ARTICLE IN PRESS

Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1206–1227

www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Experimental investigation on a combined sensible

and latent heat storage system integrated with
constant/varying (solar) heat sources
N. Nallusamya, S. Sampatha, R. Velrajb,
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering, Pennalur,
Sriperumbudur—602 105, Tamil Nadu, India
b
Institute for Energy Studies, CEG, Anna University, Chennai—600 025, India
Received 20 October 2005; accepted 28 April 2006
Available online 27 June 2006

Abstract

The objective of the present work is to investigate experimentally the thermal behavior of a packed
bed of combined sensible and latent heat thermal energy storage (TES) unit. A TES unit is designed,
constructed and integrated with constant temperature bath/solar collector to study the performance
of the storage unit. The TES unit contains paraffin as phase change material (PCM) filled in spherical
capsules, which are packed in an insulated cylindrical storage tank. The water used as heat transfer
fluid (HTF) to transfer heat from the constant temperature bath/solar collector to the TES tank also
acts as sensible heat storage (SHS) material. Charging experiments are carried out at constant and
varying (solar energy) inlet fluid temperatures to examine the effects of inlet fluid temperature and
flow rate of HTF on the performance of the storage unit. Discharging experiments are carried out by
both continuous and batchwise processes to recover the stored heat. The significance of time wise
variation of HTF and PCM temperatures during charging and discharging processes is discussed in
detail and the performance parameters such as instantaneous heat stored and cumulative heat stored
are also studied. The performance of the present system is compared with that of the conventional
SHS system. It is found from the discharging experiments that the combined storage system
employing batchwise discharging of hot water from the TES tank is best suited for applications
where the requirement is intermittent.
r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Thermal energy storage; Hot water storage; PCM storage; Solar water heater; Sensible heat;
Latent heat

Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 44 22203008/22203269; fax: +91 44 22300916.

E-mail address: velrajr@annauniv.edu (R. Velraj).

0960-1481/$ - see front matter r 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2006.04.015
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N. Nallusamy et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1206–1227 1207

Nomenclature

L length of the TES (storage) tank (mm)

x axial distance from the top of the TES tank (mm)
x/L dimensionless axial distance from the top of the TES tank
Tfi inlet temperature of HTF (water) (1C)
Tfo outlet temperature of HTF (water) (1C)
Tpi initial temperature of PCM (1C)
Tf1, Tf2, Tf3, and Tf4 HTF temperatures at four segments of the storage tank (1C)
Tp1, Tp2, Tp3, and Tp4 PCM temperatures at four segments of the storage tank (1C)

1. Introduction

Effective utilization of time-dependent energy resources relies on appropriate energy

storage methods to reduce the time and rate mismatch between supply and demand.
Thermal energy storages (TESs) provide a high degree of flexibility since a variety of energy
sources such as solar heat, industrial waste heat, heat pumps and off-peak electricity can be
utilized, either combined or separately. In particular, solar energy applications require a
large energy storage capacity in order to cover a minimum of 1–2 days demand, as the solar
radiation is a time-dependent energy source with an intermittent character. Basically, there
are three methods of storing thermal energy: sensible, latent and thermo-chemical heat
storages. Although the sensible heat storage (SHS) system is simple and a well-developed
technology, this type of storage is the least efficient method for energy storage because of low
heat storage capacity per unit volume of the storage medium. Latent heat storage (LHS)
systems using phase change material (PCM) as storage medium offer advantages such as
high heat storage capacity, small unit sizes and isothermal behavior during charging and
discharging processes. But these types of systems are not in commercial use as much as SHS
systems because of the poor heat transfer rate during heat storage and recovery processes.
The main reason is that during phase change, the solid–liquid interface moves away from the
convective heat transfer surface (during charging in cool storage process and discharging in
hot storage process) due to which the thermal resistance of the growing layer of solidified
PCM increases, thereby resulting in poor heat transfer rate. The combined sensible and LHS
system eliminates the difficulties experienced in the SHS and LHS systems to some extent
and posses the advantages of both the systems.
A lot of research work is reported on SHS materials and TES systems in the past and the
technology for their utilization is also well developed. Beasley and Clark [1] have provided
an excellent review of such efforts in the case of SHS systems. LHS systems have received
considerable attention in the past two decades only. Several investigators have studied,
theoretically and experimentally the performance of TES employing PCM in a variety of
geometries. Saitoh and Hirose [2] performed theoretical and experimental investigation
of the transient thermal characteristics of a LHS unit using spherical capsules. The effects
of variation in the capsule diameter, the flow rate of the heat transfer fluid (HTF), the inlet
temperature difference, the capsule material and the PCM on the performance of this
storage unit were studied in detail using computer simulation and compared with the
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1208 N. Nallusamy et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1206–1227

