Chapter 7 PDF

Chapter 7: Qualitative Data Analysis
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CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you have completed this chapter you will be able to:
Define what is qualitative data analysis
Compare approaches in analysing qualitative data
Describe the stages involved in qualitative data analysis
Code and develop categories in qualitative data analysis
CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Preamble
What is qualitative data?
What is analysis?
Stages in Qualitative Data
Analysis
a) Familiarisation
b) Transcription
c) Organisation
Analysis)

d) Coding
- Analysis (Grounded
Theory)
- Analysis (Framework)
e) Report writing

Summary
Key Terms
Discussion Questions
References
CONTENTS

Chapter 1: Introduction to Qualitative Research
Chapter 2: Qualitative Data Collection Method
Chapter 3: Ethnography
Chapter 4: Action Research
Chapter 5: Case Study
Chapter 6: Other Qualitative Methods
Chapter 8: Coding Qualitative Data


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This chapter focuses on the analysis of qualitative data beginning with defining what is
qualitative data and what is analysis. The stages in the analysis of qualitative data is
discussed. The coding stage is briefly discussed and will be discussed in greater detail in
Chapter 8. Remember there are several approaches in analysing qualitative data and
discussed here is one of the several approaches.

Generally, data is defined as information in raw or unorganised form which
may be in the form of letters, words, numbers or symbols. Data refers to or represents a
certain condition, phenomenon, idea or object. Data is limitless and is present all around
us. Researchers have attempted to divide data into quantitative data and qualitative data.

Quantitative Data is mostly in the form of
numbers such as mathematics scores,
personality scales, attitude scores, family
income, export figures and so forth. Quantitative
data is usually a mass of numbers that is
processed, summarised and presented in the
form of tables, charts and graphs.

Qualitative Data is mostly in the form of
words, phrases, sentences and may include
visual images, audio and video recordings.
Qualitative data is a mass of words obtained
from recordings of interviews, fieldnotes of
observations, and analysis of documents as
well as reflective notes of the researcher. This
mass of information have to be organised,
summarised, described and interpreted (Lacey
& Luff, 2001).

PREAMBLE
WHAT I S QUALI TATI VE DATA?


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Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) is the range of processes and procedures
whereby we move from the qualitative data that have been collected into some form of
explanation, understanding or interpretation of the people and situations we are
investigating (Lewins, A., Taylor, C. & Gibbs, 2005). QDA is usually based on an
interpretative philosophy with the idea of giving meaning to the data collected. For
example, when you analyse interview data, you are attempting to identify any or all of:
Someone's interpretation of the world,
Why they have that point of view,
How they came to that view,
What they have been doing,
How they conveyed their view of their situation,
How they identify or classify themselves and others in what they say,

There are many different ways of analysing qualitative data as there are
qualitative researchers doing it. However, there is more agreement in the analysis of
quantitative data but there is less agreement on how to analyse qualitative data.
Different researchers have proposed different ways of analysing qualitative data.
Fortunately, there are some common procedures in the analysis of qualitative data.
Generally, since numbers are not used, the qualitative researcher looks for
categories or themes from the raw data to describe and explain phenomena [We will
discuss this in more detail later in this chapter]. He/she analyses the relationships and
patterns between the categories or themes that have been identified. These categories or
themes may be derived using two approaches:

o Inductively whereby the categories or themes are allowed to emerge from the
data gradually. This has been termed as grounded theory [we will discuss this im
more detail later].
o Deductively whereby from the very beginning or half-way through you begin to
identify the categories or themes and fit the data into the categories and themes
which is later interpreted.

Lets assume you are interested in how a group of teachers view the behaviour of their
principal in staff meetings. Refer to an extract of an interview with a teacher and the key
phrases extracted as show in the right margin.

WHAT I S ANALYSI S?


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The Leadership Behaviour of a Principal as Perceived by
Teachers in a School
The following are probable qualitative data collection methods that
could be used to investigate the above topic:
- field notes from observations of staff meetings
- focus groups interview transcripts
- copies of diary entries teachers have been asked to complete
each day
- researcher memos and reflections
- audio recordings

The above is an example of a qualitative study investigating the leadership
behaviour of a principal. Note the range of techniques employed to study the principal. At
the end of study you will have large piles of field notes, audio recordings, documents
(minutes of staff meetings), dairy entries and reflections sitting on your desk waiting to
be analysed. How do you go about making some sense of qualitative ?

