Advances in Natural and Applied Sciences, 3(3): 392-401, 2009

ISSN 1995-0772
2009, American Eurasian Network for Scientific Information
This is a refereed journal and all articles are professionally screened and reviewed
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
392
Corresponding Author: Dr. Mohammed Rahmatullah, Pro-Vice Chancellor University of Development Alternative
House No. 78, Road No. 11A (new) Dhanmondi R/A, Dhaka-1205 Bangladesh
E-mail: rahamatm@hotmail.com
Fax: 88-02-8157339
Ethnomedicinal Applications of Plants by the Traditional Healers of the Marma Tribe
of Naikhongchhari, Bandarban District, Bangladesh
1
Mohammed Rahmatullah,
1
Md. Shahadat Hossan,
1
Abu Hanif,
1
Prozzal Roy,
1
Rownak Jahan,
1
Mujib Khan,
2
Majeedul H. Chowdhury,
3
Taufiq Rahman
1
Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Development Alternative House No. 78, Road No. 11A,
Dhanmondi, Dhaka-1205 Bangladesh
2
New York City College of Technology The City University of New York Broooklyn, NY 11201, USA
3
Department of Pharmacology, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road CB2 1PD, Cambridge, UK
Mohammed Rahmatullah, Md. Shahadat Hossan, Abu Hanif, Prozzal Roy, Rownak J ahan, Mujib
Khan, Majeedul H. Chowdhury, Taufiq Rahman: Ethnomedicinal Applications of Plants by the
Traditional Healers of the Marma Tribe of Naikhongchhari, Bandarban District, Bangladesh: Adv.
in Nat. Appl. Sci., 3(3): 392-401, 2009
ABSTRACT
The Marmas form the second largest ethnic minority group of Bangladesh residing in the forest
regions of Chittagong Hill Tracts districts of Rangamati, Bandarban and Khagrachari. They are divided
into several clans. They have their own traditional medicinal healers, who administer to their primary
health-care needs using various medicinal plants for treatment of ailments. This practice has gone on
from ancient times, resulting in the healers possessing considerable knowledge of medicinal plants and
their healing properties. The objective of this present study was to conduct an ethnomedicinal survey
among the Marma traditional healers of Naikhongchhari in Bandarban district, since virtually nothing
is known about their ethnomedicinal practices. Surveys were conducted in the Marma language with
the help of a semi-structured questionnaire. The basic method followed was the guided field-walk
method, where the informant takes the interviewer during the day time to the areas from where
medicinal plants are collected and then shows the plants along with detailed information as to plant
names, parts used, formulations, ailments treated and dosages. Information was later cross-checked with
the informants during evening sessions. All plant specimens were collected and dried and brought back
to the Bangladesh National Herbarium for complete identification. Information on 58 plant species
distributed into 35 families was obtained in the present survey. The Fabaceae family contributed the
largest number of plant species (seven) followed by the Compositae and Rubiaceae families (four plants
each). Leaves accounted for the plant part maximally used, followed by roots and fruits. The various
ailments treated by the plants included sexual disorders, urinary tract problems, gastrointestinal disorders,
hepatic disorders, helminthiasis, respiratory tract disorders, cuts and wounds, toothache and oral lesions,
skin disorders, rheumatism, pain, cataract, diabetes, vomiting, and insect bites. Several plant species,
besides treatment of ailments, were also found to be used in preparation of wine or added to food
to impart flavor. A major advantage of the medicinal knowledge of the indigenous people is that they
have been tried for centuries with successful results, at least as claimed by both healers and patients.
It is therefore important to conduct scientific studies on the various plant species obtained for their
potential in yielding novel lead compounds and drugs, which may be more efficacious for treatment
of ailments that cannot be cured by modern allopathic medicine, or as replacement for modern drugs
with serious side-effects.