experimental results of a prototype LHS unit with a capacity of 300 l. Ananthanarayanan

et al. [3] developed a computer model based on two-phase Schumann model for the
estimation of temperature profiles of the solid and the fluid along the length of the packed
bed of encapsulated Al–Si PCM shots as functions of distance along the bed and time
during a series of heat storage and utilization cycles. Air was used as HTF in their study.
Beasley and Ramanarayanan [4] developed a computational model to study the transient
thermal response of a packed bed of spheres containing a PCM using one-dimensional
separate phases formulation. Results from the model were compared with the experimental
results of a commercial size thermal storage bed packed with polypropylene spheres
containing paraffin for both the energy storage and recovery periods using air as working
fluid.
Chen and Yue [5] developed a one-dimensional porous-medium model to determine the
thermal characteristics of ice-water cool storage in packed capsules for air conditioning.
Comparison of this theory with experimental data of temperature profiles of PCM (water)
and coolant (alcohol) for various porosities, flow rates and different inlet coolant
temperatures show good agreements. Sozen et al. [6] investigated the TES characteristics of
a SHS and LHS packed bed consisting of a horizontal channel filled with randomly packed
particles of PCM encapsulated spherical capsules. The energy transporting fluid was
refrigerant-12, which was modeled as an ideal gas. The SHS material used was 1% carbon-
steel and PCM was myristic acid. The investigations showed distinctly different energy
storage characteristics for these two kinds of packed beds. Bansal and Buddhi [7]
developed a mathematical model for a solar collector cum storage system for quasi-steady-
state conditions using PCMs (stearic acid). Numerical calculations have been performed
using modified Hottel–Whiller–Bliss equations for a wide range of parameters to
investigate the applicability of the developed model. The calculations clearly show that
a PCM collector cum storage system has definite advantages over a system that has a
separate collection and a separate storage unit. Watanabe et al. [8] developed a numerical
model for prediction of the transient behavior of the LHS module. The model is one-
dimensional with a finite overall heat transfer coefficient between the PCM and the HTF.
They conducted the experiments on the heat storage module consisting of PCM (paraffin)
with different melting temperatures using water as HTF. Both the experimental and
numerical results showed some improvements in charging and discharging rates by the use
of multiple PCMs with different melting temperatures. Velraj and Seeniraj [9] presented a
numerical study on the solidification of PCM inside a vertical internally finned tubes and
proposed a two-dimensional model based on the enthalpy formulation. They recom-
mended that for a given quantity of heat to be extracted, the PCM, HTF and flow
parameters are to be selected in such a way to attain a combination of lower Biot number
and higher Stefan number (within the practical range) for the uniform extraction of heat.
Dincer [10] conducted a feasibility study on the selection, evaluation, implementation
and operation of a TES system for solar thermal applications. Several issues relating to
energy storage were examined from the current perspective. In addition, some criteria,
techniques, recommendations, checklists on the selection, implementation and operation
of energy storage systems are provided for the use of energy engineers, scientists and policy
makers. Cho and Choi [11] investigated the thermal characteristics of paraffin in a
spherical capsule during freezing and melting processes. Experiments were performed with
paraffin, i.e. n-tetradecane, and a mixture of n-tetradecane (40%) and n-hexadecane (60%)
and water. This study shows that the average heat transfer coefficients were affected by the
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N. Nallusamy et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1206–1227 1209

inlet temperature and Reynolds number more during the melting process than during
freezing process due to a free convection effect during the melting process. Sari and Kamil
[12] have studied experimentally the thermal performance and phase change stability of
stearic acid as a LHS material in a vertical cylindrical container. Parameters such as
transition times, temperature range and propagation of the solid–liquid interface as well as
the effect of the heat flow rate on the phase change stability of stearic acid were studied.
Ismail and Henriquez [13] presented a numerical model to simulate the process of heat
transfer (charging and discharging) in a LHS system of packed bed of spherical capsules
filled with PCM (water). The effects of working fluid (ethylene glycol) entry temperature,
the mass flow rate and material of the spherical capsule on the performance of the storage
unit were investigated both numerically and experimentally.
Eames and Adref [14] presented the experimental results of the charge and discharge
rates and the time required to melt and freeze a spherical ice storage element. The results
of this investigation are useful in modeling the dynamic behavior of thermal (ice)
storage system using spherical elements. Nallusamy et al. [15] made the detailed
study on building air conditioning system with PCM-based packed bed storage
system installed in Tidel Park, Chennai. The modes of operation, advantages of such a
system for energy management and suitability of this concept for other applications were
highlighted in their paper. Nallusamy et al. [16] developed a one-dimensional computa-
tional model using porous medium approach for predicting the thermal behavior of a
packed bed of encapsulated PCM in spherical capsules. Results have been obtained for the
case where the phase-change material is paraffin and the HTF is water. The variation of
the dimensionless temperatures of the HTF and the PCM, the molten fraction of the solid
during the phase change process and instantaneous heat stored, with dimensionless time,
for different values of porosity, Stefan number and Stanton number have been studied.
Subramanian et al. [17] conducted the performance study on a combined sensible and LHS
system employing I.C. Engine exhaust waste heat recovery. The performance parameters
like heat extraction rate, charging rate and charging efficiency were analyzed and they
highlighted the various applications of this system in the automobile vehicles and
stationary engines.
It is understood from the literature survey that most of the research work on TES is
concerned with either SHS systems or LHS systems only and not much work has been
reported on combined sensible and LHS systems. The objective of the present work is to
predict the thermal behavior of a packed bed of combined sensible and latent heat TES
system integrated with constant temperature water bath/solar flat plate collector. The
packed bed contains encapsulated PCM in spherical capsules, which are surrounded by
SHS material. Experiments are performed to examine the effects of inlet fluid temperature
and flow rates on the performance of the TES unit for both constant and varying HTF
inlet temperatures. The performance of the present system during discharging process is
also compared with the conventional SHS system.