Earlier we discussed two common approaches in qualitative data analysis. While
there are many other approaches, in this introductory course on qualitative research, we
have confined ourselves to only these two approaches Grounded theory approach and
Framework analysis approach. The stages in the analysis of qualitative data is shown in
Figure 7.2 (Lacey and Luff, 2001). It usually begins with familiarisation of the data,
transcription, organisation, coding, analysis (grounded theory or framework analysis) and
reporting (though the order may vary).

Phase 1. FAMILIARISATION
The first phase of data analysis is
familiarisation. You have massive amount of
material and you may have to listen to tapes and
watch video material, read and re-read the field
notes, make memos and summaries before
formal analysis begins. This is especially
important when besides you, others are also
involved in data collection. You have got to be
familiar with the field notes they made (perhaps
trying to decipher their handwriting!).
STAGES I N QUALI TATI VE ANALYSI S


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Analysis

Analysis

Figure 7.2 Stages in qualitative data analysis

Phase 2. TRANSCRIPTION
Almost all qualitative research studies involve some degree of transcription. What
is transcription? Transcription is the process of converting audio recorded data or
handwritten fieldnotes obtained from interviews and observations into verbatim form (i.e.
written or printed) for easy reading (see Figure 7.2). Why do you have to do this? If you
were to analyse direct from an audio recording or fieldnotes, there is the likelihood that
you may include those sections that seem relevant or interesting to you and ignore others.
With a transcript of everything that you observed and recorded (audio or fieldnotes),
you get the whole picture of what happened and the chances of your analysis being
biased is minimised.

Familiarisation Transcription Organisation
Coding
Grounded
theory
Report
Writing
Framework
analysis
Fieldnotes
Interview
Transcript


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LEARNING ACTIVITY

Find a member of your family, or a friend or colleague and interview the person
for about 10 minutes concerning What are the characteristics of a good
teacher?. Try to probe what it is that makes a good teacher. Tape record the
interview, then transcribe into a word processor in your own time, including as
much non-verbal material as you can.

1. How long did the transcription take you, compared with the original
interview?
2. Highlight the non-verbal communication you were able to include. What
does it tell you, in addition to the words you have recorded?
3. Look at the questions you asked, and any comments you made. Had you
at any point led the respondent in any way, or missed important clues
given by the respondent.
4. Listen to the recording again, with the transcript in front of you. Did you
change any of the words from the tape? Did you transcribe everything
accurately?

Figure 7.3 The transcription of an interview
You should not forget to include non-verbal cues in the transcript such as silence
(which may indicate embarrassment or emotional distress), pause for thought (such as
wellerI suppose.) laughter, gestures (which may add meaning to the spoken
word) and so forth. If someone else is transcribing your material, make sure to tell him or
her how much of this non-verbal information to include. If you have never transcribed
material, it is a useful to do a little yourself [Try doing the Learning Activity below].

Your first attempt at transcribing!

1. How long did the transcription take you, compared with the original interview?

Unless you are a very good at typing and have a clear recording device, it is
likely that the you would take at least 4 times as long transcribing compared to
the interview. You may take longer. You will realise that transcribing is time
consuming but you will be familiar with data as you go along.


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2. Highlight the non-verbal communication you were able to include. What does it
tell you, in addition to the words you have recorded?

It is likely that the person you interviewed will have few hmm,
errr, oh that adds to the realism and credibility of your
data. It also provides clues as to the feelings of your subject. If
you had recorded laughter, asides, murmuring, you have
made your data alive.

3. Look at the questions you asked, and any comments you made. Had you at any
point led the respondent in any way, or missed important clues given by the
respondent.

You may have interrupted your subject or asked an irrelevant
or inappropriate question. From the transcript you will be able
to identify your own interview techniques.

4. Listen to the recording again, with the transcript in front of you. Did you change
any of the words from the tape? Did you transcribe everything accurately?