Key words: Marma, ethnomedicine, indigenous, Naikhongchhari, Bangladesh
393 Adv. in Nat. Appl. Sci., 3(3): 392-401, 2009
Introduction
The knowledge of indigenous peoples may cover a wide variety of subjects, including the climate,
ecosystem, and particularly the local fauna and flora. The latter includes knowledge of plants, which
can be used as medicine, food, building materials, and other purposes (Leonti et al., 2003). Not only
before the advent of modern medicine, but also as of now, the indigenous peoples generally depends
on their own traditional medicinal healers for cure of their various ailments. The cumulative knowledge
gathered by the healers over generations has resulted in each healers possessing considerable expertise
in the use of locally available medicinal plants for treatment of ailments. On the other hand, it has
been estimated that less than 1% of indigenous cultures have been surveyed for the purpose of
gathering of their knowledge of use of medicinal plants as well as other natural products (Pranee,
2000). This is unfortunate, because the advent of modern civilization and the increasing connections
between modern civilization and indigenous cultures is resulting in rapid decimation of the culture and
knowledge of the indigenous peoples(Kong et al., 2003; Shrestha and Dhillion, 2003), who have
become ethnic minorities in the various countries that they inhabit.
The use of plants for medicinal purposes dates back to even as early as five thousand years ago
(Sofowara, 1982). The introduction of allopathic medicine and synthetic drugs reduced the number of
medicinal products obtained from plants. However, it has been pointed out that in many cases, the
sources of modern pharmaceuticals have been plants used in indigenous cultures(Cotton, 1996). Since
medicinal plants used by traditional healers have a history of usage, it can become the shortest route
for scientists to discover plant-derived drugs. The average success rate of obtaining new medicines from
botanical sources is one in 125(McCaled, 1997), whereas the comparative rate of success of obtaining
useful medicines from synthetic chemicals is about one in 10,000(Chadwick and Marsh (eds), 1994).
In recent times, there has, therefore been a shift of attention of researchers and pharmaceutical
companies towards traditional medicine with renewed emphasis on discovery of pharmaceuticals from
plants. A number of papers in scientific journals attest to the fact that ethnomedicinal surveys are
increasingly being conducted among the indigenous peoples of various regions of the world.
Bangladesh has a number of indigenous peoples or tribes inhabiting various regions of the country.
The Marmas form the second largest community inhabiting the forest regions of Chittagong Hill Tracts
in the south-eastern part of the country. They belong to the Mongoloid race and their language is
written in Burmese characters (it is to be noted that Burma or Myanmar is located on the eastern
border of the Bandarban district). The Marma community is divided into several clans, who reside in
the districts of Rangamati, Bandarban, and Khagrachari in the Chittagong Hill Tracts region. The
Marmas practice a mixture of Buddhism and animism. Their primary health-care needs are administered
to by their own traditional healers. At the same time, very little is known about the medicinal
practices of the Marma tribe. The areas where they inhabit is quite densely forested and has a wealth
of floral species, which are yet to be documented in their entirety, particularly regarding their medicinal
values. A rapid way of obtaining such information is to gather knowledge from the healers of various
tribes of the region as to the use of the plants for treatment of various ailments. It was the objective
of the present study to conduct a survey among the Marma traditional healers of Bandarban district
to gather information on ethnomedicinal applications of plants by these healers.
Materials and Methods
2.1. Study area
Bandarban district in Bangladesh is situated roughly between 92
o
10 - 92
o
40 E and 21
o
20 -
21
o
50 N. There is a Marma Para (village) located at Naikhongchhari, which falls in the extreme
south-western part of the district. The study was conducted among the tribal healers of the Marmas
settled in Naikhongchhari.
2.2. Data collection and sampling techniques
A total of three healers present within the Marma community of Naikhongchhari were interviewed
for this survey. The names of the healers were Mong-ki-u-Marma, Zing-thu-y-Marma, and Mong Chala
Marma. At their request, the healers were interviewed as a group. Interviews were conducted in the
Marma language (one of the authors, Md. Shahadat Hossan being fluent in this language, since he
grew up in that region) with the help of a semi-structured questionnaire. The basic method followed
394 Adv. in Nat. Appl. Sci., 3(3): 392-401, 2009
was that of Martin, (1995) and Maundu, (1995). Informed consent was obtained from the informants
prior to any data collection. The informants were explained that we are collecting this data towards
storage and dissemination of the indigenous knowledge of their tribes, and that this information may
lead to new scientific research and discoveries as well as spurt conservation efforts to save their
medicinal plants. The informants had no objections towards providing information except that they
wanted the exact formulations and dosages not to be disseminated to protect their professional interests.