2. Experimental investigation

2.1. Experimental setup

A schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in Fig. 1. This consists of an

insulated cylindrical TES tank which contains PCM encapsulated spherical capsules, hot
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1210 N. Nallusamy et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1206–1227

Tfi

9
TP1
8 Tf1
x
10
L
11

TP4 T
5 f4

Tfo

7
4

1
6
3
2 5

Fig. 1. Schematic of experimental setup: (1) solar flat plate collector (varying heat source); (2) constant
temperature bath; (3) electric heater; (4) stirrer; (5) pump; (6 and 7) flow control valves; 8. flow meter; (9) TES
tank; (10) PCM capsules; (11) temperature indicator; TP and Tf—temperature sensors (RTDs).

water bath fitted with electric heaters and thermostat/solar flat plate collector, flow meter
and circulating pump. A photographic view of the experimental setup integrated with solar
flat plate collector is shown in Fig. 2. The stainless-steel TES tank has a capacity of 47 l
(360 mm diameter and 460 mm height) to supply hot water for a family of 5–6 persons.
There are two plenum chambers on the top and the bottom of the tank and a flow
distributor is provided on the top of the tank to make uniform flow of HTF. The storage
tank is insulated with glass wool of 50 mm thick. The outer diameter of spherical capsule is
55 mm and it is made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) with a wall thickness of
0.8 mm. The total number of capsules in the TES tank is 264 and the spherical capsules are
uniformly packed in eight layers and each layer is supported by wire mesh. The PCM
capsules occupy the 50% of the total volume of storage tank and the remaining volume is
occupied by SHS material. The paraffin is used as PCM that has a melting temperature of
6071 1C and water is used as both SHS material and HTF. The thermo-physical
properties of paraffin are given in Table 1 and the specifications and heat storage capacity
of the storage tank are given in Table 2.
An insulated stainless-steel tank of 70 l capacity is used as the constant temperature
water bath and it is fitted with three electric heaters of varying capacities of 1, 2 and 3 kW
with thermostat control to maintain the constant temperature in the bath. A flow meter
with an accuracy of 72% is used to measure the flow rate of HTF and a centrifugal pump
is employed to circulate the HTF through the storage tank. The TES tank is divided into
four segments along its axial direction and the RTDs with an accuracy of 70.3 1C are
placed at the inlet, outlet and four segments of the TES tank to measure the temperatures
of HTF. Another four numbers of RTDs are inserted into the PCM capsules and they are
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N. Nallusamy et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1206–1227 1211

Fig. 2. Photographic view of experimental setup (TES tank integrated with varying inlet heat source solar flat
plate collector).

Table 1
Thermo physical properties of PCM (paraffin)

Melting Latent heat of Density (kg/m3) Specific heat (J/kg 1C) Thermal conductivity
temperature fusion kJ/kg (W/m 1C)
(1C)
Solid Liquid Solid Liquid Solid Liquid

60 213 861 778 1850 2384 0.4 0.15

placed at four segments of the TES tank to measure the temperatures of PCM. The
position and number of RTDs are also designated in Fig. 1. The RTDs are connected to a
temperature indicator, which provides instantaneous digital outputs.