You do not need to change words or phrases to make them
grammatically correct. Because if you do, you have changed
the sense of what was said. If the subject used slang, or
colloquialism or unusual words, you can explain it later when
you write the report.

Phase 3. ORGANISATION
After transcription, it is necessary to
organise your data into sections that is easy to
retrieve. What does this mean? Say for
example, in your study you interviewed 10
teachers (30 minutes each) on their opinion
about the leadership style of their principal. It
is advisable that you give each teacher a
pseudonym (e.g. Elvis, Michael, Dina not
their real name) or referred to by a code
number (e.g. T1, T2..T10). You need to
keep a file that links the pseudonym or code
number to the original informants which
should be kept confidential and destroyed


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after completion of the research. Names and other identifiable material should be
removed from the transcripts.
The narrative data you obtained from the 10 teachers needs to be numbered
depending on your unit of analysis. In other words, you have to determine whether you
intend to analyse at the word level, sentence level of paragraph level and they have to be
numbered accordingly. Make sure that the unit of text you use can be traced back to its
original context. For example, one teacher described his principal as a person who walks
the factory floor. You should be able to trace who said it and the transcript from which
the phrase was taken from. Remember, you will so much data and if not properly
organised you may be drowned in the mass of information which can very very
frustrating!

Phase 4. CODING
Coding is the process of examining the raw qualitative data in the transcripts and
extracting sections of text units (words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs) and assigning
different codes or labels so that they can easily be retrieved at a later stage for further
comparison and analysis, and the identification of any patterns. Codes can be based on:

Themes, Topics
Ideas, Concepts
Terms, Phrases
Keywords

found in the data. Usually it is passages of text that are coded but it can be sections of an
audio or video recording or parts of images which may be a numerical reference, symbol,
descriptive words or category words. All passages and chunks that are coded the same
way that is given the same label have been judged (by the researcher) to be about the
same topic, theme, concept etc.
The codes are given meaningful names that gives an indication of the idea or
concept that underpins the theme or category. Any parts of the data that relate to a code
topic are coded with the appropriate label. This process of coding (associating labels with
the text, images etc) involves close reading of the text (or close inspection of the video or
images). If a theme is identified from the data that does not quite fit the codes that are
already existing then a new code is created. As the researcher reads through their data
set the number of codes they have will evolve and grow as more topics or themes become
apparent.

EXAMPLE:
Strauss and Corbin (1998) suggest what is called open coding. Open coding is where you
sweep through the data and marking the text. It is a good idea to leave a column at the
side of your data so you can write your codes next to the segments you are coding. The
following is an example of an interview with a teacher describing the behaviour of his
principal at staff meetings with teachers in the school (see Table 7.1).


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Table 7.1 Interview with a teacher about the behaviour his principal
at staff meetings

You have uncovered eight descriptions of the principals behaviour in staff meetings and
the following codes are assigned.

B1 hot tempered;
B2 lost his cool
B3 refused to listen
B4 just went on and on
B6 scolds
B7 ridiculed for questioning
B8 one man show

Next you may want to recode the eight descriptions into one or two categories. In other
words, the category emerges from the data. You may have to assign a name for the
category. In this example, B3 and B8 could be recoded to A1 and assigned the category
R: How long have you been a teacher in this school?
T: For about 10 years.
R: Your principle, how would you describe him?
T: Quite a hot-tempered guy.
R. What do you mean hot-tempered?
T: Well, in the last staff meeting, I objected to his idea of cutting down the number
of fieldtrips for students. He argued that that it was too much of a responsibility
for the school. Also, it was getting more and more expensive for the school.
R: What happened than?
T: Before I could say anything, he lost his cool and came for me.
He refused to listen to what I had to say.he just went on and on.
R: What do you think?
T: Personally, I think it was not fair of him to scold me. After all this is a democracy
and he should at least listen to what I had to say. It was very unpleasant and
many of my colleagues were very disturbed over the incident.
R: How do the others feel?
T. Many of us prefer to keep quite and suffer in silence. You know, he is quite
close with the higher-ups. Anyone who questions his decisions are ridiculed
You know he determines whether we get promoted or not. You know, its the
usual thing!
R: How often does this happen?
T: Almost always..all meetings becomes a one man show its all talk.talk.