In the method followed, the informants took the interviewers to localities from where they collected
their plants. Plants were shown with detailed information as to their local names, formulations, dosages,
route of administration, and ailments treated. It was observed that the medicinal plants collected by
the Marma traditional healers were collected both from nearby areas to their habitat, as well as
considerable distances (more than 5 km) away from their habitat and in dense forest areas. All plant
specimens were collected, dried on field and brought back to Bangladesh National Herbarium for
complete identification and where voucher specimens were also deposited.
Results and Discussion
3.1. Plants and their distribution into families
A total of 58 plants distributed into 35 families were observed to be used by the Marma
traditional healers of Naikhongchhari (Table 1). The Fabaceae family provided the largest number of
species (seven), followed by the Compositae and Rubiaceae families (four plants each). The Marmas
practice a sort of cultivation known as jhum cultivation, where a tract of forest land is burned
followed by cultivation for several years on the cleared forest land. After that, a fresh tract of forest
land is burned with a repetition of the procedure. Mostly paddy and vegetables are cultivated on the
burnt and cleared forest land. As such, the medicinal plants of the Marmas are collected mostly from
the wild from primary growth vegetation or secondary growth vegetation, which takes place after they
abandon their cultivated forest land in favor of new areas. It was observed that most Marma
households plant several plants of Ananas comosus in their homes for their own use. Other plants like
Dillenia indica, Emblica officinalis, Hibiscus rosa sinensis, Syzygium cumini, Aegle marmelos, Citrus
limonum and Eletteria cardamomum are obtained from lands cultivated by nearby non-indigenous settlers,
who cultivate these plants for personal consumption, commercial purposes or ornamental values. These
plants also can be found in the wild but only scarcely; they do not form a major part of the primary
or secondary natural vegetation of the area.The rest of the plants are collected from the wild.
Table 1: Medicinal plants and their applications by the traditional healers of the Marma tribe residing at Naikhongchhari of
Bandarban district, Chittagong Hill Tracts
Serial Botanical name Family Local name Plant part(s) used and Uses
Number [Administration: O = oral, T = topical]
1 Acanthus ilicifolius L. Acanthaceae Fereng-jubang Root. Root is taken as a sexual stimulant [O],
root paste is applied for rheumatic pains [T]
and root juice taken by women during cloudy
urination [O].
2 Justicia adhatoda L. Acanthaceae Hong-shu-bang Leaf. Leaf juice is administered [O]
for helminthiasis, diarrhea and during
constipation (note that excess taking of leaf
may cause diarrhea).
3 Acrostichum aureum L. Adiantaceae Mou-chai-pang Leaf. Leaf is cooked and taken as a vegetable
to increase physical strength, for treatment of
cloudy urination in women, and
as a sexual stimulant [O].
4 Adiantum philippense L. Adiantaceae Kijau-pai-bang Leaf, root. J uice from roots and leaves are
administered as sexual stimulants [O].
5 Dracaena spicata Roxb. Agavaceae Boang-khola Leaf. Leaf juice is taken to cure long-term
-paing-da fever, coughs and mucus in nose [O].
6 Sansevieria roxburghiana Agavaceae Lankh-hi-pang Leaf. The juice from the top portion of young
Schult. & Schult. f. leaf is applied to abscesses within the ear and
pus formation within the ear [T].
7 Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae Chikring-lu Root. Root is taken for jaundice and
respiratory problems [O].
8 Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. Apocynaceae Chalai-bang Bark. The bark exudate is given for
cold sores (caused by Herpes labialis),
fevers, and diabetes [O].
395 Adv. in Nat. Appl. Sci., 3(3): 392-401, 2009
Table 1: Continue
9 Tabernaemontana divaricata Apocynaceae Chanle-pang Leaf, root, fruit. Leaf, root and fruit is used
(L.) R. Br. ex Roemer & to make wine and taken for ulcer and
J .A. Schultes breathing problems [O].
10 Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. Bignoniaceae Krong-sa-bang Leaf, root. Root and leaf is given for sudden
unconsciousness (given after regaining of
consciousness to prevent further episodes) as
happens during epilepsy [O], a paste of leaf
and root is applied for skin disorders [T],
and taken as a sexual stimulant [O].
