Materials Science and Engineering A 422 (2006) 278284

On the nonlinear elastic properties of textile reinforced concrete

under tensile loading including damage and cracking
Mike Richter

, Bernd W. Zastrau
Institute of Mechanics and Shell Structures, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Technische Universit at Dresden, D-01062 Dresden, Germany
Received 4 August 2005; received in revised form 7 February 2006; accepted 9 February 2006
Abstract
This paper is focussed on the description of the macroscopic nonlinear elastic material behaviour of textile reinforced concrete (TRC) using
an analytical approach. Damage and cracking of the composite are considered as well. The heterogeneous structure of TRC is modelled on the
mesoscopic level and the overall material behaviour on the macroscopic level is obtained by means of homogenisation. The analytical approach is
based on the micro-mechanical solution for a single inclusion according to Eshelby. In extension of this solution for multi-directionally reinforced
concrete an effective eld approximation is used. This approach allows the consideration of the interactions between the differently orientated
rovings and also between rovings and micro-cracks in an average sense. The micro-cracks are included in the mechanical model by using a micro-
crack density parameter. For the mechanical modelling of the bond behaviour between roving and matrix after the initiation of macro-cracking a
slip-based bond model with a multiple linear shear stressslip relation is introduced.
2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Textile reinforced concrete; Homogenisation; Effective eld approximation; Micro-crack density parameter; Slip-based bond model
1. Introduction
Textile reinforced concrete (TRC) is a composite of a so-
called ne grained concrete matrix and a textile reinforcement
which is used in the eld of civil engineering for the fabrication
of newstructural elements and the strengthening of existing con-
structions [2]. The textile reinforcement consists of rovings. A
roving is a bundle of a huge number of continuous laments.
The failure mechanisms of TRC are very complex. Most im-
portant are matrix-cracking, debonding of the roving from the
matrix and breaking of the laments and rovings [9]. The macro-
scopic material behaviour can be classied into a linear elastic
part for low loadings, micro-cracking and macro-cracking. The
nal failure of the composite occurs due to the breaking of the
rovings.
For the numerical simulation of textile reinforced structures
the concept of representative volume elements (RVE) is mean-
ingful. Therefore, the heterogeneous structure of TRC is anal-
ysed on the mesoscopic level and the macroscopic material be-

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mike.richter@tu-dresden.de (M. Richter).
haviour, characterized by the overall elasticity tensor

C, is ob-
tained by the process of homogenisation. In addition to the appli-
cation of numerical methods the RVE can be treated analytically
under consideration of appropriate mechanical assumptions. In
this paper analytical approaches are discussed. One advantage
of the analytical approach is the determination of the overall
macroscopic response of a RVE due to the macroscopic loading
without high numerical costs.
The overall elasticity tensor

Cis dened by the average stress
and the average strain . In the following the macroscopic
strain
0
is prescribed. This strain must be equal to the average
strain. Therewith the macroscopic constitutive relation can be
written as
=

C : =

C :
0
. (1)
The aim is the determination of

C which shall be demon-
strated in the following. The determined overall elasticity tensor

C can be used for integrated multi-scale analyses which do not

demand for a constitutive relation of the nonlinear elastic or in-
elastic material behaviour on the macroscopic level. For a given
macroscopic state of strain the mesoscopic mechanical model
of the heterogeneous RVE is solved directly.
0921-5093/$ see front matter 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.msea.2006.02.007
M. Richter, B.W. Zastrau / Materials Science and Engineering A 422 (2006) 278284 279
2. Linear elastic behaviour
For a low macroscopic loading the material behaviour is lin-
ear elastic. An RVE containing a homogeneous elastic matrix
and n elastic inclusions

is assumed. On the boundary V

of the RVE the linear displacement eld u
0
= x
0
, associated
withthe constant symmetric macroscopic strain
0
, is prescribed.
The denition of the overall elasticity tensor

C in Eq. (1) leads
with the volume averaging of the stresses and strains over the
RVE:
= f
m

m
+
n

=1
f

and =
0
= f
m

m
+
n

=1
f

,
(2)
and the local material behaviour of the inclusions and the matrix
to the relation [7]:
(

C C) :
0
=
n

=1
f

(C

C) :

