Preface

Chapter I
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
CONTENTS
PART ONE. THE LANGUAGE AND
APPROACH OF SCIENCE
vii
Science and the Scientific Approach J
Science and common sense. Four methods of knowing.
Science and its functions. The aims of science,
scientific explanation, and theory. Scientific
research-a definition. The scientific approach.
Problems and Hypotheses 18
Problems. Hypotheses. The importance of problems
and hypotheses. Virtues of problems and hypotheses.
Problems, values, and definitions. Generality and
specificity of problems and hypotheses. Concluding
remarks-the special power of hypotheses. Study
suggestions.
Constructs, Variables, and Definitions
Concepts and constructs. Variables. Constitutive
and operational definitions of constructs and
variables. Types of variables. Constructs,
observables, and intervening variables. Study
suggestions.
31
Sampling and Randomness 51
Sampling and random sampling. Randomness. The
principle of randomization. Random assignment.
Sample size. Study suggestions.
xiii
xiv CONTENTS
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
PART TWO. SETS, RELATIONS,
AND VARIANCE
Sets
Subsets. Set operations. The universal and empty
sets; set negation. Set diagrams. Set operations
with more than two sets. Partitions and cross
partitions. Levels of discourse. Study suggestions.
Relations
Relations as sets of ordered pairs. Determining
relations in research. Rules of correspondence and
mapping. Functions. Somt' ways to show relations.
Study suggestions.
Variance
Computation of means and variances. Kinds of
variance. Components of variance. Covariance.
Common factor variance.
PART THREE. PROBABILITY AND
STATISTICAL INFERENCE
67
80
93
Probability 1 J r
Definition of probability. Sample space, sample
points, and events. Determining probabilities with
coins. An experiment with dice. A compound
experiment. Some formal theory. Compound events
and their probabilities. Independence, mutual
exclusion, and exhaustiveness. Conditional
probability. Study suggestions.
Statistics: Purpose, Approach, and Method 141
The basic approach. Definition and purposes of
statistics. Statistical significance and the X
2
test.
Levels of statistical significance. Statement of the
statistical problem. Binomial statistics. The variance.
The law of large numbers. The normal probability
curve and the standard deviation. Interpretation of
data using the normal probability curve-frequency
data. Interpretation of data using the normal
probability curve-continuous data.
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
CONTENTS xv
Statistics: The Standard Error
and Testing Hypotheses 169
Examples: differences between means. Examples:
correlation coefficients. The general nature of a
standard error. A research example. Statistical
inference. Study suggestions.
Analysis of Variance: Foundations 187
Variance breakdown: a simple example. Another
method of analysis. An example of a statistically
significant difference. Computation of one-way
analysis of variance. Two research examples.
Strength of relations: correlation and the analysis
of variance. Components of variance. Study
suggestions.
Analysis of Variance: Factorial Analysis 213
Research examples. A simple fictitious example.
The meaning of interaction. Factorial analysis of
variance with three or more variables. Goals of
factorial analysis of variance. Factorial analysis of
variance and precision. Some research examples.
A further word on interaction. A note of caution.
Study suggestions.
Analysis of Variance: Correlated Groups
or Subjects 242
Definition of the problem. Extracting variances by
subtraction. Applications to educational settings.
Study suggestions.
N onparametric Statistics 257
Parametric and nonparametric statIstIcs. Non-
parametric analysis of variance and measures of
association. Study suggestions.
PART FOUR. DESIGNS OF RESEARCH
Research Design: Meaning, Purpose,
and Principles
Purposes of research design. Research design as
variance control. Maximization of experimental
variance. Control of extraneous variables.
Minimization of error variance.
275
xvi CONTENTS
Chapter 16
Chapter 17
Chapter 18
Chapter 19
Chapter 20
Chapter 21
General Designs of Research: "Poor" Designs 290
Experimental and ex post facto approaches. Faulty
designs. Characteristics lacking in "poor" research
designs.
General Designs of Research: "Good" Designs 301
Adequate designs. The notion of the control group.
Matching-pro and con. Variants of basic designs.
Experimental and nonexperimental research. Study
suggestions.
Research Design and Applications:
Randomized Groups 322
Simple randomized subjects design. Factorial designs.
Evaluation of randomized subjects designs. Study
suggestions.
Research Design and Applications:
Correlated Groups
The general paradigm. Research examples of two-
group designs. Multigroup, correlated-groups de-
signs. Factorial correlated-groups designs. Analysis
of covariance. A procedural description of
analysis of covariance. Research design and
analysis: concluding remarks. Study suggestions.
