Lecture03 Fourier Representations of Signals

CHAPTER
Fourier Representations of Signals & LTI Systems CHAPTER

Fourier Representations of Signals & LTI Systems
3.1 Introduction
1. A signal can be represented as a weighted superposition of complex
sinusoids. Figure 3.1 (p. 196)
x(t) or x[n] y(t) or y[n] The output of a complex sinusoidal input to an LTI system is a complex sinusoid of
2. LTI system: LTI System
the same frequency as the input, multiplied by the frequency response of the system.
Output = A weighted superposition
f
of the system response to each y > n@ e j:n ¦ h > k @ e j:k H e j: e j:n
complex sinusoid. k f
3. Four distinct Fourier representations 3. Frequency response: Complex scaling factor
3.2 Complex Sinusoids and Frequency Response of LTI f
A function of frequency :
Systems H (e j: ) ¦ h[k ]e
k f
j:
(3.1)
h Frequency response { The response of an LTI system to a sinusoidal input.
h Discrete-time LTI system h Continuous-time LTI system
1. Impulse response of discrete-time LTI system = h[n], input = x[n] = e j :n 1. Impulse response of continuous-time LTI system = h(t), input = x(t) = e j Z t
2. Output: f f
³ h(W )e jZ ( t W ) dW e jZ t ³ h(W )e jZW dW
2. Output:
f f
y (t )
f f
y>n@ ¦ h>k @x>n k @ ¦ h>k @e j: n k (3.2)
jZ t
k f k f H ( jZ )e
Signals and Systems_Simon 1 Signals and Systems_Simon 2
Haykin & Barry Van Veen Haykin & Barry Van Veen
CHAPTER
3. Frequency response: <Sol.> Frequency response:

f W § 1 ·
1 f RC 1 f ¨© jZ RC ¸¹W
H ( jZ ) ³ f
h(W )e jZW dW (3.3) H jZ
RC ³f
e u W e jZW dW
RC ³0
e dW
f
h Polar form complex number c = a + jb:

§ 1 ·
c c e j arg{c} where c a 2 b2 and arg{c} tan 1 b 1 1 ¨ jZ
©
¸W
RC ¹
Figure 3.2 (p. 197)
a e RC circuit for Example 3.1.
RC § 1 ·
h Polar form for H (jZ): ¨ jZ ¸ Magnitude response:
© RC ¹
H ( jZ ) H ( jZ ) e j arg{H ( jZ )}
0
1 1 1
0 1
where H ( jZ ) Magnitude response and arg ^H ( jZ )` Phase respnse RC § 1 · H jZ RC
¨ j Z ¸ 2
© RC ¹ § 1 ·
y t H jZ e
j Z t arg^H jZ ` Z2 ¨ ¸
1 © RC ¹
Example 3.1 RC Circuit: Frequency response RC Phase response:
1
arg^H jZ ` arctanZRC
The impulse response of the system relating to the input voltage to the voltage
jZ
across the capacitor in Fig. 3.2 is derived in Example 1.21 as RC
1 t / RC Find an expression for the frequency response, and Fig. 3.6 (a) and (b)
h( t ) e u(t ) plot the magnitude and phase response.
RC
CHAPTER
jZ arg ^H jZ `
H e j: e j: n
H
S \ (t ) O\ (t ) e jZ t H ( jZ ) e j Z t e j : n
H H H
2
S \ [ n ] O \ [n ]
Figure 3.4 (p. 198)
4
Illustration of the eigenfunction property of linear systems. The action of
Z the system on an eigenfunction input is multiplication by the corresponding
eigenvalue. (a) General eigenfunction <(t) or <[n] and eigenvalue O.
S (b) Complex sinusoidal eigenfunction e jZt and eigenvalue H(jZ).
(c) Complex sinusoidal eigenfunction e j:n and eigenvalue H(ej:).
Z 4
S Eigenfunction: \ ( t ) e jZ t

2 Eigenvalue: O H ( jZ )
Figure 3.3 (p. 198)
2. If ek is an eigenvector of a matrix A with eigenvalue Ok, then
Frequency response of the RC circuit in Fig. 3.2. (a) Magnitude response.
(b) Phase response. Ae k Ok e k
Arbitrary input = weighted superpositions of eigenfunctions
h Eigenvalue and eigenfunction of LTI system
Convolution operation Multiplication
[A] Continuous-time case: Ex. Input: Output: M
M
1. Eigenrepresentation: Fig. 3.4 (a) H ^\ t ` O\ t xt ¦a e Z k
j kt
jZ t
y t ¦ a H jZ e
k
k
k 1 k 1
CHAPTER
[B] Discrete-time case: 3.3.1 Periodic Signals: Fourier Series Representations

1. Eigenrepresentation: Fig. 3.4 (c) H (\ [n]) O\ [n] 1. x[n] = discrete-time signal with fundamental period N. DTFS of x[n] is
Eigenfunction: \ [ n ] e j: n x[n] ¦
A[k ]e jk :0 n (3.4) :o = 2S/N { Fundamental
k frequency of x[n]
Eigenvalue: O H (e j:
) 2. x(t) = continuous-time signal with fundamental period T. FS of x(t) is
2. Input: Output: M
¦a H e e x (t )
M
x[n] ¦a e k
j: k n
y[n] k
j: j:k n
¦ A[k ]e
k
jkZ0 t
(3.5)
Zo = 2S/T { Fundamental
frequency of x(t)
k 1 k 1
3.3 Fourier Representations for Four classes of Signals h “^” denotes approximate value. A[k] = the weight applied to the kth harmonic.
i Four distinct Fourier representations: Table 3.1.
3.1 h e jkZ0t is the k th harmonic of e jZ0t .
3. The complex sinusoids exp(jk:on) are N-periodics in the frequency index k.
<pf.> e j N K : 0 n e jN: 0 n e jk: 0 n e j 2Sn e jN: 0 n e jk: 0 n
There are only N distinct complex sinusoids of the form exp(jk:0n)

should be used in Eq. (3.4).
N 1
Eq. (3.4) x (t ) ¦ A[k ]e jk :0 n
(3.6)
k 0
h Symmetries in x[k]: k = (N 1)/2 to (N 1)/2

CHAPTER
4. Continuous-time complex sinusoid exp(jkZ0t) with distinct frequencies kZ0 2. DTFT of discrete-time signal:
are always distinct. f
X(e j :)/(2S) = the weight applied to the
FS of continuous-time periodic signal x(t) becomes x >n@
1
2S ³ f

X e j: e j : n d Z sinusoid ej :n in the DTFT representation.
f
x (t ) ¦ A[k ]e jkZ 0t
(3.7) 3.4 Discrete-
Discrete-Time Periodic Signals:
Signals: The Discrete-
Discrete-Time
k f
h Mean-
Mean-square error (MSE) between the signal and its series representation:
representation:
Fourier Series
Discrete-time case: 1. DTFS pair of periodic signal x[n]:
N 1 Fundamental period = N;
N 1
1
x[n] x[n] dt ¦ X [k ]e jk :0 n
2
MSE
N
¦
n 0
(3.8) x[n]
k 0
(3.10) Fundamental frequency = :o = 2S/N
N 1 Fourier coefficients; Frequency domain

Continuous-time case: 1
1
X [k ] ¦ x[n]e jk :0 n
(3.11) representation
x(t ) x (t ) dt
T 2 N
T ³0
n 0
MSE (3.9)
h Notation: x > n @ m
DTFS ; :0
o X >k @
3.3.2 Nonperiodic Signals: Fourier- Fourier-Transform Representations
Example 3.2 Determining DTFS Coefficients
1. FT of continuous-time signal:
X(jZ)/(2S) = the weight applied to a sinusoid Find the frequency domain representation of the signal depicted in Fig. 3.5.
3.5
1 f
x t
2S f ³
X jZ e jZ t d Z of frequency Z in the FT representation. <Sol.>
1. Period: N = 5 :o = 2S/5
CHAPTER
h One period of the DTFS coefficients X[k], k = 2 to k = 2:
1 sin 4S / 5
X > 2@ j 0.232e j 0.531
5 5
1 sin 2S / 5
Figure 3.5 (p. 203) X > 1@ j 0.276e j 0.760
5 5
Time-domain signal for Example 3.2.
1
2. Odd symmetry n = 2 to n = 2 X >0@ 0.2e j 0 Fig. 3.6.
5
sin 2S / 5
3. Fourier coefficient:
1
2 X >1@ j 0.276e j 0.760
¦ x >n@ e
1
X >k @ jk 2S n / 5
5 5
sin 4S / 5
5n 2
1
X >2@ j 0.232e j 0.531
1
5
^
x> 2@e jk 4S / 5 x> 1@e jk 2S / 5 x>0@e j 0 x>1@e jk 2S / 5 x>2@e jk 4S / 5 ` 5 5 Eq. (3.11)
3. Calculate X[k] using n = 0 to n = 4:
1 1 1
X [k ]
5
{1 e jk 2S / 5 e jk 2S / 5 }
2 2 X >k @
1
5
^
x>0@e j 0 x>1@e jk 2S / 5 x>2@e jk 4S / 5 x>3@e jk 6S / 5 x>4@e jk 8S / 5 `
(3.12)
1 1 1 jk 2S / 5 1 jk 8S / 5 ½
{1 j sin( k 2S / 5)}
5 ®1 e e ¾ e jk 8S / 5 e jk 2S e jk 2S / 5 e jk 2S / 5
5¯ 2 2 ¿
CHAPTER
X [k ] { Magnitude spectrum of x[n] Example 3.3 Computation of DTFS by Inspection
X [k ] Even function
Determine the DTFS coefficients of x[n] = cos (nS/3 + I), using the method of
inspection.
<Sol.>
1. Period: N = 6 :o = 2S/6 = S/3
2. Using Euler’s formula, x[n] can be expressed as
S S
j ( n I ) j ( n I )
arg ^ X [k ]` e 3
e 3
1 jI j S3 n 1 jI j S3 n
arg ^ X [k ]` { Phase spectrum of x[n] x[n] e e e e (3.13)
Odd function 2 2 2
3. Compare Eq. (3.13) with the DTFS of Eq. (3.10) with :o = S/3, written by
summing from k = 2 to k = 3:
3
x >n@ ¦ X [k ]e
k 2
jkS n / 3
X [ 2]e j 2S n / 3 X [ 1]e jS n / 3 X [0] X [1]e jS n / 3 X [2]e j 2S n / 3 X [3]e jS n

(3.14)
Figure 3.6 (p. 204) Equating terms in Eq.(3.13) with those in Eq. (3.14) having
Magnitude and phase of the DTFS coefficients for the signal in Fig. 3.5. equal frequencies, kS/3, gives

CHAPTER
e jI / 2, k 1 Example 3.4 DTFS Representation of An Impulse Train

S
° jI Find the DTFS coefficients of the N-periodic impulse train
x > n @ m o X >k @
DTFS ;
3
® e / 2, k 1 f
° 0, otherwise on 2 d k d 3 x > n@ ¦ G > n lN @
¯ l f
4. Magnitude spectrum and phase spectrum of X[k]: Fig. 3.8.
3.8 as shown in Fig. 3.9.
3.9
<Sol.>
Figure 3.8 (p. 206) It is convenient to evaluate Eq.(3.11) over the interval n = 0 to n = N 1 to obtain
Magnitude and phase N 1
1 1
of DTFS coefficients X >k @
N
¦G >n@ e
n 0
jkn 2S / N
N
for Example 3.3.
Figure 3.9 (p. 207)

I A discrete-time impulse train with period N.
CHAPTER
i The Inverse DTFS
The similarity between Eqs. (3.10) and (3.11) indicates that the same
mathematical methods can be used to find the time-domain signal
corresponding to a set of DTFS coefficients.
Example 3.5 The Inverse DTFS
Use Eq. (3.10) to determine the time-domain signal x[n] from the DTFS
coefficients depicted in Fig. 3.10.
3.10
<Sol.>
1. Period of DTFS coefficients = 9 :o = 2S/9 S
2. It is convenient to evaluate Eq.(3.11) over the interval k = 4 to k = 4 to obtain
4
x >n@ ¦ X > k @e
k 4
jk 2S n / 9
S/3
e j 2S / 3e j 6S n / 9 2e jS / 3e j 4S n / 9 1 2e jS / 3e j 4S n / 9 e j 2S / 3e j 6S n / 9

2cos 6S n / 9 2S / 3 4cos 4S n / 9 S / 3 1 Figure 3.10 (p. 208) S/3
Magnitude and phase of
Example 3.6 DTFS Representation of A Square Wave DTFS coefficients for
Find the DTFS coefficients for the N-periodic square wave given by Example 3.5. S
CHAPTER
1 2 M jk :0 ( m M )
x>n@
1,
®
M dndM X [k ] ¦e
Nm0
Change of variable on the
¯0, M n N M (3.15) index of summation: m = n + M
1 jk :0 M 2 M jk :0 m
That is, each period contains 2M + 1 consecutive ones and the remaining
N
e ¦e
N (2M +1) values are zero, as depicted in Fig. 3.11.
3.11 Note that this definition m 0
requires that N > 2M +1. 3. For k = 0, r N, r 2N, …, we have