, (3)
which can be used for the determination of

C. This result is ex-
act in the context of the given mechanical model (linear elastic
matrix and inclusions, homogeneous boundary conditions). C
is the elasticity tensor of the matrix, C

the elasticity tensor of

the inclusion ,

the average strain in the inclusions and f

the volume fraction of the inclusions. The problem is the deter-

mination of

, whose analytical determination is based on the

micro-mechanical solution for a single inclusion embedded
in an unconstrained elastic matrix with the far eld strain
0
as
derived by Eshelby [3]:

= (1 S : (1 D : C

))
1
:
0
, (4)
withthe Eshelbytensor Sandthe compliance tensor of the matrix
D = C
1
. 1 is the identity tensor of fourth order. Neglecting any
interactions between the inclusions (here the rovings), Eq. (3)
leads with Eq. (4) to the overall elasticity tensor

C:

C = C +
n

=1
f

((C

C)
1
+S

: D)
1
. (5)
This solution is well known and is called the solution for
dilute distributions or simple the dilute solution.
As a rst approximation Eq. (5) leads to appropriate results,
but for larger volume fractions f

of the inclusions the error

in

C increases. For large volume fractions of the inclusions the
assumption of the Eshelby-solution (the inclusion is situated
in an unconstrained matrix with the far eld strain
0
) is not
appropriate. The approach for the average strain

(see Eq.
(4)) can be improved by the assumption that the inclusions are
surrounded by a matrix with the average matrix strain
m
. Now

is given as

= (1 S : (1 D : C

))
1
:
m
. (6)
This approach is known as the effective eld approximation
(EFA) [6]. The average matrix strain
m
is unknown. If there
is only one type of inclusions , the average matrix strain can
be substituted by the average strain in the inclusion

and the
prescribed macroscopic strain
0
. This problem can be solved
easily and leads to an improved solution for the overall elastic-
ity tensor for an RVE consisting of a matrix and one type of
inclusions, see e.g. [7].
In the case of a multi-directional reinforcement we have a
matrix reinforced with different rovings (e.g. different cross sec-
tions) of different orientations. The solution of this problem is
more complicated, but a closed form analytical solution for

C
can be found as well [9]. Each different inclusion

(here the
different rovings) is assumed to be in a matrix with the still
unknown average matrix strain
m
which can be substituted by
means of the volume average:

0
= f
m

m
+
n

=1
f

. (7)
The volume fraction of the matrix f
m
is known by
f
m
+
n

=1
f

= 1. (8)
With Eqs. (7) and (8) the formulation of Eq. (6) for each
individual inclusion

( = 1, . . . , n) leads to a system of n
equations. As shown in [9] the average strains

in the n indi-
vidual inclusions can be formulated depending on the prescribed
macroscopic strain
0
:

+
n

=1,=
f

(K

1)
1
: (K

1)

1
:
0
,
(9)
with the fourth order tensors K

:
K

= (f
m
+f

)1 f
m
S

: (1 D : C

). (10)
With Eq. (9), Eq. (3) leads to an equation for the direct compu-
tation of the overall elasticity tensor for a composite of a matrix
and n different inclusions

C = C +
n

=1
f

(C

C) :

+
n

=1,=
f

(K

1)
1
: (K

1)

1
.
(11)
This solution leads to better results than Eq. (5), because it
considers the interactions between the different inclusions (e.g.
the differently orientated rovings) in an average sense.
As a short example the results of a homogenised bidirectional
reinforced concrete matrix shall be given. The concrete matrix
is assumed to be isotropic (E
m
= 30, 000 N/mm
2
,
m
= 0.2).
The embedded roving as a loose bundle of a huge number of
continuous laments is idealised as a cylinder with only a longi-
tudinal stiffness (E
r
= 76, 000 N/mm
2
). It acts transverse to its
axis like a hole. Fig. 1 shows the overall Youngs modulus

E
3
280 M. Richter, B.W. Zastrau / Materials Science and Engineering A 422 (2006) 278284
Fig. 1. Overall Youngs modulus

