POWER DISTRIBUTION

AT
NUCLEAR FUEL COMPLEX
PROJECT REPORT
BY
Varshini lingam
Ansha !h"nnri
M"ra# Fa$ima
S%&#an'a
UNDER T(E ESTEEMED )UIDANCE OF
B*S*V*S*+AMESWARA RAO
EE, El"!$ri!al -r%#"!$s*
NUCLEAR FUEL COMPLEX
DEPARTMENT OF ATOMIC ENER)Y
(YDERABAD
1
DEPARTMENT OF ATOMIC
ENERGY
NUCLEAR FUEL COMPLEX
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that N*S%#an'a has done her ro!ect "or# $nder %y
&$idance d$rin& the eriod fro% '()'*)+''( to ,')'*)+''( on the toic
entit-ed STUDY OF POWER DISTRIBUTION.A !as" s$/' a$ a l%a/ !"n$"r
at NUCLEAR FUEL COMPLEX.
It is ensured that the report does not contain classifed or plant operational live data in any
form.
/YDERA0AD 1i&nat$re2
Date: Name :
Desi&nation of the2
G$ide
P-ant2
Aro3ed 4y
The %ana&er of the -ant Office sea-
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2
We wish to express our deep sense of gratitude to the management of Nuclear
Fuel Complex, Mr D RAMAKRI!NA "!RD# for pro$iding all the facilities to
undergo training
We are highl% inde&ted to Sri. B.S.V.S.KAMESWARA RAO, EE, Electrical
projects for his $alua&le suggestions during the training period
We than' Ms.D.V.V.Rekha, SO (D), Electrical projects for gi$ing us guidance and
co(operation which ha$e helped us in ma'ing our tas' eas%)
We would li'e to extend our sincere than's to Mr.P.V.V.Rama Rao, !ead of
the Department, *lectrical and *lectronics *ngineering, +irumala *ngineering
College for his encouragement and support)
Finall%, we are o&liged to all the persons who are responsi&le for the successful
completion of our pro,ect)
Varshini lingam
Anusha chennuri
Mer
aj Fatima
So
jan!
3
!DE"
C-N+*N+ .A/* N-)
. #S$OR% O& !&'(((((((((((((((((((((( )*+
.POWER DS$RB,$O!*-E!ERA.
Distri&ution s%stems((((((((((((((((((((((.. /*01
u&(stations((((((((((((((((((((((((((. 02*03
Ca&les((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 04*0+
.rotecti$e rela%s((((((((((((((((((((((((... 0/*)2
Neutral grounding((((((((((((((((((((((((. )3*)4
.rotection against surges(((((((((((((((((((((.. )5*16
+ransformers((((((((((((((((((((((((((.. 10*3)
0us&ars(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((. 31*33
Isolators(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((. 34
Fuses((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((.. 35*3/
Circuit &rea'ers(((((((((((((((((((((((((( 46*4/
.POWER DS$RB,$O! ! !&'((((((((((((((((... 56*064
V.POWER &A'$OR MPROVEME!$(((((((((((((((( 065*0)1
4
#S$OR% O& !&'7
+oda% India is one of the handful countries which ha$e achie$ed the capa&ilit% to design,
construct, operate and commission nuclear power plants and all nuclear fuel c%cle facilities entirel%
through indigenous efforts) It has uni1ue facilities in the world, which has all the fuel and core
structural components, production and fa&rication facilities all under one roof) +he contri&ution of
NFC to the nuclear power scenario in India has &een one of the greatest significance)
NFC was concei$ed &% Dr) !-MI 2A!AN/IR 0!A0!A to ma'e India self sufficient in
the nuclear power technolog% using natural uranium) 3ocated near the famous shrine of Moula(Ali
at !%dera&ad, NFC is spread o$er an area of 456 acres7 it is a uni1ue center in the world where
reactor fuel and other reactor core components are manufactured under one roof starting from ore
concrete to finished read%(to(use products) .roduction acti$it% in its $arious plants was started in
the earl% se$enties it has around 8666 personnel) NFC was esta&lished in the %ear 49:; to cater the
re1uirements of fuel and <ircalo% hardware for all the power reactors in the countr%)
NFC is the industrial unit of Department of Atomic *nerg% "DA*# at !%dera&ad, has &een
pla%ing a 'e% role in fuel c%cle and nuclear power program for peaceful use of atomic energ% from
the last ;5 %ears) NFC is perhaps the onl% industr% in the world where under one roof natural,
enriched and depleted uranium oxide pellets, reactor grade <irconium sponge and <irconium allo%
components for .!WR "pressuri<ed hea$% water reactor# and 0WR "&oiling water reactor# fuel
assem&lies for .!WR=s and 0WR=s stainless steel cladding tu&es and core assem&lies for li1uid
water cooled fast &reeder reactors and thorium pellets and assem&lies for .!WR and 3MF0R are
manufactured) +he other products of NFC are special and high purit% materials li'e sodium oxide,
tantalum oxide and sodium and tantalum metals, high purit% gallium, sil$er gas'ets and a wide
$ariet% of stainless steel, titanium and its allo%s for nuclear and non(nuclear applications)
5
'ORE DA-RAM O& !&'7
NFC
FUEL
FOR
PHWR
ZIRCONIUM
ALLOY CORE
COMPONENTS
SEAMLESS
S.S
ALLOY STEEL
&TITANIUM
TUBESt
FUEL
FOR
FBR
FUEL
FOR
FBR
ZIRCONIUM
& TITANIUM
ALLOY
COMPONENTS
SPECIAL &
HIGH
PURITY
METERIALS
ORE
TO
CORE
ALL UNDER ONE ROOF

PROD,'$O! A'$V$ES O& !&'
6
4) .roduction of nuclear fuel &undles for Indian power reactors &oth pressuri<ed hea$% water
and &oiling t%pes)
>) .roduction of <ircalo% reactor core components such as fuel tu&es, coolant tu&es, c%lindrical
tu&es i)e), seamless tu&es)
;) .roduction of $er% high purit% i)e) 99)99? materials for electronics and other industries)
8) NFC produces seamless stainless tu&es of $arious dimensions and &all &earing tu&es also)
5) While planning for the acti$ities the department ta'es care of occupational health%, safet%,
fire production s%stems, and medical facilities)
NFC has different t%pes of production plants, which include the following@
8R'O!,M O"DE P.A!$ (8OP) for the production of <ircon to pure <irconium
oxide)
8R'O!,M SPO!-E P.A!$ (8SP) for the production of <irconium sponge)
8R'O!,M &ABR'A$O! P.A!$ (8&P) for melting allo%ing, &illet preparation,
extrusion of <ircalo% tu&es and fa&rication of <irconium components)
,RA!,M O"DE P.A!$ (,OP) for processing of crude uranium concentrates to pure
uranium dioxide pellets and assem&ling fuel &undles for the .!WR=s
E!R'#ED ,RA!,M O"DE P.A!$ (E,OP) for processing imported enriched
uranium)
SPE'A. MA$ERA. P.A!$ (SMP) for producing a num&er of electronic grade high
purit% materials)
S$A!.ESS S$EE. $,BE P.A!$ (SS$P) producing seamless tu&es and other special
tu&es)
'ERAM' &,E. &ABR'A$O! P.A!$ ('&&P), the Aranium -xide powder is
fa&ricated in to pellets as in the case of 0WR fuel)
+here are new plants set up &% NFC to meet the future re1uirements li'e the NBF., NA-F., and
NAFA. of nuclear fuel for the .!WR= of the countr%) +he total acti$ities of NFC dealing with
high technolog% the core man power has mostl% come from 0RAC training school set up in
trom&a% in 495:)
NFC is multi disciplinar% acti$it% and one of its own 'inds in the world where all acti$ities
for ma'ing nuclear fuel from uranium concentrate to uranium oxide, from <ircon sand to <irconium
metal and fa&rication of <ircalo% shapes and finall% the fuel elements are housed at one place under
one management) +he setting up of this multi disciplinar% complex was the responsi&ilit% of
0ARC)Control la&orator% was also set up to meet the re1uirements of testing, anal%sis and 1ualit%
control for $arious plants)

-ther facilities li'e 1ualit% control, wor'shop, effluent management, waste treatment
facilities, etc were esta&lished) +he main o&,ecti$e of forming of NFC was to create an organi<ation
to meet the future re1uirements of fuel for nuclear power program) +he important feature at NFC is
that apart from indigenous process de$elopment, a good portion of that plant for chemical
extraction and extracti$e metallurgical operations has &een indigenousl% designed and fa&ricated &%
the Indian industries)