11 Ananas comosus (L.) Merr. Bromeliaceae Naindra-bang Leaf. The top portion of young leaf is given
during pneumonia, asthma, and respiratory
problems [O].
12 Casuarina equisetifolia L. Casuarinaceae Pailong-pang Root. Root is chewed to maintain
healthy teeth [O].
13 Anogeissus acuminata Combretaceae Sai-ki-bang Bark. Bark powder is used for toothache,
Wall.ex C.B.Clarke loosening of tooth, and for lesions within the
mouth or around the tooth [T].
14 Ageratum conyzoides L. Compositae Wyla-bang Leaf. Leaf paste is applied to stop
bleeding [T],
leaf juice is taken to lower acidity
and reduce stomach pains [O].
15 Elephantopus scaber L. Compositae Pau-ma-fang Root. Root is administered as a sexual
stimulant, to cure difficulties of urination,
source of nutrition [O], and cure itches [T].
16 Eupatorium odoratum L. Compositae Kaingja-pongja Root. Root is taken to reduce stomach pains,
during gastric ulcer, and to make wine [O].
17 Mikania cordata Compositae J apai-nueh Leaf. Leaf paste is applied to stop bleeding
(Burm.f.) B. L. Robinson and stimulate clot formation [T].
18 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Convolvulaceae alt. Cuscutaceae J igro-bang Stem. Stem is cooked and taken as a
egetable and acts as a sexual stimulant [O].
19 Costus speciosus Costaceae Pret-mun-pang Leaf, stem. J uice from leaf and stem is applied
(J . Knig.) Sm. during ear pains or formation of pus in ears,
and eczema or itches around the nails [T].
20 Kalanchoe pinnata Crassulaceae Rokia-pang-bang Leaf. Leaf paste is applied for muscle pain,
(Lam.) Pers. scabies, boils, and rheumatism [T].
21 Coccinia grandis (L.) J . Voigt Cucurbitaceae Nichu-bang Fruit. Fruit is taken for respiratory problems
and lung disorders [O].
22 Hodgsonia macrocarpa Cogn. Cucurbitaceae Keha-pang Fruit. Fruit is taken for fevers and malaria [O].
23 Dillenia indica L. Dilleniaceae Debru-bang Leaf, fruit. Fruit is taken to stimulate appetite
[O]; leaf paste is applied to scabies [T].
24 Dryopteris filix-max (L.) Schott Dryopteridaceae Kraing-ha Leaf. Leaves are cooked and taken
as vegetable to increase physical strength; also
used for headache and as a sedative [O].
25 Codiaeum variegatum Euphorbiaceae Boangkhela Leaf. Leaf juice is taken for old fevers, coughs
(L.) A.J uss. -paingda and colds [O].
26 Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Euphorbiaceae Sosha-bang Fruit. Fruit is eaten to stimulate appetite [O].
27 Acacia farnesiana L. Fabaceae Aao-wia-pang Root. Root is administered to treat fever, and
crying in children [O].
28 Caesalpinia nuga Fabaceae Krong-khai-bang Leaf, fruit. The seeds of the fruit are taken
(L.) W. T. Aiton as an intoxicant [O]; leaf paste is applied to
skin disorders [T].
29 Cassia alata L. Fabaceae Pui-bang Leaf. Leaf paste is applied for ringworm
and eczema [T].
30 Cassia fistula L. Fabaceae Nafi-keda-pang Bark, fruit. Fruit and bark is given during
fevers and to stimulate appetite [O].
31 Clitoria ternatea L. Fabaceae Koai-khi-bang Leaf. Leaf juice is applied to boils and itches
in children [T].
32 Desmodium macrophyllum Fabaceae Tongkhto-chibang Leaf. Leaf juice is taken for stomach acidity,
Desv. -khrung-pang stomach aches, and abnormal heart palpitations
[O].
33 Erythrina variegata L. Fabaceae Kasai-pang Bark. Bark is taken for helminthiasis,
and as a vegetable (i.e. cooked and eaten).