2.2. Experimental trial

The experiments are carried out for two different methods of charging process by
integrating the TES tank with constant/varying inlet heat sources. In the first method, the
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1212 N. Nallusamy et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1206–1227

Table 2
Specifications and heat storage capacity of the TES tank

1. Volume of the storage tank for diameter ¼ 360 mm and length ¼ 460 mm 0.047 m3
2. No. of spherical capsules of 55 mm diameter 264
3. Volume of PCM in the spherical capsules 0.023 m3
4. Volume of HTF (water) in the storage tank 0.023 m3
5. Mass of HDPE spherical capsules 4.0 kg
6. Energy stored in the TES tank when fully charged (above 32 1C) at average temperatures of
PCM ¼ 70 1C and HTF ¼ 70 1C
(i) Energy stored in PCM 6.90 MJ
(ii) Energy available in the HTF 3.40 MJ
(iii) Energy content of spherical capsules 0.38 MJ

TES tank is integrated with constant temperature water bath (constant inlet heat source)
and the HTF inlet temperature (Tfi) is kept constant for a particular flow rate. The
temperature of the water bath is continuously monitored. The key experimental
parameters are HTF inlet temperature and its flow rate. Experiments are conducted at
various HTF inlet temperatures of 66, 68 and 70 1C and various flow rates of 2, 4 and
6 l/min during charging process. In the second method, the TES tank is connected with an
active solar flat plate collector of 2 m2 area (varying inlet heat source). Several experiments
are conducted with different flow rates of HTF and in this method the HTF inlet
temperature varies in accordance with the solar insolation.
For both the cases, PCM capsules in the TES tank are surrounded by water. During the
charging process (storing of heat energy) the HTF is circulated through the TES tank
continuously. The HTF exchanges its energy to PCM capsules and at the beginning of the
charging process, the temperature of the PCM (Tpi) inside the packed bed capsules is 32 1C,
which is lower than the melting temperature. Initially the energy is stored inside the
capsules as sensible heat until the PCM reaches its melting temperature. As the charging
process proceeds, energy storage is achieved by melting the PCM at a constant
temperature. Finally, the PCM becomes superheated. The energy is then stored as
sensible heat in liquid PCM. Temperatures of the PCM and HTF at different locations of
the TES tank as shown in Fig. 1 are recorded at an interval of 5 min. The charging process
is continued until the thermal equilibrium is attained between HTF and PCM
temperatures.
The discharging process (the energy retrieval) experiments are carried out in
two methods. In the first method referred to as a continuous process, the cold water at
a temperature of 32 1C is circulated continuously through the TES tank to recover
the stored heat energy. In the second method referred to as a batchwise process, a certain
quantity of hot water is withdrawn from TES tank and mixed with cold water at 32 1C
to get the required hot water of 20 l at an average temperature of 4570.5 1C for direct use
and the tank is again filled with cold water of quantity equal to the amount of
water withdrawn. Again after a time interval of 10 min allowing transfer of energy
from PCM another batch of hot water is withdrawn and mixed with cold water to get
20 l of hot water at 4570.5 1C. This process is continued until the PCM temperature
reaches 45 1C.
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N. Nallusamy et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1206–1227 1213

3. Results and discussion

The temperature distributions of HTF (water in the TES tank that acts as a SHS
material) and PCM in the TES tank for various inlet fluid temperatures and mass flow
rates are reported during charging and discharging processes. The instantaneous heat
stored and the cumulative heat stored during the charging process are studied in detail.

3.1. Charging process

3.1.1. Temperature histories of HTF and PCM

The temperature histories of HTF and PCM at four segments of the TES tank that is at
x=L ¼ 0:25, 0.50, 0.75 and 1.0 are shown in Figs. 3–8 for both constant and varying inlet
temperatures of HTF.
Fig. 3 represents the temperature variation of HTF inside the storage tank at constant
inlet temperature (Tfi) of 70 1C for a mass flow rate of 2 l/min. It is observed from the figure
that the temperature of the HTF at all the segments increases at a faster rate until it reaches
the melting temperature of PCM. However, the rise in temperature of HTF in the first
segment is very fast as the hot water enters at the top of the storage tank. For this segment,
the temperature increases up to 67 1C in 30 min and thereafter remains uniform until the
PCM melts completely. It is also observed that there is nearly constant temperature
difference between the segments from top to bottom of the storage tank throughout the
period of melting. The temperature of the second segment attains the temperature of the

80

75

70

65
HTF Temperature (°C)

60

55

50 x/L = 0.25
x/L = 0.50
45 x/L = 0.75
x/L = 1.00
40

35 constant Tfi (70 °C); mass flow rate = 2 l/min

30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time (min)

Fig. 3. Temperature histories of HTF during charging process.

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1214 N. Nallusamy et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1206–1227

80

75

70

65
HTF Temperature (°C)

60

55
mass flow rate = 2 l/min

50 mass flow rate = 4 l/min

mass flow rate = 6 l/min
45

40

35 constant Tfi (70 °C); x/L = 50.0

30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time (min)

Fig. 4. Temperature histories of HTF during charging process.