Extraction of key
phrases

hot-tempered

lost his cool
refused to listen
just went on and on

not fair
scold

ridiculed for questioning

one man show


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or theme autocratic. You go on doing this until you have exhausted the data in terms
of developing any new codes.

Coding Techniques
The following are two techniques to help you with the practicalities of coding:

Cut and Paste you can literally cut your transcripts into smaller unit of analysis
which could be individual words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs. You could
paste these text units on to cards which you could sort and re-sort easily. Keep in
mind that each text unit needs to be traceable to its original context. Sometimes, a
text unit may have to be sorted into two different categories or theme. So you
will need to make several copies of a text unit to be sorted into two or more
categories.

Colour Code you could also
use highlighting pens to
highlight text units or coloured
pens to underline units of text.
There could be a problem
when there are hundreds of
text units and you will need
hundreds of colours which
could pose a problem
differentiating the colours. The
advantage of using coloured
pens or highlighters is that you
do not need to cut up the
transcripts. Colour coding would be the choice if you do not have too many
categories or text units.


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Combination perhaps a preferred technique would be to use a combination of
cut and paste and colour coding.

[CODING is discussed in more detail in Chapter 8]

Step 5. ANALYSIS

A) Grounded Theory Inductive Approach
If you are interested in generating theory and not sure what to expect, the
grounded theory approach would a logical choice. The grounded theory approach offers
a rigorous approach in generating theory from qualitative data. It is particularly well
suited for exploratory studies where little is known. Grounded theory evolved from the
work of sociologists Glaser and Strauss (1967). Grounded theory is an inductive
approach in the analysis of qualitative data in which theory is systematically generated
from data. However, many studies in education, business, management, medicine, public
health and in nursing), the grounded theory approach has been widely adopted as a
procedure for conceptualising and analysing data. The appeal of grounded theory analysis
is that it allows for the theory to emerge from the data through a process of rigorous
analysis (see Figure 7.2). The word theory is used to mean the relationships that exist
among concepts that comes from the data and helps us understand our social world more
clearly (Strauss and Corbin, 1998).
The grounded theory approach is different from the framework approach
[discussed later] in analysing qualitative data. The grounded theory approach emphasises
on theory as the final output of research (Strauss and Corbin, 1998). The framework
approach in data analysis may stop at the level of description or simple interpretation.
The aim of grounded theory is theoretical development.
Researchers who adopt the grounded theory approach, define grounded theory
as the plausible (likely or probable) relationships between sets of categories which have
emerged from data analysed. So, theory is a statement about possible relationships among
categories about a phenomenon that helps one understand his or her social world. Note
that a theory is not an absolute truth but rather a tentative explanation of a phenomenon
(for example, adolescents damage public property in an effort to seek attention because of
low self-esteem).


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Figure 7.1 Graphical Description of The Grounded Theory Approach in
Qualitative Data Analysis

The main feature of the grounded theory procedure is the use of the constant
comparison technique. Using this technique, categories or concepts that emerge from
one stage of analysis are compared with categories or concepts that emerge from the
previous stage. The researcher continues with this technique until what is called
theoretical saturation is reached or no new significant categories or concepts emerge.
The grounded theory procedure is cyclical involving frequent revisiting of data in the
light of emergence of new categories or concepts as data analysis progresses. The theory
that develops is best seen as provisional until proven by the data and validation from
others.