+he Indian nuclear power program is &ased on three stages) trateg% lin'ing the closed fuel
c%cle of .!WR=s in the first stage and li1uid metal cooled fast &reeder reactions in the second stage
and ad$anced hea$% water reactors in the third stage i)e) de$elopment of reactor &ased on A(>;;
fuel o&tained from irradiated thorium)
NFC has arranged to send &ac' regularl% the products arising out of uranium operation to
uranium corporation of India 3td)"ACI3#, 2aduguda, where mining of uranium ore is carried out)
NFC also exports the <irconium components and e$en nuclear fuel su&,ect to appropriate condition
on the end use)
&A'.$ES A$ !&'
&ABR'A$O! &A'.$ES &OR PRESS,RSED #EAV% WA$ER REA'$OR &,E.7
+he Indian nuclear program is mainl% on .!WR) +his t%pe of reactors are found in
Kalpa''am in +N, Narora in A)., Kota in Ra,asthan, Ka'rapar in /u,arat India which can produce
a total power generation capacit% of 4666MW &% the end of the centur%) +he fuel for these reactors
consists of natural uranium dioxide "A-># pellets canned in thin walls of <ircalo% tu&es) .ure A->
is produced from crude magnesium di(urinate "MDA# concentrate recei$ed from ACI3, 2aduguda
0ihar) MDA is treated through sol$ent extraction, precipitation, calcinations and reduction stages to
o&tained nuclear grade uranium oxide powder) +he A-> is compacted into c%lindrical pellets and
sintered at a high pressure and 4:66CC) +he sintered pellets are then center less ground to precise
dimensions and loaded in <ircalo% tu&es which are then hermiticall% sealed &% resistance winding,
49 such pins are assem&led in specific and precise configuration in the form of &undles) ;D:>
&undles are re1uired towards one full charge of a >;5MW power reactor) All the fuel &undles
!
re1uired for .!WR &oth for initial loading and for replacement are fa&ricated and supplied from
NFC)
PROD,'$O! O& 8R'A.O% 'OMPE!E!$S7
De$oted to manufacture of <ircalo% hardware for fuel assem&lies for tu&es, wires, rods,
sheets, strips and reactor core components li'e coolant, calandria and flow tu&es) +he starting
material of <ircalo% is the mineral <ircon sand found on the &each sands of south India) Bircon is
processed and purified to nuclear grade BR-> powder &% sol$ent extraction process for separation
of hafnium and other impurities) +his powder is chlorinated and reduced with magnesium to sponge
metal) +he sponge is then $acuum arc melted into <ircalo% ingots after addition of allo%ing
elements) +he ingots are extruded into tu&e &lan's, rods or sla&s &% a series of extrusions utili<ing a
;:56tonn hori<ontal extrusion press and a D;6tonn $ertical extrusion press) Fuel and coolant are
produced to $er% stringent specifications &% a special rolling 'nown as pilgering, sheets re1uired
for the fa&rication of $arious seam wielded tu&es and other components are produced from
extruded sla&s &% a series of hot and cold passes on a four high rolling mill)
&,E. &OR BO.!- WA$ER REA'$OR7
+he onl% &oiling water reactor in India is at +arapur, which uses the enriched uranium oxide
Aranium hexa fluoride "AFD# that is imported) +he AFD is treated through h%drol%sis and reduction
process to o&tain nuclear pure A-> powder) +his powder is made into A-> pellets to in the same
wa% as in the case of .!WR=s) +hese are encapsulated in <ircalo% tu&es) +he fuel assem&l% for
these reactors consists of ;D pins of a&out 8mt length compared to 49 pins of 566mm length for
.!WR=s assem&lies)
&AS$ BREEDER $#OR,M REA'$ORS7
Different t%pes of su&assem&lies namel% fuel, nic'el, &lan'et and steel su& assem&lies for
F0+R at Kalpa''am) All the components of these assem&lies except fuel pins are fa&ricated here)
"
+he &lan'et assem&lies contain sintered thorium oxide pellets are fertile material for core) All the
e1uipments and fixtures for fa&rication the su& assem&l% components with intricate design ha$e
&een de$eloped indigenousl%)
PROD,'$O! O& S$A!.ESS S$EE. A!D BA.. BEAR!- $,BES7
NFC has &een producing the seamless stainless steel and seamless &all &earing tu&es) +hese
tu&es are essentiall% produced from pellets to finished tu&es &% extrusion followed &% cold
pilgering and cold drawing) tainless steel lin'er=s tu&es and thic' walled lattice tu&es for nuclear
power stations are also produced in these plants in addition to tu&es re1uired for hea$% water
plants) eamless tu&es of titanium, cupronic'el, sil$er, marging and other allo% steels ha$e also
&een produced in small 1uantities) +hese plants ha$e capa&ilit% of producing seamless tu&es in the
range of 8(>66mm diameter)
SPE'A. MA$ERA. P.A!$7
Eer% high purit% "nearl% 99)99?# materials li'e tin, indium, &ismuth, cadmium, gold etc and
capacitor grade) +antalum re1uired &% electronic and other industries in the countr% are &eing
produced in this plant using sophisticated techni1ues li'e <one(refining, electron &eam melting and
electro refining)
1#
"OWE# D$ST#$%&T$ON
POWER DS$RB,$O!
W#A$ S POWER DS$RB,$O!9
A part of the power s%stem &% which electric power is distri&uted among $arious consumers for
their use is 'nown as power distri&ution)
Mainl% power distri&ution s%stem consists of
4) Feeders
>) Distri&utors
;) er$ice mains
11
&EEDERS@ A feeder is a conductor which connects the su&station "or locali<ed generating station#
to the area where power is to &e distri&uted generall%7 no tapings are ta'en from the feeder so that
current in it remains the same throughout) +he main consideration in the design of a feeder is the
current carr%ing capacit%)
DS$RB,$OR@ A distri&utor is a conductor from which tapings are ta'en for suppl% to the
consumers) In the figure, AC, C0, 0D and DA are the distri&utors) +he current through a distri&utor
is not constant &ecause tapings are ta'en it $arious places along its length) While designing a
distri&utor, $oltage drop along its length is the main consideration since the statutor% limit of
$oltage $ariations is FD? of rated $alue at the consumer=s terminals)
SERV'E MA!S@ A ser$ice main is generall% a small ca&le which connects the distri&utor to the
consumer=s terminals)
'.ASS&'A$O! O& DS$RB,$O! S%S$EM7
4) According to t%pe of current
a# DC distri&ution
&# AC distri&ution
12
>) According to construction@
a# -$er head distri&ution s%stem
&# Anderground distri&ution s%stem
;) According to the ser$ice@
a# /eneral lighting and power
&# Industrial power
c# Railwa%s
d# treet lighting
8) According to num&er of wires@
a# +wo wire
&# +hree wire
c# Four wire
5) According to scheme of connections@
a# Radial s%stem
&# Ring %stem
c# Inter connected s%stem
D' DS$RB,$O!7
)*WRE D' S%S$EM7 As the name implies the s%stem of distri&ution consists of two wires) -ne
is the outgoing or positi$e wire and the other is the return or negati$e wire) +he loads such as
lamps, motors etc), are connected in parallel &etween the two wires )+his s%stem is ne$er used for
transmission purposes due to low efficienc% &ut ma% &e emplo%ed for distri&ution of DC power)
1*WRE D' S%S$EM7 It consists of two outers and a middle or neutral wire which is earthed at
the su&station) +he $oltage &etween the outers is twice the $oltage &etween either outer or neutral
wire) +he principal ad$antage of the s%stem is that it ma'es a$aila&le two $oltages at the consumer
terminals viz., E &etween an% outer and the neutral and >E &etween the outers) 3oads re1uiring
high $oltage "e)g) ), motors# are connected across the outers, whereas lamps and heating circuits
re1uiring less $oltage are connected &etween either outer and the neutral)
A' DS$RB,$O!7
+he electric power is $aria&l% generated, transmitted G distri&uted in the form of alternating
current) +he main reason of adapting AC s%stem for generation, transmission G distri&ution of
13
electric power is that the alternating $oltage can con$enientl% &e changed to an% desired $alue with
the help of a transformer)
Primar: Distri;<tio=7 +he s%stem in which electric power is con$e%ed at 866'$ or >>6'$ or
4;>'$ or DD'$ or ;;'$ or 44 '$ or D)D'$ or ;);'$ to different su&stations for distri&ution or to &ig
consumers li'e industries, facilities etc is called primar% distri&ution s%stem)
Seco=>ar: Distri;<tio= s:stem7 It is that part of a)c) distri&ution s%stem which includes the range
of $oltages at which the ultimate consumer utili<es the electrical energ% deli$ered to him) +he
secondar% distri&ution emplo%s 866H>;6E, ;(phase, 8(wire s%stem)
'O!!E'$O! S'#EMES O& DS$RB,$O! S%S$EM7
RADA. S%S$EM7
In this s%stem feeders radiate from single su&station and feed the distri&ution at one end onl%)
Ad$antages@
4) Its initial cost is minimum)
>) It is the simplest distri&ution s%stem)
;) It is used for suppl%ing power to hea$% industrial load near the secondar% su&station, isolated
loads, such as tu&e wells, and areas of low load densit% such as $illages)
Disad$antages@
4) +he end of distri&utor nearest to the generating station would &e hea$il% loaded)
> +he consumers are dependent on single feeder or distri&utor) +herefore when fault occurs on the
feeder or distri&utor the suppl% is cutoff to all of the consumers who are on the side of fault, awa%
from the station)
;) +he consumers at the farthest end of the distri&utor would &e su&,ected to serious $oltage
fluctuations with the $ariation in the load)
Due to these limitations, this s%stem is used for short distance onl%)
R!- MA! S%S$EM@
In this s%stem, the primaries of distri&ution transformers form a loop) +he loop circuit starts
from su&(station &us(&ars, ma'es a loop through the area to &e ser$ed and returns to the su&(station)
In a single(phase s%stem, the ring starts at the consumer unit "also 'nown as Ifuse &oxI or I&rea'er
&oxI#, $isits each soc'et in turn, and then returns to the consumer unit) In a three(phase s%stem, the
ring "almost alwa%s single(phase# is fed from a single(pole &rea'er in the distri&ution &oard)
14
Ad$antages@
4) +here are less $oltage fluctuations at consumer terminals)
>) > 3ess copper is re1uired at each part of the ring and carries less current than in the radial
s%stem
;) +his s%stem is $er% relia&le as such distri&utor is fed $ia) two feeders
8) In the e$ent of fault on an%one section the continuit% of the suppl% to all consumers can &e
maintained &% isolating the fault% section)
!$ER'O!!E'$ED S%S$EM7
In this s%stem the feeder ring is energi<ed &% two or more than two generating stations or su&
stations)
Ad$antages@
4) It increases the relia&ilit% of suppl%)
>) During the o$er loads the area fed from one generating station can &e fed from other generating
station) +his reduces the reser$e plant capacit%, impro$es the relia&ilit%, and increases the load
factor and efficienc% of the s%stem)
ELECT#$CAL S&%STAT$ON AND E'&$"MENT(
+he electrical power s%stem can &e di$ided into following regions@
0. /enerating station)
). +ransmission s%stems)
1. Recei$ing station)
2. Distri&ution s%stem)
3. 3oad points)
All these regions need switch gear, &us &ars or conducting &ars to which a num&er of local feeders
are connected) 0us &ars operated at constant $oltage) +he% are insulated earth from each other)
-ther e1uipment in the electrical su&stations is circuit &rea'ers, current transformers, potential
transformers etc) +hese e1uipments can &e installed according to $arious schemes depending upon
re1uirements) +he total plant consists of se$eral e1uipment)
S<;statio= e?<ipme=ts a=> their @<=ctio=s7
15
+he su& stations
ha$e following main circuits through which power flows from generators to transmission lines)
16
)N-) *JAI.M*N+ FANC+I-N
4) 0us &ars
Incoming and outgoing circuits are
Connected to &us &ars)
>) 3ightning arresters
+o discharge lightning o$er $oltage and
switching o$er $oltages to earth)
;)
hunt reactor in
*)!) E su&stations
+o pro$ide reacti$e power compensation
during loads)
8)
eries reactors
+o reduce the short circuit currents or
starting currents)
5)
Neutral grounding
resistor
+o limit the earth fault currents)
D)
Coupling capacitor
+o pro$ide connection &etween high
$oltage line and line carrier currents
e1uipment)
:) 3ine trap +o pre$ent high fre1uenc% signal from
entering other <ones
K) hunt capacitors +o pro$ide compensations to reacti$e
loads of lagging power factors)
9) .ower transformers +o step(up or step(down the $oltage and
transfer power from one A)C $oltage to
other A)C $oltage at same fre1uenc%)
46) eries capacitors Compensation of series reactors of long
lines)
+he components in series with the main circuit of power flow include &us &ars, circuit &rea'ers,
isolators, series reactors, diode thruster and rectifiers) +he components in shunt circuit are
connected phase to ground which include shunt capacitors, shunt reactors, static EAR sources,
harmonic filters, $oltage transformers and surge arresters)
'AB.ES7
An electrical ca&le ma% &e defined as single conductor insulated through its full length7 or two or
more conductors each pro$ided with its own insulation and laid up together under one outer
protecti$e co$ering)
'a;le i=s<latio= sho<l> haAe7
!igh Dielectric trength
3ow dielectric constant
/ood Mechanical properties
Resistance to Ageing
!igh temperature withstand a&ilit%
Insulating materials are classified as thermoplastic or thermo set) +hermoplastic materials
lose their form upon heating) +hermo set materials maintain their form in spite of heating) Earious
t%pes of insulating materials used are@ .EC, L3.*, Ru&&er, Impregnated .aper, etc)
1
.etters <se> i= $:pe DesiB=atio=s 7
A M Appearing as a first letter denotes Aluminum Conductor)
N M .EC Insulation or .EC heath depending on the position in which it appears)
>L M Cross(lin'ed .ol%eth%lene Insulation)
W M Round teel Wire Armouring)
WW M Dou&le Round teel Wire Armouring)
F M Formed teel Wire "trip# Armouring)
FF M Dou&le Formed teel Wire "trip# Armouring)
C M Metallic creening "Asuall% of Copper#)
1!
C* M Metallic creening "usuall% of Copper# o$er each indi$idual core)
/& M !olding !elix +ape "of teel#
Wa M Aluminum Round Wire G Aluminum Formed Wire "trip# Armouring
Be=>i=B Ra>i<s7
While installing Ca&les, the following minimum &ending radius should &e o&ser$ed, so that the
ca&le and especiall% the insulation are not damaged) Where$er possi&le larger &ending radii should
&e used)
!o. o@ VoltaBe Bra>e Be=>i=B
'ores kV Mi=. Ra>i<s
ingle core Apto 44 'E "*# 45 x D
A&o$e 44 'E "*# >6 x D
Multi core Apto 4)4 'E "*# 4> x D
A&o$e 4)4 'E "*# 45 x D
Where D is o$erall diameter of the ca&le
1"
O 0ased on the $oltage ratings as low $oltage, high $oltage, extra high $oltage ca&les, etc)
O 0ased on the conductor material, Copper conductor or Aluminum conductor)
O 0ased on the insulating material as .aper Insulated, .EC insulated, Ru&&er insulated,
L3.* insulated, etc)
O Armored or Anarmored ca&les)
O 0ased on the sheathing material, as .EC heathed, Ru&&er heathed, 3ead heathed,
Aluminum heathed, etc)
O 0ased on the num&er of cores as single core, two core, three core, three(and(a(half core,
four core, multicore, etc)
O 0ased on the cross(section of the conductor)
O 0ased on the t%pe of conductor, solid, stranded, sector shaped, etc)
3ow(tension "3)+)# ca&les(((( up to 4666E
!igh(tension"!)+)# ca&les(((( up to 44,666E
uper(tension")+)# ca&les((( from >>'E to ;;'E
*xtra high(tension"*)!)+)# ca&les from ;;'E to DD'E
*xtra super $oltage ca&les((( &e%ond 4;>'E
PRO$E'$VE RE.A%S7
A .rotecti$e rela% is a de$ice that detects the fault and initiates the operation of the circuit &rea'er
to isolate the defecti$e element from the rest of s%stem. Rela%s are de$ices intended to protect
electrical s%stems and e1uipments against damages caused due to a&normal operating conditions) In
more technical terms, rela%s are de$ices designed to produce sudden pre(determined changes in one
or more ph%sical s%stems on the appearance of certain a&normal conditions in the ph%sical s%stems
controlled &% them) .rotecti$e rela%s act as sensors of a&normalities and actuate control gears when
re1uired) Rela%s ma% &e suita&l% set to operate with the re1uired discrimination &etween sections in
order to isolate onl% the fault% section Hsections or e1uipment H e1uipments) A rela% will ha$e one or
more energi<ing 1uantities and one or more characteristic 1uantities in terms of which the rela% is
cali&rated "e)g) $oltage for o$er $oltage rela%s, time for definite time lag rela%s, time and current
for in$erse time lag current rela%s, angle for directional rela%s, power for re$erse power rela%s etc)#
A rela% should watch the s%stem changes and operate when it is called for) +esting of protecti$e
rela%s &efore commissioning and thereafter periodicall% is $er% important as failure of rela%s can
cause danger to life and damage to material)
2#
'lassi@icatio= o@ Rela:s@
Rela%s are &roadl% classified into two, &ased on the principle of operation) +he% are
4) Con$entional electro magnetic rela%s
>) tatic rela%s
Microprocessor &ased .3C ".rogramma&le 3ogic Controlled# multifunctional rela%s are now
a$aila&le as a replacement for a large num&er of independent unifunctional rela%s) +hese are
intelligent rela%s programmed to the re1uirements)
Rela%s can also &e classified &ased on the time of operation of the rela% as
4) Instantaneous rela%s
>) +ime lag rela%s
Almost all rela%s fall under the categories of either instantaneous rela%s or time lag rela%s)
Instantaneous rela%s operate and reset without an% intentional time dela%) 0ut instantaneous rela%s
ha$e inherent time dela% and &ased on this inherent time dela% "operating time# the% are su&
classified as gi$en in ta&le))
21
Acc<rac: o@ rela:s
+he manufacturer of the rela% shall specif% the accurac% of the rela% at specified setting)
'haracteristics o@ $ime laB rela:s
+ime lag rela%s are rela%s, the operation or resetting of which are intentionall% time dela%ed) +he
time dela% of the rela% ma% &e fixed or ad,usta&le) +ime lag rela%s are intended to operate after a
specified time on the appearance of the energi<ing 1uantit%) +he time lag of operation depends on
the designed characteristics of the rela%) Asuall% standard in$erse, $er% in$erse, extremel% in$erse
and long time dela% rela%s are used in practice) Man% of the rela%s ha$e definite minimum time of
operation which will help to attain proper time grading &etween sections) Current operated rela%s
+he time(current characteristics of current operated In$erse Definite Minimum +ime 3ag "IDM+3#
rela%s without directional feature is gi$en in ta&les@
DM$. 1 seco=> rela:
22
REC,REME!$S O& PRO$E'$VE RE.A%!-7
+he principle function of protecti$e rela%ing is to cause the prompt remo$al from ser$ice of an%
element of the power s%stem when it starts to operate in an a&normal manner or interfere with
the effecti$e operation of the rest of the s%stem) In order that protecti$e rela% s%stem ma%
perform this function satisfactoril%, it should ha$e the following 1ualities@
"i# selecti$it% "ii# speed "iii# sensiti$it% "i$# relia&ilit% "$# simplicit% "$i# econom%)
(i) SelectiAit: ( It is the a&ilit% of the protecti$e s%stem to select correctl% that part of the s%stem in
trou&le and disconnect the fault% part without distur&ing the rest of the s%stem A well(designed and
efficient rela% s%stem should &e selecti$e i)e) it should &e a&le to detect the point at which fault
occurs and cause the opening of the circuit &rea'ers closest to the fault with minimum or no
damage to the s%stem
(ii) Spee> ( +he rela% s%stem should disconnect the fault% section as fast as possi&le for
the following reasons@
23
"a# *lectrical apparatus ma% &e damaged if the% are made to carr% the fault currents for a long
time)
"&# A failure on the s%stem leads to a great reduction in the s%stem $oltage) If the fault% section is
not disconnected 1uic'l%, then the low $oltage created &% the fault ma% shut down consumers=
motors and the generators on the s%stem ma% &ecome unsta&le)
"c# +he high speed rela% s%stem decreases the possi&ilit% of de$elopment of one t%pe of fault into
the other more se$ere t%pe)
(iii) Se=sitiAit: ( It is the a&ilit% of the rela% s%stem to operate with low $alue of
actuating 1uantit%) ensiti$it% of a rela% is a function of the $olt(ampere input to the coil
of the rela% necessar% to cause its operation) +he smaller the $olt(ampere input re1uired to
cause rela% operation, the more sensiti$e is the rela%) +hus, a 4 EA rela% is more sensiti$e than a ;
EA rela%) It is desira&le that rela% s%stem should &e sensiti$e so that it operates with low
$alues of $olt ampere input
(iA) Relia;ilit: ( It is the a&ilit% of the rela% s%stem to operate under the pre determined
conditions) Without relia&ilit%, the protection would &e rendered largel% ineffecti$e and could
e$en &ecome a lia&ilit%)
(A) Simplicit: ( +he rela%ing s%stem should &e simple so that it can &e easil% maintained)
Relia&ilit% is closel% related to simplicit%) +he simpler the protection scheme, the greater will &e its
relia&ilit%)
(Ai) Eco=om: ( +he protecti$e gear should not cost more than 5? of the total cost) !owe$er,
when the apparatus to &e protected is of utmost importance "e)g) generator, main
transmission line etc)#, economic considerations are often su&ordinated to relia&ilit%
MPOR$A!$ $ERMS ASSO'A$ED W$# RE.A%S7
(i) Pick*<p c<rre=t ( It is the minimum current in the rela% coil at which the rela% starts to operate
when the current in the rela% is less than the pic'(up $alue there la% does not operate and the
&rea'er controlled &% it remains in the closed position) When the rela% coil current is e1ual to or
greater than the pic'up $alue, the rela% operates to energies the trip Coil that opens the circuit
&rea'er)
24
(ii) '<rre=t setti=B * It is often desira&le to ad,ust the pic'up current to an% $alue) +his is 'now as
current setting and is usuall% achie$ed &% the use of tapping on the rela% coil) +he taps are &rought
out to a plug &ridge, which permits to alter the num&er of turns on the rela% coil, this changes the
tor1ue on the disc and the hence the time of operation of the rela%)
.ic'up current M Rated secondar% current of C+ x Current setting
(iii) Pl<B setti=B m<ltipla:er (P.S.M) P It is the ratio of fault current in the rela% coil to the pic' (
up current)
.))M M Fault current in rela% coil
.ic' up current
M fault current in rela% coil
Rated secondar% current of C+ x current setting
(iA) $ime*setti=B m<ltiplier ( A rela% is generall% pro$ided with control to ad,ust the time of
operation) +his ad,ustment is 'nown as time setting multiplier the time setting dial is cali&rated
from 6 to 4 in steps 6)65) +hese figures are multipliers to &e used to
Con$ert the time deri$ed from timeHp)s)m cur$e into the actual operating time)
+he actual time of operation is calculated &% multipl%ing the time setting multiplier with the time
o&tained from timeH p)s)m cur$e of the rela%)
(A) $imeD P.S.M ',RVEP it=s the cur$e &etween time of operation and plug setting multiplier
of a rela%)
$%PES O& PRO$E'$O!7
When fault occurs in an% part of s%stem, it must &e cleared 1uic'l% to a$oid damage or
interference with rest of the s%stem)
.rotection scheme is di$ided into two classes( primar% protection and &ac' up protection)
Primar: protectio=
+his forms the primar% or the main protection and ser$es as the first line of defense)
ometimes faults are not cleared &% primar% rela%ing &ecause of trou&le within the rela%, wiring
s%stem, or &rea'er) Ander such conditions &ac' up protection is used)
Back <p protectio=
It=s the second line of defense in case of failure of primar% protection) It=s designed to operate with
sufficient time dela% so that primar% rela%ing is gi$en enough time to function if it is a&le to)
!E,$RA. -RO,!D!-7
+he neutral grounding is an important aspect of power s%stem design &ecause
25
of the performance of the s%stem in terms of the short(circuits, sta&ilit%, protection etc, is greatl%
affected &% the state of the neutral) In most of the modern high $oltage s%stems the neutral of the
s%stem is solidl% grounded i)e), the neutral is connected directl% to the ground intentional
impedance &etween the neutral and the ground) /enerall% the neutral of the generator is connected
through the resistance to limit the stator short circuit current and also for sta&ilit% reasons) +he
ad$antages of neutral grounding are
4) Eoltages of the phases are limited to phase to ground $oltages)
>) +he high $oltages due to arcing grounds or transient line to ground faults are eliminated)
;) ensiti$e protecti$e rela%s against line to ground faults can &e used)
8) +he o$er $oltages due to lightening are discharged to ground7 other wise there will &e a
positi$e reflection to the isolated neutral of the s%stem)
Metho>s o@ !e<tral -ro<=>i=B7
4) Soli> -ro<=>i=B or E@@ectiAe -ro<=>7
Consider 3QQ/ fault on phase C) +he neutral and terminal are at the earth
potential) +he $oltage of the health% phase remains unchanged i)e), phase to ground) +he charging
current will &e full% eliminated) cience in the s%stem of grounding the $oltage of the health%
phases in case of a line the ground fault does not exceed K6? of the 3(3 and is much less as
compared to other forms of grounding, the e1uipment for all $oltage classes are less expensi$e)
>) Resista=ce -ro<=>i=B7
+he $alue of the resistance is commonl% used is 1uite high as compared with
in the s%stem reactance), With the increase of the operating $oltage the $alue of the resistance
re1uired for grounding also increases so as to limit the short circuit current during line to ground
faults) Resistance grounding is normall% used where the charging current is small) i)e), for low
$oltage short length o$erhead lines) Resistance ground reduces the arcing ground ha<ards and it
permits read% rela%ing of ground faults)
;) Reacta=ts -ro<=>e> s:stem7
A reactance grounded s%stem is one in which the neutral is grounded through
impedance which is highl% reacti$e) For reactance grounding L-Hx4 R ;) Reactance grounding lies
&etween effecti$e grounding and resonant grounding) +his method of grounding ma% &e used for
26
grounding the neutral of s%nchronous motors and capacitors and also for circuits ha$ing large
charging current)
8) Earthi=B $ra=s@ormers7
If a neutral is re1uired which other wise is a$aila&le a <ig<ag transformer is
used) +hese transformers do not ha$e secondar% winding) *ach lim& of transformer has two
identical windings would differentiall% such that under normal conditions the total flux in each
lim& is negligi&l% small and therefore the transformer draws $er% little magneti<ing current) +he
grounding transformer is of short time rating, usuall% 46sec to 4 min) +herefore, the si<es of such
transformers are small as compared to the power transformers of the same rating) If a <ig<ag
transformer is not a$aila&le a star delta transformer can &e used without loading the delta side)
A>Aa=taBes7
+he ad$antages of neutral grounding are
O Eoltages of he phases are limited to phase to ground $oltages)
O +he high $oltages due to arcing grounds or transient line to ground faults are eliminated)
O ensiti$e protection rela%s against line to ground faults can &e used)
O +he o$er $oltages due to lightening are discharged to ground7 otherwise there will &e
positi$e reflection at the isolated neutral of the s%stem)
!S,.A$O! 'OORD!A$O! 7
It means the correlation of insulation of $arious e1uipments of power s%stem to the
insulation of the protecti$e de$ices used for the protection for those e1uipments for o$er $oltages)
+he &asic concept re1uired in this 'nows $olt time characteristics of different e1uipments to &e
protected) +he e1uipment ha$ing some withstand $oltage le$el is protected &% the one which is
ha$ing lower withstand $oltage le$el than that)
+he e1uipments are &asicall% protected against switching surge and lighting surge
+o assist the coordination process &asic insulation le$els are pro$ided with reference to
standard wa$e 4)>H56 micro sec) Apparatus insulation as demonstrated &% suita&le tests shall &e
e1ual to or greater than &asic insulation le$el "0I3#)
Selectio= o@ i=s<latio= leAel7
Insulation le$el is a function of reference class $oltage e1ual to 4)4 multiplied to operating
$oltage of the s%stem) Earious e1uipments designed such that it=s withstand $oltage e1uals or
exceed the selected le$el selection of protecti$e de$ices that will gi$e the apparatus as good as
protection as can &e ,ustified economicall%) For e$er% reference le$el there will &e the
corresponding 0I3. +he e1uipment to protect should ha$e withstand le$el greater than the
corresponding 0I3. For solidl% grounded s%stems and where switching surges dominated reduced
2
insulation are used)
PRO$E'$O! A-A!S$ S,R-ES7
+ransients or surges on the power s%stem ma% originate from switching and from other
causes &ut the most important surges are those caused &% lightning) +he lightning surges ma% cause
serious damage to the expensi$e e1uipment in the power s%stem "e)g) generators, transformers etc)#
either &% direct stro'e on the e1uipment or &% stro'es on the transmission lines that reach the
e1uipment as tra$elling wa$es) It is necessar% to pro$ide protection against &oth 'inds of surges)
+he most commonl% used de$ices for protection against lightning surges are@
"i# *arthing screen
"ii# -$erhead ground wires
"iii# 3ightning arresters or surge di$erters
*arthing screen pro$ides protection to power station and su& station against direct stro'es whereas
o$erhead ground wires protects the transmission lines against direct lightning stro'es) 3ightning
arresters or surge di$erters protect the station apparatus against &oth direct stro'es and the stro'es
that come into the apparatus as tra$eling wa$es)
+he earthing screen and ground wires can well protect the electrical s%stem against direct lightning
stro'es &ut the% fail to pro$ide protection against tra$elling wa$es, which ma% reach the terminal
apparatus) +he lightning arresters or surge di$erters pro$ide protection against such surges) A
lightning arrester or a surge di$erter is a protecti$e de$ice, which conducts the high $oltage surges
on the power s%stem to the ground
2!
Fig shows the &asic form of a surge di$erter) It consists of a spar' gap in series with a non(linear
resistor) -ne end of the di$erter is connected to the terminal of the e1uipment to &e protected and
the other end is effecti$el% grounded) +he length of the gap is so set that normal $oltage is not
enough to cause an arc &ut a dangerousl% high $oltage will &rea' down the air insulation and form
an arc) +he propert% of the non(linear resistance is that its resistance increases as the $oltage "or
current# increases and $ice($ersa) +his is clear from the $oltHamp characteristic of the resistor
shown in Fig)
+he action of the lightning arrester or surge di$erter is as under@
"I# Ander normal operation, the lightning arrester is off the line i)e) it conducts no current to earth or
the gap is non(conducting
"ii# -n the occurrence of o$er $oltage, the air insulation across the gap &rea's down and an arc is
formed pro$iding a low resistance path for the surge to the ground) In this wa%, the excess charge
on the line due to the surge is harmlessl% conducted through the arrester to the ground instead of
&eing sent &ac' o$er the line)
"iii# It is worthwhile to mention the function of non(linear resistor in the operation of arrester) As
the gap spar's o$er due to o$er $oltage, the arc would &e a short(circuit on the power s%stem and
ma% cause power(follow current in the arrester) ince the characteristic of the resistor is to offer
2"
low resistance to high $oltage "or current#, it gi$es the effect of short(circuit) After the surge is o$er,
the resistor offers high resistance to ma'e the gap non(conducting
$%PES O& .-#$!!- ARRES$ERS
+here are se$eral t%pes of lightning arresters in general use) +he% differ onl% in constructional
details &ut operate on the same principle $i<, pro$iding low resistance path for the surges to the
round) Following are the different t%pes of lightning rela%s@
4) Rod arrester
>) !orn gap arrester
;) Multigap arrester
8) *xpulsion t%pe lightning arrester
5) Eal$e t%pe lightning arrester
ProtectiAe >eAices aBai=st liBht=i=B s<rBes7
DeAice Where applie> Remarks
Rod /aps Across insulator string,
&ushing insulator, support
insulator)
Difficult to coordinate)
Flash hour $oltage $aries &%
F;6?) Create dead short
circuit, cheap)
-$er !ead /round Wires A&o$e o$erhead lines, .ro$ide effecti$e protection
3#
a&o$e the su&station area) against direct stro'es on line
conductor towers,
su&station e1uipment)
Eertical Masts In u& tations Instead of pro$iding
o$erhead shielding wires)
3ighting pi'esHRods A&o$e tall &uildings .rotect &uildings against
direct stro'es) Angle of
protection ;6 to 86S
3ightening Arresters -n incoming lines in each
su&station near terminals of
transformers and
generators) .ole mounted
on distri&uted line)
Di$ert o$er($oltage to earth
without causing short
circuits) Ased to e$er%
$oltage le$el in e$er%
su&station and for each line)
.hase to ground)
urge A&sor&ers Near rotating machines or
switchgear, across series
reactors, $al$es)
Resistance capacitance
com&ination a&sor&s the
o$er $oltage surge and
reduce steepness of wa$e)
$RA!S&ORMERS7
A tra=s@ormer is a de$ice that transfers electrical energ% from one circuit to another
through inducti$el% coupled conductors T the transformerUs coils or IwindingsI) Ear%ing magnetic
field induces a $ar%ing electromoti$e force "*MF# or I$oltageI in the Isecondar%I winding) +his
effect is called mutual induction)
If a load is connected to the secondar%, an electric current will flow in the secondar% winding and
electrical energ% will flow from the primar% circuit through the transformer to the load) In an ideal
transformer, the induced $oltage in the secondar% winding "VS# is in proportion to the primar%
31
$oltage "VP#, and is gi$en &% the ratio of the num&er of turns in the secondar% to the num&er of
turns in the primar% as follows@
0% appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating current
"AC# $oltage to &e Istepped upI &% ma'ing NS greater than NP, or Istepped downI &%
ma'ing NS less than NP)
Basic pri=ciples7 +he transformer is &ased on two principles@ firstl%, that an electric current can
produce a magnetic field "electromagnetism# and secondl% that a changing magnetic field within a
coil of wire induces a $oltage across the ends of the coil "electromagnetic induction#) Changing the
current in the primar% coil changes the magnitude of the applied magnetic field) +he changing
magnetic flux extends to the secondar% coil where a $oltage is induced across its ends)
An ideal step(down transformer showing magnetic flux in the core)
A current passing through the primar% coil creates a magnetic field) +he primar% and secondar%
coils are wrapped around a core of $er% high magnetic permea&ilit%, such as iron7 this ensures that
most of the magnetic field lines produced &% the primar% current are within the iron and pass
through the secondar% coil as well as the primar% coil)
32
+a'ing the ratio of the two e1uations for VS and VP gi$es the &asic e1uation
V4;W
for stepping up
or stepping down the $oltage
EC,VA.E!$ 'R',$7