E
3
of a bidirectionally reinforced matrix de-
pending on the roving orientation.
in x
3
direction depending on the roving orientation , plotted
in polar coordinates. For a given angle , the Youngs modulus
can be read as radius. Two volume fractions of reinforcement
are analysed: 2.5 and 5 vol.%per direction. For comparison also
the Youngs modulus of the homogeneous concrete is plotted.
The continuous lines are for an idealised compact roving. But in
reality there are air lled spacings between the laments. Micro-
mechanical investigations show a realistic packing density of
about 60%, which results in the dashed curves.
The results in Fig. 1 have been determined using Eq. (11).
Thereby the average interactions between the two differently
orientated rovings are considered. For small angles the overall
modulus of the composite is larger than the modulus of the bulk
concrete matrix, but for large angles the modulus of the compos-
ite is smaller. The reason for the decrease of

E
3
is the structure
of the roving consisting of single laments which are bundled
in a loose manner. This special behaviour of the roving rein-
forcement is considered directly by the presented model. Using
the given equations for

C in Eq. (5) or (11) it is not necessary
to distinguish manually, if the RVE is loaded in a way that
the rovings act reinforcing or like a hole. The inuence of the
rovings on the overall macroscopic material behaviour is con-
sidered automatically by the idealisation of the roving as a
cylinder with only a longitudinal stiffness.
For a particular angle, the Youngs modulus of the reinforced
material is the same as of the homogeneous concrete matrix.
As expected, this particular angle is independent of the volume
fraction of the rovings. Using the more simplifying approach
Eq. (5) this angle varies with the volume fraction. If a realistic
packing density of about 60% is assumed, the Youngs modulus

E
3
decreases. The decrease of

E
3
is larger for large angles .
These results show that the roving reinforcement can lower the
overall stiffness, too. This fact was observed by tension experi-
ments of textile reinforced concrete. Nowthe measured data can
be veried by the discussed appropriate mechanical model.
3. Micro-cracks
If the matrix stress exceeds a critical value, micro-cracks are
developing. In the sense of homogenisation this means that we
obtain an additional strain
c
due to the micro-cracks. If we had
a non-reinforced matrix containing micro-cracks, the average
strain equal to the prescribed macroscopic strain
0
can be
written as

0
= =
m
+
c
. (12)
The strain
c
can be expressed by the denition of a fourth
order tensor J
c
and the prescribed macroscopic strain
0
[7]:

c
= J
c
:
0
. (13)
For given states of macroscopic strains
0
the strain due to
the micro-cracks
c
can be calculated by integrating the crack
opening displacement which is known fromfracture mechanical
approaches. Evaluating Eq. (13) for different states of
0
leads
to the components of J
c
, for details see e.g. [7] or [9].
Textile reinforced structures are very thin, and it can be as-
sumed that the micro-cracks are slit-like and proceed through the
complete thickness. The strain due to the micro-cracks
c
which
we calculate from the crack opening displacement depends on
two independent geometrical variables: the number of cracks in
the analysed area and the crack length. But in all expressions we
always get the product of the total number of cracks per unit area
N
c
and the squared half crack length a
2
c
, so it seems obviously
to dene a new parameter f
c
:
f
c
= N
c
a
2
c
, (14)
which we call crack density parameter. This model parameter
allows the characterisation of the evolution of the micro-cracks
with one parameter. In the case of slit-like micro-cracks in the
(x
1
,x
2
)-plane with x
1
as the out-of-plane axis we obtain the fol-
lowing non-zero components of J
c
:
J
c
3322
= f
c

( +1)( 3)
4( 1)
H(
33
),
J
c
3333
= f
c

( +1)
2
4( 1)
H(
33
), J
c
2323
= f
c

( +1)
4
,
J
c
3131
= f
c
. (15)
The Heaviside function H considers that normal to the crack
surface only tensile stresses induce a crack opening (the x
3
-axis
is normal to the crack surface). is the elastic material parameter
of plane strain and plane stress:
=

3 4, for plane strain;

3
1+
, for plane stress.
(16)
If the matrix contains n different types of micro-cracks
with different lengths a
c,
, f
c
as overall crack density parameter
of the RVE can be obtained as the sum of all individual crack
density parameters f
c,
:
f
c
=
n