34 Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss. Gramineae alt. Khai-wang-wah, Leaf, root. A combination of leaf and root
Poaceae Medi-wah paste is applied for rheumatic pain and eczema
[T]; combination of leaf and root juice is taken
for cough and leprosy [O].
35 Eleutherine plicata Herb. Iridaceae Tong-krai-choi, Root. Root juice is taken for difficulties in
Alho do Mato. Chikra-choi urination, and elephantitis [O].
36 Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link Labiatae Paing-sung-pang Leaf, flower. A combination of leaf and flower
juice is given to women who have recently
delivered, and taken to cure old coughs [O].
396 Adv. in Nat. Appl. Sci., 3(3): 392-401, 2009
Table 1: Continue
37 Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw. Lygodiaceae Makla-pang Root. Root is taken for rheumatism, for fever
and convulsions in children and to
make wine [O].
38 Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet Malvaceae Flur-bang Root. Root is given for diarrhea and other
gastrointestinal disorders in both human
and cattle [O].
39 Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. Malvaceae Chuila-bai-pang Flower. Flower juice is used to treat
cataract [T].
40 Urena lobata L. Malvaceae Fow-fi-i Leaf, flower. A paste of flowers and leaves is
applied to chapped lips, and skin lesions [T];
they are taken during urinary tract
disorders [O].
41 Melastoma malabathricum L. Melastomaceae Koiam-pay-bang Root. Root juice is taken during jaundice [O].
42 Stephania japonica Menispermaceae Toak-nueh-pang Root. Root juice is used for coughs, throat
(Thunb.) Miers pains and in children to treat colic and ear
lesions [O].
43 Mimosa pudica L. Mimosaceae Shra-pang Leaf. Leaf paste is applied to eczema,
scabies and abscesses [T].
44 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae Chabri-shae-bang Seed. The seeds of the fruit are taken for
diabetes and urinary problems [O].
45 Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. Nymphaeaceae Kra-pang Stem. The immediate upper portion above the
root is given to menstruating women and men
having urination difficulties [O].
46 Polygonum hydropiper L. Polygonaceae Mra-che-bang Leaf, root. Leaf and root paste is used for
eczema, scabies [T] and as an
anthelmintic [O].
47 Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Rubiaceae Pang-kha-bang Leaf. Leaf juice is used to treat boils and eye
Hook. f. ex Brandis disorders like conjunctivitis [T].
48 Hedyotis scandens Roxb. Rubiaceae Rema-pang Leaf. Leaf juice is applied as treatment for
itches, scabies and eczema [T].
49 Morinda angustifolia Roxb. Rubiaceae Chui-tili-bang Root. Root is taken as treatment for
jaundice [O].
50 Morinda persicifolia Harv. Rubiaceae Chui-tili-bang Root. Root is taken as treatment for
var. sublinearis Kuntze jaundice [O].
51 Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Rutaceae Orai-pang Leaf, root. The leaves and roots are taken
as sedative [O].
52 Citrus limonum Risso Rutaceae Khra-pang Fruit. Fruit juice is a source of vitamins, and
used to stimulate appetite, to cure fever, skin
disorders, to prevent hair loss, to stop
vomiting tendency, and to cure lesions within the
mouth [O].
53 Scoparia dulcis L. Scrophulariaceae Mikram-boi-pang Leaf, root, fruit. A combination of leaf, fruit
and root juice is given to children with
respiratory problems and to stimulate appetite.
54 Pterospermum semisagittatum Sterculiaceae Noah-labai-pang Leaf. Leaf paste is applied to poisonous
Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb. insect bites [T].
55 Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. Verbenaceae Khrong-kha-bang Leaf. Leaf juice is taken for stomach aches [O].
56 Vitex negundo L. Verbenaceae Moru-bang Leaf. Leaf paste is applied to rheumatic and
joint pains [T].
57 Alpinia nigra (Gaertn.) Zingiberaceae Choia-bang Leaf, root. The roots and leaves are cooked
B. L. Burtt. and taken as a vegetable, to make wine, and to
increase flavor in foods [O] and a paste of leaf
and root is applied for loss of sensation in
hands and legs [T].
58 Elettaria cardamomum Zingiberaceae Lia-bong-pang Fruit. The fruit is used as a spice and in
(L.) Maton wine [O].