+he parameters of e1ui$alent circuit of a transformer can &e calculated from the results of two
transformer tests@ open(circuit test and short(circuit test)
$RA!S&ORMER PAR$S7
0. B<chholE rela: 7 It is a $er% sensiti$e gas and oil operated instrument which safel% detects the
formation of gas or sudden pressure inside the oil transformer)
>) 'o=serAator7 It is used to produce ade1uate space for the expansion of oil when transformer is
loaded or when am&ient temperature changes)
;) Silica Bel ;reather7 It suc's the moisture from the air which is ta'en &% transformer so that dr%
air is ta'en &% transformer)
33
8) Do<;le >iaphraBm eFplosio= Ae=t7 It is used to discharge excess pressure in the atmosphere
when excess pressure is de$eloped inside the transformer during loading)
5)Oil leAel i=>icator7 It is used to show the le$el of oil in the transformer)
D) Wi=>i=B temperat<re i=>icator7 It is used to show the temperature of transformer winding)
:) Ra>iators7 +hese are used for cooling of the transformer oil) .ropert% of li1uid is when it is
heated up molecules go higher and higher and this will flow to radiator and then it cools) After
cooling molecules are hea$ier and comes to tan')
$AP($RA!S&ORMER)7
A tra=s@ormer tap is a connection point along a transformer winding that allows a certain num&er
of turns to &e selected) 0% this means, a transformer with a $aria&le turn=s ratio is produced,
ena&ling $oltage regulation of the output) +he tap selection is made $ia a tap cha=Ber mechanism)
In power distri&ution networ's, a large transformer ma% ha$e an o@@*loa> tap changer on the
primar% winding and an o=*loa> tap changer on the secondar% winding) +o minimi<e the num&er of
windings and thus reduce the ph%sical si<e of a transformer, a Ure$ersingU winding ma% &e used,
which is a portion of the main winding a&le to &e connected in its opposite direction and thus
oppose the $oltage) Insulation re1uirements place the tap points at the low $oltage end of the
winding) +his is near the star point in a star connected winding) In delta connected windings, the
tappings are usuall% at the center of the winding) In an autotransformer, the taps are usuall% made
&etween the series and common windings, or as a series U&uc'(&oostU section of the common
winding)
$AP '#A!-!-@
O@@*circ<it >esiB=s (DE$')
34
In low power, low $oltage transformers, the tap point can ta'e the form of a connection terminal,
re1uiring a power lead to &e disconnected &% hand and connected to the new terminal)
Alternati$el%, the process ma% &e assisted &% means of a rotar% or slider switch)
ince the different tap points are at different $oltages, the two connections can not &e made
simultaneousl%, as this would short(circuit a num&er of turns in the winding and produce excessi$e
circulating current) Conse1uentl%, the power to the de$ice must &e interrupted during the
switcho$er e$ent) -ff(circuit or de(energi<ed tap changing "D*+C# is sometimes emplo%ed in high
$oltage transformer designs, although for regular use, it is onl% applica&le to installations in which
the loss of suppl% can &e tolerated) In power distri&ution networ's, transformers commonl% include
an off(circuit tap changer on the primar% winding to accommodate s%stem $ariations within a
narrow &and around the nominal rating) +he tap changer will often &e set ,ust once, at the time of
installation, although it ma% &e changed later during a scheduled outage in order to accommodate a
long(term change in the s%stem $oltage profile
O=*loa> >esiB=s7
35
A mechanical o=*loa> tap cha=Ber (O.$'), also 'nown as <=>er* loa> tap cha=Ber (,.$')
design, changing &ac' and forth &etween tap positions > and ;
For man% power transformer applications, a suppl% interruption during a tap change is
unaccepta&le, and the transformer is often fitted with a more expensi$e and complex on(load tap(
changing "-3+C, sometimes 3+C# mechanism) -n(load tap changers ma% &e generall% classified
as mechanical, electronicall% assisted, or full% electronic)
Mecha=ical tap cha=Bers7
A mechanical tap changer ph%sicall% ma'es the new connection &efore releasing the old using
multiple tap selector switches, &ut a$oids creating high circulating currents &% using a >iAerter
sGitch to temporaril% place large di$erter impedance in series with the short(circuited turns) +his
techni1ue o$ercomes the pro&lems with open or short circuit taps) In a resistance t%pe tap changer,
the changeo$er must &e made rapidl% to a$oid o$erheating of the di$erter) A reactance t%pe tap
changer uses a dedicated preAe=tiAe a<totra=s@ormer winding to function as the di$erter
impedance, and a reactance t%pe tap changer is usuall% designed to sustain off(tap loading
indefinitel%)
36
In a t%pical di$erter switch powerful springs are tensioned &% a low power motor "motor dri$e unit
"MDA##, and then rapidl% released to effect the tap changing operation) +o reduce arcing at the
contacts, the tap changer operates in a cham&er filled with insulating transformer oil, or inside
an FD $essel) Reactance(t%pe tap changers, when operating in oil, must allow for with the
additional inducti$e fl% &ac' generated &% the autotransformer and commonl% include a $acuum
&ottle in parallel with the di$erter switch) During a tap(change operation, the fl% &ac' raises the
potential &etween the two electrodes in the &ottle, and some of the energ% is dissipated in an arc
discharge through the &ottle instead of flashing across the di$erter switch)
ome arcing is una$oida&le, and &oth the tap changer oil and the switch contacts will slowl%
deteriorate with use) In order to pre$ent contamination of the tan' oil and facilitate maintenance
operations, the di$erter switch usuall% operates in a separate compartment from the main
transformer tan', and often the tap selector switches will &e located in the compartment as well) All
of the winding taps will then &e routed into the tap changer compartment through a terminal arra%)
$h:ristor*assiste> tap cha=Bers@
+h%ristor(assisted tap changers use th%ristors to ta'e the on(load current while the main contacts
change o$er from one tap to the next) +his pre$ents arcing on the main contacts and can lead to a
longer ser$ice life &etween maintenance acti$ities) +he disad$antage is that these tap changers are
more complex and re1uire a low $oltage power suppl% for the th%ristor circuitr%) +he% also can &e
more costl%)
Soli> state(th:ristor) tap cha=Bers@
+hese are a relati$el% recent de$elopment which uses th%ristors &oth to switch the load current and
to pass the load current in the stead% state) +heir disad$antage is that all of the non(conducting
th%ristors connected to the unselected taps still dissipate power due to their lea'age current and
the% ha$e smaller short circuit withstand capacit%) +his power can add up to a few 'ilowatts which
has to &e remo$ed as heat and leads to a reduction in the o$erall efficienc% of the transformer, in
exchange for a compact design that reduces the si<e and weight of the tap changer de$ice) olid
state tap changers are t%picall% emplo%ed onl% on smaller power transformers)
E!ER-% .OSSES@
An ideal transformer would ha$e no energ% losses, and would &e 466? efficient) In practical
transformers energ% is dissipated in the windings, core, and surrounding structures) 3arger
3
transformers are generall% more efficient, and those rated for electricit% distri&ution usuall%
perform &etter than 9K?)
+he losses $ar% with load current, and ma% &e expressed as Ino(loadI or Ifull(loadI loss) +he no(
load loss can &e significant, meaning that e$en an idle transformer constitutes a drain on an
electrical suppl%)
'opper losses7
Current flowing through the windings causes resisti$e heating of the conductors) At higher
fre1uencies, s'in effect and effect create additional winding resistance and losses)
#:steresis losses7
*ach time the magnetic field is re$ersed, a small amount of energ% is lost due to h%steresis within
the core) For a gi$en core material, the loss is proportional to the fre1uenc%, and is a function of the
pea' flux densit% to which it is su&,ected)
E>>: c<rre=ts7
Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors, and a solid core made from such a material also
constitutes a single short(circuited turn throughout its entire length) *dd% currents therefore
circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsi&le for resisti$e of the core
material) +he edd% current loss is a complex function of the s1uare of suppl% fre1uenc% and In$erse
1uare of the material thic'ness)
MaB=etostrictio=7
Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to ph%sicall% expand and
contract slightl% with each c%cle of the magnetic field, an effect 'nown as magnetostriction) +his
produces the &u<<ing sound commonl% associated with transformers, and in turn causes losses due
to frictional heating in suscepti&le cores)
Mecha=ical losses7
In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating electromagnetic
forces &etween the primar% and secondar% windings) +hese incite $i&rations within near&%
metalwor', adding to the &u<<ing noise, and consuming a small amount of power)
Stra: losses7
3ea'age inductance is &% itself lossless, since energ% supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to
the suppl% with the next half(c%cle) !owe$er, an% lea'age flux that intercepts near&% conducti$e
materials such as the transformerUs support structure will gi$e rise to edd% currents and &e
con$erted to heat)
$%PES7
3!
A wide $ariet% of transformer designs are used for different applications, though the% share se$eral
common features) Important common transformer t%pes include@
$olyphase transformers:.
+hree(phase step(down transformer mounted &etween two utilit% poles)
For three(phase supplies, a &an' of three indi$idual single(phase transformers can &e used, or all
three phases can &e incorporated as a single three(phase transformer) In this case, the magnetic
circuits are connected together, the core thus containing a three(phase flow of flux) A num&er of
winding configurations are possi&le, gi$ing rise to different attri&utes and phase)
'o=sta=t AoltaBe tra=s@ormer7
0% arranging particular magnetic properties of a transformer core, and installing a ferro(
resonant tan' circuit "a capacitor and an additional winding#, a transformer can &e arranged to
automaticall% 'eep the secondar% winding $oltage relati$el% constant for $ar%ing primar% suppl%
without additional circuitr% or manual ad,ustment) CEA transformers run hotter than standard
power transformers, &ecause regulating action depends on core saturation, which reduces efficienc%
somewhat) +he output wa$eform is hea$il% distorted unless careful measures are ta'en to pre$ent
this) aturating transformers pro$ide a simple rugged method to sta&ili<e an AC power suppl%)
!S$R,ME!$ $RA!S&ORMERS7
Instrument transformers are used for measurement and protecti$e application, together with
e1uipment such as meters and rela%s) +heir role in electrical s%stems is of primar% importance as
the% are a means of Istepping downI the current or $oltage of a s%stem to measura&le $alues, such
3"
as 5A or 4A in the case of a current transformers or 446E or 466E in the case of a $oltage
transformer) +his offers the ad$antage that measurement and protecti$e e1uipment can &e
standardi<ed on a few $alues of current and $oltage)
Eoltage transformers
Current transformers
VoltaBe tra=s@ormers
A $oltage transformer is one in which Ithe secondar% $oltage is su&stantiall% proportional to the
primar% $oltage and differs in phase from it &% an angle which is approximatel% <ero for an
appropriate direction of the connections)I
In a IpracticalI transformer, errors are introduced &ecause some current is drawn for the
magneti<ation of the core and &ecause of drops in the primar% and secondar% windings due to
lea'age reactance and winding resistance)
Eoltage error is the amount &% which the $oltage is less than the applied primar% $oltage,
and the phase error, is the phase angle &% which the re$ersed secondar% $oltage $ector is displaced
from the primar% $oltage $ector
VoltaBe tra=s@ormers error limits
'lass Primar: AoltaBe VoltaBe error
(HI)
Phase error
(Hmi=)
6)4

6.+ V= , 0.6 V= a=>
0.) V=
6)4 6)5
6)> 6)> 46)6
6)5 6)5 >6)6
4)6 4)6 86)6

6)4 4)6 86)6
4#
6.3 V= 6)> 4)6 86)6
6)5 4)6 86)6
4)6 >)6 K6)6

6)4
V=
6)> K6)6
6)> >)6 K6)6
6)5 >)6 K6)6
4)6 ;)6 4>6)6
Vn M nominal $oltage

De@i=itio=s7
+%pical terms used for specif%ing a $oltage transformer "E+#
a) Rate> primar: AoltaBe7 +his is the rated $oltage of the s%stem whose $oltage is re1uired to
&e stepped down for measurement and protecti$e purposes)
&) Rate> seco=>ar: AoltaBe7 +his is the $oltage at which the meters and protecti$e de$ices
connected to the secondar% circuit of the $oltage transformer operate)
c) Rate> ;<r>e=7 +his is the load in terms of $olt(amperes "EA# posed &% the de$ices in the
secondar% circuit on the E+) +his includes the &urden imposed &% the connecting leads) +he
E+ is re1uired to &e accurate at &oth the rated &urden and >5? of the rated &urden)
d) Acc<rac: class re?<ire>7 +he transformation errors that are permissi&le, including $oltage
"ratio# error and phase angle error) .hase error is specified in minutes) +%pical accurac%
classes are Class 6)5, Class 4 and Class ;) 0oth metering and protection classes of accurac%
are specified) In a metering E+, the E+ is re1uired to &e within the specified errors from
K6? to 4>6? of the rated $oltage) In a protection E+, the E+ is re1uired to &e accurate
from 5? upto the rated $oltage factor times the rated $oltage)
41
e) Rate> AoltaBe @actor7 Depending on the s%stem in which the E+ is to &e used, the rated
$oltage factors to &e specified are different) +he ta&le &elow is adopted from Indian and
International standards)
f) $emperat<re class o@ i=s<latio=7 +he permissi&le temperature rise o$er the specified
am&ient temperature) +%picall%, classes *, 0 and F)
g) Resi><al AoltaBe tra=s@ormer (RV$)7 RE+s are used for residual earth fault protection and
for discharging capacitor &an's) +he secondar% residual $oltage winding is connected in
open delta) Ander normal conditions of operation, there is no $oltage output across the
residual $oltage winding) When there is an earth fault, a $oltage is de$eloped across the
open delta winding which acti$ates the rela%) When using a three phase RE+, the primar%
neutral should &e earthed, as otherwise third harmonic $oltages will appear across the
residual winding) ; phase RE+s t%picall% ha$e 5 lim& constructions)
h) Meteri=B ,=its7 44'E metering units consist of one ; phases E+ and > C+Us connected
together in a single housing) +his can &e used for three phase monitoring of energ%
parameters) It is used with tri$ector meters and energ% meters)
'<rre=t tra=s@ormers7
A current transformer is defined as Xtransformer in which the secondar% current is su&stantiall%
proportional to the primar% current "under normal conditions of operation# and differs in phase
from it &% an angle which is approximatel% <ero for an appropriate direction of the connections)I
+he current transformer wor's on the principle of $aria&le flux) In the IidealI current transformer,
secondar% current would &e exactl% e1ual "when multiplied &% the turn=s ratio# and opposite of the
primar% current) 0ut, as in the $oltage transformer, some of the primar% current or the primar%
ampere(turns is utili<ed for magneti<ing the core, thus lea$ing less than the actual primar% ampere
turns to &e ItransformedI into the secondar% ampere(turns) +his naturall% introduces an error in the
transformation) +he error is classified into two(the current or ratio error and the phase error)
De@i=itio=s
Rate> primar: c<rre=t7 +he $alue of current which is to &e transformed to a lower $alue) In C+
parlance, the IloadI of the C+ refers to the primar% current)
Rate> seco=>ar: c<rre=t7 +he current in the secondar% circuit and on which the performance of
the C+ is &ased) +%pical $alues of secondar% current are 4 A or 5 A) In the case of transformer
differential protection, secondar% currents of 4H root ;A and 5H root ;A are also specified)
42
Rate> ;<r>e=7 +he apparent power of the secondar% circuit in Eolt(amperes expressed at the rated
secondar% current and at a specific power factor "6)K for almost all standards#
Acc<rac: class7 In the case of metering C+ s, accurac% class is t%picall%, 6)>, 6)5, 4 or ;) +his
means that the errors ha$e to &e within the limits specified in the standards for that particular
accurac% class) +he metering C+ has to &e accurate from 5? to 4>6? of the rated primar% current,
at >5? and 466? of the rated &urden at the specified power factor) In the case of protection C+ s,
the C+ s should pass &oth the ratio and phase errors at the specified accurac% class, usuall% 5. or
46., as well as composite error at the accurac% limit factor of the C+)
'omposite error7 +he rms $alue of the difference &etween the instantaneous primar% current and
the instantaneous secondar% current multiplied &% the turns ratio, under stead% state conditions)
Acc<rac: limit @actor7 +he $alue of primar% current upto which the C+ complies with composite
error re1uirements) +his is t%picall% 5, 46 or 45, which means that the composite error of the C+
has to &e within specified limits at 5, 46 or 45 times the rated primar% current)
Short time rati=B7 +he $alue of primar% current "in 'A# that the C+ should &e a&le to withstand
&oth thermall% and d%namicall% without damage to the windings, with the secondar% circuit &eing
short(circuited) +he time specified is usuall% 4 or ; seconds)
=str<me=t sec<rit: @actor (@actor o@ sec<rit:)7 +his t%picall% ta'es a $alue of less than 5 or less
than 46 though it could &e much higher if the ratio is $er% low) If the factor of securit% of the C+ is
5, it means that the composite error of the metering C+ at 5 times the rated primar% current is e1ual
to or greater than 46?) +his means that hea$% currents on the primar% are not passed on to the
secondar% circuit and instruments are therefore protected) In the case of dou&le ratio C+Us, F is
applica&le for the lowest ratio onl%)
'lass PSD " '$7 In &alance s%stems of protection, C+ s with a high degree of similarit% in their
characteristics are re1uired) +hese re1uirements are met &% Class . "L# C+ s) +heir performance
is defined in terms of a 'nee(point $oltage "K.E#, the magneti<ing current "Imag# at the 'nee point
$oltage or 4H> or 4H8 the 'nee(point $oltage, and the resistance of the C+ secondar% winding
corrected to :5C) Accurac% is defined in terms of the turn=s ratio)
K=ee poi=t AoltaBe7 +hat point on the magneti<ing cur$e where an increase of 46? in the flux
densit% "$oltage# causes an increase of 56? in the magneti<ing force "current#)
43
S<mmatio= '$7 When the currents in a num&er of feeders need not &e indi$iduall% metered &ut
summated to a single meter or instrument, a summation current transformer can &e used) +he
summation C+ consists of two or more primar% windings which are connected to the feeders to &e
summated, and a single secondar% winding, which feeds a current proportional to the summated
primar% current) A t%pical ratio would &e 5Y5Y5H 5A, which means that three primar% feeders of 5
are to &e summated to a single 5A meter)
'ore ;ala=ce '$ ('B'$)7 +he C0C+, also 'nown as a <ero se1uence C+, is used for earth
lea'age and earth fault protection) +he concept is similar to the RE+) In the C0C+, the three core
ca&le or three single cores of a three phase s%stem pass through the inner diameter of the C+) When
the s%stem is fault free, no current flows in the secondar% of the C0C+) When there is an earth
fault, the residual current "<ero phase se1uence current# of the s%stem flows through the secondar%
of the C0C+ and this operates the rela%) In order to design the C0C+, the inner diameter of the C+,
the rela% t%pe, the rela% setting and the primar% operating current need to &e furnished)
=terposi=B '$Js ('$Js)7 Interposing C+Us are used when the ratio of transformation is $er% high)
It is also used to correct for phase displacement for differential protection of transformers)