=1
f
c,
=
n

=1
N
c,
a
2
c,
. (17)
In concrete there are a lot of micro-cracks with different
lengths and different distances. The exact arrangement of the
cracks is unknown. Using the micro-crack density parameter,
M. Richter, B.W. Zastrau / Materials Science and Engineering A 422 (2006) 278284 281
knowledge about the exact geometry and the distribution of the
cracks is not necessary. This is a great advantage of this model,
however, the calculation of stress singularities is not possible.
The evolution of the micro-crack density parameter can be
described as follows. With increasing macroscopic strain
0
also
the matrix strain
m
is increasing. If the matrix strain exceeds its
mechanical limit, micro-cracks are developing. Because the ma-
trix strain
m
cannot increase anymore with increasing macro-
scopic loading
0
, the strain
c
due to the micro-cracks must
increase, see Eq. (12). The strain
c
can be expressed in terms of
the micro-crack density parameter f
c
(Eqs. (13) and (15)) and
we obtain the evolution of f
c
depending on the macroscopic
strain
0
. Hence, f
c
is a good model parameter for the charac-
terisation of the current state of the matrix damage due to the
micro-cracks. This parameter is not reversible.
In the sense of the analytical homogenisation it is assumed,
that there are no direct interactions between the micro-cracks
themselves and between micro-cracks and rovings, but as dis-
cussed in the previous section one can apply an effective eld
approximation. This approach allows the consideration of in-
teractions in an average sense. In comparison to Eq. (13) it is
assumed that the micro-cracks are surrounded by a matrix with
the still unknown average matrix strain
m
. Hence, the additional
strain due to the micro-cracks is given by

c
= J
c
:
m
. (18)
Let us consider an RVE of a thin layer of a bidirectionally
reinforced concrete matrix with a number of micro-cracks (Fig.
2). The boundary of the RVE is loaded by the linear displace-
ment eld u
0
= x
0
, associated with the prescribed constant
macroscopic strain
0
. Applying the effective eld approxima-
tion, the average strains
1
und
2
of the rovings in directions 1
and 2 and the additional average strain due to the micro-cracks

c
can be expressed in terms of the still unknown average matrix
strain
m
:

1
= (1 S
1
: (1 D : C
1
))
1
:
m
, (19a)
Fig. 2. Bidirectionally reinforced matrix with micro-cracks.

2
= (1 S
2
: (1 D : C
2
))
1
:
m
, (19b)

c
= J
c
:
m
. (19c)
With the volume averaging (cp. Eq. (12)):

0
= f
m

m
+f
1

1
+f
2

2
+
c
, (20)

m
can be substituted by the prescribed macroscopic strain
0
,
the average strains in the rovings and the additional strain due
to the micro-cracks. C
1
, C
2
, S
1
and S
2
are the elasticity tensors
and the Eshelby tensors of the rovings in directions 1 and 2. The
volume fractions of the matrix and the rovings are f
m
, f
1
and
f
2
with:
f
m
+f
1
+f
2
= 1. (21)
Solving the system of Eqs. (19) and (20) leads to an equation
for the overall elasticity tensor

C:

C = C +f
1
(C
1
C) :

K
1
+

f
2
(K
2
f
2
1)
1
+
1
f
m
J
c

:
(K
1
f
1
1)

1
+f
2
(C
2
C) :

K
2
+

f
1
(K
1
f
1
1)
1
+
1
f
m
J
c

:
(K
2
f
2
1)

1
f
m
J
c
:

1
f
m
J
c
+1
+f
1
(K
1
f
1
1)
1
+f
1
(K
2
f
2
1)
1

1
, (22)
with
K
1
= (f
m
+f
1
)1 f
m
S
1
: (1 D : C
1
), (23a)
K
2
= (f
m
+f
2
)1 f
m
S
2
: (1 D : C
2
). (23b)
Eq. (22) considers the average interactions between the dif-
ferent types of rovings and the micro-cracks. Hence, it represents
a consequential enhancement of the common assumptions of di-
lute distributions of the constituents and reduces the failure of
the analytical homogenisation for increasing volume fractions
of rovings and micro-cracks.
The micro-crack density parameter f
c
increases with increas-
ing prescribed macroscopic strain
0
. This means, the micro-
cracks are growing and new cracks are developing, respectively.
With increasing micro-crack density parameter also the compo-
nents of the tensor J
c
are increasing (see Eq. (15)). Hence, the
resulting material behaviour in Eq. (22) is non-linear [9].
4. Macro-cracks and rovingmatrix bond
In the mechanical model it is assumed, that the micro-
cracks join to macro-cracks if the micro-crack density parameter
reaches a critical value. Fig. 3 shows a cracked RVE with crack-
bridging rovings under the prescribed macroscopic strain
0
3
.
The macro-crack proceeds through the entire element. For this
conguration the average strain of the RVE
3
in x
3
-direction
282 M. Richter, B.W. Zastrau / Materials Science and Engineering A 422 (2006) 278284
Fig. 3. Cracked representative volume element with crack-bridging rovings.
is the volume average of the strains of the rovings
r
3
and the
matrix
m
3
plus an additional strain due to the macro-crack
mc
3
:

3
= f
r
3
+(1 f)
m
3
+
mc
3
, (24)
and the average stress
3
is the volume average of the stresses
of the rovings
r
3
and the matrix
m
3
:

3
= f
r
3
+(1 f)
m
3
, (25)
with f as volume fraction of the crack-bridging rovings. The
solutionof this one-dimensional problemleads toanequationfor
the overall Youngs modulus

E
3
as a function of the prescribed
macroscopic strain
0
3
[9]:

E
3
(
0
3
) =

3

3
= fE
r
P l

l
0
N
r
(x
3
)dx
3
. (26)
Herein, E
r
is the Youngs modulus of the roving, N
r
(x
3
) the
function of the roving normal force and P the roving normal
force at the macro-crack. P and N
r
depend on the prescribed
macroscopic strain. The determination of these values requires
the solution of the roving pullout from the matrix.
If the matrix is cracked, the bond between roving and matrix
is the most essential criterion for the determination of the overall
macroscopic material behaviour of the composite. Therefore, the
modelling of the rovingmatrix bond is of particular importance.
For an appropriate modelling of the constitutive relation of the
composite the interface bond model should be physically mo-
tivated based on the determined microstructural characteristics.
Micromechanical investigations show that the debonding of the
roving fromthe matrix proceeds in a porous cement layer around
the roving [1]. This cement layer develops during the produc-
tion process. If the roving is pulled out at the macro-crack rst
a partly damaged bond zone and with increasing pullout also a
debonded zone develops. In the damaged bond zone the shear
stress is transferred by adhesion mainly and in the debonded
zone by friction.
The material behaviour of this rovingmatrix interface can be
modelled by the introduction of a slip-based bond model with a
shear stressslip relation (s) [8,10]. Fig. 4 shows the mechani-
cal model of a slip-based rovingmatrix bond. The transferable
shear stress inthe interface depends onthe slips at this position.
The slip is the relative displacement between roving and matrix.
For the differential element in Fig. 4 the governing differential
Fig. 4. Mechanical model of a slip-based rovingmatrix bond.
equation for the slip can be formulated:
d
2
s(x)
dx
2
=

1
E
r
A
r
+
1
E
m
A
m

u
r
[s(x)]. (27)
The shear stressslip relation in this equation is the mate-
rial behaviour of the rovingmatrix interface. Different shear
stressslip relations exist. Because of the intended analytical ho-
mogenisation, a multiple linear approach is used. This approach
allows a closed form analytical solution of the bond problem
[8,10]. At least three linear sections are necessary to consider
the perfect bond zone, the partly damaged bond zone and the
completely debonded zone, see Fig. 5. The exact function of the
shear stressslip relation can be determined by pullout experi-
ments. Thereby the closed formanalytical solution of the pullout
problem is very advantageously [8].
With the mechanical modelling of the macro-cracking and
the incorporated debonding of the roving from the matrix now
the overall macroscopic material behaviour of textile reinforced
concrete under tensile loading until the nal failure of the com-
posite can be determined. By the example of a tensile specimen
the application of the presented analytical model shall be shown.
Fig. 5. General multiple linear shear stressslip relation.
M. Richter, B.W. Zastrau / Materials Science and Engineering A 422 (2006) 278284 283
Fig. 6. Sketch of a tensile specimen.
5. Application to a tensile specimen
The tensile specimen has a length of 500 mm and a width of
100 mm. The thickness is only 8 mm. The specimen is loaded in
tension by means of clamped joints at both ends and the elon-
gation is measured between two measurement marks 200 mm
apart. Thus we have a measurement area of 200 mm100 mm,
see Fig. 6. In the mechanical model the whole measurement area
is analysed as one RVE. Thus, one gets multiple macro-cracking.
In this example, the specimen is reinforced with three lay-
ers of glass rovings with a yarn count of 310 tex and a dis-
tance between the rovings of 3 mm. The volume fraction of
Fig. 7. Shear stressslip relation of the interface between a glass roving of
310 tex and a ne grained concrete matrix.
Fig. 8. Macroscopic material behaviour of the tensile specimencomparison
between measurement and analytical solution.
the rovings is 1.4%. The elastic properties of roving and ma-
trix are given: E
r
= 76, 000 N/mm
2
, E
m
= 30, 000 N/mm
2
and