80

75

70

65
PCM Temperature (°C)

60

55
x/L = 0.25
x/L = 0.50
50
x/L = 0.75
x/L = 1.00
45

40

35 constant Tfi (70 °C); mass flow rate = 2 l/min)

30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time (min)

Fig. 5. Temperature histories of PCM during charging process.

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N. Nallusamy et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1206–1227 1215

75

70

65

60
Temperature (°C)

55

50 HTF , Tfi = 70 degree celsius

HTF , Tfi = 66 degree celsius
PCM , Tfi = 70 degree celsius
45
PCM , Tfi = 66 degree celsius

40

35
massflow rate = 2 l/min; x/L = 0.50

30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
Time (min)

Fig. 6. Temperature histories of HTF and PCM during charging process.

80

75

70

65
HTF Temperature (°C)

60

55
x/L = 0.25
50 x/L = 0.50
x/L = 0.75
x/L = 1.00
45

40

35 varying Tfi ; mass flow rate = 2 l/min

30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
Time (min)

Fig. 7. Temperature histories of HTF during charging process (TES tank integrated with solar collector).
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1216 N. Nallusamy et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1206–1227

80

75

70

65
PCM Temperature (°C)

60

55
x/L = 0.25
50 x/L = 0.50
x/L = 0.75
45 x/L = 1.00

40

35 varying Tfi ; mass flow rate = 2 l/min

30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
Time (min)

Fig. 8. Temperature histories of PCM during charging process (TES tank integrated with solar collector).

first segment only after the melting process is completed in the first segment. The same
trend is observed in the successive segments. This is due to the fact that after the complete
melting of the PCM in the first segment, the rate of heat absorbed in the first segment
decreases as the local temperature difference between the inlet fluid and PCM in the first
segment decreases. Hence the heat transfer in the second segment increases and the
temperature also increases. The similar trend is observed in HTF temperature profiles for
various mass flow rates as shown in Fig. 4 for the second segment (x=L ¼ 0:5).
Fig. 5 represents the temperature variation of PCM at constant inlet fluid temperature
(Tfi) of 70 1C for a mass flow rate of 2 l/min. It is seen from the figure that the PCM
temperature increases gradually at the beginning of the charging period and remains nearly
constant during melting process and increases rapidly during heating of liquid PCM. Also
it is noted from the figure that the PCM in the first segment is completely charged within
60% of the total charging time.
Fig. 6 shows the variation of both HTF and PCM temperatures at segment 2. The
instantaneous amount of heat transfer to the PCM depends on the temperature difference
prevailing between HTF and PCM at a given time. During the sensible heating of solid
PCM, the temperature of both HTF and PCM increases at a faster rate and the
temperature difference between them also increases continuously until the PCM reaches its
melting temperature i.e. 6071 1C. The increase in temperature is higher in water than the
PCM, as more quantity of heat is absorbed by the water than it gives its heat to the PCM.
This is due to the higher resistance offered by the solid PCM for heat flow. When PCM
starts melting, the HTF temperature increases further to a certain extent. This increases the
temperature difference between HTF and PCM and hence the heat flow rate between them
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N. Nallusamy et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1206–1227 1217

is also increased. A stage is reached when the entire heat in the HTF is transferred to PCM
by convection. Hence, beyond this stage, HTF temperature also remains constant i.e. after
a time period of 75 min in case of Tfi ¼ 66 1C and 35 min in case of Tfi ¼ 70 1C as observed
from the figure. The HTF temperature further increases after the melting of PCM is
completed.
Figs. 7 and 8 show the temperature histories of HTF and PCM during charging process
when the storage tank is connected to a solar flat plate collector. The inlet temperature of
HTF from the solar collector increases continuously with time at a uniform rate till the
PCM in the storage tank attain the phase change temperature. It is also observed from
both the figures that there is no significant temperature difference between each segment
during the sensible heating of the solid PCM as in constant Tfi case. The reason is that the
water temperature in the storage tank increases gradually in accordance with inlet
temperature of HTF supplied from the solar collector and the PCM temperature also
increases gradually along with HTF temperature. Hence, the temperature difference
between HTF and PCM in any segment of the storage tank is small during the sensible
heating of the solid PCM and also during phase change period. Further, it is noted that the
time required for charging the storage tank is more when compared with constant inlet
fluid temperature case. From the temperature histories, it can be inferred that in the
present system, the heat transfer rate possible from the HTF to the PCM in the storage
tank is higher than the heat-receiving rate of HTF from the solar collector. Hence, it is
possible to reduce the charging time further by increasing the solar collector surface area.