Current +ransformers are defined &% Accurac% Classes depending on the application)
Class
? current error at the gi$en
proportion of rated current
shown &elow
? phase error at the gi$en proportion of the
rated current shown &elow
44

>)6
Z
4)
>
4)6
6
6)5
6
6)>
6
6)46
6)65
>)6
Z
4)> 4)
6
6)5 6)
>
6)4 6)6
5
6)4

6)
4
6)4

6)> 6)>5

5 5

K 46

6)> 6)
>
6)> 6);
5
6)56
46 46

45 >6

6)5 6)
5
6)5 6):
5
4)66
;6 ;6

85 D6

4)6

4)
6
4)6

4)5 >)66

D6 D6 ( 96 4>
6
(
;)6

;)
6

;)6
( ( ( (
[
4>
6
( 4>
6
( ( (
6)4 6)4

6)4

6)> 6)>5 6)8 5
(
5

K 46 45
6)>ext 6)> 6)> 6);
5
6)56 6):5
46
(
46

45 >6 ;6
6)5ext 6)5 6)5 6):
5
4)66 4)5
;6
(
;6

85 D6 96
4)6ext 4)6 4)6 4)5 >)66 D6 ( D6 ( 96 4>6 (
;)6ext ;)6 ( ( ;)6 ( ( ( 4>6 ( ( 4>6 ( ( (
Zext M >66 ?
Meteri=B Acc<rac: '$Ks is used where a high degree of accurac% is re1uired from low(
load $alues up to full(load of a s%stem) An example of this application would &e the current
transformers utili<ed &% utilit% companies for large capacit% re$enue &illing)
45
Rela:i=B Acc<rac: '$Ks is used for suppl%ing current to protecti$e rela%s) In this
application, the rela%s do not normall% operate in the normal load range, &ut the% must
perform with a reasona&le degree of accurac% during fault conditions
Acc<rac:7
+he accurac% of a C+ is directl% related to a num&er of factors including@
0urden
0urden classHsaturation class
Rating factor
3oad
*xternal electromagnetic fields
+emperature and
.h%sical configuration)
+he selected tap, for multi(ratio C+Us
Accurac% classes for $arious t%pes of measurement are class 6)4, 6)>s, 6)>, 6)5, 6)5s, 4 G ;
Class 4 current transformers ha$e ratio error within 4? of rated current class 6)5 within a
ratio error of 6)5?
+%pical &urden ratings for I*C C+s are 4)5EA, ;EA, 5EA, 46EA, 45EA, >6EA, ;6EA, 85EA
G D6EA
$RA!S&ORMER PRO$E'$O!7
B<chholE rela:7
0uchhol< rela% is a gas( actuated rela% installed in oil(immersed transformers for protection against
all 'ind of faults) It is used to gi$es an alarm in case of slow de$eloping faults or incipient faults in
the transformer and to disconnect the transformer from the suppl% in the e$ent of se$ere internal
faults) It is installed in the pipe &etween the conser$ator and main tan' as shown in fig) &elow) +his
rela% is used in oil(immersed transformers of rating a&o$e :56 'EA)
46
'o=str<ctio=7
Fig ) hows the constructional details of &uchhol< rela%) It consists of a domed $essel placed in the
pipe &etween the conser$ator and main tan' of the transformer) +he de$ice has two elements) +he
upper element consists of a mercur% t%pe switch attached to a float) +he lower element contains a
mercur% switch mounted on a hinged t%pe flap located on the direct path of flow of oil from the
transformer to the conser$ator) +he upper element closes an alarm circuit during slow de$eloping
faults whereas the lower element is arranged to trip the circuit &rea'er in case of se$ere internal
faults)

Operatio= 7
+he operation of &uchhol< rela% is as follows@
i) In case of slow de$eloping faults within the transformer, the heat due to the fault causes
decomposition of some transformer oil in the main tan') +he products of decomposition
mainl% contain :6 ? of h%drogen gas) +he h%drogen gas &eing light tries to go into the
conser$ator and in the process gets trapped in the upper part of the rela% cham&er) When a
predetermined amount of gas gets accumulated, it exerts sufficient pressure on the float to
4
cause it to tilt and close the contacts of mercur% switch attached to it) +his completes the
alarm circuit to sound an alarm)
ii) If serious fault occur in the transformer, an enormous amount of gas is generated in the
main tan') +he oil in the main tan' rushes towards the conser$ator $ia the &uchhol< rela%
and in doing so it tilts the flap to close the contacts of mercur% switch) +his completes the
trip circuit to open the circuit &rea'er controlling the transformer)
A>Aa=taBes7
4) It is the simplest form of transformer protection
>) It detects the slow de$eloping faults at a stage much earlier than other forms of
.rotection)
Disa>Aa=taBes7
4) It can onl% &e used with oil immersed transformers e1uipped with conser$ators
>) +he de$ice can detect onl% faults &elow oil le$eling the transformer) +herefore
separate protection is needed for connecting ca&les)
OAer c<rre=t a=> earth @a<lt protectio=7
+he o$er current protection is needed to protect the transformer from sustained o$erloads and short
circuits) Induction t%pe o$er current rela%s are used which in addition to pro$iding o$erload
protection acts as &ac' up rela%s for protection of transformer winding fault) Fig shows the
com&ined o$er current and earth fault protection) +he earth fault protection is used to pro$ide
protection against an% earth fault in the windings of the transformer) It wor's on the principle that
when the transformer winding is sound the currents in all the three phases will &alance and no
current will spill into the earth fault rela%) +he arrangement is such that the rela% does not respond
to an% out of &alance current &etween windings caused &% tap changing arrangement
4!
Fig) illustrates the use of earth fault and o$er current rela%s for &oth star and delta connections of
the transformer) Instantaneous t%pe of earth rela% is used) When the winding is delta connected the
earth rela% is operated &% the residual current from three C)+)s connected as shown in left hand side
of the fig) If the transformer winding has an earthed neutral then the residual current from the three
line current transformers is &alanced against the current of the current transformers pro$ided in the
neutral as on the right hand side)
When the s%stem wor's normal, the sum of three currents in the C)+)s is <ero and no current flows
through the operating winding of the instantaneous earth fault rela% and through the neutral of the
transformer) !owe$er if fault is outside the protection area current flows in the neutral and lines as
well, &ut the sum of currents in the lines is &alanced &% the current in neutral and hence earth rela%
is not operated) Now if earth fault occur within the protected <one sa% in the winding itself current
will flow onl% in the neutral of the main transformer and thus there will &e no &alancing current in
the rela% circuit so, the rela% is energi<ed and the circuit &rea'er is opened) +he trip contacts of the
o$er current rela% and earth fault rela% are in parallel so, with the energisation of either o$er current
rela% or earth fault rela% the circuit &rea'er of the concerned side will &e tripped)
Di@@ere=tial protectio= o@ tra=s@ormers7
+he differential protection used for transformers is &ased on the principle of current circulation)
+his t%pe of protection is mostl% used for transformers as this responds not onl% to inter turn fault
4"
&ut also pro$ides protection against phase(to(phase faults) Following are the complicated features
in transformers and there remedial measures@
4) In a power transformer, the currents in primar% and secondar% are to &e compared)
As these two currents are usuall% different, therefore the use of identical tr8ansformers will gi$e
differential current and operate the rela% e$en under no load conditions) +he difference in
magnitude of currents in primar% and secondar% of power transformers is compensated &% different
turn=s ratios of C)+)s) If + is the turn=s ratio of power transformer, then the turns ration of C)+)s on
l$ side is made + times the turn=s ration of the C)+)s on h$ side) When this condition is fulfilled the
secondaries of the two C)+)s will carr% same current under normal conditions) And thus no current
will flow through the rela% and it remains inoperati$e)
>) +here is usuall% a phase difference &etween the primar% and secondar% currents of a ;(phase
power transformer) *$en if C)+)s of proper transformation ratios are used, a differential current will
flow through the rela% under normal condition and cause rela% operation) +he correction for phase
difference is effected &% appropriate connections of C)+)s) the C)+)s on one side of the power
transformer are connected in such a wa% that the resultant current fed into the pilot wires are
displaced in phase from the indi$idual phase currents in the same direction as, and &% an angle
e1ual to, the phase shift &etween the power transformers primar% and secondar% currents) +he ta&le
&elow shows the t%pe of connections to &e emplo%ed for C)+)s in order to compensate for the phase
difference in the primar% and secondar% currents of power transformer)
3)N- .-W*R +RANF-RM*R
C-NN*C+I-N
CARR*N+ +RANF-RM*R
C-NN*C+I-N
.RIMARN *C-NDARN .RIMARN *C-NDARN
5#
4
>
;
8
tar with
neutral
earthed
Delta
tar
Delta
Delta
Delta
tar with neutral
earthed
tar with neutral
earthed
Delta
tar
Delta
tar
tar
tar
Delta
Delta
4) Another factor, which has to &e considered, is the inrush of magneti<ing current)
When the transformer is switched to suppl% the magneti<ing current ma% assume $er% high $alues
momentaril% and ma% cause operation of the rela% e$en though the% are transient) +his can &e
a$oided &% using rela%s with time dela% characteristics)
Fig) shows the differential protection for transformer) In this the power transformer is delta( star
connected) -n delta side the C)+)s are connected in star and on the star side the C)+)s are
connected in delta as in fig) Ander normal wor'ing conditions the circulating currents caused &%
the primar% and secondar% load current in the rela% circuit will &alance7 &ut under fault conditions
the &alance will no longer &e there and the rela% will &e energi<ed to trip the circuit &rea'ers on
the primar% and secondar% side
51
In order to understand the phase difference in the two sides consider fig)) +he primar% is
connected in delta and the set of current transformers C+4 is connected in star, while the
secondar% is connected in star and the set of current transformers C+> is connected in delta)
B,S BARS7
52
A ;<s;ar in electrical power distri&ution refers to thic' strips of copper or aluminum that
conduct electricit% within a switch&oard, distri&ution &oard, su&station, or other electrical
apparatus)
+he si<e of the &us&ar is important in determining the maximum amount of current that can &e
safel% carried) 0us&ars can ha$e a cross(sectional area of as little as 46 mm\ &ut electrical
su&stations ma% use metal tu&es of 56 mm in diameter "4,9D; mm\# or more as &us&ars)
0us&ars are t%picall% either flat strips or hollow tu&es as these shapes allow heat to dissipate more
efficientl% due to their high surface area to cross(sectional area ratio) +he effect ma'es 56(D6
!< AC &us&ars more than a&out K mm "4H; in# thic' inefficient, so hollow or flat shapes are
pre$alent in higher current applications) A hollow section has higher stiffness than a solid rod of
e1ui$alent current(carr%ing capacit%, which allows a greater span &etween &us&ar supports in
outdoor switch%ards)
A &us&ar ma% either &e supported on insulators, or else insulation ma% completel% surround it)
0us&ars are protected from accidental contact either &% a metal enclosure or &% ele$ation out of
normal reach) Neutral &us&ars ma% also &e insulated) *arth &us&ars are t%picall% &olted directl%
onto an% metal chassis of their enclosure) 0us&ars ma% &e enclosed in a metal housing, in the form
of &us duct or &us wa%, segregated(phase &us, or isolated(phase &us)
0us&ars ma% &e connected to each other and to electrical apparatus &% &olted or clamp connections)
-ften ,oints &etween high(current &us sections ha$e matching surfaces that are sil$er(plated to
reduce the contact resistance) At extra(high $oltages "more than ;66 'E# in outdoor
&uses, corona around the connections &ecomes a source of radio(fre1uenc% interference and power
loss, so connection fittings designed for these $oltages are used)
53
0us&ars are $ital parts of a power s%stem and so a fault should &e cleared as fast as possi&le) A
&us&ar must ha$e its own protection, although the% ha$e high degrees of relia&ilit%) 0earing in
mind the ris' of unnecessar% trips, the protection should &e dependa&le, selecti$e and should &e
sta&le for external faults, called Uthrough faultsU)
Some terms a=> >e@i=itio=s7
4) B<s;ars7 co=><ctors to which num&er of circuits are connected)
>) B<s;ars 'o==ectio=7 +he conductors that form the electrical connection &etween the 0us&ars
and indi$idual piece of apparatus)
;) Ope=*Br<shes7 +he 0us&ars that is contained in a duct or co$er of an% material) +he 0us&ars
enclosed in metal enclosures are called metal enclosed 0us&ars) +he enclosures are either
aluminum, or sheet steel)
8) E=close> B<s;ars7 An open or metal enclosed 0us&ars designed for installation under open s'%)
-utdoor 0us&ars are supported on gla<ed porcelain insulators
5) O<t>oor B<s;ars7 An open or metal enclosed 0us&ars designed for installation under open s'%)
-utdoor 0us&ars are supported on gla<ed porcelain insulators)
D)=>oor B<s;ars7 the &us&ars designed for indoor use)
:) 'ompo<=> immerse> B<s;ar7 *nclosed 0us&ars immersed in li1uid or semi solid materials)
Rati=Bs7
4) Rate> c<rre=t7 +he RM) $alue of current which the &us&ar can carr% continuousl% with
temperature rise within specified limits)
>) Rate> AoltaBe7 +he RM) $alue of $oltage &etween lines for which the &us&ars are intended)
;)Rate> @re?<e=c: @ usuall% it is 56!<)
8 Rate> Short 'irc<it $ime '<rre=t7 +his corresponds to the short time current rating of circuit
&rea'erHswitchesHisolators) It is defined as the RM) $alue of the circuit which the &us&ar can carr%
with temperature rise within specified limits for a specified duration)
MA$ERA.S &OR B,SBARS7
Copper and Aluminum are used for &us&ars )copper &eing scarce and costl%) Aluminum is
&eing increasingl% used for &us&ars) +he material used for &us&ars should ha$e low cost) Now
aluminum is &eing increasingl% used for $arious switching applications)
DES-! 'O!SDERA$O!S7
4) &orms7 +he structural forms of &us&ars are generall% selected on the &asis of mechanical
considerations of strength supporting arrangement) When the spacing &etween &us&ars is small
mechanical forces are significant &asicall%) t%picall% &us&ars are shapes include single flat
rectangular sections, multiple rectangular sections, angles,channelshollow ta&ular and rectangular
54
sections)
>) '<rre=t 'arr:i=B 'apacit:7 +he $arious aluminum companies gi$e regular ta&les of cross
sections and their current capacities &ased on am&ient temperature "86c to 56 c# and temperature
rise ";5c a$erage,86 c maximum# for $arious conditions and arrangements)
;) $emperat<re Rise ><ri=B Short circ<it co=>itio=s7 At temperature 4D6 C Aluminum &ecomes
soft and losses its mechanical strength) +he calculations of temperature rise are complicated)
8) 'leara=ce ;etGee= phases a=> ;etGee= phase a=> earth7 +he minimum clearance is
specified in standards)
5) 'reepaBe Dista=ce7 +he shortest distance along the conductor along the external of insulators
from earth to the conductor) +he porcelain insulator is exclusi$el% used for outdoor &us supports)
D) -ro<=> 'leara=ce7 Distance &etween the highest earthed part of the e1uipment and the ground)
+his should &e minimum >):5 mts) +his is for safet% of personals mo$ing in the su&station)
Vario<s t:pes o@ ;<s;ars arra=Beme=t7
a# Si=Ble B<s;ar Arra=Beme=t7 +he simple arrangement consists of a single &us&ar to which the
$arious feeders are connected) Incase of a fault or maintenance of a &us&ar the entire &us&ar has to
&e de(energi<ed and the total shutdown) !ence this t%pe of arrangement is most economical and
simple which pro$ides least flexi&ilit% and immunit% from total shutdown)
&# D<plicate B<s;ar Arra=Beme=t7 +he duplicate &us&ar s%stem pro$ides additional flexi&ilit%,
continuit% of suppl% and permits periodic maintenance without the total shutdown) In the e$ent of
fault on one &us other can &e used)
c# Sectio=aliEatio= o@ ;<s7 ectionali<ing the &uses has added ad$antages) -ne section can &e
completel% shutdown for maintenance and repairs while the others continuous to the suppl%,
secondl% &% adding a current limiting reactor &etween the sections) +he fault ME)A can &e reduced,
there &% circuit &rea'er of lesser capacit% ma% &e permitted)
d# Ri=B B<s7 Ring &us pro$ides greater flexi&ilit%) +he suppl% can &e ta'en from an% ad,acent
section) +he effect of fault in one section is locali<ed to that section alone) +he other section
continues to operate)