3.2. Plant parts used and mode of preparation
We documented 74 uses of plant parts in this survey. Leaves formed the part of plant most
frequently used (43.2%), followed by roots (28.4%) and flowers (13.5%). Seeds were used in only one
instance, where the seeds of Syzygium cumini were found to be used for treatment of diabetes and
urinary problems. The usual mode of preparation was crushing of the plant part followed by extraction
of juice from the plant part, which would then be administered either orally or topically. The juice
extracted from leaves of Justicia adhatoda was taken orally as treatment for helminthiasis, while the
juice obtained from young leaves of Sansevieria roxburghiana was applied topically during ear
infections. Occasionally, a plant part may be turned into paste and then applied topically, or the plant
397 Adv. in Nat. Appl. Sci., 3(3): 392-401, 2009
part may be taken directly orally. For instance, the roots of Acanthus ilicifolius were taken directly
(i.e. chewed and swallowed with a little water) as a sexual stimulant, whereas a paste of the root was
applied to areas affected by rheumatic pain. There were also instances where the plant part would be
cooked and eaten as vegetable, not for nutritive purposes, but as remedy for a given ailment. This
applied to the case of Acrostichum aureum, where the leaves were cooked and taken as a vegetable
to increase physical strength, as a sexual stimulant, and as treatment for cloudy urination in women.
3.3. Medical applications
The various ailments treated by the Marma traditional healers appeared to be common ailments
like gastrointestinal disorders (constipation, diarrhea, loss of appetite, ulcer, stomach pain), respiratory
tract disorders (cough, mucus, asthma, breathing difficulties), urinary tract problems (difficulties in
urination, cloudy urination), and skin disorders (scabies, itches, eczema). The maximum number of plant
(fifteen) were used to treat various skin disorders, followed by gastrointestinal disorders (twelve),
respiratory tract disorders (nine), urinary tract problems (seven), fever (seven), and jaundice (four). The
Marma healers also had knowledge of plants for treatment of diabetes, malaria, and leprosy. Other
ailments treated included eye problems (cataract, conjunctivitis), cold sores, vomiting tendency, insect
bites, loss of sensation in hands or legs, toothache, cuts and wounds, lesions within the mouth, ear
infections, and pain. Two plants, Dryopteris filix-max and Aegle marmelos, were also used as sedative.
One plant (Abutilon indicum) had both human and veterinary applications, being used to treat diarrhea
in both humans as well as cattle.
A plant part was found to be used to treat both single as well as multiple ailments. The roots
of Acanthus ilicifolius were used for treatment of rheumatic pain, cloudy urination in women, and as
a sex stimulant. The roots of Achyranthes aspera were used for treating diverse ailments like jaundice
and respiratory problems. On the other hand, the roots of Morinda angustifolia or Morinda persicifolia
were used for treatment of jaundice only. A combination of two plants or more were not used by
the healers for treatment of any ailment. On the other hand, a combination of two parts from the
same plant was found to be used. The leaves and roots of Oroxylum indicum were used in
combination for treatment of sudden unconsciousness (as happens during epilepsy) and also applied
topically for skin disorders. J uice from leaves and stems of Costus speciosus were used to treat ear
pains or formation of pus in ears. Two different parts from the same plant could have separate
applications; the seeds of Caesalpinia nuga were taken as an intoxicant, but leaf paste was applied
to skin disorders.
3.4. Medicinal plants used as food supplements
The Marmas traditionally augment their cultivated food supply with resources obtained from the
forests. These resources may include plants, animals, birds, and other products. Three plants were
observed to be used as sources of nutrition besides serving medicinal purposes. These three plants were
Elephantopus scaber, Erythrina variegata, and Alpinia nigra. The fruits of another plant, Eletteria
cardamomum were used as a spice and did not serve any medicinal purpose. Apart from Eletteria
cardamomum, various parts of the other three plants were cooked and eaten as vegetables. Some plants
were also used as ingredients in wine, which the Marmas drink during their various festivals. These
plants were Tabernaemontana divaricata (leaf, root, fruit), Eupatorium odoratum (root), Lygodium
flexuosum (root), Alpinia nigra (leaf, root), and Eletteria cardamomum (fruit).