Figure 3.11 (p. 209)
<Sol.>
Square wave for Example 3.6. e jk :o e jk :o 1
1 2M
2M 1
(3.15) X >k @
N
¦1
m 0 N
, k 0, r N , r 2 N ,
3. For k z 0, r N, r 2N, …, we may sum the geometric series in Eq. (3.15) to

obtain
1. Period of DTFS coefficients = N :o = 2S/N
e jk :0 M § 1 e jk :0 M (2 M 1) ·
2. It is convenient to evaluate Eq.(3.11) over the interval n = M to n = N M 1. X [k ] ¨ ¸ , k z 0, r N , r 2 N , ...... (3.16)
N M 1
N © 1 e jk:0 ¹
1
X [k ] ¦ x[n ]e jk :0n
1 § e 0
jk : 2 M 1 / 2
· § 1 e jk :0 2 M 1 · 1 §e
jk :0 2 M 1 / 2
e 0
jk : 2 M 1 / 2
·
N n M
X >k @ ¨ jk :0 / 2 ¸¨ jk :0 ¸ ¨ jk :0 / 2 ¸
1 M N© e ¹© 1 e ¹ N© e e jk :0 / 2
¹
N
¦e
n M
jk :0n
k z 0, r N , r 2 N , ......
CHAPTER
1 sin k: 0 2 M 1 / 2
X >k @ , k 0, r N , r 2 N ,
N sin k: 0 / 2
The numerator and
denominator of above Eq. are
4. Substituting :o = 2S/N, yields
divided by 2j.
1 sin kS 2 M 1 / N
° , k z 0, r N , r 2 N ,
X >k @ ® N sin kS / N
°
¯ 2 M 1 / N , k 0, r N , r 2 N ,
L’Hôpital’s
1 sin kS 2 M 1 / N 2M 1 Rule
lim
k o 0, r N , r 2 N , N sin kS / N N
For this reason, the expression for X[k] is commonly written as
1 sin kS 2 M 1 / N Figure 3.12 (p. 211)
X >k @ The value of X[k] for k = 0, r N, r 2N, …, The DTFS coefficients for the square
N sin kS / N is obtained from the limit as k o 0. wave shown in Fig. 3.11, assuming a
Fig. 3.12. period N = 50: (a) M = 4. (b) M = 12.

CHAPTER
h Symmetry property of DTFS coefficient: X[k] = X[ k]. X > k @, k 0, N / 2

B >k @ ®
¯ 2 X > k @, k 1, 2, , N / 2 1
1. DTFS of Eq. (3.10) can be written as a series involving harmonically related
cosines.
2. Assume that N is even and let k range from ( N/2 ) + 1 to N/2. Eq. (3.10) and write the DTFS for the square wave in terms of a series of harmonically
becomes related cosines as
N /2 N /2
x>n@ ¦ X >k @e jk: 0 n
x[n] ¦ B[k ]cos(k : n)0 (3.17)
k N / 2 1 k 0
N / 2 1 h A similar expression may be derived for N odd.

x>n@ X >0@ X >N / 2@e jk: 0 n / 2 ¦ X >m@e
m 1
jk: 0 n
X > m@e jk: 0 n Example 3.7 Building a Square Wave From DTFS Coefficients
The contribution of each term to the square wave may be illustrated by defining
3. Use X[m] = X[ m] and the identity N:o = 2S to obtain the partial-sum approximation to x[n] in Eq. (3.17) as
N / 2 1
§ e jm :0 n e jm :0 n · e jSn = cos(Sn) J
x >n@ X >0@ X > N / 2@ e jS n ¦ 2 X > m@ ¨ ¸ since sin(Sn) = x J [n] ¦ B[k ]cos(k : n)
0 (3.18)
m 1 © 2 ¹ k 0
N / 2 1
0 for integer n.
where J d N/2. This approximation contains the first 2J + 1 terms centered on k
X >0@ X > N / 2@ cos S n ¦ 2 X >m@ cos m: n 0 = 0 in Eq. (3.10). Assume a square wave has period N = 50 and M = 12. Evaluate
one period of the Jth term in Eq. (3.18) and the 2J + 1 term approximation x J [n]
m 1
4. Define the new set of coefficients

for J = 1, 3, 5, 23, and 25.
CHAPTER
Figure 3.14a (p. 213)

Individual terms in the DTFS expansion of a square wave (left panel)
panel)
and the corresponding partial-
partial-sum approximations J[n] (right panel).
The J = 0 term is 0[n] = ½ and is not shown. (a) J = 1. (b) J = 3. (c) J =
5. (d) J = 23. (e) J = 25.
Signals and Systems_Simon 25 Signals and Systems_Simon
Figure 3.14b (p. 213) 26
CHAPTER
<Sol.>
Figure 3.15 (p. 214)
1. Fig. 3.14 depicts the J th term in the sum, B[J] cos(J:on), and one period of Electrocardiograms
x J [n] for the specified values of J. for two different
2. Only odd values for J are considered, because the even-indexed coefficients heartbeats and the
B[k] are zero when N = 25 and M = 12. first 60 coefficients of
their magnitude
3. The approximation improves as J increases, with x[n] represented exactly
spectra.
when J = N/2 = 25.
(a) Normal heartbeat.
4. The coefficients B[k] associated with values of k near zero represent the low-
(b) Ventricular
frequency or slowly varying features in the signal, while the coefficients
tachycardia.
associated with values of k near r N/2 represent the high frequency or
(c) Magnitude
rapidly varying features in the signal.
spectrum for the
Example 3.8 Numerical Analysis of the ECG normal heartbeat.
Evaluate the DTFS representations of the two electrocardiogram (ECG) (d) Magnitude
waveforms depicted in Figs. 3.15 (a) and (b). Fig. 3.15 (a) depicts a normal ECG, spectrum for
while Fig. 3.15 (b) depicts a heart experiencing ventricular tachycardia. The ventricular
discrete-time signals are drawn as continuous functions, due to the difficulty of tachycardia.
depicting all 2000 values in each case. Ventricular tachycardia is a series
cardiac rhythm disturbance (i.e., an arrhythmia) that can result in death.
CHAPTER
It is characterized by a rapid, regular heart rate of approximately 150 beats per
minute. Ventricular complexes are wide (about 160 ms in duration) compared
Figure 3.15 with normal complexes (less than 110 ms) and have an abnormal shape. Both
(p. 214) signals appear nearly periodic, with only slight variations in the amplitude and
Electrocardiograms length of each period. The DTFS of one period of each ECG may be computed
for two different numerically. The period of the normal ECG is N = 305, while the period of the
heartbeats and the ECG showing ventricular tachycardia is N = 421. One period of each waveform
first 60 coefficients is available. Evaluate the DTFS coefficients of each, and plot their magnitude
of their magnitude spectrum.
spectra. <Sol.>
(c) Magnitude 1. The magnitude spectrum of the first 60 DTFS coefficients is depicted in Fig.
spectrum for the 3.15 (c) and (d).
normal heartbeat. 2. The normal ECG is dominated by a sharp spike or impulsive feature.
(d) Magnitude 3. The DTFS coefficients of the normal ECG are approximately constant,
spectrum for exhibiting a gradual decrease in amplitude as the frequency increase.
ventricular Fairly small magnitude!
tachycardia.
4. The ventricular tachycardia ECG contains smoother features in addition to
sharp spikes, and thus the DTFS coefficients have a greater dynamic range,
with the low-frequency coefficients containing a large proportion of the total
power.
CHAPTER
3.5 Continuous-
Continuous-Time Periodic Signals:
Signals: The Fourier Series 2. If x(t) is square integrable,
i Fourier series pair Exponential FS 1 T
xt dt f
T ³0
2
1. Continuous-time periodic signals are represented by the Fourier series (FS).

2. A signal with fundamental period T and fundamental frequency Zo = 2S/T, then the MSE between x(t) and x̂ t is zero, or, mathematically,
the FS pair of x(t) is 2
1
³ xt xt
T
f
dt 0
x(t ) ¦ X [k ]e jkZ 0t
(3.19) T 0
xˆ t at all values of t; it simply implies that there is zero power

k f
Frequency domain x(t )
1 T
T ³0
X [k ] x(t )e jkZ0t dt (3.20) representation of x(t)
in their difference.
The variable k determines the 3. Pointwise convergence of x ( t ) xˆ t is guaranteed at all values of t
3. Notation: except those corresponding to discontinuities if the Dirichlet conditions are
frequency of the complex sinusoid
x t m
FS ;Z0
o X >k @ associated with X[k] in Eq. (3.19). satisfied: i x(t) is bounded.
i x(t) has a finite number of maximum and minima in one period.
i Mean-square error (MSE)
i x(t) has a finite number of discontinuities in one period.
1. Suppose we define
h If a signal x(t) satisfies the Dirichlet conditions and is not continuous, then
f
x̂ t converges to the midpoint of the left and right limits of x(t) at each
xˆ t ¦ X >k @ e
k f
jkZ o t
discontinuity.
and choose the coefficients X[k] according to Eq.(3.20.)
CHAPTER
Example 3.9 Direct Calculation of FS Coefficients
Figure 3.17
Determine the FS coefficients for the signal x(t) depicted in Fig. 3.16.
3.16
(p. 217)
<Sol.> Magnitude
1. The period of x(t) is T = 2, and phase
so Zo = 2S/2 = S. spectra for
2. One period of x(t): x(t) = e 2t, Example 3.9.
0 d t d 2.
3. FS of x(t):
1 2 2 t jkS t 1 2 2 jkS t Figure 3.16 (p. 216)
X >k @
2 ³0 2 ³0
e e dt e dt Time-domain signal for Example 3.9.
2
1 1 e 4
X >k @
2 2 jkS
e
2 jkS t 1
4 jk 2S
1 e4e jk 2S 4 jk 2S
0
Fig. 3.17.
e jk2S = 1
h The Magnitude of X[k] { the magnitude spectrum of x(t);
the phase of X[k] { the phase spectrum of x(t).

CHAPTER
Example 3.10 FS Coefficients for An Impulse Train Example 3.11 Calculation of FS Coefficients By Inspection
Determine the FS coefficients for the signal x(t) defined by Determine the FS representation of the signal
f xt 3 cosSt / 2 S / 4
x t ¦ G t 4l
l f <Sol.>
<Sol.> 1. Fundamental period of x(t) is T = 4, and Zo = 2S/4 = S/2. Eq. (3.19) is written
as f
1. Fundamental period of x(t) is T = 4, each period contains an impulse.
2. By integrating over a period that is symmetric about the origin 2 < t d 2, to x(t ) ¦
X [k ]e jkS t / 2
k f
(3.21)
obtain X[k]:
e j S t / 2 S / 4 e j S t / 2 S / 4 3 jS / 4 jS t / 2 3 jS / 4 jS t / 2
X >k @
1 2
G t e jk S / 2t dt
1 x t 3 e e e e
4 ³2 4 2 2 2
2. Equating each term in this expression to the terms in Eq. (3.21) gives the FS
3. The magnitude spectrum is constant and the phase spectrum is zero.
coefficients: 3
i Inspection method for finding X[k]: Whenever x(t) is expressed in terms of , k 1 jS / 4
sinusoid, it is easier to obtain X[k] by inspection. The method of inspection is °2 e

° Magnitude and
based on expanding all real sinusoids in terms of complex sinusoids and °3
comparing each term in the resulting expansion to the corresponding terms X [k ] ® e jS / 4 , k 1 (3.22) phase spectrum:
of Eq. (3.19). °2 Fig. 3.18.
3.18
°0, otherwise
°̄
CHAPTER
f f
¦ 1 / 2 e jkS / 20 e jkSt ¦ 1 / 2 e jlS / 20 e jlSt

k l
S/4
k 0 l 1
1 1
xt 1
1 1 / 2 e j St S / 20 1 1 / 2 e j St S / 20
2. Putting the fraction over a common denominator results in
S/4
Figure 3.18 (p. 219) 3
xt
Magnitude and phase spectra for Example 3.11. 5 4 cosSt S / 20
h Time-domain representation obtained from FS coefficients Example 3.13 FS for A Square Wave
Example 3.12 Inverse FS Determine the FS representation of the square wave depicted in Fig. 3.21.
3.21
Find the time-domain signal x(t) corresponding to the FS coefficients
Figure 3.21 (p. 221)
X >k @ 1 / 2 k e jkS / 20 Assume that the fundamental period is T = 2. Square wave for Example 3.13.
<Sol.>
1. Fundamental frequency: Zo = 2S/T = S. From Eq. (3.19), we obtain
f f
x t ¦ 1/ 2 e jkS / 20 e jkS t ¦ 1/ 2 e jkS / 20 e jkS t
k k
k 0 k 1 <Sol.>
CHAPTER
1. Fundamental frequency: Zo = 2S/T. 2 sin kZ 0T0 2T0

2. X[k]: by integrating over T/2 d t d T/2 lim
k o0 TkZ 0 T
2 sin kZ 0T0
1 T /2 1 T0 jkZ0t
X >k @ x t e jkZ0t dt
T ³T / 2 T ³T0 X >k @
e dt
T0
TkZ 0
1 jkZ0t 4. X[k] is real valued. Using Zo = 2S/T gives X[k] as a function of the ratio To/T:
e , k z0
TjkZ 0 T0 2sin(k 2S T0 / T )
jkZ0T0 jkZ0T0 X [k ] (3.23)
2 §e e · k 2S
¨ ¸, k z 0
TkZ 0 © 2j ¹ 5. Fig. 3.22 (a)-(c) depict X[k], 50 d k d 50, for To/T =1/4, To/T =1/16, and To/T =
1/64, respectively.
2sin kZ 0T0
, k z0 h Definition of Sinc function:
TkZ 0 sin(S u )
sinc(u ) (3.24) Fig. 3.23.
For k = 0, we have Su
1 2T0 1) Maximum of sinc function is unity at u = 0, the zero crossing occur at
X >0@
T0
T ³
T0
dt
T integer values of u, and the amplitude dies off as 1/u.
2) The portion of this function between the zero crossings at u = r 1 is
3. By means of L’Hôpital’s rule, we have manilobe of the sinc function.
CHAPTER
Figure 3.22a&b Figure 3.22c

(p. 222) (p. 222)
The FS
coefficients, X[k], –
50 d k d 50, for
three square
waves. (see Fig.
3.21.) (a) To/T =
1/4 . (b) To/T =
1/16. (c) To/T =
1/64.