3.1.2. Effect of inlet fluid temperature

Figs. 9 and 10 show the effect of variation of HTF inlet temperature on the charging
time for the flow rates of 2 and 6 l/min, respectively. It is observed that the time required
for complete charging is decreased as the inlet temperature is increased. As the inlet fluid
temperature is increased from 66 to 70 1C, the time required for complete charging of
storage tank is reduced by 40% for both the flow rates of 2 and 6 l/min. In the case of
varying Tfi as the HTF inlet temperature is low at the beginning and it increases slowly
with time, the charging time is more when compared to constant Tfi case and it is around
240 min for the flow rate of 2 l/min and 215 min for the flow rate of 6 l/m on sunny days.
This time is 22% and 111% higher when compared to the inlet fluid temperatures of 66
and 70 1C, respectively, for a flow rate of 2 l/min and it is 33 and 125% higher when
compared to the inlet fluid temperatures of 66 and 70 1C, respectively, for a flow rate of
6 l/min. It is also seen from the figures that the increase in inlet temperature does not have
much effect on the temperature profile of the PCM during SHS i.e. when the PCM
temperatures are lower than the melting temperature, whereas the effect is considerable
during the LHS period.

3.1.3. Effect of flow rate of the HTF

Figs. 11 and 12 illustrate the effect of varying the mass flow rate of HTF (2, 4 and
6 l/min) during the charging of the storage tank for the cases with Tfi ¼ 66 1C and varying
Tfi, respectively. It is seen from the figures that the charging time is decreased by 14%, and
26% for the inlet fluid temperature of 66 1C and varying Tfi, respectively, when the flow
rate is increased from 2 to 6 l/min. The experimental HTF flow rates (2–6 l/min) lie in the
laminar region and the surface convection heat transfer coefficient between the HTF and
PCM capsules is less significant in this laminar region as the major resistance is due to the
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75

70

65
PCM Temperature (οC)

60

55

Tfi = 66 Degree celsius

50
Tfi = 70 Degree celsius
varying Tfi (solar energy)
45

40

35 x/L = 0.50; mass flow rate = 2l/min

30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
Time (min)

Fig. 9. Effect of HTF inlet temperature on the time required for charging.

75

70

65

60
PCM Temperature (°C)

55

Tfi = 66 Degree celsius

50
Tfi = 70 Degree celsius

45 Varying Tfi (solar energy)

40

35
x/L = 0.50; mass flow rate = 6 l/min

30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
Time (min)

Fig. 10. Effect of HTF inlet temperature on the time required for charging.
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N. Nallusamy et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1206–1227 1219

70

65

60
PCM Temperature (°C)

55

50
mass flow rate = 2 l/min
45 mass flow rate = 4 l/min
mass flow rate = 6 l/min

40

35
Tfi = 66 °C; x/L = 0.50

30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
Time (min)

Fig. 11. Effect of flow rate of HTF on the time required for charging.

75

70

65

60
PCM Temperature (°C)

55

mass flow rate = 2l/min

50
mass flow rate = 4 l/min
mass flow rate = 6l/min
45

40

35
varying Tfi; x/L = 0.50

30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Time (min)

Fig. 12. Effect of flow rate of HTF on charging time (TES tank integrated with solar collector).
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varying resistance offered inside the PCM capsules. Hence, mass flow rate has only a small
effect on the time for charging the storage tank.

3.1.4. Instantaneous heat stored

Fig. 13 shows the instantaneous heat stored in the storage tank during the charging
process for various mass flow rates of HTF when the storage tank is integrated with solar
collector. This is estimated based on the instantaneous inlet and outlet temperatures of the
HTF. It is observed that during the initial period of charging the instantaneous heat stored
is high and it is decreasing till 50–60 min. This drop in temperature is due to the decrease in
temperature difference between the HTF and the temperature of the storage tank. As the
charging process proceeds, the PCM starts melting and the heat stored remains almost
uniform due to constant temperature difference between the HTF and the storage tank.
This is the major advantage of a combined storage system where a uniform rate of
charging and discharging is possible for a longer period, which will be useful for many
practical applications.

3.1.5. Cumulative heat stored

Fig. 14 shows the cumulative heat stored in the storage tank for the case of charging
with solar collector. It is seen that the time required for storing 10 MJ is 195, 160 and
140 min for the mass flow rates of 2, 4 and 6 l/min, respectively, at an average charging
rates of 0.855, 1.042 and 1.190 kJ/s, respectively. It is observed from the figure that the
mass flow rate has significant effect on the average charging rate. This is due to higher heat

4000

3000
Instantaneous heat stored (W)

mass flow rate = 2 l/min

2000 mass flow rate = 4 l/min
mass flow rate = 6 l/min

1000

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
Time (min)

Fig. 13. Instantaneous heat stored during charging process (TES tank integrated with solar collector-varying Tfi
case).
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12

10
Cumulative heat stored (MJ)

mass flow rate = 2 l/min

2
mass flow rate = 4 l/min
mass flow rate = 6 l/min

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Time (min)

Fig. 14. Cumulative heat stored during charging process (TES tank integrated with solar collector-varying Tfi
case).

extraction rate from the solar collector as the mass flow rate increases and it is already
discussed that the heat transfer rate possible from the HTF to the PCM in the storage tank
is higher than the heat-receiving rate of HTF from the solar collector.