Discussion
The importance of ethnomedicinal surveys lies in the fact that they can form a basis for further
scientific studies. At the same time, it is equally important to find out whether available scientific
studies on plants used by indigenous peoples validate their use. A perusal of the available scientific
literature shows that the use of a number of plants by the Marma traditional healers are validated by
pharmacological activity studies on those plants. In this section, some of these studies shall be
reviewed.
Anti-inflammatory activity of methanol extract of leaves of Acanthus ilicifolius (used for rheumatic
pains by Marma healers) has been demonstrated through inhibition of carragenan-induced rat paw edema
(Mani Senthil Kumar, et al., 2008). The anti-ulcer activity of Justicia adhatoda (used by Marma
healers for gastrointestinal disorders) has been shown in two models, namely ethanol-induced and
398 Adv. in Nat. Appl. Sci., 3(3): 392-401, 2009
pylorus ligation plus aspirin-induced models in rats(Shrivastava et al., 2006). Achyranthes aspera is used
by Marma healers for treatment of jaundice and respiratory problems. Alcohol extract of the plant has
been shown to have anti-inflammatory activity in carragenan-induced hind paw edema and cotton pellet
granuloma models in albino male rats(Vetrichelvan and J egadeesan, 2003). Thus the plant could have
a therapeutic effect in both liver inflammation (causing jaundice) and lung inflammation (leading to
respiratory problems).
There are no direct studies available in the scientific literature on Anogeissus acuminata, used by
the Marma healers for toothache and oral lesions. However, a related species Anogeissus leiocarpus,
which is used in Nigeria as a chewing stick has been shown to possess anti-bacterial activity against
dentally relevant bacteria(Taiwo et al., 1999). In vitro studies have demonstrated that the methanol
extract of Ageratum conyzoides can inhibit Helicobacter pylori, which is a major causative factor of
duodenal, peptic and gastric ulcers(Ndip et al., 2007). Notably, the plant is used by Marma healers
to stop bleeding, and to lower acidity and stomach pains. The wound healing properties of methanolic
extract of leaves of this plant has also been demonstrated in Wistar rats in skin excision
studies(Oladejo et al., 2003). Analgesic activity of the plant has also been reported in both in vitro
and in vivo studies(Sampson et al., 2000: Abena et al., 1993). Anti-inflammatory activity has been
reported of aqueous extract of leaves of Eupatorium odoratum (otherwise known as Chromolaena
odorata), used by the Marma healers to reduce stomach pain, and during gastric ulcer(Owoyele et al.,
2005). Codiaeum variegatum is used by the Marma helaers for old fevers, coughs and colds. These
symptoms can be a consequence of viral or bacterial infections of the respiratory tract. The plant
reportedly showed anti-influenza A virus activity, which could be of relevance in its traditional use
(Forero et al.,2008).
The plant, Acacia farnesiana is used in traditional Colombian medicinal system for treatment of
malaria symptoms, one of its symptoms being fever. Extracts of this plant displayed good activity
against Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistant (FcB2) strain in culture(Garavito et al., 2006). The
Marma healers use this plant to treat fevers. Bronchodilatory and anti-inflammatory effects have also
been reported for this plant(Trivedi et al., 1986), which properties could be of use in the treatment
of symptoms associated with fever. Cassia alata is used by Marma healers to treat skin diseases like
ring worm and eczema. The plant is also used in Nigerian traditional medicine for treatment of skin
disorders(Ajose, 2007). Anti-microbial activity (both anti-bacterial and anti-fungal) has been reported for
various parts of the plant like leaf, bark, flower, stem, and root bark(Somchit et al., 2003; Khan et
al., 2001; Ibrahim and Osman, 1995; Palanichamy and Nagarajan, 1990; Fuzellier et al., 1982). The
various extracts of Clitoria ternatea (used by Marma healers to treat boils and itches) possesses anti-
microbial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, insecticidal, anti-pyretic as well as other properties, which has
been reviewed by Mukherjee et al (2008), including its use in the Indian system of traditional
(Ayurvedic) medicine as a nootropic, anti-stress, anxioloytic, and sedative agent. Bambusa bambos
(synonym Bambusa arundinacea) is used by Marma healers for treatment of rheumatic pain. The
extracts of this plant has been in use in Indian traditional medicine for centuries to treat various
inflammatory conditions. On top of it, both anti-inflammatory effects as well as anti-ulcer activities of
this plant have been reported in rat models(Muniappan and Sundararaj, 2003). Since drugs used for
treatment of inflammatory condition like rheumatoid arthritis are mostly ulcerogenic, this plant can form
a useful adjunct therapy when inflammatory drugs are used. At the same time, the plant can be
directly used for treatment of patients with rheumatoid arthritis and peptic ulcer.