Word
Word
Word
Word
Phrase
Phrase
Phrase
Phrase
R
A
W

D
A
T
A
Identify
and
Categorise
Data
CATEGORIES EMERGE FROM
THE DATA
THEORY EMERGES SHOWING RELATIONSHIPS
AMONG THE CATEGORIES
Category #1 Category #2 Category #3


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B) Framework Anal ysis Deductive Approach
Another approach to qualitative data analysis is called framework analysis
(Ritchie and Spencer, 1994). In contrast to the grounded theory procedure, framework
analysis was explicitly developed for applied research. In applied research, the findings
and recommendations of research need to obtained with a short period to be adopted. The
general approach of framework analysis shares many of the common features with the
grounded theory approach discussed earlier. This approach to qualitative data analysis
allows the researcher to set the categories and themes from the beginning of the study.
However, this approach also allows for categories and themes that may emerge during
data analysis which the researcher had not stated at the beginning of the study.
Once the categories or themes have been pre-determined, specific pieces of data
are identified which correspond to the different themes or categories. Let us take an
example from medicine. You may want to know, for instance, about how people who had
had a heart attack conceptualise the causes of the attack. From existing literature, you
may know that these can be divided into physical causes, psychological causes, ideas of
luck, genetic inheritance and so forth. You interview people who have had a heart attack
and from the interview transcript you search the data for material that could be coded
under these headings.
Using the headings, you can create charts of your data so that you can easily read
across the whole dataset. Charts can be either thematic for each theme or category across
all respondents (cases) or by case for each respondent across all themes (see below).

Thematic Chart

THEME Case 2 Case 3

Psychological
cause

The stress at office is
too much. Got to work
late

Business was bad.
Had to close shop

Case Chart

Theme 1
Genetic inheritance
Theme 2
Physical cause

CASE 1

My younger brother and
father died of a heart
attack
I hardly do any exercise. I
too busy to do any exercise


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In the chart boxes, you could put line and page references to relevant passages in the
interview transcript. You might also want to include some text; e.g. key words or
quotations as a reminder of what is being referred to (see the charts above). For example,
under the theme Psychological Causes, Case 2 talked about stress in the workplace
while Case 3 talked about business failure.

Step 6: REPORT WRITING

a) Introducing your Study
o Begin with something interesting, e.g., a quote or story, to capture the
reader's interest.
o Introduce you question or curiosity. What is it that you want to know or
understand? How did you get interested in the topic?
o Tell why there's a need for the study. Cite relevant literature that calls for
the need for the research in this area, or demonstrates the lack of attention
to the topic. In your own words, describe how you think this study will be
useful.
o Describe the intended audience for your research (e.g., the public, family
therapists).
b) Research Method
o Identify and generally describe your research method (e.g., ethnographic
field study, single case study), and your research procedures (e.g., long
interviews, observation).
o Cite the major authors who have described your research method.
o Explain how you will selected your subjects and gained entry into the
research context (if relevant).
o Describe the procedures you took to protect the rights of your subjecs
(e.g., informed consent, human subjects approval, debriefing).
o Describe the kind of relationship you had with the subjects. Will you be
neutral, collaborative, objective?
o Describe the kind of data you collected (e.g., field notes from memory,
audio tapes, video tapes, transcripts of conversations, examination of
existing documents, etc.).
o Describe the procedures used in data collection. If interviews were used,
list your question(s) or attach as an appendix. Describe any equipment
used.
o Describe the procedures you used to keep track of the research process.
i.e. your audit trail.
i. Process notes: Day to day activities, methodological notes,
decision making procedures.
ii. Materials relating to intentions and reactions: personal notes about
motivations, experiences with informants, etc.