CHAPTER
3) The smaller ripples outside the mainlobe are termed sidelobe.
4) The FS coefficients in Eq. (3.23) are expressed as
2T0 § 2T ·
X >k @ sinc ¨ k 0 ¸
T © T ¹
i Fourier series pair Trigonometric FS
1. Trigonometric FS of real-valued signal x(t):
f
x(t ) B[0] ¦ B[k ]cos(kZ 0t ) A[k ]sin(kZ 0t ) (3.25)
k 1
FS coefficients:
B[0] = X[0] represents the time-
1 T
T ³0
B[0] x(t )dt averaged value of the signal.
2 T
T ³0
B[k ] x(t ) cos(kZ 0t )dt (3.26)
2 T
T ³0
Figure 3.23 (p. 223) A[k ] x(t ) sin(kZ 0t )dt
Sinc function sinc(u) = sin(Su)/(Su)
CHAPTER
2. Relation between exponential FS and trigonometric FS coefficients: Example 3.14 Square Wave Partial-Sum Approximation
B[k ] X [k ] X [k ] Euler’s Formula Let the partial-sum approximation to the FS in Eq. (3.29), be given by
for k z 0 (3.27) J
A[k ] j ( X [k ] X [ k ]) x J t ¦ B>k @coskZ t
k 0
0
Ex. Find trigonometric FS coefficients of the square wave studied in Example
3.13. This approximation involves the exponential FS coefficients with indices J d
<Sol.> k d J. Consider a square wave with T = 1 and To/T = ¼. Depict one period of the
1. Substituting Eq. (3.20) into Eq. (3.27), gives Jth term in this sum, and find

B[0] 2T0 / T x J t for J 1, 3, 7, 29, and 99.
2sin(k 2S T0 / T )
B[k ] , k z0 (3.28) <Sol.>
kS
1. The individual terms and partial-sum approximation are depicted in Fig. 3.25.
3.25
A[k ] 0 Because x(t) is an even function 2. Each partial-sum approximation passes through the average value (1/2) of
2. Trigonometric FS expression of x(t): the discontinuity, the approximation exhibits ripple.
f 3. This ripple near discontinuities in partial-sum FS approximations is termed
x(t ) ¦ B[k ]cos(kZ t ) 0 (3.29) the Gibbs phenomenon.
k 0 4. As J increase, the ripple in the partial-sum approximations becomes more
and more concentrated near the discontinuities.

CHAPTER
Figure 3.25a (p. 225)

Individual terms (left panel) in the FS expansion of a square wave and the
corresponding partial-sum approximations J(t) (right panel). The square
wave has period T = 1 and Ts/T = ¼. The J = 0 term is 0(t) = ½ and is not
shown. (a) J = 1.
Figure 3.25b-3 (p. 226)

(b) J = 3. (c) J = 7. (d) J = 29.
CHAPTER
<Sol.>
1. If the input to an LTI system is expressed as a weighted sum of sinusoid,
then the output is also a weighted sum of sinusoids.
2. Input: 4. Frequency response of the system H(jZ):
y t m o Y > k @ H jkZ0 X > k @
f FS ;Z0
xt ¦ X >k @e
k f
jkZ0t
Figure 3.25e (p. 226) 5. Frequency response of the RC circuit:

(e) J = 99. 3. Output:
1 / RC
Example 3.15 RC Circuit: Calculating The Output By Means of FS f H jZ
jZ 1 / RC
Let us find the FS representation for the output y(t) of the RC circuit depicted in
y t ¦ H jkZ X >k @e
k f
0
jkZ0t
Fig. 3.2 in response to the square-wave input depicted in Fig. 3.21,

3.21 assuming
that To/T = ¼, T = 1 s, and RC = 0.1 s. 6. Substituting for H(jkZo) with RC = 0.1 s and Zo = 2S, and To/T = ¼, gives
10 sin kS / 2
Figure 3.21 (p. 221) Y >k @
Square wave for j 2Sk 10 kS
Example 3.13. 7. We determine y(t) using the approximation
100 The magnitude and phase spectra for the
Figure 3.2 (p. 197) y (t ) | ¦
k 100
Y [k ]e jkZ0t (3.30) range 25 d k d 25: Fig. 3.26 (a) and (b).
RC circuit for Example 3.1. Waveform of y(t): Fig. 3.26(c).
CHAPTER
Figure 3.26 (p. 228) Figure 3.26 (p. 228)

The FS coefficients The FS coefficients
Y[k], –25 d k d 25, Y[k], –25 d k d 25,
for the RC circuit for the RC circuit
output in response to output in response to
a square-wave input. a square-wave input.
(a) Magnitude (a) Magnitude
spectrum. (b) Phase spectrum. (b) Phase
spectrum. c) One spectrum. c) One
period of the input period of the input
signal x(t) dashed signal x(t) dashed
line) and output line) and output
signal y(t) (solid line). signal y(t) (solid line).
The output signal y(t) The output signal y(t)
is computed from the is computed from the
partial-sum partial-sum
approximation given approximation given
in Eq. 3.30). in Eq. (3.30).

CHAPTER
8. The circuit attenuates the amplitude of X[k] when ~k~t 1. Figure 3.27 (p. 229)
The degree of attenuation increases as the frequency kZo increases. Switching power supply for DC-
DC-to-
to-AC conversion.
The circuit also introduces a frequency-dependent phase dependent shift.
Example 3.16 DC-to-AC Conversion
A simple scheme for converting direct current (dc) to alternating current (ac)
is based on applying a periodic switch to a dc power source and filtering out
or removing the higher order harmonics in the switched signal. The switch in Figure 3.28 (p. 229)
Fig. 3.27 changes position every 1/20 second. We consider two cases: (a) The Switching power supply
switch in either open or closed; (b) the switch reverses polarity. Fig. 3. 28 (a) output waveforms with
and (b) depict the output waveforms for these two cases. Define the fundamental frequency
conversion efficiency as the ratio of the power in the 60-Hz component of the Z0 = 2S
2S/T = 120S
120S. (a) On-
On-
output waveform x(t) to the available dc power at the input. Evaluate the off switch. (b) Inverting
conversion efficiency for each case. switch.
<Sol.>
1. The FS for the square wave x(t) with T = 1/60 second and Zo = 2S/T = 120S
rad/s: Fig. 3.28(a), where
A 2 A sin kS / 2
B >0@ B>k @ ,k z 0 A>k @ 0
2 kS
CHAPTER
2. The harmonic at 60 Hz in the trigonometric FS representation of x(t) has 3.6 Discrete-

Discrete-Time Nonperiodic Signals:
Signals: The Discrete-
Discrete-Time
amplitude given by B[1] and contains power B[1]2/2.
The dc input has power A2. Fourier Transform (DTFT)
DTFT)
3. Conversion efficiency for Fig. 3.28 (a): 1. The DTFT is used to represent a discrete-time nonperiodic signal as a
superposition of complex sinusoids.
C eff
B>1@ 2
/2
2 / S 2 | 0.20 2. DTFT representation of time-domain signal x[n]:
2
A S
1 DTFT
³ S X (e
j:
4. The FS for the signal x(t) shown in Fig. 3.28(b): x[n] )e j:n d : (3.31)
2S pair
B>0@ 0 f
B>k @
4 A sin kS / 2
,k z 0
X (e j: ) ¦ x[n]e
n f
j :n
(3.32) Frequency-domain representation x[n]
kS
o X e j:
3. Notation:
A>k @ 0 x > n @ m
DTFT
5. Conversion efficiency for Fig. 3.28 (b): 4. Condition for convergence of DTFT:
C eff
B>1@ 2
/2
8 / S 2 | 0.81
If x[n] is of infinite duration, then the sum converges only for certain classes
of signals. If x[n] is absolutely summable, i.e.,
A2
f
The sum in Eq. (3.32) converges uniformly to a
¦ x >n @ f
n f
continuous function of :.
CHAPTER
h If x[n] is not absolutely summable, but does satisfy (i.e., if x[n] has finite 4. Magnitude and phase spectra:
energy), Even
f
¦ x>n@ f
It can be shown that the sum in Eq. (3.32)

X e j:
1 1
1 D cos :
2
D
converges in a mean-square error sense, 1/ 2 1/ 2 function
n f
2
D sin :
2 2 2
1 2D cos :
but does not converge pointwise.
§ D sin : ·
Example 3.17 DTFT of An Exponential Sequence ^ `
arg X e j: arctan¨ ¸ Odd
Find the DTFT of the sequence x[n] = Dnu[n]. © 1 D cos : ¹ function
<Sol.>
This sum diverges for D t 1 Fig. 3.29 for D = 0.5 and D = 0.9.
1. DTFT of x[n]:
f f Example 3.18 DTFT of A Rectangular Pulse
¦ D u>n@e
X e j: n j:n
¦D n
e j:n Let
1, n d M
n f n 0 x >n@ ®
2. For D < 1, we have ¯0, n ! M
f as depicted in Fig. 3.30 (a). Find the DTFT of x[n].
¦ D e j: n 1
X ( e j: ) , D 1 (3.33) <Sol.>
n 0 1 D e j:
1. DTFT of x[n]:
3. If D is real valued, Eq. (3.33) becomes M
X e j: ¦ 1e j:n
.

X e j: 1
1 D cos : jD sin :
Euler’s Formula
n M

CHAPTER
Figure 3.29
Figure 3.30
(p.232)
(p. 233)
The DTFT of an
Example 3.18.
exponential signal
(a) Rectangular
x[n] = (D)nu[n]. (a)
pulse in the time
Magnitude
domain. (b)
spectrum for D =
DTFT in the
0.5. (b) Phase
frequency
spectrum for D =
domain.
0.5. (c) Magnitude p{S
spectrum for
D = 0.9. (d) Phase
spectrum for D =
0.9.

