
3 t
Tdt p Im
Aangu"aB
If the app"ied foce o to(ue is constant# impu"se is easi"y ca"cu"ated. Fage foce acting
fo a vey shot peiod of time is &no!n as an impulsive force.
. t t , ) p Im
3 2
=
A"ineaB
. , Im
3 2
t t , p =
Aangu"aB
If the impu"se is &no!n# the aveage foce acting ove the duation of the impu"se is
t
p Im
I
avg

=
21. IMPULSE<MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE
The change in momentum is e(ua" to the app"ied impulse. This is &no!n as the impulse/
momentum pincip"e. )o a "inea system !ith constant foce and mass#
p p Im =
. v v , m . t t , )
3 2 3 2
=
ASIB
c
3 2
3 2
g
. v v , m
. t t , )

=
A1.S.B
)o an angu"a system !ith constant to(ue and moment of inetia# the ana"ogous
e(uations ae
. ! ! , I . t t , T
3 2 3 2
=
ASIB
c
3 2
3 2
g
. ! ! , I
. t t , T

=
A1.S.B
22. IMPULSE<MOMENTUM PRINCIPLE IN OPEN SYSTEMS
Note* The impu"se>momentum pincip"e can be used to detemine the foces acting on
f"o!ing f"uids. In tems of a mass f"o! ate !e have
v m
t
v m
) =

=
ASIB 99
c c
g
v m
t g
v m
)

=

=
A1.S.B 99.==,b.
23. IMPACTS
In an impact or collision, Contact is vey bief# and the effect of e'tena" foce is
insignificant. Theefoe# momentum is conseved# even though enegy may be "ost.
Conside t!o patic"es# initia""y moving !ith ve"ocities 3
v
and 2
v
on a co""ision path. The
consevation of momentum e(uation can be used to find the ve"ocities afte impact#
3
3
v
and
3
2
v
.
3
2 2
3
3 3 2 2 3 3
v m v m v m v m + = +
The impact is said to be an inelastic impact if &inetic enegy is "ost. The impact is said to
be pefect"y ine"astic o pefect"y p"astic if the t!o patic"es stic& togethe and move on
!ith the same fina" ve"ocity.
The impact is said to be an elastic impact on"y if &inetic enegy is conseved.
act e"asticimp
32
2 2
32
3 3
2
2 2
2
3 3
v m v m v m v m + = +
24. COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION
A simp"e !ay of detemining !hethe the impact is e"astic o ine"astic is by ca"cu"ating
the coefficient of restitution# e. The co""ision is ine"astic if the e G3.7# pefect"y ine"astic if
e/7# and e"astic if e/3.7. The coefficient of estitution is a atio
city poachve"o e"ativeap
"ocity peationve e"ativese
e =
3 2
3
2
3
3
v v
v v

=
26. NE"TON;S LA" OF GRAVITATION
*ewton+s law of gravitation a"so &no!n as *ewton+s law of universal gravitation# is
2
2 3

m 8m
) =
VIBRATING SYSTEMS
FREE VIBRATION
The simp"e mass and idea" sping is an e'amp"e of fee vibation. Afte the mass is
disp"aced and e"eased# it !i"" osci""ate up and do!n. Since thee is no fiction# ,i.e.# the
vibation is undamped.. This system is descibed by
= = 7 &' ma 6 7 )
&'
dt
' d
m
2
2
=
ASIB
! is &no!n as the natural fre&uency of vibration or angular fre&uency. It has units of
adians pe second. It is not the same as the linear fre&uency# f# !hich has units of het-
,fome"y &no!n as cyc"es pe second.. The period of oscillation# T# is the ecipoca" of
the "inea fe(uency.
m
&
! =
ASIB
m
&g
!
c
=
A1.S.B
T
3
2
!
f =

=
FREE ROTATION
The so ca""ed torsional pendulum is simi"a to the sping mass combination# ignoing the
mass and moment of inetia of the shaft# the diffeentia" e(uation is
2
2

dt
d
I &

=
ASIB
r
k
is The torsional spring constant, and
F :2
8 d
F
8H
&
9

= =
DAMPED FREE VIBRATIONS
4hen fiction esists the osci""atoy motion# the system is said to be damped. This thid
type of fiction is &no!n as viscous damping#
The viscous damping foce can be a function of v. 4ith "inea damping# the damping
foce is popotiona" to ve"ocity# C is &no!n as the coefficient of viscous damping#
dt
d'
C Cv ) = =
The diffeentia" e(uation of motion is
dt
d'
C &'
dt
' d
m
2
2
=
UNDAMPED= FORCED VIBRATIONS
4hen an e'tena" distubing foce# ),t.# acts on the system# the system is said to be
foced.
Conside the sinusoida" peiodic foce !ith a forcing fre&uency
f

and ma'imum va"ue

7
)
.
t cos ) . t , )
f 7
=
The diffeentia" e(uation of motion is
t cos ) &'
dt
' d
m
f 7 2
2
+ =
14. DAMPED= FORCED VIBRATIONS
If a viscous damping foce is added to a sinusoid a""y foced system# the diffeentia"
e(uation of motion is
t cos )
dt
d'
C &'
dt
' d
m
f 7 2
2
+ =