Methanol extract of flowers of Leucas aspera (used by Marma healers to treat coughs) reportedly
showed good anti-microbial activity(Mangathayaru et al., 2005). Anti-bacterial activity has also been
observed in methanol extract of Urena lobata (Mazumder et al., 2001), used by Marma healers for
treatment of skin lesions, and urinary tract disorders. Mimosa pudica, used by Marma healers for
treatment of eczema and scabies, is widely used in Indian folk medicine for arresting bleeding and
in skin diseases. The wound healing activity of methanol as well as aqueous extract of roots of the
plant has recently been demonstrated(Kokane et al., 2009). A number of studies have established the
potential of Syzygium cumini as an anti-diabetic agent; notably the seeds of the plant are used by
Marma healers for treatment of diabetes. The plant is also used in Brazilian traditional medicine to
treat diabetes. Aqueous leaf extract of this plant reportedly inhibited adenosine deaminase activity and
reduced glucose levels in hyperglycemic patients(Bopp et al., 2009). Ferulic acid, obtained from ethereal
fraction of ethanol extract of seed demonstrated diabetic therapeutic and anti-oxidative effects in
streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. Ferulic acid also had a pancreatic b-cell regenerative effect
(Mandal et al., 2008). Extracts of seed kernels inhibited a-glucosidase activity in vitro, and in Goto-
Kakizaki (GK) rats in vivo (Shinde et al., 2008). Ethanolic extract of seeds also was found to decrease
blood sugar level in alloxan diabetic albino rats and showed improvement in the histopathology of
pancreatic islets (Singh and Gupta, 2007).
399 Adv. in Nat. Appl. Sci., 3(3): 392-401, 2009
Vitex negundo is used by Marma healers for treatment of rheumatic and joint pains. Analgesic
activity has been demonstrated in ethanol extract of seeds(Zheng et al., 2009), as well as ethanolic
extract of leaves in rats and mice (Gupta and Tandon, 2005). Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity
has also been demonstrated in rats with aqueous extract of mature fresh leaves(Dharmasiri et al., 2003),
while chloroform extract of defatted seeds reportedly exhibited anti-inflammatory activity (Chawla et al.,
1992). The fruits of Elletaria cardamomum are used by the Marmas as spice and in wine but not
for any therapeutic purposes. However, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and anti-spasmodic actions have
been reported for seed oil (al-Zuhair et al., 1996). The fruits also have gastroprotective effects, as
demonstrated by inhibition of gastric lesions in rats induced by aspirin and ethanol (J amal et al.,
2006). Thus partaking of the fruits as spice or in wine may serve a prophylactic purpose, especially
in the prevention of gastrointestinal disorders.
It is interesting that quite a few plants used by the Marma healers have been validated in their
uses by modern scientific studies. This reinforces two viewpoints. The first is that indigenous peoples,
through trials and errors conducted over centuries, possess considerable knowledge about the use of
medicinal plants for treatment of ailments. The second is that for successful drug discoveries, it may
be better to conduct scientific trials on the basis of knowledge gathered from indigenous communities.
A number of plants used by the Marma healers are yet to be tested for their pharmacological activities
and phytochemical constituents. Other plants need to be tested for yet to be discovered unknown
pharmacological activities, and presence of phytochemicals, which can serve as the basis for efficacious
drugs. Such scientific studies would highlight the importance of medicinal plants used by indigenous
communities and strengthen efforts for their conservation, propagation and cultivation.
Acknowledgements
The present study was supported by internal funding from the University of Development
Alternative.
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