CHAPTER
2M 2M
X e j:
Change of variable
¦e
m 0
j: ( m M )
e j :M ¦ e j :m
m 0
m=n+M
3. Graph of X(e j :): Fig. 3.30(b).
Example 3.19 Inverse DTFT of A Rectangular Pulse
j:M 1 e j: 2( M 1) Find the inverse DTFT of
°e , : z 0, r 2S , r 4S ,
® 1 e j: 1, : dW
Figure 3.31 (p. 234)
° 2 M 1,
¯ :=0, r 2S , r 4S ,
X e j: ® , Example 3.19. (a) Rectangular
¯0, W n S pulse in the frequency domain. (b)
2. The expression for X(e j :) when : z 0, r 2S , r 4S , which is depicted in Fig. 3.31 (a). Inverse DTFT in the time domain.
X ( e j: ) e j:M
e
j: 2 M 1 / 2
e j: 2 M 1 / 2
e
j: 2 M 1 / 2
<Sol.>
e j: / 2
e j: / 2
e j: / 2

e j: 2 M 1 / 2
e j: 2 M 1 / 2
j: / 2 j: / 2
e e
sin : 2 M 1 / 2 L’Hôptital’s Rule
lim 2 M 1; 1. Note that X(e j :) is specified only for S < : d S.
:o 0, r2S , r4S ,, sin : 2 p{S
2. Inverse DTFT x[n]:
sin : 2 M 1 / 2 With understanding that X(e forj :) W
1
X (e j: ) : z 0, r 2S , r 4S , isobtained as x > n@ ³e
j:n
d:
sin : 2 2S W
limit.
CHAPTER
1 j :n W Example 3.20 DTFT of The Unit Impulse

e W , n z 0 Find the DTFT of x[n] = G[n].
2S nj
<Sol.>
1
sin Wn , n z 0. 1. DTFT of x[n]:
Sn f
3. For n = 0, the integrand is unity and we have x[0] = W/S. Using L’Hôpital’s X e j: ¦ G >n@ e j :n
1 Figure 3.32 (p. 235)
n f
Example 3.20. (a) Unit impulse
rule, we easily show that
in the time domain. (b) DTFT of
1 W G > n @ m
DTFT
o 1. unit impulse in the frequency
lim sin Wn ,
n o0 nS S 2. This DTFT pair is depicted in Fig. 3. 32.
32 domain.
and thus we usually write
1
x > n@ sin Wn
Sn
as the inverse DTFT of X(e j :), with the understanding that the value at n =
0 is obtained as limit. Example 3.21 Inverse DTFT of A Unit Impulse Spectrum
4. We may also write p{S
Find the inverse DTFT of X(e j :) = G(:), S < : d S.
W
x > n@ sin c Wn / S ,
<Sol.>
Fig. 3.31 (b).
S 1. Inverse DTFT of X(e j :):
CHAPTER
1 S Example 3.22 Moving-Average Systems: Frequency Response

x > n@ ³ S G : e
j :n
d :. Sifting property of impulse function
Consider two different moving-average systems described by the input-output
2S
equations
1
m
DTFT
o G : , S : d S . 1 1
2S y1 > n @
2
x > n@ x > n 1@ and y2 > n @
2
x > n@ x > n 1@
h We can define X(e j :) over all : by writing it as an infinite sum of delta
functions shifted by integer multiples of 2S. The first system averages successive inputs, while the second forms the
p{S difference. The impulse responses are
2. This DTFT pair is depicted in Fig. 3. 33.
33
1 1 1 1
h1 > n @ G > n @ G > n 1@ and h2 > n @ G > n @ G > n 1@
2 2 2 2
Find the frequency response of each system and plot the magnitude responses.
<Sol.>
1. The frequency response is the DTFT of the impulse response.
Figure 3.33 (p. 236) 2. For system # 1 h1[n] :
f Example 3.21. (a) Unit impulse in the
X e ¦
G : k 2S .
j:
frequency domain. (b) Inverse DTFT in
Frequency response:
1 1 j: : j
:
j
:
j
:
§:·
k f
the time domain. H1 (e j : ) e j:
j
2
e 2
e 2
e 2
cos ¨ ¸ .
2 2 H1 (e ) e ©2¹
h Dilemma: The DTFT of x[n] = 1/(2S) does not converge, since it is not a 2
square summable signal, yet x[n] is a valid inverse DTFT!
CHAPTER
Magnitude response: Phase response: p{S

§:· :
H1 e j : cos ¨ ¸ , arg ^ H1 (e j: )` .
©2¹ 2
3. For system # 2 h2[n] :
Frequency response:
: : Figure 3.36 (p. 239)
: j j :
j: 1 1 j: j e 2
e 2 j §:· The magnitude responses of two simple discrete-
discrete-time systems.
H 2 (e ) e je 2
je 2
sin ¨ ¸ . (a) A system that averages successive inputs tends to attenuate high
2 2 2j ©2¹ frequencies. (b) A system that forms the difference of successive
successive inputs
Magnitude response: Phase response: tends to attenuate low frequencies.
§:· : Example 3.23 Multipath Communication Channel: Frequency Response

H 2 e j: sin ¨ ¸ , °°S 2 2 , :!0 The input-output equation introduced in Section 1.10 describing a discrete-time
©2¹ arg ^H 2 ( e )` j:
® model of a two-path propagation channel is
° S 2 : , : 0
4. Fig. 3.36 (a) and (b) depict the °̄ 2 y > n@ x > n @ ax > n 1@ .
magnitude responses of the two
systems on the interval S < : d S. In Example 2.12, we identified the impulse response of this system as h[n] = G[n]
+ aG[n 1] and determined that the impulse response of the inverse system was
hinv[n] = ( a)nu[n]. The inverse system is stable, provided that ~a~< 1.
H e j: 1 a e
j : argâ`
.
CHAPTER
Compare the magnitude responses of both systems for a = 0.5 e jS/3 and a =
H inv e j:
1 Expressing a in polar form
0.9 e j2S/3. , a 1
1 ae j:
<Sol.>
1 a cos : arg â` a

1 2
H inv e j: sin 2 : arg â`
2 2
1. The frequency response is the DTFT of the impulse response.
2. Frequency response of the system modeling two-path propagation:
1 a
1 2
H e j: 1 ae j: . a e j argâ` 2 a cos : arg â`
2
Using a ,
H e j: 1 a e
j : argâ` h The frequency response of the inverse system is the inverse of the frequency
. Apply Euler’s formula
response of the original system.
H e j: 1 a cos : arg â` j a sin : arg â` . 5. Magnitude response of the inverse system:
H inv e j:
1
3. Magnitude response: .
cos2 T sin 2 T
1 a 2 a cos : arg â`
12
1 2
1 a cos : argâ` a
12
H e j: sin 2 : arg â`
2 2
6. Fig. 3.37 depicts the magnitude response of H(e j :) for both a = 0.5 e jS/3 and
1 a 2 a cos : arg â` a = 0.9 e j2S/3 on the interval S < : d S.
2 12
,
7. The magnitude response approaches a maximum of 1 + ~a~ when : = arg{a}
4. The frequency response of the inverse system may be obtained by replacing and a minimum of 1 ~a~ when : = arg{a} S.
D with a in Eq. (3.33). 8. The magnitude response of the corresponding inverse system: Fig. 3.38.
CHAPTER
Figure 3.38 (p. 241)

Magnitude response of the inverse system for multipath propagation in
Figure 3.37 (p. 241) 0.5ejS/3. (b) Echo coefficient a = 0.9e
Example 3.23. (a) Echo coefficient a = 0.5e 0.9ejS/3
Magnitude response of the system in Example 3.23 describing multipath
h If ~a~ = 1, then the multipath model applies zero gain to any sinusoid with
0.5ejS/3. (b) Echo coefficient a = 0.9e
propagation. (a) Echo coefficient a = 0.5e 0.9ej2S/3.
frequency : = arg{a} S.
h The multipath system cannot be inverted when ~a~= 1.
CHAPTER
f
3.7 Continuous-
Continuous-Time Nonperiodic Signals:
Signals: The Fourier x t xˆ t dt ,
2
³f
Transform (FT)
FT) is zero if x(t) is square integrable, i.e., if
1. The Fourier transform (FT) is used to represent a continuous-time non-
f
x t dt f.
2
periodic signal as a superposition of complex sinusoids.
2. FT representation of time-domain signal x(t):
³f
h Zero squared error does not imply pointwise convergence [i.e., x t xˆ t ]

1 f
x(t )
2S ³ f
X ( jZ )e jZ t dZ (3.35) at all values of t.
There is zero energy in the difference of x ( t ) and xˆ t
3. Pointwise convergence of x ( t ) xˆ t is guaranteed at all values of t
f Frequency-domain representation of
X ( jZ ) ³
f
x(t )e jZ t dt (3.36) the signal x(t)
except those corresponding to discontinuities if x(t) satisfies the Dirichlet
3. Notation for FT pair: conditions for nonperiodic signals:
x t mo
FT
X jZ . i x(t) is absolutely integrable:
f
4. Convergence condition for FT: ³ x t dt f.
f
1) Approximation:
i x(t) has a finite number of maximum, minima, and discontinuities in any
1 f
xˆ t ³ X jZ e d Z ,
jZt finite interval.
2S f i The size of each discontinuity is finite.
2) Squared error between x(t) and x̂ t : the error energy, given by
CHAPTER
Example 3.24 FT of A Real Decaying Exponential
Find the FT of x(t) = e a t u(t), shown in Fig. 3.39(a). Figure 3.39 (p. 243)
<Sol.> Example 3.24. (a)
1. For a d 0, since x(t) is not absolutely integrable, i.e., Real time-
time-domain
exponential signal.
f ~X(jZ) ~
³0
e at dt f, a d 0 The FT of x(t) does not converge for a d 0. (b) Magnitude
spectrum.
2. For a > 0, the FT of x(t) is (c) Phase spectrum.
f f
X jZ ³ e at u t e jZ t dt ³ e a jZ t dt
f 0
1 1 Z
e
a jZ t f

a jZ a jZ
0
arg{X(jZ)}
3. Magnitude and phase of X(jZ):
1 S/4
X jZ 1
S/4
a 2
Z
2 2
Fig. 3.39 (b) and (c).
Z
arg ^ X jZ ` arctan Z a , S/4
Signals and Systems_Simon 75 S/2

Signals and Systems_Simon 76
CHAPTER
Example 3.25 FT of A Rectangular Pulse sin ZT0
Consider the rectangular pulse depicted in Fig. 3.40 (a) and defined as X jZ 2 , Fig. 3. 40 (b).
Z
1, T0 t T0
x t ® 5. Phase spectrum: 6. X(jZ) in terms of sinc function:
¯0, t ! T0
0, sin ZT0 Z ! 0 X jZ 2T0 sinc ZT0 S .
Find the FT of x(t). arg ^ X jZ ` ®
<Sol.> ¯S , sin ZT0 Z 0
1. The rectangular pulse x(t) is absolutely integrable, provided that To < f. As To increases, the nonzero time
2. FT of x(t): extent of x(t) increases, while X(jZ) v { Z; p { S
f becomes more concentrated about
X jZ x t e jZ t dt
T0
³
f ³ T0
e jZ t dt With understanding that the frequency origin.
the value at Z = 0 is
1 jZ t 2
e T0
T0 sin ZT0 , Z z 0 obtained by evaluating
jZ Z a limit.
3. For Z = 0, the integral simplifies to 2To.
2 2
lim sin ZT0 2T0 . X jZ sin ZT0 , Figure 3.40 (p. 244)
Z o0 Z Z
Example 3.25. (a) Rectangular pulse in the
4. Magnitude spectrum: time domain. (b) FT in the frequency domain.
CHAPTER
Example 3.26 Inverse FT of A Rectangular Pulse 1
Find the inverse FT of the rectangular spectrum depicted in Fig. 3. 42 (a) and lim sin Wt W S , With understanding that the value
given by
t o0 St at t = 0 is obtained as a limit.
1, W Z W Figure 3.42 (p. 246)
X jZ ® Example 3.26. (a) Rectangular spectrum in
3. Inverse FT is usually written as
¯0, Z !W 1 W § Wt ·
<Sol.>
the frequency domain.
x t sin Wt , or x t sinc ¨ ¸ , Fig. 3. 42 (b).
(b) Inverse FT in the time domain. St S ©S ¹
v { Z; p { S As W increases, the frequency-domain reprsentation becomes less

concentrated about Z = 0, while the time-domain representation X(jZ)
becomes more concentrated about t = 0.
h Duality between Example 3.25 and 3.26.
Example 3.27 FT of The Unit Impulse
Find the FT of x(t) = G(t).
<Sol.>
1. Inverse FT of x(t): 1. x(t) does not satisfy the Dirichlet conditions, since the discontinuity at the
1 1 1 origin is infinite.
x t
W
³ e jZ t dZ e jZ t sin(Wt ), t z 0
W
W 2. FT of x(t):
2S W jS t St f
X jZ G t e
³
jZ t
dt 1
f
2. When t = 0, the integral simplifies to W/S, i.e.,
CHAPTER
h Notation for FT pair: G t mo 1,