SO.A$ORS7
Isolators or disconnect switches operate under no load condition) +he% are not e1uipped with arc(
1uenching de$ices) +he% do not ha$e an% specified current &rea'ing capacit% or current ma'ing
capacit%) +he isolators in some cases are used for &rea'ing charging current of transformer) +he%
are emplo%ed in addition to circuit &rea'ers, and are pro$ided on each side or e$er% circuit &rea'er
55
to pro$ide isolation) While opening a circuit, the circuit &rea'er is opened first, then isolator) If an
isolator is opened carelessl%, when carr%ing a hea$% current, the resulting arc could easil% cause a
flash(o$er to ground) +his ma% shatter the supporting insulators and ma% e$en cause a fatal
accident to the operator, particularl% in !E circuits) While closing a circuit, the isolator is closed
first, then circuit &rea'er) Isolators are necessar% on the suppl% side of the circuit &rea'ers in order
to ensure isolation "disconnection# of the circuit &rea'er from the li$e parts for the purpose of
maintenance) Automatic switching of isolators is preferred)
Isolators emplo%ed in power s%stems are usuall% ;(pole isolators, each ha$ing three identical poles)
*ach pole consists of two or three insulator posts mounted on a fa&ricated support) +he fixed and
mo$ing conducting parts are of copper or aluminum rods) During the opening operation the
conducting rods swing apart and isolation is o&tained) +he simultaneous operation of three poles is
o&tained &% mechanical interloc'ing of the three poles)
+o pre$ent the mal(operation the isolator is pro$ided with the following interloc'ing@
4) Interloc'ing &etween the three poles for simultaneous process)
>) Interloc'ing with circuit &rea'ers) Isolators cannot &e opened unless the circuit &rea'er is opened
and circuit &rea'er cannot &e closed unless the isolator is closed)
;) 3oad interrupter switches) In addition to isolators and circuit &rea'ers, there is one more de$ice,
called the load(interrupting switch, which com&ines the functions of the isolator and a switch) +he%
are designed onl% for &rea'ing and ma'ing the load currents)
EAR$#!- SW$'#7
*arthing switch is connected &etween the line conductor and earth) Normall% it is open and it is
closed to discharge the $oltage trapped on the isolated or disconnected line) When the line is
disconnected from the suppl% end, there is some $oltage on the line too which the capacitance
&etween the line and earth is charged) +his $oltage is significant in !E s%stems) 0efore
commencement of maintenance wor' it is necessar% that these $oltages are discharged to earth &%
closing the earthing switch) Normall%, the earthing switches are mounted on the frame of the
isolator)
56
&,SE7
Fuse is a current interrupting de$ice which &rea's or opens the circuit " in which it is inserted# &%
fusing the element when the current in the circuit exceeds a certain $alue) +he action of the fuse is
&ased upon the heating effect of the electric current) *ssentiall%, a fuse consists of a fusi&le element
in the form of a metal conductor of speciall% selected small cross(sectional area, a case or cartridge
to hold the fusi&le element, and in some cases, pro$ided with a means to aid arc extinction) +he part
which actuall% melts and opens the circuit is 'nown as the fuse element) It forms a series part of
circuit to &e protected against short(circuit or excessi$e o$erloads) +he materials used for fuse
elements must &e low melting point, low ohmic loss, high conducti$it% "or low resisti$it%#, low cost
and free from deterioration) +he materials commonl% used for fuse elements are tin, lead, sil$er,
copper, <inc, aluminum and allo% of lead and tin) An allo% of lead and tin "lead ;:? and tin D;?# is
used for small current rating fuses) 0e%ond 45 A rating circuits copper wire fuses are emplo%ed)
$:pes o@ &<ses7
In general there are two categories of fuses viz; 4)low $oltage fuses >)!igh $oltage fuses)
.oG AoltaBe @<ses7
3ow $oltage fuses can &e further di$ided into two classes= namel% semi(enclosed or rewira&le t%pe
and totall% enclosed or cartridge t%pe)
ReGira;le @<se7 +he most commonl% used fuse in ]house wiring= and small currents circuits is the
semi(enclosed or rewira&le fuse) It consists of porcelain fuse carrier holding the fuse element,
consisting of one or more strands of fuse wire stretched &etween its terminals) +he fuse wire ma%
&e of lead, tinned copper, aluminum or an allo% of tin(lead) +he actual fusing current will &e a&out
twice the rated current) tandard ratings are D,4D,;>,D; and 466A)
5
$otall: e=close> or cartri>Be t:pe @<ses@ +he fuse element is enclosed in a totall% enclosed
container and is pro$ided with metal contacts on &oth sides) +hese fuses are further classified as "i#
D(t%pe and "ii# lin' t%pe
D *t:pe catri>Be @<ses7 It is a non(interchangea&le fuse comprising a fuse &ase, adapter ring,
cartridge and a fuse cap) +he cartridge is pushed in the fuse cap and a cap is screwed on the fuse
&ase) +he standard ratings are D, 4D,;> and D; A) +he &rea'ing or rupturing capacit% is of the order
8'A for > or 8 ampere fuses and 4D'A for D to D;A fuses) +hese t%pes of fuses are relia&le)
.i=k t:pe 'atri>Be or hiBh r<pt<ri=B capacit:(#R') @<ses7 A !RC fuse is usuall% of steatite, a
ceramic material ha$ing good mechanical strength) +he fuse elements are connected to two end
caps of &rass or copper inside the &od%) An indicating de$ice is pro$ided to distinguish the &lown
fuse) +he space &etween the fuse element and the catridge &od% is filled with powdered pure 1uart<
which acts as an arc extinguishing agent) +he usual fusing factor for lin' fuses is 4)85) there are two
t%pes of such fuses 4)'nife &lade t%pe >)&olted t%pe) +hese are used for high currents) Drop(out
fuse, stri'er fuse and switch fuse are some of the other t%pes of low $oltage fuses)
#iBh AoltaBe #R' @<ses7 +hese are of two t%pes viz, catridge t%pe and li1uid t%pe)
Catridge t%pe@ +he construction of these fuses is same as that of 3E catridge fuses) +hese are used
up to ;;'E, with rupturing capacit% of a&out K,:D6 A at that $oltage "566MEA three phase#)
3i1uid +%pe !E !RC@ uch fuses are filled with car&on tetra chloride and ha$e the widest range of
applications in high $oltage circuits) +he% ma% &e emplo%ed for $oltage transformer protection or
for circuits up to 866A rated current on s%stems up to 4;> 'E or higher)
A>Aa=taBes o@ &<ses7
4) It is the cheapest form of protection a$aila&le)
>) It needs no maintenance
;) Its operation is inherentl% completel% automatic unli'e a circuit &rea'er which re1uires
ela&orate e1uipment for automatic action)
8) It interrupts enormous short(circuit currents without noise, flame, gas or smo'e)
5) +he minimum time of operation can &e made much smaller than that with circuit &rea'ers)
D) +he smaller si<es of fuse element imposes a current limiting effect under short(circuit
conditions)
:) Its in$erse time(current characteristic ena&les its use for o$erload protection)
5!
Disa>Aa=taBes7
4) Considera&le time is lost in rewiring or replacing a fuse after operation)
>) -n hea$% short(circuits, discrimination &etween fuses in series cannot &e o&tained unless
there is considera&le differences in the relati$e si<es of the fuses concerned)
;) +he current(time characteristics of a fuse cannot alwa%s &e co(related with that of the
protected de$ices)
8) A special attention should &e made to current transformer selection since measuring errors
need to &e considered)
'R',$ BREAKERS7
A circ<it ;reaker is an automaticall%(operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical
circuit from damage caused &% o$erload or short circuit) Its &asic function is to detect a fault
condition and, &% interrupting continuit%, to immediatel% discontinue electrical flow) Anli'e a fuse,
which operates once and then has to &e replaced, a circuit &rea'er can &e reset "either manuall% or
automaticall%# to resume normal operation) Circuit &rea'ers are made in $ar%ing si<es, from small
de$ices that protect an indi$idual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect
high $oltage circuits feeding an entire cit%)
Arc phe=ome=o=7
+he arc consists of a column of ioni<ed gas ha$ing molecules which ha$e lost one or more
electrons)+he electrons &eing negati$el% charged are attracted towards the positi$e contact"i)e,
anode# with a high $elocit% and on the wa% the% detach more electrons &% impact) +he positi$e ions
are attracte towards the negati$e contact "i)e), cathode#, &ut as the% compromise almost the entire
weight of the atom, the% mo$e towards it relati$el% slowl%)+hus current flow is caused due to
mo$ement of electrons)
$ech=i?<es are <se> to eFti=B<ish the arc7
Different techni1ues are used to extinguish the arc )+he% are@
3engthening of the arc
Intensi$e cooling "in ,et cham&ers#
Di$ision into partial arcs
5"
Bero point 1uenching
Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in DC circuits
Finall%, once the fault condition has &een cleared, the contacts must again &e closed to restore
power to the interrupted circuit)
$erms associate> Gith circ<it ;reakers7
Arc AoltaBe7
+he $oltage that appears across the contacts of circuit &rea'er during the arcing period is 'nown as
arc $oltage) Its $alue is low except for the current <ero, at current <ero the arc $oltage rises rapidl%
to pea' $alue) It tends to maintain the current flow in the form of arc)
Restriki=B AoltaBe7
It=s the transient $oltage that appears across the contacts at or near current <ero during arcing
.eriod) +his $oltage is caused &% rapid distri&ution of energ% &etween magnetic and electric fields
associated with plants and transmission lines of the s%stem) Current interruption depends on this
$oltage) If the restri'ing $oltage rises more rapidl% than dielectric strength of medium arc persists
for another half c%cle else arc will fail to restri'e and current will &e interrupted)
RecoAer: AoltaBe7
It=s the normal fre1uenc% $oltage "rms# that appears across the contacts of circuit &rea'er after final
arc extinction) It is approximatel% e1ual to the s%stem $oltage) When contacts are opened current
drops to <ero at e$er% half c%cle) At current <ero dielectric strength of the medium can &e increased
6#
and thus pre$ent the &rea' down &% restri'ing $oltage) Conse1uentl% the final arc extinction ta'es
place and circuit current is interrupted) After this current interruption the $oltage appearing across
the contacts is 'nown as reco$er% $oltage
Rate o@ rise o@ restriki=B AoltaBe7
It is the rate of increase of restri'ing $oltage and is a&&re$iated &% R)R)R)E) its unit is
'EHmsec)Consider the fig &elow showing the opening of circuit &rea'er under fault conditions)
0efore current interruption, the capacitance C is short circuited &% the fault and the short circuit
current through the &rea'er is limited &% inductance 3 of the s%stem
+he short circuit current will lag the $oltage &% 96S as shown in fig, where I represent the short
circuit current and *A represents the arc $oltage) Ander short circuit condition the entire generator
$oltage appears across inductance 3) when the contacts are opened and the arc finall% extinguishes
at some current <ero, the generator $oltage * is suddenl% applied to the inductance and capacitance
in series) +his 3(C com&ination forms an oscillator% circuit produces a transient of fre1uenc%7 FN M
4H V >^ "3C#
4H>
W , which appears across the capacitor and hence across the contacts of the circuit
&rea'er) +his transient $oltage is 'nown as restri'ing $oltage and ma% reach an instantaneous pea'
$alue twice the pea' phase neutral $oltage i)e) > *M)
61
It is R)R)R)E, which decides whether the arc will re(stri'e) If R)R)R)E is greater than the rate of rise
of dielectric strength &etween the contacts, the arc will re(stri'e) +he arc will fail to re(stri'e if
R)R)R)E is less than the rate of increase of dielectric strength &etween the contacts of the &rea'er)
+he $alue of R)R)R)E depends on@
4) Reco$er% $oltage
>) Natural fre1uenc% of oscillations
'<rre=t choppi=B7
It is the phenomenon of circuit interruption &efore the natural current <ero is reached) It mainl%
occurs in air &last circuit &rea'ers &ecause the% retain the same extinguishing power irrespecti$e of
the magnitude of current to &e interrupted) +he powerful deionising effect of air &last causes the
current to fall a&ruptl% to <ero well &efore the natural current <ero is reached) +his phenomenon is
'nown as current chopping and results in high $oltage transient across the contacts of the circuit
&rea'er) +he arc current I is chopped down to <ero $alue as shown &% point A in fig)
As the chop occurs at current I, therefore, the energ% stored in inductance is 3 I
>
H>) +his energ% will
&e transferred to the capacitance C, charging the latter to a prospecti$e $oltage * gi$en &%@3 I
>
H > M
C*
>
H > or * M I V3 H CW
4H>
$olts) +he perspecti$e $oltage e is $er% high as compared to dielectric
strength gained &% the gap so that the &rea'er restri'es) As the deionising force is still in
action,_chop occurs again &ut the arc current &ecomes smaller than the pre$ious case) It induces a
lower $oltage to restri'e the arc, after se$eral chops a low enough current is interrupted which
produces insufficient induced $oltage to restri'es across the &rea'er gap)
'lassi@icatio= o@ circ<it ;reakers7
+here are se$eral methods of classification of circuit &rea'ers)
-n the &asis of t%pe of current the% ma% &e classified as@
4) ac circuit &rea'ers
62
>) dc circuit &rea'ers)
AC circuit &rea'ers ma% &e classified on the &asis of rated $oltages) Circuit &rea'ers &elow rated
$oltage of 4,666 E are 'nown as the low($oltage circuit &rea'ers and a&o$e 4,666 E are called the
high($oltage circuit &rea'ers) !owe$er, the most general wa% of classification of circuit &rea'ers is
on the &asis of medium of arc extinction) +he classification of the Circuit 0rea'ers &ased on the
medium of arc extinction is as follows@
"4# Air &rea' Circuit 0rea'er) "Miniature Circuit 0rea'er#)
"># -il Circuit 0rea'er "tan' t%pe or &ul' oil#
";# Minimum oil Circuit 0rea'er)
"8# Air &last Circuit 0rea'er)
"5# Eacuum Circuit 0rea'er)
"D# ulphur hexafluoride Circuit 0rea'er) "ingle pressure or
Dou&le .ressure#)
AR BREAK 'R',$ BREAKERS7
In the air(&rea' circuit &rea'er the contact separation and arc extinction ta'es place in air at
atmospheric pressure) !igh resistance principle is emplo%ed in such circuit &rea'ers) +he arc is
rapidl% lengthened &% means of the arc runners and arc chutes and arc resistance is increased &%
cooling, lengthening and splitting the arc) +he arc resistance is increased to such an extent that the
$oltage drop across the arc &ecomes more than the s%stem $oltage and the arc gets extinguished at
current <ero of ac wa$e)
Air circuit &rea'ers are classified as@
4) .lain &rea' t%pe air(&rea' circuit &rea'er
>) Magnetic &low(out t%pe air(&rea' circuit &rea'er
;) Arc(chute air(&rea' circuit &rea'er
O. 'R',$ BREAKERS7
In such circuit &rea'ers, some insulating oil "e)g), transformer oil# is used for arc extinction)
-il circuit &rea'ers can &e classified into following t%pes@
B<lk oil circ<it ;reakers7 +he% use a large 1uantit% of oil) In this circuit &rea'er the oil ser$es two
purposes) Firstl% it extinguishes the arc during opening of contacts and secondl% it insulates the
current conducting parts from one another and from the earthed tan')
63
0ul' oil circuit &rea'ers are classified into@
a# .lain oil circuit &rea'ers
&# Arc control circuit &rea'ers
In the former t%pe no means is a$aila&le for controlling the arc and the contacts are exposed to the
whole of the oil in the tan') In the latter special arc control de$ices are emplo%ed to get the
&eneficial action of the arc as efficientl% as possi&le
.oG oil circ<it ;reakers7 +he% use minimum amount of oil) In such circuit &rea'ers oil is used
onl% for arc extinction, the current conducting parts are insulated &% air or porcelain or organic
insulating material)
A>Aa=taBes7
A low oil circuit &rea'er has following ad$antages compared to &ul' oil circuit &rea'er
4) It re1uires lesser 1uantit% of oil
>) It re1uires smaller space
;) +here is reduced ris' of fire
8) Maintenance pro&lems are reduced
Disa>Aa=taBes7
4) A low oil circuit &rea'er has following disad$antages compared to &ul' oil circuit &rea'er
>) Due to smaller 1uantit% of oil, the degree of car&onisation is increased
;) +here is a difficult% of remo$ing the gases from the contact space in time
8) +he dielectric strength of oil deteriorates rapidl% due to high degree of car&onisation)
AR B.AS$ 'R',$ BREAKER7
+hese t%pe of &rea'ers emplo% ]air &last= as the 1uenching medium) +he contacts are opened &% air
&last produced &% the opening of &last $al$e) +he air &last cools the arc and sweeps awa% the arcing
64
products to the atmosphere) +his rapidl% increases the dielectric strength of the medium &etween
contacts and pre$ents from re(esta&lishing the arc) Conse1uentl% the arc is extinguished and the
flow of current is interrupted)
Depending upon the direction of air &last in relation to the arc7 air &last circuit &rea'ers are
classified into@
"i#AFial*;last t:pe in which air(&last is directed along the arc path as shown in figure &elow)
"ii# 'ross*;last t:pe in which air &last is directed at right angles to the arc path as shown in figure
&elow
"iii# Ra>ial*;last t:pe in which the air &last is directed radiall% as shown in figure &elow
65
S,.P#,R #E"A&.,ORDE(S&4) 'R',$ BREAKER7
In this circuit &rea'er, sulphur hexafluoride " FD # gas is used as the arc 1uenching medium)
+heFD gas is an electro negati$e gas and has a strong tendenc% to a&sor& free electrons) +he
contacts of the &rea'er are opened in a high pressure flow of FD gas and an arc is struc' &etween
them) +he conducting free electrons in the arc are rapidl% captured &% the gas to form relati$el%
immo&ile negati$e ions) +his loss of conducting electrons in the arc 1uic'l% &uilds up enough
insulation strength to extinguish the arc) +he FD circuit &rea'ers are $er% effecti$e for high power
and high $oltage ser$ice)
A>Aa=taBes o@ S&4oAer oil a=> air circ<it ;reakers @
Due to superior arc 1uenching propert% of FD , such &rea'ers ha$e $er% short arcing time
Dielectric strength of FD gas is > to ; times that of air, such &rea'ers can interrupt much
larger currents)
/i$es noiseless operation due to its closed gas circuit
Closed gas enclosure 'eeps the interior dr% so that there is no moisture pro&lem
+here is no ris' of fire as FD is non inflamma&le
+here are no car&on deposits
3ow maintenance cost, light foundation re1uirements and minimum auxiliar% e1uipment
FD &rea'ers are totall% enclosed and sealed from atmosphere, the% are particularl% suita&le
where explosion ha<ard exists
Disa>Aa=taBes7
66
FD &rea'ers are costl% due to high cost of FD
FD gas has to &e reconditioned after e$er% operation of the &rea'er7 additional e1uipment is
re1uired for this purpose
Applicatio=s7
FD &rea'ers ha$e &een used for $oltages 445'E to >;6 'E, power ratings 46 MEA to >6 MEA and
interrupting time less than ; c%cles)
VA',,M 'R',$ BREAKERS7
In this &rea'er, $acuum is &eing used as the arc 1uenching medium) Eacuum offers highest
insulating strength7 it has far superior arc 1uenching properties than an% other medium) When
contacts of a &rea'er are opened in $acuum, the interruption occurs at first current <ero with
dielectric strength &etween the contacts &uilding up at a rate thousands of times that o&tained with
other circuit &rea'ers)
A>Aa=taBes7
a) +he% are compact, relia&le and ha$e longer life)
&) +here are no fire ha<ards
c) +here is no generation of gas during and after operation
d) +he% can interrupt an% fault current) +he outstanding feature of a EC0 is that it can &rea' an%
hea$% fault current perfectl% ,ust &efore the contacts reach the definite open position)
e) +he% re1uire little maintenance and are 1uiet in operation
f) Can withstand lightning surges
g) 3ow arc energ%
h) 3ow inertia and hence re1uire smaller power for control mechanism)
Applicatio=s7
For outdoor applications ranging from >> 'E to DD 'E) uita&le for ma,orit% of applications in rural
area)
+%pe Medium Eoltage, 0rea'ing Capacit%
6
4 P Air &rea' Circuit 0rea'er Air at atmospheric pressure "8;6 P D66# EP "5(45#MEA
";)D(4># KE ( 566 MEA
> P Miniature C0) Air at atmospheric pressure "8;6(D66 # E
; P +an' +%pe oil C0) Dielectric oil ";)D P 4># KE
8 P Minimum -il C0) Dielectric oil ";)D ( 485 #KE
5 P Air 0last C0) Compressed Air
">6 P 86 # &ar
>85 KE, ;5666 MEA
up to 4466 KE, 56666 MEA
D P FD C0) FD /as 4> KE, 4666 MEA
;D KE , >666 MEA
485 KE, :566 MEA
>85 KE , 46666 MEA
: P Eacuum C0) Eacuum ;D KE, :56 MEA
K P !)E)DC C0) Eacuum , FD /as 566 KE DC
6!