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iii. Instrument development information: revisions of interview
questions, etc.
o Describe your data analysis procedures (coding, sorting, etc.)?
i. Data reduction: Write-ups of field notes, transcription procedures
and conventions, computer programs used, etc.
ii. Data reconstruction: development of categories, findings,
conclusions, connections to existing literature, integration of
concepts.
o Describe how you ensure "reliability" and "validity." For mention whether
you used triangulation, member checking, peer debriefing, auditing.
o Summarise and reference all of the relevant literature that you have
reviewed.
o Describe how you reviewed the literature and how it has influenced the
way you approached the research.
o Discuss how your previous experience with your topic has influenced the
way you have conceptualized this research.
o Summarise relevant personal an professional experiences, if you have not
done so in the Introduction.
Analysing qualitative data is not a simple or quick task. Done properly, it is
systematic and rigorous, and therefore labour-intensive and time-consuming. The major
element of qualitative analysis is to find, build, clarify, illustrate and explain an argument
or issue. The analysis should take the form of a research essay containing certain
expected elements: How you introduce them and sequence the elements must be logical
and help readers to get it.
An adequate research report not only explains but also persuades. Being
persuasive is very much an issue of good clear writing. The way you write should help
readers to see for themselves what you claims to find in and make of the data. The
evidence is the data you collected and from which you choose carefully an excerpt or
excerpts to illustrate points in your report. It must be the right and sufficient data to
illustrate clearly and logically what is being claimed. Also, the relevant evidence must be
presented within a description that displays in narrative form the point being made.
Successful qualitative analysis tells a good, absorbing, understandable, story. It story
makes sense because you have made an effort to do so and you have communicated this
to your reader.
The bottom line is credibility. It refers to the accuracy of your description as
show in your report.. It should be remembered that words are all you have to describe
phenomenon unlike quantitative research which uses number to describe phenomenon. If
you want to convince your reader that the findings you obtained are credible (or accurate)
you need to state precisely the parameters of the study. What is meant by parameters?
Parameters involves who was studied, where and when, and methods used. If you are
able to state these aspects clearly, you enhance the credibility of the study.


16

Qualitative data is a mass of words obtained from recordings of interviews,
fieldnotes of observations, and analysis of documents as well as reflective notes
of the researcher.

Familiarisation is when you listen to tapes and watch video material, reading and
re-reading the field notes, making memos and summaries before formal analysis
begins.

Transcription is the process of converting audio or video-recorded data obtained
from interviews and focus groups as well as handwritten fieldnotes into verbatim
form.

After transcription, it is necessary to organise your data into sections that is easy
to retrieve.

Coding is the process of examining the raw qualitative data in the transcripts and
extracting sections of text units (words, phrases, sentences or paragraphs) and
assigning different codes.

Grounded theory is a method and approach in doing qualitative research. It is an
inductive method of qualitative research in which theory is systematically
generated from data.

The Framework analysis approach allows the researcher to set the categories and
themes from the beginning of the study.

SUMMARY


17

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. When would you us the grounded theory approach instead of the
framework analysis approach when analysing qualitative data?
2. What are some of the elements should you include when writing a
qualitative research report?
3. Conduct a 20 minute observation of a classroom (primary or secondary)
and jot down in a notebook whatever you see. Analyse the data using
either the grounded theory approach or the framework analysis approach.

KEY WORDS
Qualitative data
Analysis
Familiarisation
Organisation
Coding

Framework analysis approach
Thematic chart
Case chart
Grounded theory approach


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REFERENCES
Glaser, B. and Strauss, A. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. London:
Weidenfield & Nicolson.
Lacey, A. & Luff, D. (2001). Trent focus for research and development in primary health
care: An introduction to qualitative analysis. London: Trent Focus.
Lewins, A., Taylor, C. & Gibbs, G. (2005). What is qualitative data analysis? School of
Human & Health Sciences, University of Huddersfield. United Kingdome.
Strauss, A. (1987). Qualitative analysis for social scientists. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Strauss, A. and Corbin, J . (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory
procedures and techniques. London: Sage
Internet Resources:
1. Russell Bernard (1996) Qualitative Data, Quantitative Analysis. Cultural Anthropology
Methods Journal, Vol. 8 no. 1, 9-11.
http://web.missouri.edu/~anthgr/papers/Bernardqualquant.htm
2. Chapter 15: Qualitative Data Analysis
http://www.southalabama.edu/coe/bset/johnson/dr_johnson/lectures/lec17.pdf

3. Lindee Morgan. Module: Qualitative Data Analysis
http://comm2.fsu.edu/programs/commdis/ddseminar/QualitativeAnalysis.htm

4. Donald Ratcliff. 15 Methods of Data Analysis in Qualitative Research
http://www.vanguard.edu/uploadedFiles/faculty/dratcliff/qualresources/15methods.pdf

5. J ohn Carney and J oseph J oiner. Categorising, Coding and Manipulating Qualitative
Data Using the WordPerfect Word Processor. The Qualitative Report. 1997. 3(2).
http://www.nova.edu/sss/QR/QR3-1/carney.html

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