FT
A, t T0 / 2
xr t ®
Example 3.28 Inverse FT of An Impulse Spectrum
¯ 0, t ! T0 / 2
Find the inverse FT of X(jZ) = 2SG(Z).
and a raised-cosine pulse defined as Figure 3.44 (p. 249)
<Sol.> Pulse shapes used in
1. Inverse FT of X(jZ): ° Ac / 2 2cos 2S t / T0 , t T0 / 2
xc t ®
BPSK communications.
1 f
t ! T0 / 2 (a) Rectangular pulse.
x t ³ 2SG Z e jZ t dZ 1 Duality between °̄ 0,
(b) Raised cosine pulse.
2S f Example 3.27 and 3.28
2. Notation of FT pair:
1 mo
FT
2SG Z
Example 3.29 Characteristic of Digital Communication Signals
In a simple digital communication system, one signal or “symbol” is
transmitted for each “1” in the binary representation of the message, while a
different signal or symbol is transmitted for each “0”. One common scheme,
binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), assumes that the signal representing “0” is
the negative of the signal and the signal representing “1” is the positive of the
signal. Fig. 3.44 depicts two candidate signals for this approach: a rectangular The transmitted BPSK signals for communicating a sequence of bits using each
pulse defined as pulse shape are illustrated in Fig. 3.45.
3.45 Note that each pulse is To seconds long,
CHAPTER
so this scheme has a transmission rate of 1/To bits per second. Each user’s
signal is transmitted within an assigned frequency band, as depicted in Chapter
5. In order to prevent interference with users of other frequency bands,
governmental agencies place limits on the energy of a signal that any user
transmits into adjacent frequency bands. Suppose the frequency band
assigned to each user is 20 kHz wide. Then, to prevent interference with
adjacent channels, we assume that the peak value of the magnitude spectrum
of the transmitted signal outside the 20-kHz band is required to be 30 dB
below the peak in-band magnitude spectrum. Choose the constant Ar and Ac so
that both BPSK signals have unit power. Use the FT to determine the maximum
number of bits per second that can be transmitted when the rectangular and
raised-cosine pulse shapes are utilized.
<Sol.>
1. BPSK signals are not periodic, but their magnitude squared is To periodic.
2. Powers in rectangular pulse and raised-cosine pulse:
1 T0 / 2
Pr
T0 ³ T0 / 2
Ar2 dt Ar2
Figure 3.45 (p. 249)
BPSK signals constructed by using (a) rectangular pulse shapes and
and (b)
and raised-
raised-cosine pulse shapes.
CHAPTER
1
A 4 1 2cos 2S t 2 Figure 3.46
T0 2 2
³
2
Pc c dt (p. 250)
T0 T0 2
Spectrum of
Ac2 T0 2
ª1 2cos 2S t T0 1 2 1 2cos 4S t T0 ¼º dt
4T0 ³T0 2 ¬
rectangular
pulse in dB,
normalized by
3 Ac2 T0.
8
Hence, unity transmission power is obtained by choosing Ar = 1 and Ac = 8 / 3 .
3. FT of the rectangular pulse xr(t):
sin Z T0 2
X r jZ 2 The
Z
normalized by
In terms of Hz rather than rad/sec (Z = 2Sf): X r ( jZ ) o X rc ( jf )
To removed the
sin S fT0 dependence of
X rc jf 2 the magnitude
Sf
on To.
Normalized Spectrum of 20log10 ^ X rc ( jf ) / To ` dB : Fig. 3.46.

CHAPTER
4. From Fig. 3.46,
3.46 we must choose To so that the 10 th zero crossing is at 10 kHz In terms of f (Hz), the above equation becomes
2 sin S f 1 T0 T0 2 sin S f 1 T0 T0
in order to satisfy the constraint that the peak value of the magnitude
2 sin S fT0
spectrum of the transmitted signal outside the 20-kHz band allotted to this X cc jf 0.5 0.5
user be less than 30 dB. 3 Sf 3 S f 1 T0 3 S f 1 T0
f = k/To 1000 = 10/To To = 10 3 1) First term corresponds to the spectrum of the rectangular pulse.
Data transmission rate = 1000 bits/sec. 2) The second and third terms are the versions of 1st term shifted by r 1/To.
5. FT of raised-cosine pulse xc(t): Fig. 3.47 for To = 1.
1 8 T0 2 Normalized Magnitude Spectrum of 20log10 ^ X cc ( jf ) / To ` dB : Fig. 3.48.
X c jZ
2 3 ³T0 2
1 2cos 2S t T0 e jZ t dt Euler’s formula
The normalized by To removed the dependence of the magnitude on To.
2 T0 2 jZ t 1 2 T0 2 j Z 2S T0 t 1 2 T0 2 j Z 2S T0 t 3) In this case, the peak value of the first sidelobe is below 30 dB, so we may
X c jZ
3 ³T0 2 2 3 ³T0 2 2 3 ³T0 2
e dt e dt e dt satisfy the adjacent channel interference specifications by choosing the
Each of three integrals is of the form mainlobe to be 20 kHz wide:
T0 2 sin J T0 2 Substituting the appropriate f = k/To 10,000 = 2/To To = 2 u 10 4 seconds.
³ T0 2
e jJ t dt 2
J
value of J for each integral Data transmission rate = 5000 bits/sec.
2 sin ZT0 2 2 sin Z 2S T0 T0 2 2 sin Z 2S T0 T0 2

X c jZ 2
3 Z 3 Z 2S T0 3 Z 2S T0
CHAPTER
Figure 3.47 (p.

Figure 3.48
252)
(p. 252)
The spectrum of
Spectrum of
the raised-
raised-cosine
the raised-
raised-
pulse consists of
cosine pulse in
a sum of three
dB, normalized
frequency-
frequency-shifted
by T0.
sinc functions.

CHAPTER
3.8 Properties of Fourier Representation 2. Signals that are periodic in time have discrete frequency-domain
representations, while nonperiodic time signals have continuous frequency-
1. Four Fourier
domain representations: Table 3.3.
3.3
representations:
Table 3.2.
3.2
3.9 Linearity and Symmetry Properties

1. Linearity property for four Fourier representations:
z t ax t by t mo
FT
Z jZ aX jZ bY jZ
z t ax t by t FS ;Z o
mo Z > k @ aX > k @ bY > k @
z > n @ ax > n @ by > n @ m
DTFT
o Z e j: aX e j: bY e j:
z > n @ ax > n @ by > n @ DTFS ;: o
m o Z > k @ aX > k @ bY > k @
CHAPTER
Example 3.30 Linearity in The FS
Suppose z(t) is the
x t m
FS ;2S
o X >k @ 1 kS sin kS 4 From Example 3.13.
periodic signal depicted y t m

FS ;2S
o Y > k @ 1 kS sin kS 2
in Fig. 3.49(a). Use the Linearity
linearity and the results 3. FS of z(t):
of Example 3.13 to
determine the FS
z t m
FS ;2S
o Z >k @ 3 2kS sin kS 2 1 2kS sin kS 2
coefficients Z[k]. 3.9.1 Symmetry Properties: Real and Imaginary Signals
<Sol.> h Symmetry property for real-valued signal x(t):
1. Signal z(t): 1. FT of x(t):
*
3 1 ª f x (t )e jZ t dt º f
z t x t y t
¬« ³f ³
X * ( jZ ) x* (t )e jZ t dt (3.37)
2 2 ¼» f
where x(t) and y(t): 2. Since x(t) is real valued, x(t) = x (t). Eq. (3.37) becomes
Fig. 3.49(b) and (c). f
2. X[k] and Y[k]: X * jZ ³ x t e
j ( Z ) t
dt X(jZ) is complex-conjugate symmetric
f
X * ( jZ ) X ( jZ ) (3.38)
Re^ X ( jZ )` Re^ X ( jZ )` and Im ^ X ( jZ )` Im ^ X ( jZ )`
CHAPTER
i The conjugate symmetry property for DTFS: h Complex-conjugate symmetry in FT:

*
X [k ] X [N k] A simple characterization of the output of an LTI system with a real-
valued impulse response when the input is a real-valued sinusoid.
Because the DTFS coefficients are N periodic, and thus
i Continuous-time case:
X [ k ] X [N k]
1. Input signal of LTI system:
h The symmetry conditions in all four Fourier representations of real-valued Euler’s formula
signals are indicated in Table 3.4.
3.4 x t A cos Z t I
x t A / 2 e j Z t I A / 2 e j Z t I
2. Real-valued impulse response of LTI system is denoted by h(t).
3. Output signal of LTI system:
j (Z t I arg^H ( jZ )`) j (Z t I arg^H ( jZ )`)
y (t ) H ( jZ ) ( A / 2)e H ( jZ ) ( A / 2)e
Exploiting the symmetry conditions:
Applying Eq. (3.2)
H ( jZ ) H ( jZ ) and linearity
arg ^H ( jZ )` arg ^H ( jZ )`
y t
H jZ A cos Z t I arg ^H jZ `
CHAPTER
h The LTI system modifies the amplitude of the input sinusoid by ~H(jZ)~and 2. Real-valued impulse response of LTI system is denoted by h[n].
the phase by arg{H(jZ)}. 3. Output signal of LTI system:
v { Z; f { I
Fig. 3.50.
y >n@
H e j: A cos :n I arg H e j: ^ `
h The LTI system modifies the amplitude of the input sinusoid by ~H(e j:)~and
the phase by arg{H(e j:)}.
i x(t) is purely imaginary:
1. x (t) = x(t).
2. Eq.(3.37) becomes
f
X * jZ ³ x t e j ( Z ) t dt
f
Figure 3.50 (p. 257)
A sinusoidal input to an LTI system results in a sinusoidal output
output of the X * ( jZ ) X ( jZ ) (3.39)
same frequency, with the amplitude and phase modified by the system
system’’s Re^ X ( jZ )` Re^ X ( jZ )` and Im ^ X ( jZ )` Im ^ X ( jZ )`
frequency response.
i Discrete-time case: 3.9.2 Symmetry Properties: Even and Odd Signals
1. Input signal of LTI system: 1. x(t) is real valued and has even symmetry.
x[n] = Acos(: n I) x (t) = x(t) and x ( t) = x(t) x (t) = x( t)
CHAPTER
2. Eq.(3.37) becomes 1 f
Change of variable W = t x t W ³ X jZ e jZ ( t W ) dZ
X *
f
jZ ³f x t e jZ ( t )
dt 2S f
3. Substituting this expression into the convolution integral yields

f
X *
jZ ³ x W e jZW
dW X jZ f ª 1 f º
f
y t ³ h W «¬ 2S ³ X jZ e jZt e jZW d Z » dW
3. Conclusion: f f
¼
1) The imaginary part of X(jZ) = 0: X ( jZ ) X ( jZ )

1 f f
³ ª¬« ³ h W e dW º X jZ e jZt d Z
jZW
If x(t) is real and even, then X(jZ) is real. 2S f f ¼»
2) If x(t) is real and odd, then X (jZ) = X(jZ) and X(jZ) is imaginary. The inner integral over W as the FT of h(W), or H(jZ). Hence, y(t) may be written
3.10 Convolution Properties as f 1
y t ³ H jZ X jZ e jZ t dZ
h The convolution property is a consequence of complex sinusoids being 2S f
eigenfunctions of LTI system.
and we identify H(jZ)X(jZ) as the FT of y(t).
3.10.1 Convolution of Nonperiodic Signals — Continuous-
Continuous-time case
y (t ) h(t ) * x (t ) mo
FT
Y ( jZ ) X ( jZ ) H ( jZ ) (3.40)
1. Convolution of two nonperiodic continuous-time signals x(t) and h(t):
f Example 3.31 Solving A Convolution Problem in The Frequency Domain
y t h t x t ³ h W x t W dW Let x(t) = (1/(St))sin(St) be the input to a system with impulse response h(t) =
f
2. FT of x(t W): (1/(St))sin(2St). Find the output y(t) = x(t) h(t).

CHAPTER
<Sol.> x(t) = (1/(St))sin(St) <Sol.>

2
1. Solving problem: h(t) 1. Write X(jZ) = Z(jZ) Z(jZ), where Z jZ sin Z
y(t) = x(t) h(t) Z
Time domain o Extremely Difficult 2. Convolution property:
Frequency domain o Quite Simple
Convolution property z t z t mo
FT
Z jZ Z jZ
2. From Example 3.26, we have Fig. 3.52 (a)
Z S x t z t z t
1, 1, Z 2S
x t mo
FT
X jZ ® h t mo
FT
H jZ ® 1, t 1
3. Using the result of Example 3.25: z t Z jZ
and
Z !S Z ! 2S ® mo
FT
¯0, ¯0, t !1
¯0,
Since y t h t x t mo
FT
Y jZ X jZ H jZ 4. Performing the convolution with itself gives the triangular waveform depicted
in Fig. 3.52 (b) as the solution for x(t).
1, Z S
Y jZ ® y(t) = (1/(St))sin(St) Figure 3.52 (p. 261)
¯0, Z !S Signals for
Example 3.32 Finding Inverse FT’s by Means of The Convolution Property Example 3.32. (a)
Rectangular pulse
Use the convolution property to find x(t), where
z(t). (b)
4
x t mo
FT
X jZ sin 2 Z Convolution of z(t)
Z2 with itself gives x(t).
CHAPTER
h Convolution of Nonperiodic Signals — Continuous-

Continuous-time case
If x > n @ m
DTFT
o X e j: and h > n @ m
DTFT
o H e j:
y[n] x[n]* h[n] m