"OWE# D$ST#$%&T$ON $N NFC

S'#EMA$' REPRESE!$A$O! O& POWER DS$RB,$O! ! !&'7
6"
132 KV FEEDERS
Fr! APTRANSCO
SUB"STATION
132#33#11 KV
31.$ MVA
TRANSFORMATION
11 KV BOARD CPGP
CPA S#S
CCCM
HC NUFAP NUOFP S#S ZFP S#S
33#%.% KV
MSDS"2
ANNEALING
FURNACE"1
TIE FEERDER TO
ZEP
CAPACITOR BANK
PILGER MILLS
HORIZONTAL &
VERTICAL
FURNACE
NEW MELT SHOP
LC
BBTP LC"&
BBTP LC"3
BBTP LC"2
ZEP LCSS
LC"$
PH"2
UOP"CFFP
SERVICES
LAB & SMP
ZCPLCSS
ZFP LC"1
SSTP M
$MVA TR
SSTP LC"2
ZEP LC"2
NUOFP
LCSS"1
NUOFP
LCSS"3
NUOFP
LCSS"2
LCSS
M.S.D.S"1
MA! S$EP DOW! A!D DS$RB,$O! S%S$EM(MSDS*0)7
NFC recei$es electric power at 4;> KE from A.+RANC- Moula(Ali >>6KE su&station
#
on a dou&le circuit o$er head transmission line) Main tep down and Distri&ution u&station
"MD(4# or Main Recei$ing tation "MR# has &een installed outside the NFC &oundar%) 4;> KE
is step down to ;;KE and 44KE o$er three winding transformers of capacit% >6H;4)5MEA) +he
two feeders at 4;> KE are 466? capacit% each to ma'e the s%stem 466? stand&%) +he existing &us
&ar and isolators= arrangement &etween these feeders= facilities change o$er &etween an%
transformer and an% feeder)
0efore stepping down the $oltage from the transformers there are se$eral e1uipments
installed to protect the de$ices from surge $oltages and fault currents) From the *!E transmission
line the $oltage is passed on to the rigid aluminum tu&es supported on flexi&le ACR conductors
supported on strain insulators) A0 switch is placed on the starting of the incoming line) It is motor
operated, can &e closed from 3-CA3 or R*M-+* &% selecting 3ocalHRemote selector witch
pro$ided in control &elow A0 switch) A earth switch is connected &etween the line conductor and
earth) Normall% it is open) It is manuall% operated) *arth switch and A0 switch are mechanicall%
interloc'ed)
A &us coupler Air 0rea' switch is placed &etween the two incoming lines and it is motor
operated, it is a hori<ontal &rea' centre rotating dou&le &rea'er isolator) If incoming line(4 fails
then the loads that are under the incoming(4 are operated under the incoming line(> &% 'eeping the
&us coupler in close condition)
.otential transformers are pro$ided for metering and protection for &oth the incomer lines)
+hese are connected in parallel to the &us) .)+ is also pro$ided with A0 switch, if there is an%
maintenance then A0 switch will &e opened, normall% it will &e closed) +he current transformer
used is a ;(core t%pe which is used for metering, protection and for differential protection) It is
connected in series to the line and A0 switch is placed for isolation from the suppl% during faults)
+he circuit &rea'er used in MD(4 is /C0, which contains FD for 1uenching the arc) +his /C0
can &e closed 3ocalHRemote &% selecting 3ocalHRemote elector witch from &oth ends) Closing
and tripping is &% compressed air, and was filled &% a &uilt in compressor) Air pressure to &e
maintained 4>'gHcm s1) to 45'gH s1) FD gas pressure to &e maintained from 8)> 'gHcm s1) to
5)>'gHcm)s1) And if gas pressure is low the /C0 cannot &e closed or tripped)
+o pre$ent the mal(operation, the isolator is pro$ided with the following interloc's@
4) Interloc'ing &etween three poles for simultaneous operation)
>) Interloc'ing with circuit &rea'ers)
Isolator cannot &e opened unless the circuit &rea'er is opened)
1
e1uence of operation while openingHclosing the circuit@
While opening@ open circuit &rea'er(open isolator(close earth switch
While closing@ open earth switch( close isolator(close circuit &rea'er
In connection to transformer, Metal -xide Earistor t%pe lightning arrestor is used for
protecting the transformer from surge $oltages and currents as it is the costliest e1uipment)
An -N 3-AD +A. C!AN/*R "-3+C# with >4 taps has &een installed on each
transformer, which is controlled &%e AA+-MA+IC E-3+A/* R*/A3A+-R "AER# to pro$ide a
constant $oltage of 44K$ irrespecti$e of primar% $oltage in a range of 4;>K$ to 99K$) +he -3+C
can &e operated from 3ocal near transformer -3+C control &ox and from remote on R+CC panel) It
can &e operated in auto or manual &% selection) AER gi$es signal to -3+C when e$er $oltage is
3ow or high as per &and $alue)AER maintains secondar% $oltage constant from 46)KK$ to 44)>K$
in auto position) Marshalling &ox is pro$ided with -+I with alarm and trip and W+I with cooling
fans -N, alarm and trip contacts are pro$ided for protection of transformer) Cooling fans were
pro$ided on transformer and can &e operated in manualHauto) In auto cooling fans start
automaticall% whene$er W+I is a&o$e D6 degree C) cooling fans power and controls are pro$ided in
marshalling &ox) +o operate in the cooling fans in auto cooling fans starters to &e 'ept in -N
position)
;;K$ KI-K is pro$ided with ;;KE FD /C0 with C+ and .+ for metering, protection
and differential protection) ;;KE suppl% from Kios' to MD(> is through > runs ;x;66s1)mm
L3.* ca&le up to gantr% structure and ACR conductor through towers to MD(>)
Another output of transformer 44'$ is fed to the different su&stations inside the NFC, where
the 44'$ is step downed to further $oltage depending upon the loads) All the outgoing feeders from
MD(4 44'$ are pro$ided FD /C0=s, C+, .+ and a &us coupler is also placed &etween the two
outgoing lines)
+hree num&er of Diesel generator sets of installed capacit% ;Z>)5 MEA connected to the
44KE &us in MD I which suppl% the loads in case of power failure from Moula PAli su&station
and also during pea' load hours in order to maintain the Maximum demand within 4> MEA Which
is the CMD "Contracted Maximum Demand# which if exceeded, penalt% has to &e paid)
Compressed air is used for cran'ing, K5 E, 8 A for excitation
Capacitor &an' of capacit% 4)K MEA is a$aila&le for power factor correction) +he power
factor is maintained at nearl% 6)95) +he internal discharge de$ice is a resistor) Capacitor &an's
pro$ide reacti$e power compensation and there &% impro$e the power factor and 'eep the demand
2
within the limits) +he other &eneficial effects are impro$ement of $oltage at the load, &etter $oltage
regulation and reduction of losses)
+he control $oltage for the operation of rela%, indicators and protection e1uipment is 446E
dc) A &atter% &an' of series connected Ni(Cd cells supplies this $oltage )+he principal ad$antages
of Ni(Cd &atteries o$er other rechargea&le &atteries is lower weight for a gi$en 1uantit% of stored
energ%, good charging efficienc%, and small $ariation in terminal $oltage during discharge, low
internal resistance and non(critical charging conditions) DC $oltage is used &ecause indicators
should wor' e$en when there is no incoming AC suppl%) +hese cells are charged &% a &atter%
charger comprising of float cum &ooster charger) Float charger tric'le charges the &atter% &an' and
as well supplies the load and Float cum &oost charger charges the &atteries when their terminal
$oltage is low) +he &atter% chargers internall% consist of rectifiers to con$ert AC "from incoming
suppl%# to dc and control and monitoring circuitr%)
Installed capacit% @ > x ;4)5 MEA
Contracted Max) Demand@ 4> MEA
44 'E D/ sets@ > x >)5 MEA
;; 'E outgoing feeders@ >
44 'E outgoing feeders @ 4:
3
132KV FEEDR FROM
MOULA"ALI S#S
132KV# 3#11'# 3 2''VA
PT
('' A ISOLATER
1$'#$ A CT
132 KV) 31$' A
31.$ KA CB
132#33#11 KV
31.$ MVA T#F"2
1'''A
33 KV FDR"2 TO
MSDS"2
11 KV 2.$ MVA
GENERATOR"1
NOTE*
ALL 11 KV GCBS ARE OF 12$' A RATING
D
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132#33#11 KV
31.$ MVA T#F"1
33 KV FDR"1 TO
MSDS"2
INCOMER"1
11KV)12$' A
BUS COUPLER
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INCOMER"2
11KV)12$' A
BUS COUPLER
PT
('' A ISOLATER
('' A ISOLATER
11 KV 2.$ MVA
GENERATOR"3
11 KV 2.$ MVA
GENERATOR"2
132 KV) 31$' A
31.$ KA CB
1$'#$ A CT
('' A ISOLATER
('' A ISOLATER ('' A ISOLATER
S!-.E .!E DA-RAM O& MSDS*0
4
00 KA o<tBoi=B @ee>ers @rom MSDS*07
)N-) -A+/-IN/ F**D*R +N.* -F CA03*
4) Capacitor F(4 ; x >86 s1)mm) L3.*
>) /en)tie feeder(4 ; x 95 s1)mm) .I3CA
;) NA-F.(4 ;R; x >86 s1)mm)L3.*
8) NAFA.(4 ; x >86 s1)mm) L3.*
5) spare (
D) !C(4 ; x 95 s1)mm) L3.*
:) C.A(4 >R; x >86 s1)mm).I3CA
K) BF.(4 >R; x >86 s1)mm).I3CA
9) BF.(> >R; x >86 s1)mm)L3.*
46) C.A(> >R; x >86 s1)mm) L3.*
44) CCCM ; x 95 s1)mm) L3.*
4>) !C(> ; x 95 s1)mm) ca&le
4;) tation transformer ; x 95 s1)mm) ca&le
48) /en)tie feeder(> ; x 95 s1)mm) .I3CA
45) NA-F.(> ;R; x >86 s1)mm) L3.*
4D) NAFA.(> ; x >86 s1)mm) L3.*
4:) Capacitor F(> ; L >86 s1)mm) L3.*
5
!ame plate >etails o@ Aario<s >eAices at ms>s*0 @
4;> 'E %ard
Conductor used in %ard @ ACR conductor, Aluminium@ ;` dia I.
01) kV i=comi=B isolator (Motor operated#
-perating $oltage@4;> 'E
3ine current @ K66 A
Control circuit $oltage@ 446E dc
Rating of motor@845E , ; phase
!eater $oltage @>;6E
Auxiliar% contacts @ DN-YDNC
4;> 'E incoming earth switch
Manuall% operated mechanism with mechanical interloc' with main isolator
01) kV S&4 Bas 'B @
Rated $oltage @485 'E
Fre1uenc%@56 !<
Current@ ;456A
Rated lightning impulse withstand $oltage @566'Ep
Rated short circuit &rea'ing current @;4)5'A
Rated duration of short circuit current @;4)5 'A for ;sec)
Closing and tripping $oltage @446Edc
Rated gas pressure@ 5 'gHs1)cm)
+otal weight with gas @4666'g)
/as wt@ K 'g)
Rated gas(operating pressure @45 'gHs1)cm)
.-#$!!- ARRES$ER @
Ma'e@elpro international ltd)
Metal oxide, expulsion t%pe
R)M) $oltage@4>6 'E
Nominal discharge current @46 'A
B,S#!-S @
!E line &ushing@
-il impregnated paper core condenser &ushings
Eoltage@485 'E
Current@ K66A
;D>5mm) creepage
3E4 line &ushings
.orcelain &ushings
Eoltage@;D 'E
Current@4666A
5:5mm) creepage
3E> line &ushings@
.orcelain &ushing
6
Eoltage@4:)5 'E
Current@4666A
>K6mm) creepage
Oil temperat<re i=>icator @
456mm) dial si<e with maximum pointer
>no) auxiliar% contacts for alarm, trip
>K66 ohm)pol)
Contact rating@5A,>56E ac
etting@
alarm@ K5 6C
+rip@ 956C
Wi=>i=B temperat<re i=>icator @
456mm dial si<e with maximum pointer
;No) auxiliar% contacts for fans, alaram,trip
>K66 ohm po
Contact rating@ 5A,>56E AC
ettings@ fans P K56c
Alarm(4656c
+rip P 4456c
'ooli=B o@ @a=s @
Num&er of fans @ 8
945 dia), :66 R.M
6)>8KW
845E ;phase AC
B<chholE rela: @
Dou&le float with alarmHtrip contacts
Rating >A,>56E ACHDC
MaB=etic oil leAel Ba<Be7
>56mm dia, No low le$el alarm on main tan')
Conser$ator contact rating@ 5A, >86E AC or 6)5A, >86E DC)
-3+C oil surge rela%
Rela% with trip contact
*xplosion $ent
DiaphraBm speci@icatio= @
.aper &ase 0a'elite sheet, 6)8mm thic'
01)KA Pote=tial $ra=s@ormer @
Ma'e@ *lectrical power e1uipment co) 0angalore
NE@4;>KE
Ratio@ 4;>Ha;K$H446Ha;$
Insulation le$el@>:5HD56 K$
Fre1uenc%@ 56!<
0urden@ >66MEA
Weight@:56'g
01)kA '<rre=t tra=s@ormer @

Ma'e@ *lectrical power e1uipment co) 0angalore

Rated $oltage@4;>K$
!ighest s%stem $oltage@485K$
Fre1uenc%@ 56!<
hor time current@4;)4KAH4sec
-il 1uantit%@:6 lit
Insulation le$el@>:5HD56 K$
+otal weight@ :56Kg
D%namic current@ ;>):5KA.
C-R* 4
CI@4
>
5.46
;
.)
Class Metering .rotection ((
.rimar% current 456A 456A 456A
econdar%
current
5A 5A 5A
-utput EA >5 >5 >5
Rc+ at :5 4)6 6)K 6):
Knee point
$oltage
(( (( >>6
Imax at EIc (( (( ((

!
01) KV 'o=trol Pa=el @
4)Differential rela%
>)o$er load rela%
;)Definite time o$er(load rela%
8)restricted earth fault rela%
5)!igh speed tripping rela%
D); part meter
:) Auxiliar% rela%
K) D window Annunciation panel
9)Ammeter
46)$oltmeter
44)fre1uenc% meter
4>)power factor meter
4;)+NC switch
48)-NH-FF indicating lamp
45)helath% trip indication
4D)3ocalHremote selector with indication lamp
4:)AcceptHResetH+est push &utton)
11KA 'o=trol pa=el @
4) -$erload rela%
>) Definite time earth fault rela%
;) Restricted earth fault rela%
8) !igh speed tripping rela%
5) > part meter
D) Digital ammeter and $oltmeter
:) .ower factor meter
K) -NH-FF indication lamp
9) !ealth% trip
46) 3ocalHRemote selector switch
10.3 $ra=s@ormer remote tap cha=Bi=B co=trol7
4)+ap position indicator
>)AutoH-FFHmanualH-3+C selector switch
;) se1uence selector switch
8) RaiseHlower push &utton
5) alarm cancel push &utton
D) emergenc% push &utton
:) 3).)0 local ca&le push &utton
K) Automatic $oltage Regulating rela%
9)Indication lamps@
uppl% on
"
+ap change in position
-ut of step lamp
Fans running"8#
Fans auto
Fans manual
$ra=s@ormer protectio= @
4) Differential rela%
>) -$erload with highest rela%
;) Definite time with o$erload rela%
8) Restricted earth(fault rela%
5) 0uchol< rela%
D) -il surge rela%"-3+C Cham&er#
:) Winding temperature trip
K) -il temperature trip
Diesel Be=erator @
Installed @ ; Wor'ing@ >
Eoltage @ 44666 $olts AC,;.hase
Capacit%@>)5MEA
Current@ 4;4A
.ower factor@ 6)K
*xcitation@ K5$, 8A
Circuit &rea'er on 44K$ and ;;K$ feeders@
00KA S&4 -as circ<it ;reaker @
Ma'e@ Kirlos'ar
Eoltage@ 44K$) Coil $oltage@ 446$ DC)
Current@ 4>56A) Motor $oltage@ >;6E AC)
Fault le$el@ 566MEA) Aux)contacts@ K N-YK NC)
Fault current@ >D)>8KA) Eoltage@ DD6$)
Fre1uenc%@ 56!<) Current@ >5A)
0rea'er Assem&l% details@
.ole No=s@ :8::;> :>9
3in' si<e@ 468mm
Mechanism No@ >85
11KA o<t>oor Kiosk S&4 '.B @
Rated $oltage@ ;;K$
Fre1uenc% @56!<
Current@4>56A
0rea'ing capacit%@4:)5KA
!#
Mass of C)0@ >66Kg
Auxiliar% contacts@ KNoYKNC
Rated $oltage for closing and tripping coil@ 446E DC
Rated $oltage for spring charging motor@>>6E AC
$ra=s@ormer rati=Bs @
Ma'e@ /eneral *lectric Compan% India 3td)
+%pe of
cooling
-NAN -NAF
Rated MEA !E( >6)6 ;4)5
3E4 46)6 45):5
3E> 46)6 45):5
Rated K$ !$ 4;> 4;>
3E4 ;; ;;
3E> 44 44
3ine Amperes !E K:)5 4;:)K6
3E4 4:5)66 >:5)D6
3E> 5>8)96 K>D):
Num&er of
phases

; ;
!1
+emp rise in
degrees
+op oil 56
A$g)Wdg 55
56
55
Impedance
Eolts"?#
!E(3E4 3E4(3E> !E(3E>
For +ap(4 4>)88 (( >6)>4
+ap(> 4>)>6 :)64 >6);6
+ap(; 44)96 (( >6)64
Eector group@ NN%no%no
=s<latio= leAel7
!E KE 3I 556
3I 95
AC >;K
AC ;K
3E4 KE 3I 4:6
3I 4:6
AC :6
AC :6
3E> KE 3I :5 AC K
Rati=Bs o@ statio= tra=s@ormer(O@@ loa> tap cha=Bi=B)7
KEAM4K6
Eolts on !EM44K$
Eolts on 3EM845$
Amps on !EMKA
Amps on 3EM>>D)DA
Impedance $oltage?M8)5?
Fre1uenc%@ 56!<
!2
+%pe of Cooling @ -il or Air natural
Eector group@ DN44
Weight of oil@ >:6'g
+otal weight@ 956'g
Eolume of -il@;66lts
-ff circuit +ap changer
witch .osition Connection !E 3E
4 5(D 44556 845
> D(8 44>:5 845
; 8(: 44666 845
8 :(; 46:>5 845
D ;(K 46856 845