PART FIVE. TYPES OF RESEARCH
Ex Post Facto Research
Basic difference between experimental research
and ex post facto research. Control and ex post
facto research. Self-selection and ex post facto
research. Large-scale ex post facto research. Small-
scale ex post facto research. Testing alternative or
"control" hypotheses. Evaluation of ex post facto
research. Conclusions. Study suggestions.
Laboratory Experiments, Field Experiments,
and Field Studies
A laboratory experiment: Sherif's studies of group
influence on norms. A field experiment: Verplanck's
study of the reinforcement of opinion statements.
A field study: Newcomb's Bennington College
337
359
375
Chapter 22
Chapter 23
Chapter 24
Chapter 25
Introduction
Chapter 26
CONTENTS xvii
study. Characteristics and criteria of laboratory
experiments, field experiments, and field studies.
The field experiment. Field studies.
Survey Research 392
A definition of survey research. Types of surveys.
The methodology of survey research. Two studies.
Applications of survey research to education.
Advantages and disadvantages of survey research.
PART SIX. MEASUREMENT
Foundations of Measurement
Definition of measurement. Measurement and
"reality" isomorphism. Properties, constructs, and
indicants of objects. Levels of measurement and
scaling. Comparisons of scales: practical consid-
erations and statistics.
411
Reliability 429
Definitions of reliability. Theory of reliability. The
interpretation of the reliability coefficient. The
standard error of the mean and the standard error
of measurement. The improvement of reliability.
The value of reliability.
Validity 444
Types of validity. A variance definition of validity:
the variance relation of reliability and validity.
The validity and reliability of psychological and
educational measurement instruments. Study
suggestions.
PART SEVEN. METHODS OF OESER-
V ATION AND DATA COLLECTION
Interviews and Interview Schedules
Interviews and schedules as tools of science. The
interview schedule. The value of interviews and
interview schedules. Study suggestions.
467
xviii CONTENTS
Chapter 27
Chapter 28
Chapter 29
Chapter 30
Chapter 31
Chapter 32
Chapter 33
Objective Tests and Scales
Tests and scales: definitions. Types of objective
measures. Choice and construction of objective
measures. Types of objective scales and items.
Evaluation of objective tests and scales. Study
suggestions.
479
Observations of Behavior 503
Problems of observation of behavior. Characteristics
of observations. Rating scales. Examples of
observation systems. Assessment of behavioral
observation. Study suggestions.
Projective Methods 525
A classification of projective measures. Projective
techniques and behavioral research: an assessment.
Available Materials and Content Analysis 539
Uses of available materials. Content analysis.
Research examples of content analysis. Some aspects
of method in content analysis. Use of content analysis
and available materials in psychological and
educational research.
Sociometry 554
Sociometry: a definition. Methods of sociometric
analysis. Some research applications of sociometry.
Sociometric measurement in social scientific
and educational research. Study suggestions.
The Semantic Differential 564
The construction and use of the semantic
differential. Format and administration of the
semantic differential. Analysis of semantic dif-
ferential data. Some research uses of the semantic
differential. The semantic differential in behavioral
research.
Q Methodology
Theory; structured and unstructured Q sorts;
analysis of variance. Factor analysis and factor
arrays in Q methodology. Strengths and weak-
nesses of Q methodology. Q methodology in
social scientific and educational research.
Study suggestions.
581
Chapter 34
Chapter 35
Chapter 36
Appendixes
Indexes
CONTENTS xix
PART EIGHT. ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION
Principles of Analysis and Interpretation 603
Definitions. Frequencies and continuous measures.
The five rules of categorization. Statistical
presentation and analysis. Indices. The interpre-
tation of research data. Study suggestions.
The Analysis of Cross breaks 624
Crossbreaks: definitions and purpose. Simple cross-
breaks and rules for cross break construction.
Types of crossbreaks and tables. Crossbreaks,
relations, ordered pairs, graphing.
Study suggestions.
Factor Analysis 650
A hypothetical example. Factor matrices and factor
loadings. Some factor theory. Graphical repre-
sentation of factors and factor loadings. Methods
of factor analysis. Research examples. Factor
analysis and scientific psychological and
educational research. Study suggestions.
A. The Research Report 690
B. Historical and Methodological Research 698
C. The Electronic Digital Computer
and Behavioral Research 703
Authors Cited 7H
Subject Matter 717