DTFT
o Y (e j : ) X (e j : ) H (e j : ) (3.41)
v { Z; p { S
3.10.2 Filtering
1. Multiplication in frequency domain l Filtering.
Filtering
2. The terms “filtering
filtering” implies that some frequency components of the input
are eliminated while others are passed by the system unchanged.
3. System Types of filtering: Fig. 3.53 (a), (b), and (c)
1) Low-pass filter
2) High-pass filter The characterization of DT filter is
3) Band-pass filter based on its behavior in the
4. Realistic filter: frequency range S < : d S because
1) Gradual transition band its frequency response is 2 S-periodic. Figure 3.53 (p. 263)
2) Nonzero gain of stop band
Frequency response of ideal continuous- (left panel) and discrete-time (right
5. Magnitude response of filter: 20log H jZ or 20log H e j:
[dB] panel) filters. (a) Low-pass characteristic. (b) High-pass characteristic. (c) Band-
pass characteristic.
CHAPTER
6. The edge of the passband is usually defined by the frequencies for which Plot the magnitude responses of both systems on a linear scale and in dB, and
the response is 3 dB, corresponding to a magnitude response of (1/ 2 ). characterize the filtering properties of the systems.
h Unity gain = 0 dB <Sol.>
1
7. Energy spectrum of filter: Y jZ
2
H jZ X jZ
2 2
1. Frequency response corresponding to hC(t): H C jZ
iZ RC 1
The 3 dB point corresponds to frequencies at which the filter iZ RC
2. Frequency response corresponding to hR(t): H R jZ
passes only half of the input power. iZ RC 1
3 dB point Cutoff frequency 3. Magnitude response in linear scale: Fig. 3-
3-55 (a) and (b).
Example 3.33 RC Circuit: Filtering Magnitude response in dB scale: Fig. 3-
3-55 (c) and (d).
For the RC circuit depicted in Fig. 3.54,
3.54 the impulse response for the case where 4. System corresponding to yC(t):
yC(t) is the output is given by
Low-pass filter H C jZ and H R jZ
1 t RC
hC t e u t Cutoff frequency = Zc = 1/(RC)
RC
Since yR(t) = x(t) yC(t), the impulse response for System corresponding to yR(t):
the case where yR(t) is the output is given by High-pass filter
Cutoff frequency = Zc = 1/(RC)
1 t RC
hR t G t e u t Figure 3.54 (p. 264)
RC RC circuit with input x(t) and outputs yc(t) and yR(t).
CHAPTER
v{Z
v{Z
Figure 3.55a&c (p. 265)

Figure 3.55 (p. 265) RC circuit magnitude responses as a function of normalized frequency ZRC.
RC circuit magnitude responses as a function of normalized frequency ZRC. (a) (c) Frequency response of the system corresponding to yC(t), dB scale.
Frequency response of the system corresponding to yC(t), linear scale. (d) Frequency response of the system corresponding to yR(t), dB scale, shown on
(b) Frequency response of the system corresponding to yR(t), linear scale. the range from 0 dB to –25 dB.
CHAPTER
hThe convolution property implies that the frequency response of a system 3. Impulse response:
may be expressed as the ratio of the FT or DTFT of the output to the input .
§ jZ 1 · 1 1
Y ( jZ ) H jZ ¨ jZ 1 ¸ jZ 1 1 jZ 1 h t G t etu t
For CT system: H ( jZ ) (3.42) © ¹
X ( jZ ) Frequency response
j:
h Recover the input of the system from the output:
j: Y (e )
For DT system: H (e ) (3.43) CT case DT case
X (e j : )
Example 3.34 Identifying a System, Given Its Input and Output X jZ H inv jZ Y jZ and X e j: H inv e j: Y e j:
The output of an LTI system in response to an input x(t) = e 2 t u(t) is y(t) =
e t u(t) . Find the frequency response and the impulse response of this system. where H inv jZ 1/ H ( jZ ) and H inv e j: 1/ H ( e j: )
<Sol.> Ɍ An inverse system is also known as an equalizer, and the process of
1 1
1. FT of x(t) and y(t): X jZ and Y jZ recovering the input from the output is known as equalization.
jZ 2 jZ 1 Ɍ Causality restriction o An exact inverse system is difficult or impossible
2. Frequency response: to be implemented!
Ex. Time delay in communication system need an equalizer to introduce a time
Y jZ jZ 2
H jZ H jZ advance.
X jZ jZ 1 Equalizer is a noncausal system and
Approximation!
cannot in fact be implemented!
CHAPTER
H inv e j:
Example 3.35 Multipath Communication Channel: Equalization 1 Frequency response of inverse system
Consider again the problem addressed in Example 2.13. In this problem, a H e j:
distorted received signal y[n] is expressed in terms of a transmitted signal x[n]
as 3. DTFT of h[n]:
y >n@ x > n @ ax > n 1@ , a 1
h > n @ m
DTFT
o H e j: 1 ae j:
Use the convolution property to find the impulse response of an inverse
H inv e j:
system that will recover x[n] from y[n]. 1
<Sol.> 1 ae j:
1. In Example 2.13, we have y[n] = x[n] h[n], where the impulse response is The frequency response of the inverse system is then obtained as
h inv > n @ a u > n @

n
1, n 0
°
h[n] ®a, n 1
° 0, otherwise 3.10.3 Convolution of Periodic Signals
¯ h Basic Concept:
2. The impulse response of an inverse system, hinv[n], must satisfy
h inv > n @ h > n @ G > n @ Periodic h Unstable system
DTFT
o H inv e j: H e j: 1
CHAPTER
1. Define the periodic convolution of two CT signals x(t) and z(t), each having Figure 3.56 (p. 268)
period T, as Square wave for Example 3.36.
T
y t x t ʶ z t ³ x W z t W dW
0
where the symbol denotes that integration is performed over a single period
of the signals involved.
2S
FS ;
y (t ) x (t ) ʶ z (t ) mo
T
Y [k ] TX [k ]Z [k ] (3.44)
3. Coefficients of FS representation of z(t):
Ɍ Convolution in Time-Domain l Multiplication in Frequency-Domain 1, k r1
Example 3.36 Convolution of Two Periodic Signals ° 1 2 j
° k 2
Evaluate the periodic convolution of the sinusoidal signal Z >k @ ®
z t 2 cos 2S t sin 4S t °
1 2 j k 2
°̄ 0 otherwise
with the periodic square wave x(t) depicted in Fig. 3.56.
3.56
<Sol.> Coefficients of FS representation of x(t):
1. Both x(t) and z(t) have fundamental period T = 1. 2sin kS 2 Example 3.13
2S X >k @
2. Let y t x t ʶ z t y (t )
FS ;
x (t ) ʶ z (t ) mo Y [k ] TX [k ]Z [k ]
T 2kS
CHAPTER
3. FS Coefficients of y(t): 3. One period of the

signal w(t) is depicted
1/ S k r1
Y >k @ X >k @ Z >k @ ® y t 2 S cos 2S t in Fig. 3.57 for J = 10.
¯ 0 otherwise 4. The periodic convolution
h Explanation for the origin of the Gibbs phenomenon: of x(t) and w(t) is the area
under time-shifted version
Example 3.14:
of w(t) on ~t~< ½ .Time-
1. A partial-sum approximation to the FS representation for x(t) may be obtained shifting the sidelobes of w(t)
by using the FS coefficients into and out of the interval
Xˆ J > k @ X > k @W > k @ ~t~< ½ introduces ripples
T=1 the partial-sum
where approximation xˆ j (t ) .
1 J d k d J
W >k @ ® 5. As J increases, the mainlobe
¯0 otherwise and sidelobe widths in w(t)
2. In the time domain, xˆ j (t ) is the periodic convolution of x(t) and decrease, but the size of the Figure 3.57 (p. 270)
sidelobe does not change.
sin S t 2 J 1 T=1 The signal z(t) defined in Eq. (3.45) when J = 10.
w t (3.45)
sin S t This is why the ripples in xˆ j (t ) becomes more concentrated near
discontinuity of x(t), but remain the same magnitude.
f
d 1
xt ³ X jZ jZe
jZt
dZ
dt 2S
CHAPTER
f
3.11 Differentiation and Integration Properties

Define the discrete-time convolution of two N-periodic sequences x[n] and h Differentiation and integration are operations that apply to continuous
continuous functions.
z[n] as N 1
DTFS of y[n]
y[n]
y >n@ x >n@ ʶ z >n@ ¦ x >k @ z >n k @
k 0
3.11.1 Differentiation in Time
1. A nonperiodic signal x(t) and its FT, X(jZ), is related by
2S f f
DTFS ;
1 Differentiating both d 1
x[n ] ʶ z[n ] m o Y [k ] (3.46) xt ³ X jZ e dZ
jZt
xt ³ X jZ jZe
jZt
dZ
N
y[ n ] NX [k ]Z [k ]
2S f
sides with respect to t dt 2S f
Ɍ Convolution in Time-Domain l Multiplication in Frequency-Domain
d
Ɍ The convolution properties of all four Fourier representation are summarized
FT
x (t ) m o jZ X ( jZ )
dt
in Table 3.5.
3.5
Table 3.5 Convolution Properties Ɍ Differentiation of x(t) in Time-Domain l (jZ) u X(jZ) in Frequency-Domain
FT
x (t ) z (t ) m o X ( jZ ) Z ( jZ ) ªd º
˙ « x (t ) » ( jZ ) u X ( jZ ) Z 0
0
¬ dt ¼Z
FS ; Z0 0
x (t ) Җ z (t ) m
o TX [k ]Z [k ]
Example 3.37 Verifying the Differentiation Property
FT
x[n ] z[n ] m o X ( e j: ) Z ( e j : ) The differentiation property implies that
jZ

DTFS ; :0
x[n ] Җ z[n ] m o NX [k ]Z [k ] d at
e u t m FT
o Verify this result by differentiating and
dt a jZ taking the FT of the result.
CHAPTER
<Sol.> 1. Using the product rule for differentiation, we have Example 3.38 MEMS Accelerometer: Frequency Response and Resonance
dt

d at
e u t ae at
u t e at
G t ae at
u t G t The MEMS accelerometer introduced in Section 1.10 is described by the
differential equation
2. Taking the FT of each term and using linearity, we may write d2 Z d
a jZ y t n y t Z n2 y t xt
d at
dt

e u t m
FT
o
a jZ
FT
1 m o
a jZ
dt 2
Q dt
Find the frequency response of this system and plot the magnitude response
h Frequency response of a continuous system
in dB for Zn = 10,000 rads/s for (a) Q = 2/5, (b) Q = 1, and (c) Q = 200.
1. System equation in terms of differential equation:
<Sol.>
N
dk M
dk Taking FT of N M
y t xt ¦ a jZ Y jZ ¦ b jZ X jZ
1. Frequency response:
¦a ¦b
k k
k k k k
dt k dt k
1
H jZ
k 0 k 0 both sides k 0 k 0
Zn
j Z 2 jZ Z n2
M
¦ b jZ
k
Y jZ k 0
k
Q
X jZ
M
¦ b jZ
N
¦ a jZ
k
k
k
2. Magnitude response for (a) Q = 2/5, (b) Q = 1, and (c) Q = 200: Fig. 3.58.
3.58
H jZ
k
k 0
k 0
N (3.47) h Discussion: Refer to textbook, p. 273.
¦ a jZ
k
2. Frequency response of the system: k Zn = 10,000 rads/s o Resonant condition!
k 0
CHAPTER
h The Differentiation property for a periodic signal

v{Z 1. The FS representation of a periodic signal x(t):
f f
d
xt ¦ X >k @ jkZ
Differentiating both
x t ¦ X >k @ e jkZ0 t
0 e jkZ0t
k f
sides with respect to t dt k f
2. Differentiation property of a periodic signal:

d FS ; Z0
x t m o jkZ0 X > k @
dt
Ɍ Differentiation of x(t) in Time-Domain l (jkZ0) u X[k] in Frequency-Domain
ªd º
˙ « x (t ) » ( jkZ0 ) u X [k ] k 0
0
¬ dt ¼k 0
Example 3.39 Differentiation Property

Use the differentiation property to find the FS representation of the triangular
wave depicted in Fig. 3. 59 (a).
(a)
Figure 3.58 (p. 273) Fig. 3. 59 (b)
<Sol.>
Magnitude of frequency response in dB for MEMS accelerometer for Zn = 10,000 d
rad/s, Q = 2/5, Q = 1, and Q = 200. 1. Define a waveform: z (t ) y (t )
dt
CHAPTER
3. The differentiation property implies that