m
= 0.2. The Poissons ratio of the roving is irrelevant. For
the failure of the composite also the ultimate tensile stresses of
roving and matrix have to be known:
ru
= 1300 N/mm
2
and

mu
= 7 N/mm
2
. The packing density of a roving with a yarn
count of 310 tex is approximately 60% [4]. The shear stress
slip relation of the interface (Fig. 7) was determined by roving
pullout experiments.
Fig. 8 shows the comparison between measurement and an-
alytical solution. All measured data are provided by the Son-
derforschungsbereich (SFB) 528 at the Technische Universi at
Dresden [4]. The analytical solution includes the linear elas-
tic behaviour, the nonlinear micro-cracking and the multiple
macro-cracking and shows the applicability of the presented an-
alytical model. As shown in Fig. 8, the analytical simulation
is in good agreement with the measured data, although some
simplifying assumptions in the mechanical model had to be in-
troduced.
6. Summary
Textile reinforced concrete is a composite with a very com-
plex material behaviour. Macroscopic structures can be com-
puted by the application of multi-scale algorithms. Integrated
multi-scale algorithms, which do not need a complicated consti-
tutive relationship on the macroscopic level, are advantageous.
For each increment of the macroscopic loading the heteroge-
neous structure of an RVE on the mesoscopic or microscopic
level is analysed, followed by the homogenisation of the RVE.
The disadvantage of an integrated algorithm is the high numer-
ical cost. Here, analytically solvable mechanical models are
meaningful. Analytical approaches require some appropriate
mechanical assumptions, but they allow the determination of
the overall macroscopic response of the RVE due to the macro-
scopic loading without high numerical costs.
In this paper an analytical model has been presented which
can determine the overall macroscopic material behaviour of
textile reinforced concrete including the micro- and macro-
cracking. The presented model enhances the usual analytical
homogenisation to a multi-directionally reinforced matrix with
micro-cracks. Interactions between the rovings and the micro-
cracks themselves and between rovings and micro-cracks are
considered in an average sense. This leads to better results than
the ones provided by the simple dilute solution. Also, the spe-
cial behaviour of the roving as a loose bundle of a huge num-
ber of continuous laments can be described by the analyti-
cal model. It was shown, that a reinforcement with rovings can
also lower the overall stiffness of the composite. For the me-
chanical modelling of the rovingmatrix interface a slip-based
bond model with an analytically solvable shear stressslip re-
lation was introduced. This approach allows the extension of
the analytical model to the development of macro-cracks in-
cluding the following debonding of the roving from the matrix
and the incorporated roving pullout. As shown by an example,
the analytical simulation is in good agreement with measured
data.
284 M. Richter, B.W. Zastrau / Materials Science and Engineering A 422 (2006) 278284
Further enhancements, which can improve the analytical
models are in progress. E.g. the modelling of the roving as a
homogeneous cylinder may be too simplied. It may be mean-
ingful to differentiate between core and sleeve laments in the
roving or to implement an adhesive cross linkage approach [5].
Furthermore, it is investigated to consider the effect of the re-
inforcement on crack propagation using a fracture mechanical
approach and to extend the model to unloading and cyclic load-
ing.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the nancial support
of this research from Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG
(German Research Foundation) within the Sonderforschungs-
bereich SFB 528 (Collaborative Research Center) Textile Re-
inforcement for Structural Strengthening and Retrotting at
Technische Universit at Dresden as well as their colleagues for
providing all experimental data.
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