3.2. Discharging process

The temperature histories of HTF and PCM during discharging process (heat recovery)
for both continuous and batchwise discharging methods are reported. A comparative
study is made between the conventional SHS system and combined storage system and
conclusions based on this study are presented.

3.2.1. Variation of PCM temperatures

Figs. 15 and 16 represent the temperature histories of PCM during continuous and
batchwise discharging processes respectively. It is seen from both the cases that the
temperature drop is large until the PCM reaches its phase transition temperature as the hot
water in the storage tank loses its sensible heat due to the mixing of inlet water at a
temperature of 32 1C. After that, the temperature drop in the PCM is negligible for a long
duration as the PCM releases its latent heat. In the case of continuous discharging process,
the PCM temperature is nearly constant for a duration of 25 min, whereas in the case of
batchwise method it occurs over a duration of 40 min as the inlet water is supplied
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75

Tfi = 32 °C; mass flow rate = 2 l/min

70

65
PCM Temperature (°C)

60
x/L = 0.25
x/L = 0.50
55
x/L = 0.75
x/L = 1.00
50

45

40

35
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Time (min)

Fig. 15. Temperature histories of PCM during continuous discharging process.

75

70

65
PCM Temperature (°C)

60 x/L = 0.25
x/L = 0.50
x/L = 0.75
55 x/L = 1.00

50

45

40
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min)

Fig. 16. Temperature histories of PCM during batchwise discharging process.

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intermittently to extract heat from the storage tank. After complete solidification of the
PCM, its temperature starts decreasing; however, the rate of temperature drop is not as
high as in the beginning of the discharging process. This is due to the low temperature
difference between the PCM and HTF inlet temperature though the solid PCM releases its
sensible heat.

3.2.2. Variation of HTF temperatures

Fig. 17 shows the temperature histories of HTF during continuous and batchwise
discharging processes. The rate of heat recovery is large at the beginning of the discharging
process and decreases with time because of the change in the thermal resistance of the
solidified layer of the PCM and decrease in temperature difference between the solidified
PCM and HTF. In the case of continuous discharging process as the HTF outlet
temperature decreases continuously with time, this type of process is not suitable for
practical applications.
In the case of batchwise discharging process, a certain quantity of hot water is
withdrawn from the storage tank and mixed with cold water to obtain hot water of 20 l at
an average temperature of 45 1C. Then the storage tank is again filled with cold water of
quantity equal to the amount of hot water withdrawn. Now the temperature of HTF
(water) in the tank increases and after a retention period of 10 min, another batch of hot
water is withdrawn and mixed with cold water. The batchwise discharging process is
continued until the PCM temperature reaches 45 1C. The variation of temperature of the
HTF during retention period is also shown in the graph.

75

x/L = 0.25 , continuous process ( m = 2 l/min )

70 x/L = 1.00 , continuous process ( m = 2 l/min )
x/L = 0.25 , batchwise process
65 x/L = 1.00 , batchwise process

60
HTF Temperature (°C)

55

50

45

40

35

30
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Time (min)

Fig. 17. Temperature histories of HTF during continuous and batchwise discharging processes.
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Table 3
Experimental data of batch wise discharging process

Time Average Average Batch no. Quantity of Quantity of Temperature of

(min) temperature temperature hot water cold water 20 l of hot water
of PCM (1C) of HTF (1C) withdrawn (l) added (l) (b) after mixing (a)
(a) and (b) (1C)

0 70.00 70.50 1 7 13 45.30

2 68.58 59.43
12 64.43 62.33 2 8.5 11.5 44.80
14 63.90 55.58
24 63.55 57.58 3 10 10 45.00
26 63.28 51.00
36 62.70 53.43 4 12 8 44.90
38 62.25 46.88
48 61.40 49.20 5 15 5 44.80
50 60.53 42.78
60 59.10 45.20 6 20 0 45.10
62 57.90 36.78
102 44.73 42.63 7 23 0 42.60

Table 3 shows the experimental data of batchwise discharging process. It is found that
six batches of 20 l of hot water at an average temperature of 45 1C can be obtained in a
period of 60 min from the TES tank whose capacity is 47 l that contains 23 l of water and
23 l of paraffin (i.e. 19.80 kg). Another batch of hot water (23 l) at a temperature of 43 1C is
also withdrawn after 40 min. The time duration is very high as large quantity of cold water
is added during this batch (i.e. 20 l at 32 1C) and the rate of heat extraction from the PCM
becomes very slow as the temperature difference between the PCM and HTF is small. The
total system approaches an equilibrium temperature of around 43 to 45 1C.