1
Except for k = 0
Z [k ] jkZ0Y [ y ] Y [ y] Z [k ]
jkZ0
The quantity Y[0] is the average value of y(t) and is determined by
inspection Fig. 3.59 (b) to be T/2.
Therefore, T / 2, k 0
°
Figure 3.59 (p. 274) FS ; Z0
o Y >k @
y t m
° § kS ·
® 2T sin ¨ ¸
Signals for Example 3.39. (a) Triangular wave y(t). (b) The derivative of y(t) is the ° © 2 ¹, k z0
square wave z(t). °̄ jk 2S 2
2. Comparing z(t) in Fig. 3. 59 (b) and the sqare wave x(t) with T0/T = ¼ in 3.11.2 Differentiation in Frequency
Example 3.13, we have
1. FT of signal x(t):
z (t ) 4 x (t ) 2 Z [k ] 4 X [k ] 2G [k ]
f d f
X jZ jtxt e jZt dt
Differentiating both
0, k 0 X jZ ³ xt e
jZ t
dt ³
°°
f
sides with respect to Z dZ f
FS ; Z0
z t m o Z >k @ § kS ·
® 4sin ¨ ¸ 2. Differentiation property in frequency domain:
° © 2 ¹, k z0
°̄ kS jtx t m
FT
o
d
X jZ
dZ
CHAPTER
Ɍ Differentiation of X(jZ) in Frequency-Domain l ( jt) u x(t) in Time-Domain 1 d

tg (t ) mo
FT
G ( jZ ) (3.50)
Example 3.40 FT of a Gaussian Pulse j dZ
Use the differentiation-in-time and differentiation-in-frequency properties to Since the left-hand sides of Eqs. (3.49) and (3.50) are equal, then we have
determine the FT of the Gaussian pulse, depicted in Fig. 3.60 and defined by
d D.E. of G(jZ)
G jZ ZG jZ

1/ 2S e t
2
/2
g (t ) dZ
D.E. of g(t)
p{S G jZ ce Z
2
2
<Sol.>
1. The derivative of g(t) with respect to t: 4. The integration constant c is determined by noting that (see Appendix A-4)
d
³f 1/
g (t ) (t / 2S )et / 2
2
tg (t ) f
G j0 2S e t
2
(3.48) /2
dt 1
dt The FT of a Gaussian pulse is
also a Gaussian pulse!
2. Differentiation-in-time property:
1/
2S e t o e Z
2 2
FT
/2
m /2
d
g t m
FT
o jZG jZ
dt 3.11.3 Integration
(3.48) tg (t ) mo jZ G ( jZ )
FT
(3.49)
Figure 3.60 (p. 275) h The operation of integration applies only to continuous dependent variables.
Gaussian pulse g(t). In both FT and FS, we may integrate with respect to time.
d
3. Differentiation-in-time property: jtg t m
FT
o G jZ In both FT and DTFT, we may integrate with respect to frequency.
dZ
CHAPTER
h Case for nonperiodic signal t 1

³ x (W )dW mo X ( jZ ) S X ( j 0)G (Z )
FT
(3.53)
1. Define f jZ
d
y t ³ xW dW
t
y (t ) x(t ) (3.51) Ex. Demonstration for the integration property by deriving the FT of the unit step
f dt
1. Unit step signal:
2. By differentiation property, we have
u t ³ G W dW
t
1 Indeterminate at Z = 0 X(j0) = 0
Y ( jZ ) X ( jZ ) (3.52) f
jZ
2. FT of G (t): G (t ) m
FT
o 1
3. When the average value of x(t) is not zero, then it is possible that y(t) is not
1
square integrable. 3. Eq. (3.53) suggests that: u t m
FT
o U jZ SG Z
jZ
FT of y(t) may not converge! h Check:
1. Unit step: 1 1
W can get around this problem by including impulse in the transform, i.e. u (t ) sgn(t ) (3.54)
1 2 2
Y ( jZ ) X ( jZ ) cG (Z ) c can be determined by Fig. 3.61
jZ the average value of x(t) 2. Signum function: 1, t 0
°
C = S X(j0) sgn t ® 0, t 0
° 1, t ! 0
¯
4. General form of integration property:

CHAPTER
This relationship can be written as S(jZ) =
2 jZ , Z z 0
S jZ ® 2/j Z with the understanding that S(j0) = 0.
2/j
¯ 0, Z 0
4. Applying the linearity property to Eq. (3.54) gives the FT of u(t):
1
u t m
FT
o U jZ SG Z This agrees exactly with the transform of the unit
jZ step obtained by using the integration property.
Figure 3.61 (p. 279)
Representation of a step function as the sum of a constant and a signum function. Table 3.6 Commonly Used Differentiation and Integration Properties.
3. Using the results of Example 3.28: d FT
x (t ) m o jZ X ( jZ )
1 Ɍ The differentiation dt
mFT
o SG (Z ) and integration d FS ; Z0
2 x t m o jkZ0 X > k @
properties of Fourier dt
The transform of sgn(t) may be derived using the differentiation property representation are d
because it has a zero time-average value. summarized in jtx t m
FT
o X jZ
dZ
Let Table 3.6.
3.6
FT
sgn(t ) m o S (Z )
d
sin t 2G t jZS jZ 2 jnx > n @ DTFT
mo
d
d:
X e j:
dt
We know that S(j0) = 0. This knowledge removes the indeterminacy at Z = t 1
³ x (W )dW mo X ( jZ ) S X ( j 0)G (Z )
FT
0 associated with differentiation property, and we conclude that f jZ
CHAPTER
3.12 Time- Table 3.7 Time-Shift Properties of Fourier Representations

Time- and Frequency-
Frequency-Shift Properties
3.12.1 Time-
Time-Shift Property
x t t0 mo
FT
e jZt0 X jZ
1. Let z(t) = x(t t0) be a time-shifted version of x(t).
2. FT of z(t): x t t0 m
FT ; Z0
o e jkZ0t0 X k
x > n n0 @ m o e j:n0 X e j:
f f
Z jZ ³ z t e
jZ t
³ xt t e
jZt DTFT
dt 0 dt
f f
3. Change variable by W = t t0: x > n n0 @ m

DTFS ; :0
o e jk:0n0 X > k @
f f
Z jZ ³ xW e
jZ W t 0
dW e jZt0 ³ xW e jZW dW e jZt0 X jZ
f f
Example 3.41 Finding an FT Using the Time-Shift Property
Ɍ Time-shifting of x(t) by t0 in Time-Domain
l (e jZ t0) u X(jZ) in Frequency-Domain Use the FT of the rectangular pulse x(t) depicted in Fig. 3.62 (a) to determine
the FT of the time-shift rectangular pulse z(t) depicted in Fig. 3. 62 (b).
(b)
Z ( jZ ) X ( jZ ) and arg{Z ( jZ )} arg{ X ( jZ )} Z0t <Sol.>
Ɍ The time-shifting properties of four Fourier representation are summarized 1. Note that z(t) = x(t T1).
in Table 3.7.
3.7 2. Time-shift property:
Z ( jZ ) e jZT1 X ( jZ )
CHAPTER
¦ b e
M
3. In Example 3.25, we obtained 2. Frequency response: j: k
k
X jZ
2
sin ZT0 Z jZ e jZT1
2
sin ZT0
H e j: k 0
(3.55)

N
Z Z ¦ a k e jZ
k
h Frequency response of a discrete-time system k 0
1. Difference equation: 3.12.2 Frequency-

Frequency-Shift Property The problem is to
N M express the inverse
¦ a y>n k @ ¦ b x>n k @
k k
1. Suppose that: FT of Z(jZ) = X(j(Z J ))
k 0 k 0 x (t ) mo
FT
X ( jZ ) and z (t ) mo
FT
Z ( jZ ) in terms of x(t).
z > n k @ m o e jk: Z e j:

Taking DTFTof both DTFT 2. By the definition of the inverse FT, we have
sides of this equation 1 f 1 f
z t ³ Z jZ e dZ
Z j t
³ X j Z J e jZt dZ
¦ a e Y e ¦ b e X e 2S 2S
N M
j: k j: j: k j: f f
k k
k 0 k 0 Substituting variables K = Z J into above Eq. gives
¦ b e
M 1 f 1 f
j: k
z t ³ X jK e j K J t dK e jJt ³ X jK e jKt dK e jJt xt
Y e j:
k 0
k
2S f 2S f
X e j:
Ɍ Frequency-shifting of X(jZ) by J in Frequency-Domain [i.e. X(j(Z J ))]
¦ a e Z
N
j k
k l (e J t) u x(t) in Time-Domain
k 0
CHAPTER
Ɍ The frequency-shift properties of Fourier representations are 1, t S

summarized in Table 3.8.
3.8 xt ®
¯0, t !S
Table 3.8 Frequency-Shift Properties of Fourier Representations
2. Use the results of Example 3.25, we have
e jJ t x t mo
FT
X j Z J 2
x t mo
FT
X jZ sin ZS
e jk0Z0t
x t mo FS ; Z0
x > k k0 @ Z
2
e j*n x[n ] m
DTFT
o X ª¬ e j : * º¼ Frequency-shift property x t mo
FT
X jZ sin ZS
Z
e jk0:0n x[n ] mo
FS ; :0
X > k k0 @ 3. FT of z(t):
X j Z 10
2
e j10t x t mo
FT
z t mo
FT
sin Z 10 S
Example 3.42 Finding an FT by Using the Frequency-Shift Property Z 10
Use the frequency-shift property to determine the FT of the complex sinusoidal Example 3.43 Using multiple Properties to Find an FT
Find the FT of the signal
ê ut * e ut 2`
pulse: d
e , t S xt
j10 t 3t t
z t ® <Sol.> dt
¯ 0, t !S
<Sol.> 1. To solve this problem, it needs to use three properties: differentiation in time,
1. Express z(t) as the product of a complex sinusoid ej10t and a rectangular pulse convolution, and time shifting.
X jZ jZ ^W jZ V jZ `
CHAPTER
2. Let w(t ) e 3 t u ( t ) and v (t ) e t u(t 2) 3.13 Finding Inverse Fourier Transforms by Using Partial-
Partial-
xt
d
^wt * vt ` Fraction Expansions
dt A ratio of two
Frequency response
polynomials in jZ or e j :
Convolution and differentiation property
X jZ jZ ^W jZ V jZ ` 3.13.1 Inverse Fourier Transform
3. From the transform pair: 1. FT X(jZ) in terms of a ratio of polynomials in jZ:
bM jZ b1 jZ b0 B jZ
M
e at u t mo
FT 1
W jZ
1 X jZ
a jZ 3 jZ jZ N a N 1 jZ
N 1
a1 jZ a 0 A jZ
4. Use the same transform pair and the time-shift property to find V(jZ) by first Assume that M < N. If M t N, then we may use long division to express X(jZ)
writing in the form
j 2Z Partial-fraction expansion
e
vt e 2 e t 2 u t 2 V jZ e 2 M N
B jZ
1 jZ X jZ ¦
f jZ
k
k A jZ
is applied to this term
5. FT of x(t): k 0
Applying the differentiation property
j Ze j 2 Z 2. Let the roots of the denominator
and the pair G (t ) mo 1 to these
X jZ e 2
FT
A(jZ) be dk, k = 1, 2, …, N. These
1 jZ 3 jZ roots are found by replacing jZ
terms
with a generic variable v and determining the roots of the polynomial
CHAPTER
v N a N 1v N 1 a1v a0
N N
Ck
0 x t ¦ C e u t
k 1
k
dk t
mo
FT
X jZ ¦ jZ d
k 1
5. For M < N, we may the write k
M Example 3.44 MEMS Accelerometer: Impulse Response

¦ b jZ
k
k Find the impulse response for the MEMS accelerometer introduced in Sec. 1.10,
X jZ k 0
N
Ck, k = 1, 2, …, N are determined assuming that Zn = 10,000 rads/s, and (a) Q = 2/5, (b) Q = 1, and (c) Q = 200.
jZ d k
by the method of residues <Sol.>
k 1 h Frequency response for the MEMS accelerometer:
Assuming that all the roots dk, k = 1, 2, …, N, are distinct, we may write 1
N H jZ
X jZ
Ck Zn
¦ jZ d k
Appendix B jZ
2
jZ Zn2
k 1 Q
In Example 3.24, we derived the transform pair
Case (a): Zn = 10,000 rads/s and Q = 2/5
1
e u t mo
dt FT This pair is valid even if d is complex, 1. Frequency response:
jZ d provided that Re{d} < 0.
1
H jZ
Assuming that the real part of each dk, k = 1, 2, …, N, is negative, we use jZ 2
25000 jZ 10000
2
linearity to write
CHAPTER
1 / 15000 1 / 15000
2. Partial-fraction expansion: H jZ
jZ 20000 jZ 5000
1 C1 C2
3. Impulse response:
jZ 2
25000 jZ 10000
2
jZ 20000 jZ 5000
The roots of the denominator polynomial are d1 = 20,000 and d2 = 5,0000.
h t 1/15000 e5000t e20000t u t
Coefficients C1 and C2: Case (b): Zn = 10,000 rads/s and Q = 1
1
C1 jZ 20,000 1
jZ 25000 jZ 10000 H jZ
2 2
jZ 20,000
jZ 2 10000 jZ 10000 2
1
1/15000 2. Partial-fraction expansion: d1 5000 j 5000 3
jZ 5,000 jZ 20,000 The roots of the denominator polynomial are
1 d2 5000 j5000 3
C2 jZ 5000
jZ
2
25000 jZ 10000
2
jZ 5,000
H jZ

j / 10000 3

j / 10000 3
1 jZ 5000 j 5000 3 jZ 5000 j 5000 3
1/15,000
jZ 20,000 jZ 5,000
3. Impulse response:

CHAPTER
h t
j 10000 3 e 5000t e j 5000 3t
e 5000 t e j 5000 3t

1/ 5000 3 e 5000t sin 5000 3t u t
Case (c): Zn = 10,000 rads/s and Q = 200
The roots of the denominator
1
H jZ polynomial are
j Z 2 50 jZ 10000
2
d1 25 j10,000
2. Impulse response: d2 25 j10,000
ht 1 / 10000 e 25t
sin 10000t u t
h Impulse response for (a) Q = 2/5, (b) Q = 1, and (c) Q = 200: Fig. 3.64 (a) ~ (c).
(c). Figure 3.64 (p. 289)
Impulse response of MEMS
1. For both Q = 2/5 and Q = 1, the impulse response is approximately zero for accelerometer.
t > 1 ms.
2. When Q = 200, the accelerometer exhibits resonant nature.
A sinusoidal oscillation of Zn = 10,000 rads/sec.