!3
MA! S$EP DOW! A!D DS$RB,$O! S%S$EM*)7
+he power is supplied from the secondar% winding ";;'$# of the transformer at MD4
%ard to MD II of NFC through partl% under ground and partl% o$erhead transmission) +he ;;'$
suppl% is connected through an o$er head open t%pe &us &ar to the FD gas circuit &rea'er at
MD(II and it is step down to D)D'$ &% the two 45H>6 MEA, ;;'$HD)D'$ transformers) +he two
feeders at ;;'$ are of 466? capacit% with 466? stand&% facilit%) +he step down secondar% $oltage
is connected to the switch &oard through a closed t%pe duct) D)D'$ switch &oard as 4: minimum oil
circuit &rea'ers to feed the 4>56'$A, D)D'$H8;;$ transformer, pilger mills, !ori<ontal G Eertical
furnaces G the Annealing furnaces) Recentl%, M-C0= in incoming(4, &uscoupler and incoming(>
are replaced &% FD circuit &rea'ers"/C0#) +he power from this su&station is distri&uted to the
following plants through two incoming feeders with &us coupler arrangement)
!4
INCOMER"2
2'''A
BUS COUPLER
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L A L A
33KV FROM
MRS#MSDS"1
A.B.S
A.B.S
A.B.S A.B.S
E.S
E.S
E.S
E.S
BAB,S
P.T P.T
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E.S
CT CT
33KV MOCB
(''A"1
33KV MOCB
(''A"2
33KV#%.%KV 1$#2'MVA
TRANSFORMAER"1
INCOMER"1
2'''A
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TRANSFORMAER"2
Si=Ble li=e >iaBram o@ MSDS*)
)N-) -A+/-IN/ F**D*R +N.* -F CA03* AND I+=
DIM*NI-N
!5
4) BF. 3F(4 > x ;66 s1)mm)L3.*
>) 456 EMR .ilger Mill ; x 4>6 s1)mm .EC armoured
;) 00+. 3C(> +R(4 feeder ; x 4>6 s1)mm .EC armoured
8) 00+. 3C(; +R(4 ; x 4>6 s1)mm .EC armoured
5) 00+. 3C(; +R(> ; x 4>6 s1)mm .EC armoured
D) 00+. 3C(8 feeder(4 ; x 4>6 s1)mm .EC armoured
:) D)DK$ Capacitor 0an' ; x 4K5 s1)mm .EC armoured
K) !ori<ontal Furnace(4 >R; x >86 s1)mm .EC armoured
9) !ori<ontal Furnace(> >R; x >86 s1)mm .EC armoured
46) 00+. 3C(8 +R(> ; x >86 s1)mm .EC armoured
44) !ori<ontal Furnace(; >R; x >86 s1)mm .EC armoured
4>) New melting shop ; x 4K5 s1)mm .EC armoured
4;) Eertical Furnace >R; x >86 s1)mm .EC armoured
48) 00+. 3C(> +R(> ; x 4>6 s1)mm .EC armoured
45) :5 EMR .ilger mill ; x 4>6 s1)mm .EC armoured
4D) 00+. 3C(; +R(; ; x 4>6 s1)mm .EC armoured
4:) BF. 3F(> > x ;66 s1)mm)L3.*
Rati=Bs o@ MSDS*) $ra=s@ormer @
+%pe of Cooling -NAN -NAF
!6
KEA 45666 >6666
Eolts at no load !E ;;666
3E DD66
;;666
DD66
Amp !E >D>)88
3E 4;4>)>
;89)9>
4:89)D
.hases !E ;
3E ;
;
;
Impedance $oltage :)K5? 46)8D?
+ransformer ratings@
+emperature Rise in oil @ 85
6
C
Winding @ 55
6
C
Insulation !E @4:6.ea'
3E @D6.ea'
Fre1uenc% @56!<
Eector s%m&ol @DNn44
.ower rating @45H>6MEA
Eolts !E @;;KE
3E @D)DKE
Amps !E @>D>)88H;89)>>
3E @4;4:)>4H4:8)9D
Juantit% of oil @9496 ltrs)
Weight of oil @:995Kg
Core and winding @45866Kg
+otal weight @;>:55Kg
11KV Mi=im<m Oil 'irc<it Breaker(MO'B) @
Eoltage@ ;;KE
Current@ K66A
Rated MEA @ :56
Rati=Bs o@ .iBhti=B arrester @
!
Eoltage@ ;6KE
Nominal discharge current@ 46KA
Air 0rea' "A0# switch and 0us Coupler@
D;6A manuall% operated)
4.4KA Mi=im<m oil circ<it ;reaker(MO'B #@
er$ice $oltage@D)DKE
Normal current@ >666A
0rea'ing Capacit% @>56MEA
Fre1uenc%@ 56!<
NN@ >4)9 ANN@ >D)K
Ma'ing current@ 55)KKA
hort time KA @ ;sec for >4)9KA
hunt trip @ 446Eolts DC
Close@ 446E DC
S&4 -'B @
Rated $oltage@4>K$
Rated current@>566A
Fre1uenc%@ 56!<
Insulation le$el@ >KH:5 KE.
hort circuit &rea'ing current@ 86KA rms
hort circuit current duration @ ;sec
hort circuit ma'ing current@ 466KA .)K
-perating se1uence@ 6(;min(C-(;min(C-
FD gas per pole"approx# @ 6)>5Kg
FD pressure at >6
6
C @ >(>)5 0ar"6)>(6)>5Mpa#
Closing coil $oltage@ 446$ dc
Additional opening $oltage
Ander closing coil $oltage
pring charging motor $oltage@ >;6E AC
Mass"approx# @>66Kg
P.$.partic<lars7
Ma'e@ A00
D)D'E $oltage transformer
Ratio D)D'EH446E7 class 4)67 phase ;
0urden@ 56 EA 7 fre1uenc% 56!<
Eoltage factor@ 4)> contH4)5 for ;6 sec)
Insulation le$el :)>H>6HD6'E
!!
Connection starHstar
'.$.partic<lars @
Ma'e@ A00
Ratio@ >666H5(5(5a
Class 4 5p46.
Fre1uenc% 56 !<7 4 phase &urden 45H45EA
)+)C@ >5'AH4)6sec)
Insulation le$el@:)>H>6HD6'E
Rela:s7
95(trip circuit super$isor% rela%
D;L(auxiliar% rela% transformer fault alarm
89L(auxiliar% rela% transformer fault trip
KD(high speed trip rela%
54H56(oHc G eHf rela%
560F(local &rea'er &ac' up rela%
*nerg% Meter
!"
'#EM'A. P.A!$ AREA ('PA) S,BS$A$O!7
+his is the su&station located centrall% in the campus of NFC which supplies power to the ma,orit%
of production plants ,so it is under the constant super$ision of operators and this su&station is
recentl% e1uipped with CADA for continuous monitoring of all the parameters and for
relia&ilit% )C.A su&station recei$es two 44KE feeders through underground ca&les "Aluminum
Conductors, .aper Insulated, 3ead heathed, Dou&le heet +ape"A.3+# and Cross 3in'ed
.ol%eth%lene"L3.*##) +he 44 KE panel is pro$ided with EC0s and has 446E Ni(Cd &atter% &an's)
Earious feeders at C.A su&station are connected to 4>56'$A 44 '$H845$ transformer through 44
KE underground ca&les) +he incoming $oltage is 44 KE which is distri&uted as follows)
)N-) -A+/-IN/ F**D*R +N.* -F CA03* A*D AND I+=
DIM*NI-N
4) Incoming(4 >x>86 s1)mm L3.*
>) 3C(5 +R(l 4 x 95 s1)mm).I3CA
;) B-. +R(l 4 x 95 s1)mm).I3CA
8) A-. G CFF. +R(8 4 x 95 s1)mm).I3CA
5) B-. +R(; 4 x 95 s1)mm).I3CA
D) A-. G CFF. +R(l 4 x 95 s1)mm).I3CA
"#
:) B. +R(8 4 x 95 s1)mm).I3CA
K) *REIC* +R(8 4 x 95 s1)mm).I3CA
9) *REIC* +R(> 4 x 95 s1)mm).I3CA
46) B. +R(4 4 x 95 s1)mm).I3CA
44) CFF. G A-. +R(; 4 x 95 s1)mm).I3CA
4>) BF. +I* 4 x 95 s1)mm)L3.*
4;) 3C(5 +R(> 4 x 95 s1)mm).I3CA
48) 3A0 G M. +R 4 x 95 s1)mm).I3CA
45) B-. +R(> 4 x 95 s1)mm).I3CA
4D) A-. G CFF. +R(> 4 x 95 s1)mm).I3CA
4:) .AM. !-A* +R(> 4 x 95 s1)mm).I3CA
4K) B. +R(> 4 x 95 s1)mm).I3CA
49) pares 46 in no) 4 x 95 s1)mm).I3CA
>6) Incoming(> >x>86 s1)mm L3.*
"1
"2
Rela:s <se> o= V'B pa=el @
4) Auxiliar% rela% for &uchhol< trip and alarm
>) -il temperature increase trip and alarm
;) Winding temperature increase trip and alarm
8) +rip circuit super$isor% rela%
5) Com&ined oHc and eHf rela%
D) Master trip rela%
'irc<it Breaker7
Indoor Eacuum C)0)
Circuit &rea'er t%pe@ 4>E*>6
Rating to I@ 4;44K(4994HI*C5D(49K:
Eoltage@ 4>666E
Current@ 4>56A
Fre1uenc%@ 56!<
No) of poles@ ;
0rea'ing capacit%@ >D);'A
Ma'ing capacit%@ D:'A
hort time current@ >D);'A for ;sec)
DC component@ 56?
0I3@ >KH:5'Ep
hunt trip@ 446E dc
Closing coil@ 446E dc
-perating dut%@ -(6);sec(C-(;min(C-
Batter: Ba=ks7
K5 Ni(Cd &atter% &an's are connected in series) +he% gi$e 446E dc suppl%)
&loat c<m ;oost charBer7
Input@ 845E AC, 56!<
-utput@ 446E, 85A DC
8R'O!,M &ABR'A$O! P.A!$(8&P) S,BS$A$O!7
+he su&station is situated inside NFC near BF. plant, recei$es two 44KE feeders through
underground ca&les from MD(4, the 4;>'$ su&station is situated outside NFC) +here are two
panels in this su&station one is 44 KE panel with two incoming BF. feeders with a &us coupler and
D)D KE panel whose incomers are supplied &% > no) of 5MEA transformers which feed
Accumulator pumpsG two lin' feeders to MD(>, the ;;HD)D'$ su&station, which mainl% supplies
power to 00+., loads centers at D)D KE le$el)44 KE outgoing feeders feed BF. 3oadcenter(4, BF.
3C(>, +., G *.. sections)
"3
8&P AREA 00KV S,BS$A$O!7
+he power to this su&station is fed from MR through 44'$ L3.* ca&les through two
incoming feeders) +he power to this su&station is distri&uted as follows@
)N-) -A+/-IN/ F**D*R +N.* -F CA03* A*D AND I+=
DIM*NI-N
4) BF. 3CI +R4 ; x 95 s1)mm) .I3CA
>) BF. 3C4 +R> ; x 95 s1)mm) .I3CA
;) +. 3C +R4 ; x 95 s1)mm) .I3CA
8) BF. 3C> +R4 ; x 95 s1)mm) .I3CA
5) +. pilger mill ; x 95 s1)mm) .I3CA
D) +ie feeder to C.A
su&station
>R; x >86 s1)mm).I3CA
:) BF. 3C4 +R; >R; x >86 s1)mm).I3CA
K) BF. 3C> +R> >R; x >86 s1)mm).I3CA
9) +. 3C +R> ; x 95 s1)mm) .I3CA
46) pare "; in no)# ; x 95 s1)mm) .I3CA
44) 5MEA +R4 >R; x >86 s1)mm).I3CA
4>) 5MEA +R> >R; x >86 s1)mm).I3CA
"4
Si=Ble li=e >iaBram o@ 8&P 00KV S<;statio=
8&P AREA 4.4KV S,BS$A$O! @
"5
)N- -A+/-IN/ F**D*R +N.* -F CA03* A*D AND I+= DIM*NI-N
4) 3in' feeder(4 > x ;C x >86 s1)mm)
>) Accumulator pump(4 4 x ;C x 95 s1)mm)
;) Accumulator pump(> 4 x ;C x 95 s1)mm)
8) Accumulator pump(: 4 x ;C x 95 s1)mm)
5) Motor feeder no)D 4 x ;C x 95 s1)mm)
D) Accumulator pump(9 4 x ;C x 95 s1)mm)
:) >566 CH M/ set 4 x ;C x 95 s1)mm)
K) pare feeder "> in no)# 4 x ;C x 95 s1)mm)
9) Accumulator pump(; 4 x ;C x 95 s1)mm)
46) Accumulator pump(8 4 x ;C x 95 s1)mm)
44) Accumulator pump(5 4 x ;C x 95 s1)mm)
4>) Accumulator pump(K 4 x ;C x 95 s1)mm)
4;) Accumulator pump(46 4 x ;C x 95 s1)mm)
48) Eertical furnace 4 x ;C x 95 s1)mm)L3.* AI
45) 3in' feeder(> > x ;C x >86 s1)mm)L3.* AI
"6

Si=Ble li=e >iaBram o@ 8&P 4.4KV s<;statio=
!EW ,RA!,M O"DE &ABR'A$O! P.A!$(!,O&P) S,BS$A$O!7
"
+he power to this su&station is fed from the MR through two incoming feeders of 44K$
L3.* ca&les) +he two incoming are coupled through &us coupler)
+he power fed from this su&station is distri&uted as follows@
)N- -A+/-IN/ F**D*R
4) NA-F. 3C4 +R4
>) NA-F. 3C4 +R>
;) NA-F. 3C> +R4
8) NA-F. 3C> +R>
5) NBF. +R4
D) NBF. +R>
:) NA-F. 3C4 +R;
K) NA-F. 3C4 +R8
9) NA-F. 3C> +R;
46) NA-F. 3C> +R8
44) NBF. +R4
4>) NB. +R4
4;) NB. +R;
48) .AR* "> in no)#
"!
Si=Ble >iaBram o@ !,O&P s<;statio=
'AP$VE POWER -E!RA$O! P.A!$ ('P-P)7
""
Nuclear fuel complex "NFC# o&tains most of its production during general shift hours 9)66hrs to
4:)66# G energ% demand catching their pea' $alue during 46)66Am to 46)66.M) In order to
a$oid an% interruption in suppl% of electrical power "maximum demand not to &e exceeded
46ME A# there is no &ut to go for a capti$e power plant of sufficient capacit%) At the time of
installation of NFC, an arrangement 46m$a "maximum demand# was made with A.+RANC-)
With passing of time G growth demand of nuclear material, it has &een expanded) New plants
li'e NAFA., NA-F., G NBF. ha$e &een installed) 0ut the energ% contract with A.+RANC-
has not &een updated)
+he capti$e power generation plant is of capacit% :)5ME A, consisting of ; D/ sets, each of
>)5 ME A capacit%) -ur main o&,ecti$e is to curtail the electricit% &ill G that also not effecting
the production at different &% meeting the demand during pea' hours) +hrough he share of self
generation towards the total consumption of NFC is not more than 5? &ut it helps in achie$ing
the a&o$e said o&,ecti$es) 0eing so important, the D/ sets deser$e good maintenance and
monitoring under running condition, so that the% can &e ( full at the time of demand)

PR!'P.E O& OPERA$O!
-n sensing the power failure from grid, the diesel generator "D/# sets start automaticall% one
after the other, get s%nchroni<ed among themsel$es G feed the suppl% to the 44 KE
distri&ution) -n resumption of power suppl% from the grid, the D/ power get s%nchroni<ed with
the grid G run in parallel with the grid for a pre set time G then switch on the D/ sets) With this
arrangement it is possi&le to feed all the loads connected to the 44K$ switch &oard of MD(4
either completel% or partiall% depending up on the a$aila&le capacit% of "C./.Us# contri&ution,
e$er% production unit is pro$ided with a diesel generator capacit% 86KEA or 4K6KEA or
566KEA according to the emergenc% demand)
S$AB.E A!D RE.AB.E POWER S,PP.%7
Apart from considering the economical aspect of power distri&ution, sta&ilit% of power -uppl% is
also ta'en care) *$er% machine or furnace or an% other e1uipment at different production units do
operate within some $oltage &and, &elow or a&o$e which ma% &ring to the e1uipment at different
1##
production units do operate within some $oltage &and, &elow or a&o$e which ma% &ring damage to
the e1uipment) o in order to pro$ide sta&le power at rated $oltage much care G sincere effort is
made at each su&station) +he one with the help of on load or off load tap changers)
+he rated $oltage from A.+RANC- is 4;>KE) +his is the main suppl% input to the NFC,so
e$er% control to maintain constant $oltage at each su&station depends directl% or indirectl%U on
the input $oltage) As the input $oltage ne$er sta%s at 4;>KE &ecause of one or the other reason
to reach the o&,ecti$e, on load tap changer "-3+C# has &een installed at the 4;>K$ side of &oth
the transformer at MD(4 %ard) With the help of -3+C and automatic $oltage regulator "AER#,
a constant $oltage of 44K$" allowa&le range of 46)DK$ to 44)>K$# is achie$ed where the input
$oltage can ta'e an% $alue in &etween 99K$ to 4;K)DK$, if the $oltage dips the &elow the lowest
limit 6f 99K$) It sends the -./012 t 3045r 62t1/5 r5217) 89.:9 .0 ;1:t :13-5- the &rea'er at the
!E side of the transformer to &e tripped G hence a power failure is o&ser$ed) +he main
ad$antage of -3+C are that it does its wor' without interruption of power suppl%, which the
most desira&le) *xcept the incoming transformers e)g) ( 4>56KEA, 44KEH845E is all pro$ided
with off load tap changers, where in order to change the $oltage le$el, a suppl% interruption is
must) +he *ND CA. .3AN+, where final touch is gi$en in sealing and pac'ing of nuclear fuel
&undles, need suppl% at $er% sta&le $oltage else the winding 1ualit% ma% &e damaged) +his plant
which gets the power from C.A su&station is also gi$en special attention &% pro$iding an
additional $oltage regulator)
1#1
"OWE# FACTO# $M"#OVEMENT
IN+R-DAC+I-N @
+he electrical energ% is almost exclusi$el% generated, transmitted and distri&uted in the form of
alternating current) +herefore, the 1uestion of power factor immediatel% comes into picture) Most
of the loads in industr% are inducti$e in nature and hence ha$e low lagging power factor) +he low
power factor is highl% undesira&le as it causes an increase in current, resulting in additional losses
of acti$e power in all the elements of power s%stem from power station generator down to the
utili<ation de$ices) In order to ensure most fa$oura&le conditions for a suppl% s%stem from
engineering and economical standpoint, it is important to ha$e power factor as close to unit% as
possi&le)
.ower triangle@
1#2
+he anal%sis of power factor can also &e made in terms of power drawn &% the ac circuit) If each
side of the current triangle -A0 is multiplied &% $oltage E, then we get the power triangle -A0
shown in the fig)
-AMEIcosb and represents the acti$e power in Watts or KW
A0M EIsinb and represents the reacti$e power in EAR or KEAR
-0MEI and represents the apparent power in EA or KEA
+he reacti$e power is neither consumed in the circuit nor it does an% useful wor') It merel% flows
&ac' and forth in &oth directions in the circuit) A wattmeter does not measure reacti$e power)
Disa>Aa=taBes o@ .oG poGer @actor7
+he power factor pla%s an important role in ac circuits since power consumed depends upon the
factor)
.ME3I3cosb
.Ma;E3I3cosb
It is clear from a&o$e that for fixed power and $oltage, the load current is in$ersel% proportional to
the power factor) 3ower the power factor, higher is the load current and $ice($ersa) A power factor
less than unit% results in the following disad$antages@
4) 3arge KEA rating of e1uipment@ the electrical machiner% "e)g), alternators, transformers,
switchgear# is alwa%s rated in KEA
KEAMKW
Cosb
1#3
It is clear that KEA rating of the e1uipment is in$ersel% proportional to power factor) +he
smaller the power factor, the larger is the KEA rating) +herefore, at low power factor, the KEA
rating of the e1uipment has to &e made more, ma'ing the e1uipment larger and expensi$e)
>) /reater conductor si<e@ to transmit or distri&ute a fixed amount of power at constant
$oltage, the conductor will ha$e to carr% more current at low power factor) +his necessitates
large conductor si<e)
;) 3arge copper losses@ the large currents at low power factor cause more I
>
R losses in all the
elements of the suppl% s%stem) +his results in poor efficienc%)
8) .oor $oltage regulation@ the large current at low lagging power factor causes greater $oltage
drops in alternators, transformers, transmission lines and distri&utors) +his results in the
decreased $oltage a$aila&le at the suppl% end, thus impairing the performance of utili<ation
de$ices) In order to 'eep the recei$ing end $oltage within permissi&le limits, extra
e1uipped)
5) Reduced handling capacit% of s%stem@ the lagging power factor reduces the handling
capacit% of all the elements of the s%stem) It is &ecause the reacti$e component of current
pre$ents the full utili<ation of installed capacit%)
'a<ses o@ loG poGer @actor7
3ow power factor is undesira&le from economic point of $iew) Normall%, the power factor of
the whole load on the suppl% s%stem in lower than 6)K) +he following are the causes of low
power factor)
4) Most of the a)c motors are of induction t%pe "single phase and induction motors# which ha$e
low lagging power factor) +hese motor wor's at a power factor which is extremel% small on
light load "6)> to 6);# and rises to 6)K to 6)9 at full load)
>) Arc lamps, electric discharge lamps and industrial heating furnaces operate at low lagging
power factor)
1#4
;) +he load on the power s%stem is $ar%ing, &eing high during morning and e$ening and low
at other times) During low period, suppl% $oltage is increased which increases the
magneti<ation current) +his results in the decreased power factor)
PoGer @actor improAeme=t7
+he low power factor is mainl% due to the fact that most of the power loads are inducti$e
and, therefore, ta'ing leading currents) In order to impro$e the power factor, some de$ices
ta'ing leading power should &e connected to parallel current and partl% or completel%
neutrali<es the lagging reacti$e component of load current) +his raises the power factor of
the load)
W#% $O MPROVE POWER &A'$OR9
Atilit% &ill will &e smaller
0ranch capacit% of the electrical s%stem increases "i)e) power losses due to $oltage drop
decreases#
Most of the Atilities impose low power factor penalties) 0% correcting the power factor, this
penalt% can &e a$oided)
!igh power factor reduces the load currents) +herefore, a considera&le sa$ing is made in the
hardware cost, such as ca&les, switchgear, su&station transformers, etc)
POWER &A'$OR VERS,S .OAD ',RRE!$7