3.2.3. Comparison with SHS system

The same storage tank is used as SHS system after unloading the PCM capsules and
water is used as both SHS material and HTF. The water in the storage tank is heated to
70 1C. After charging the storage tank, the discharging experiments are carried out by both
continuous and batchwise methods. In the continuous discharge method, the cold water
(HTF) at 32 1C is circulated through the storage tank at the flow rate of 2 l/min. The heat
extraction from the storage tank is continued until the water outlet temperature reaches
35 1C. In the batchwise discharge method, 7 l of hot water at 70 1C is withdrawn and mixed
with 13 l of cold water at 32 1C to get 20 l of water at 45 1C. After a time gap of 10 min,
again 7 l of hot water is withdrawn and mixed with 13 l of cold water to get 20 l of hot
water. Since the tank volume is 47 l, nearly seven batches of hot water is withdrawn and
mixed with cold water to obtain 140 l of hot water at an average temperature of 45 1C for
the use in residential premises.
Fig. 18 represents the temperature histories of HTF during continuous and batchwise
discharging processes for both SHS system and combined storage system. In the case of
SHS system, batchwise discharging of hot water is advantageous, since the water outlet
temperature remains almost constant at 70 1C throughout the process, whereas in the case
of continuous discharging process the water outlet temperature decreases continuously
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75

70

65

continuous process (combined system)

60
batchwise process (combined system)
Temperature (°C)

continuous process (SHS system)

55 batchwise process (SHS system)

50

45

40

35

30
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min)

Fig. 18. Comparison of HTF outlet temperatures during discharging process from sensible heat storage and
combined storage systems.

with time and it is suitable for limited practical applications. As most of the domestic solar
water heating systems (SHS) employ the direct mixing of cold water with hot water in the
storage tank, they experience the above-mentioned drawback i.e. varying water outlet
temperature during discharging process. It is difficult to employ the concept of
disconnecting the water flow from the overhead tank to the SHS tank after complete
charging and connecting after complete discharging in domestic solar water heating
systems installed in the apartments. Hence, by using the combined sensible and LHS
concept, the disadvantage of variation in water outlet temperature experienced in the
conventional SHS system can be rectified.
It is observed from the Fig. 18 that in case of combined storage system, the continuous
discharging process (2 l/min) exhibits isothermal behavior around 42–45 1C for a period of
30 min i.e. from 30 to 60 min as shown in the graph. However, it is also seen that in the case
of combined storage system, the batchwise process gives better performance than the
continuous discharging process as 140 l of hot water at an average temperature of 45 1C is
obtained for direct use in the residential premises. After the discharging process, the PCM
in the storage tank is still at 45 1C. However, this heat cannot be utilized effectively for
direct use.
When considering all the above modes of operation of discharging processes, the
batchwise discharging process in SHS system gives better performance than the other
discharging processes. However, in domestic solar water heating systems, as the HTF is
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1226 N. Nallusamy et al. / Renewable Energy 32 (2007) 1206–1227

directly mixed with the hot water in the storage tank, the combined storage system
employing batchwise discharging method is best suited.

4. Conclusions

A TES system has been developed for the use of hot water at an average temperature of
45 1C for domestic applications using combined sensible and LHS concept. Charging
experiments are conducted on the TES unit to study its performance by integrating it with
constant temperature source/varying temperature source (solar energy). The temperature
histories of the HTF and PCM during charging process for different inlet fluid
temperatures and flow rates are discussed. It is concluded that in the case of constant
inlet HTF temperature, the mass flow rate has only a small effect on the rate of charging,
as the surface resistance is not significant compared to the varying resistance offered inside
the PCM capsules and the rate of heat transfer increases in direct proportion with the
increase in inlet temperature of the HTF. In the case of the storage unit integrated with
solar flat plate collector, the mass flow rate has significant effect on the heat extraction rate
from the collector, which in turn affects the rate of charging of the TES tank. Experiments
are conducted for continuous discharging and batchwise discharging for both SHS system
and combined storage system. It is concluded that the combined storage system gives
better performance than the conventional SHS system where there is a direct mixing of the
HTF with the hot water in the storage tank.

Acknowledgment

The authors acknowledge Dr. R.V. Seeniraj, Professor, Department of Mechanical

Engineering, Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering, Sriperumbudur, Tamil Nadu,
India for the suggestions in the preparation of the manuscript.

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