1#5
PoGer &actor 'orrectio=7
Capacitors can &e applied easil% and commonl% are used in industrial and commercial facilities
which ha$e minimum amount of harmonics) 0oth single($alue &an's and automaticall% switched
$aria&le &an's are a$aila&le) -$erheating pro&lems with capacitor &an's are &ecoming more
common as harmonic current le$els increase) Furthermore, switched capacitor &an's, without
appropriate design precautions, also can cause high($oltage switching surges as capacitors are
switched in and out of ser$ice)
PoGer @actor improAeme=t e?<ipme=t7
Normall%, the power factor of the whole load on a large generating station is in the region of 6)K to
6)9) !owe$er, sometimes it is lower and in such cases it is generall% desira&le to ta'e special steps
to impro$e the power factor) +his can &e achie$ed &% the following e1uipment@
4) tatic capacitors
>) %nchronous condenser
Static capacitors7
+he power factor can &e impro$ed &% connecting capacitors in parallel with e1uipment operating at
lagging power factor) +he capacitor "generall% 'now as capacitor# draws a leading current and
partl% or completel% neutrali<es the lagging reacti$e amount of load current) +his raises the power
factor of the load) For three(phase loads, the capacitors can &e connected in delta or star as )tatic
capacitors are in$aria&l% used for power factor impro$ement in factories)
A>Aa=taBes7
"i# +he% ha$e low losses)
"ii# +he% re1uire little maintenance as there are no rotating parts)
"iii# +he% can &e easil% installed as the% are light and re1uire no foundation)
"i$# +he% can wor' under ordinar% atmospheric conditions)
Disa>Aa=taBes
"i# +he% ha$e short ser$ice life ranging from K to 46 %ears)
"ii# +he% are easil% damaged if the $oltage exceeds the rated $alue)
"iii# -nce the capacitors are damaged, their repair is uneconomical)
1#6
). S:=chro=o<s co=>e=ser. A s%nchronous motor ta'es a leading current when o$er excited and,
therefore, &eha$es as a capacitor) An o$er(excited s%nchronous motor running on no 'nown as
s%nchronous condenser) When such a machine is connected in parallel with the ta'es a leading
current which partl% neutrali<es the lagging reacti$e component of the load) power factor is
impro$ed) %nchronous condensers are generall% used at ma,or &ul' suppl% su&stations for power
factor impro$ement)
A>Aa=taBes7
(i) 0% $ar%ing the field excitation, the magnitude of current drawn &% the motor can &e
&% an% amount) +his helps in achie$ing stepless control of power factor)
(ii) +he motor windings ha$e high thermal sta&ilit% to short circuit currents)
(iii) +he faults can &e remo$ed easil%)
Disa>Aa=taBes7
4) +here are considera&le losses in the motor)
>) +he maintenance cost is high)
;) It produces noise)
8) *xcept in si<es a&o$e 566'EA, the cost is greater than that of static capacitors of the
same rating)
5) As a s%nchronous motor has no self starting tor1ue, therefore , an auxiliar% e1uipment
has to &e pro$ided for this purpose)
mporta=ce o@ poGer @actor improAeme=t7
+he impro$ement of power factor is $er% important for &oth consumers and generating stations)
4) &or co=s<mers7 A consumer has to pa% electricit% charges for his maximum demand in
KEA plus the units consumed) If the consumer impro$es the power factor, then there is a
reduction in his maximum 'EA demand and conse1uentl% there will &e annual sa$ing due
maximum demand charges) Although power factor impro$ement in$ol$es extra annual
expenditure on account of p)f correction e1uipment, %et impro$ement of p)f) to a proper
$alue results in the net annual sa$ing for the consumer)
>) &or Be=erati=B statio=s7 A generating station is as much concerned with power factor
impro$ement as the consumer) +he generators in a power station are rated in 'EA &ut the
useful output depends upon 'W output) As station output is
KW M 'EA x cos c, therefore, num&er of units supplied &% it depends upon the power factor)
1#
+he greater the power factor of the generating station, the higher is the 'Wh it deli$ers to the
s%stem) +his leads to the conclusion that impro$ed power factor increases the earning
capacit% of the power station)
Most eco=omical poGer @actor7
If a consumer impro$es the power factor, there is reduction in his maximum 'EA demand and
hence there will &e annual sa$ing o$er the maximum demand charges) !owe$er, when power
factor is impro$ed, it in$ol$es capital in$estment on the power factor correction e1uipment) +he
consumer will incur expenditure e$er% %ear in the shape of annual interest and depreciation on the
in$estment made o$er the p)f correction e1uipment) +herefore, the net annual sa$ing will &e e1ual
to the annual demand charges minus annual expenditure incurred on p)f) correction e1uipment)
+he $alue to which the power factor should &e impro$ed so as to ha$e maximum net
annual sa$ing is 'nown as the most economical power factor)
POWER &A'$OR MPROVEME!$ ! !&'7
In NFC as most of the loads used are inducti$e in nature, capacitor &an's are used to impro$e the
power factor) +he installed capacit% of these capacitor &an's is >):MEAr &ut onl% 4)KMEAr is
operated) +he capacitor &an's are &uilt up of 4(phase capacitor units to form a composite capacitor
&an' of re1uired rating and is supplied along with the accessories li'e &an'ing materials, structures,
interconnection materials etc)Capacitors are made up of 466? pol%prop%lene film impregnated
with non(.C0, non(toxic dielectric"FARAD-3# and are pro$ided with internal or external fuses
and discharge resistors) +here are 4K num&er of indi$idual capacitor units each of rating 456 KEAR
connected in dou&le star without grounding the star point) o a C+ of ratio 5AH4A pro$ides a
neutral $oltage un&alance protection in order to pre$ent o$er $oltages in case of an% failure in the
indi$idual units) *ach one incorporates a fail(safe protection de$ice) +he% are 466? stand&%) +he
respecti$e /C0 should &e switched on to run the capacitor &an's) Incoming(4 capacitor &an's and
incoming(> capacitor &an's are 'ept on e$er% alternate da% to ensure their wor'ing and good
maintenance to get a capacit% of 4)KMEAr on4> cells) +he same capacit% capacitor &an's are also
pro$ided at MD(>)During pea' loads the capacitor &an's at &oth MD(4 and MD(> and
during normal conditions the capacitor &an's at MD(4 are in on condition) +he power factor is
1#!
maintained at nearl% 6)95) +he capacitor unit is made of indi$idual capacitor elements, arranged in
parallelHseries connected groups within a steel enclosure) +he internal discharge de$ice is a resistor)
Normall% the capacitors ha$e an internal discharge resistor which reduces the $oltage to 56E within
46 minutes as per I@ 4;9>5"part(4# or to :5E within 46 minutes as per I*C K:4(4)
In case neutral current transformers are used the un&alanced current shall &e
minimum, at the time of commissioning)
if the indi$idual capacitor are at different temperature for e)g)@ &ecause of solar
radiation, the un&alance current H$oltage immediatel% after switching -N the &an' ma% differ from
the $alue after a few hours in ser$ice)
An&alance current H $oltage should therefore &e measured when the capacitors ha$e
reached their normal operating temperature)
Capacitor &an's pro$ide reacti$e compensation and there&% impro$e the power factor) +he other
&eneficial effects are impro$ement of $oltage at the load, &etter $oltage regulation and reduction of
losses)
&or o<r sta=>ar> 266 D 203 Volt capacitor pro><cts7
Eoltage@ 886E permanentl%
8K8E K hours per da%
56DE ;6 minutes per da%
5>KE 5 minutes per da%
5:>E 4 minute per da%
Current@ > x In continuousl% d866E
'APA'$OR BA!KS7
*ach capacitor unit is made up of a num&er of elements in series parallel com&ination) capacitor
units are two t%pes@4(phase and ;(phase)capacitor fuse can &e internal or external) Incase of
external fuse t%pe !RC fuse or expulsion t%pe fuse &eing used) Incase of internal fuse capacitor
unit, if a particular element has failed the respecti$e fuse will &low and disconnect the element)
!owe$er, this will not effect the operation of the capacitor unit &ut will result in a slight reduction
in the capacitance $alue)
1#"
0alancing in ;(phase and 4(phase@
11#
!S$A..A$O!7
Capacitance measurement@
Normall% capacitance measurements do not ha$e to &e a part of the regular inspection when the
&an' has un&alance protection) Capacitance measurement is onl% performed at fault indication or
when the un&alance protection has tripped the &an')
Commissioning@
0efore energi<ing the &an', the following must &e ensured@
4) Capacitors ha$e &een correctl% installed) *lectrical connections shall &e chec'ed and retightened
if re1uired) *arthing connections should &e gi$en)
>) ettings of the protection units are correct and that the protecti$e rela%s operate properl%)
;) +he capacitor &an' shall &e meggered &etween shorted phases and earth) +he $alue shall not &e
less than 56Me with a megger of 566E) u&se1uentl%, it should &e ensured that the &an' is
discharged)
+he following measurements shall &e ta'en to ensure the healthiness of capacitors)
Eoltage@
Eoltage &efore and after switching on the capacitor) +he capacitor must not &e
su&,ected to a continuous $oltage exceeding 446? of nominal $olt for a period exceeding 4> hrs in
a period of >8 hrs)
111
Capacitor current@
Capacitor must not &e su&,ected to a continuous current exceeding 4;6? of rated
current)
Am&ient temperature@
Capacitor &an' must not &e continuousl% su&,ected to am&ient temperature
exceeding the stated temperature class)
An&alanced load@
When residual $oltage transformers are used for un&alanced protection, the open delta
$olt shall not &e minimum)
Calculation of capacitance $alue from rating of unit @
C M "KEAr Z 46
9
#H>Z^Zf "En#
>
#
K$Ar M reacti$e '$A of capacitor unit)
f M fre1uenc% "!<#
C Mcapacitance of unit
En M $oltage of unit
Calculation of unit capacitor after element failure@
Cn M 4H "4YK#ZC6
Where KMnH ".i Pn#Zi
nM no)of failed elements
iM no)of series groups
.iM parallel elements for series group
CnM capacitor of unit after failure of ]n= elements
C6M originalHrated capacitance
Correcti$e action after rela% operation@
An&alanced protection@
When the capacitor &an' has &een disconnected &% the un&alance protection, the capacitance of all
the units shall &e chec'ed and the fault% units shall &e replaced with units ha$ing capacitance as
close as possi&le to that of fault% unit) +he un&alance $oltageHcurrent shall &e chec'ed after
recharging the &an')
-$er load protection@
In case of tripping &% o$er load protection due to temporar% o$er $oltagesHo$er current, the &an'
ma% &e put into ser$ice when the distur&ance has &een eliminated)
Note@ after tripping, the &an' shall &e re(energi<ed onl% after 5min so that residual $oltage across
terminals is less than 46? of the rated $oltage)
Rela% settings@
112
If the control and rela% panel is supplied &% the manufacturer, the recommended rela% settings in
the instruction manual are referred) If the control and rela% panel is not in the scope of
manufacturer, then the settings of the rela% shall &e pro$ided in such a wa% that
-$erload specified in I@ 4;9>5"part(4#@499K are ta'en care of the following ma,or rela%s
which are generall% re1uired for capacitor protection)
o o$er current and earth fault".AA 4;6C , A00 ma'e#
o under $oltage
o o$er $oltage
o un&alance rela%
o instantaneous earth fault rela%
+he $oltages are to &e chosen &ased on specific application and custom re1uirement)
In addition, the customer to facilitate tripping the capacitor &an', when the $oltage dips &elow K6?
of the nominal s%stem $oltage shall pro$ide under $oltage rela%)
.ower factor controller ".FC48H.FCK#@
.ower factor controller rela% fModel .FC48H.FCKg is designed for automatic control of capacitor
&an's to maintain s%stem power factor under $ar%ing load conditions) It emplo%s state(of(the art
microprocessor techni1ues for measurement of reacti$e current, s%stem power factor and ensures
hunt free operation) It can control up to 48"K#Z capacitor &an's) +he parameters such as num&er of
capacitor &an's, switching program, switching dela% are user selecta&le) It also displa%s s%stem
power factor continuousl% and indicates whether it is lagging or leading with respect to set power
factor)
.FCR "power factor controller rela%# protects the capacitor &an's whene$er power
interruption occurs &% switching ]-FF= all capacitor &an's and pro$iding a safet% loc'(out period
of minimum D6 seconds) It also offers in case of o$er $oltage conditions)
-peration of .FCR7
113
.FCR continuousl% monitors the reacti$e current drawn &% the load and computes
the power factor which will displa% continuousl%) It compares the load power factor with set power
factor and switches the rela%s -NH-FF which in turn can &e used to connect or disconnect the
capacitor &an's) +o achie$e hunt force operation, if reacti$e current measured is less than DD? of
the a$aila&le &an' si<e it will not &e switched -N)
.FCR switches the capacitors in c%clic order so that all the capacitors are used
e1uall% and allows the longer discharge time) +his increases the life of the capacitor &an')
In c%clic switching, the capacitor &an's are in the ratio of 4@4@4hhhhhh)
Alwa%s &an' no)4 is switched -N first) +he capacitor that was switched -N H-FF first will &e
switched -FF or -N first, after utili<ing all capacitors)
If it is other than 4@4@4hhhhhhhh) +hen all capacitor &an's of e1ual si<e
will &e used for rational scheme)
!ame Plate >etails o@ capacitor ;a=k at MSDS*07
Capacitor &an' -utdoor
Rated output >):MEAr
Rated $oltage 4>KE
Rated fre1uenc% 56!<
Insulation le$el >KH:5KE
+emperature F5H
6
C
tandard I@4;9>5
Discharge de$ice .ro$ided
+ime to discharge to 56E sec RD66
No) of phases ;
Connection s%m&ol N(N
114
Weight :66Kgs)"approx#
.ower factor pla%s a $ital role in the reduction in 'EA thus resulting in
decrease of electricit% &ills as some incenti$es will &e pro$ided &% A.*0)
Following ta&le shows how the increase in power factor causes reduction in 'EA)
KwM'$aHp)f)
KWM8666
.ower factor KEA
6)K8 8:D>
6)KD 8D54
6)KK 8585
6)9 8888
6)9> 8;8K
6)98 8>55
6)9D 84D:
6)9K 86K>
4 8666
E&&E'$ O& POWER &A'$OR O! $AR&&7
115
KW!Z4666 KEA!Z4666 MDZ4666
4D:8666 4:8>666 44)596((((feeder(4
;D54666 ;:K>666 44)8:9((((feeder(>
5;>5666 55>8666
PoGer @actor@ KW!HKEA!M5;>566H55>866M 6)9D;
+he multipl%ing factor is decided &ased on the C)+) ratio and it=s design) +he maximum demand is
recorded for e$er% 45min) in the tri$ector meter pro$ided for the respecti$e feeder) +he power
factor &efore switching on the capacitor &an's is around 6)K5 due to inducti$e loads) +he power
factor is impro$ed to 6)9: to 6)99 once the capacitor &an's are switched -N) +hus, power factor is
impro$ed &% using capacitor &an's)
'O!'.,SO!7
.ower distri&ution in NFC is studied and o&ser$ed the following)
116
NFC recei$es a power suppl% of 4;>KE from >>6KE Moula(Ali su&station through >
incoming lines) It is stepped down to ;;KE and 44KE through transformers and is sent to
different su&stations and load centres)
+he different su&stations in NFC are MD(4, MD(>, C.A, BF., B-., +.)
+he power is supplied to different load centres from these su&stations)
*mergenc% power is arranged &% diesel generator sets in $arious plants for critical loads in
the plant)
+wo num&er of >)5MEA diesel generator sets cater to power re1uirements of critical plant
areas during failure of power grid)
*1uipments re1uired for power distri&ution networ' in industr% are
Transformers
Circuit breakers
Isolators
Protective Relays
Cables
Transmission Lines
Battery
Capacitor Banks
Different ca&les used for power distri&ution in NFC are Cross 3in'ed .ol%eth%lene "L3.*#
Ca&les, .ol% $in%l Chloride ".EC#, .aper Insulated 3ead heathed ".I3CA# ca&les)
Rela%s li'e 0uchhol< Rela%, -$er current and *arth Fault Rela%, Master +rip Rela% are used
for transformer protection)
+o protect the e1uipment in switch %ard from surges, 3ightning arresters and -$er head
ground wires are used)
Most of the loads used are inducti$e which leads to lagging power factor) In order to
impro$e the .ower factor, capacitor &an's each of capacit% 4)KMEAr are used)
11
11!