CHAPTER
3.13.2 Inverse Discrete-

Discrete-Time Fourier Transform 1 Expansions for
d k u >n@
n
1. Suppose X(e j :) is given by a ratio of polynomial in e j :, i.e.
m
DTFT
o repeated roots are
1 d k e j:
treated in Appendix B.
E e j:M E1e j: E 0

X e j: M Normalized to 1 The linearity property implies that
DNe D N 1e j: N 1 D 1e j: 1
j:N
N
x>n@ ¦ C d u>n@
n
k k
2. Factor the denominator polynomial as k 1
1 d
N
D N e j:N D N 1e j: N 1 D 1e j: 1 k e j: Example 3.45 Inverse by Partial-Fraction Expansion
k 1 Find the inverse DTFT of 5
e j: 5
Replace e j : with the generic variable v: Find dk, the roots of X e j: 6
v N D 1v N 1 D 2 v N 2 D N 1v D N 0 this polynomial 1 j: 1 j 2 :
1 e e
<Sol.> 6 6
3. Partial-fraction expansion:
Assuming that M < N and all the dk are distinct, we may express X(e j :)as 1. Characteristic polynomial: 1 1
v2 v 0
6 6
X e
N
Ck
j:
¦
k 1 1 dke
j: 2. The roots of above polynomial: d1 = 1/2 and d2 = 1/3.
3. Partial-Fraction Expansion:
Since
CHAPTER
5
e j: 5 3.14 Multiplication Property
6 C1 C2 h Non-periodic continuous-time signals

1 j: 1 j 2 : 1 1
1 e e 1 e j: 1 e j: 1. Non-periodic signals: x(t), z(t), and y(t) = x(t)z(t). Find the FT of y(t).
6 6 2 3 2. FT of x(t) and z(t):
Coefficients C1 and C2 1 f 1 f
xt ³ X jv e jvt dv and z t ³ Z jK e dK
K j t
5
e j: 5
5
e j: 5 2S f 2S f
§ 1 j: · 6 6
¨1 e ¸ 1 f f
C1 4 y t X jv Z jK e j K v t dKdv
¹ 1 1 e j: 1 e j 2: 2S ³ ³
© 2 1
1 e j: 2 f f
6 6 e j: 2 3 e j: 2
Change variable: K = Z v Inner Part: Z(jZ) X(jZ)
5 5
e j: 5 e j: 5 ª 1 º
§ 1 j: · y t
1 f f
X jv Z j Z v dv » e jZt d Z
C2 ¨1 e ¸
© 3
6
¹ 1 1 e j: 1 e j 2 :
6
1
1
2S ³f «¬ 2S ³
f
¼
1 e j:
6 6 e j: 3 2 e j: 3 3. FT of y(t): Outer Part: FT of y(t)
x>n@ 4 1 / 2 u>n@ 1 / 3 u>n@
n n
1
y (t ) x (t ) z (t ) mo Y ( jZ ) FT
X ( jZ ) * Z ( jZ ) (3.56)
2S
Scaled by 1/2S
CHAPTER
f
where X jZ * Z jZ ³ X jv Z j Z v dv h Multiplication property can
f
be used to study the effects
Ɍ Multiplication of two signals in Time-Domain of truncating a time-domain
l Convolution in Frequency-Domain u (1/2S) signal on its frequency-
h Non-periodic continuous-time signals Find the domain.
1. Non-periodic DT signals: x[n], z[n], and y[n] = x[n]z[n]. DTFT of Windowing !
2. DTFT of y[n]: y[n]. h Truncate signal x(t) by a
window function w(t) is
1
y[ n ] x[n ]z[n ] m
DTFT
o Y ( e j: ) X ( e j: ) ʶ Z ( e j: ) (3.57) represented by
2S y(t) = x(t)w(t)
where the symbol denotes periodic convolution. Fig. 3. 65 (a)
Here, X(e j :) and X(e j :) are 2S-periodic, so we evaluate the convolution over Time Interval
a 2S interval:
T0 t T0

X e jT Z e j :T dT
f
X jZ ʶ Z jZ ³ Figure 3.65a (p. 293)
f
The effect of windowing.
Ɍ Multiplication of two signals in Time-Domain
(a) Truncating a signal in time by
l Convolution in Frequency-Domain u (1/2S)
using a window function w(t).
CHAPTER
1. FT of y(t): h The smoothing is a consequence of the 2S/T0 width of the mainlobe of W(jZ),
1 while the oscillations near the discontinuities are due to the oscillations in
y t mo
FT
Y jZ X jZ *W jZ the sidelobes of W(jZ).
2S
Example 3.46 Truncating the Impulse Response
2. If w(t) is the rectangular window depicted The frequency response H(e j:) of an ideal discrete-time system is depicted in
in Fig. 3. 65 (b), we have p{S;v{Z
Fig. 3. 66 (a). Describe the frequency response of a system whose impulse
2 response is the ideal system impulse response truncated to the interval M d
W jZ sin ZT0
Z n d M.
Smoothing the details <Sol.>
in X(jZ) and introducing 1. The ideal impulse response is the inverse DTFT of H(e j: ).
oscillation near Using the result of Example 3.19, we write
discontinuities in X(jZ).
1 §Sn ·
h >n@ sin ¨ 1, n dM
S n © 2 ¸¹ w >n@ ®
Figure 3.65b (p. 293) 2. Let ht[n] be the truncated impulse response: ¯0, otherwise
(b) Convolution of the signal
h >n @ , n dM
and window FT’s resulting from ht > n @ ® ht [n ] h[n ]w[n ]
truncation in time. ¯ 0, otherwise
CHAPTER
v { Z, u { T v { Z, u { T
Ht(e j: ) is the area under

F:(T ) between T = S/2
and T = S/2.
Figure 3.66 (p. 294)

The effect of truncating the impulse Figure 3.66 (p. 294)
response of a discrete-time system. The effect of truncating the impulse response of a discrete-time
(a) Frequency response of ideal system. system. (c) F:(T) for : slightly greater than S/2.(d) Frequency
(b) F:(T) for : near zero. response of system with truncated impulse response.
CHAPTER
3. Let ht [n ] m
DTFT
o H t (e j: ) h Multiplication of periodic time-domain signals corresponds to convolution
of the Fourier representations.
Using the multiplication property in Eq. (3.57), we have Same fundamental
FT ; 2S / T
S y (t ) x (t ) z (t ) m o Y [k ] X [k ]* Z [k ] (3.58) periods of x(t) and z(t)
H t e j: ³S H e W e dT
1 T j T j :
2S
where
f Non-periodic convolution
4. Since
1, T S /2 On the basis of X [k ] Z [k ] ¦ X [m ] Z [k m ] of the FS coefficients
> @
H e jT ®
0, S / 2 T S
Example 3.18 m f
¯ h x(t) ᆶ z(t)୷ҁຼයόӕਔǴFS߯ኧ X[k]ᆶ Z[k]ሡ‫ߞٿڗ‬ဦ୷ҁຼය‫ޑ‬നλ

sin : T 2 M 1 / 2 Ϧ७ኧ(Least common multiple)ຼයΖ
and
W e j :T sin : T / 2
Example 3.47 Radar Range Measurement: Spectrum of RF Pulse Train
The RF pulse train used to measure the range and introduced in Section 1.10
S /2 Discussion: refer to
1 may be defined as the product of a square wave p(t) and a sine wave s(t), as
³ F T dT
j:
Ht e : p. 295 in textbook. shown in Fig. 3.68.
3.68 Assume that s(t) = sin (1000St/T). Find the FS coefficients of
2S S / 2 x(t).
where we have defined
F: T
H e jT W e j:T ®

°W e j :T , T S / 2 <Sol.>
Multiplication property
T !S /2
1. Suppose that s(t) = p(t) x(t). X [k ] P[k ] S [k ]
°̄ 0,
CHAPTER
2. Fundamental period: Fundamental frequency

For p(t): Z0 = 2S/T. s(t) = sin (1000St/T) = sin(500Z0t ).
3. FS coefficients of s(t):
1/(2 j ), k 500
°
S [k ] ® 1/(2 j ), k 500
°0, otherwise
¯
S[k ] 1/(2 j )G [k 500] 1/(2 j )G [k 500]
4. FS coefficients of p(t):
1) Result of Example 3.13
jkToZo sin(kZoTo ) 2) Time-
Time-shift property
P[k ] e
kS
5. FS coefficients of x(t):
1 j ( k 500)ToZo sin((k 500)ZoTo ) 1 j ( k 500)ToZo sin((k 500)ZoTo )
X [k ] e e .
2 (k 500)S 2 (k 500)S
Figure 3.68 (p. 297)
The RF pulse is expressed as the product of a periodic square wave and a sine wave. 6. Fig. 3.69 depicts the magnitude spectrum for 0 d k d 1000.
CHAPTER
h Multiplication property for discrete-time periodic signals:

DTFT ; 2S / T
y[ n ] x[n ]z[n ] m o Y [k ] X [k ] ʶ Z [k ] (3.59)
Figure 3.69 N 1
where
(p. 298) X [k ] ʶ Z [k ] ¦ X [m ] Z [k m ] Periodic convolution of
DTFS coefficients
FS magnitude m 0
spectrum for Ɍ Fundamental period = N.
0 d k d 1000.
The result is Ɍ The multiplication properties of all four Fourier representations are
depicted as a summarized in Table 3.9.
3.9
continuous Table 3.9 Multiplication Properties of Fourier Representations
curve, due to
1
the difficulty x ( t ) z (t ) mo
FT
X ( jZ ) Z ( jZ )
of displaying 2S
1000 stems FS ; Zo
x ( t ) z (t ) m o X [k ] Z [k ]
1
x[n ] z[n ] m DTFT
o X ( e j: ) ʶ Z ( e j: )
2S
DTFT ; Zo
x[n ]z[n ] m o X [k ] ʶ Z [k ]
CHAPTER
3.15 Scaling Property v{Z

1. Let z(t) = x(at).
2. FT of z(t) :
Changing variable:
f f
W = at
³ ³
jZt jZt
Z ( jZ ) z (t )e dt x ( at )e dt
f f
(1/ a ) f x (W )e j (Z / a )W dW , a ! 0
Z ( jZ )
° ³f
® f
°(1/ a ) ³ x (W )e j (Z / a )W dW , a 0
¯ f
f
Z ( jZ ) (1/ a ) ³ x (W )e j (Z / a )W dW ,
f
z (t ) x ( at ) mo
FT
(1/ a ) X ( jZ / a ). (3.60)
Ɍ Scaling in Time-Domain l Inverse Scaling in Frequency-Domain
Figure 3.70 (p. 300)
Signal expansion or compression! The FT scaling property. The figure assumes that 0 < a < 1.
Refer to Fig. 3.70.
3.70

CHAPTER
Example 3.48 Scaling a Rectangular Pulse

Figure 3.71
Let the rectangular pulse Use the FT of x(t) and the scaling property to (p. 301)
find the FT of the scaled rectangular pulse Application of the
°1, t 1
x(t ) ® °1, t 2 FT scaling
°̄0, t !1 y (t ) ® property in
°̄0, t !2 Example 3.48. (a)
<Sol.>
1. Substituting T0 = 1 into the result of Example 3. 25 gives Original time
signal. (b)
2
X ( jZ ) sin(Z ) Original FT. (c)
Z Scaling property and a = 1/2 Scaled time
2. Note that y(t) = x(t/2). signal y(t) = x(t/2).
(d) Scaled FT
§ 2 · 2
Y ( jZ ) 2 X ( j 2Z ) 2¨ ¸ sin(2Z ) sin(2Z ) Fig. 3.71 Y(jZ) = 2X(j2Z).
© 2Z ¹ Z
h Substituting T0 = 2 into the result of Example 3.25 can also give the answer!
Example 3.49 Using Multiple Performance to Find an Inverse FT
Find x(t) if d e j 2Z ½ v{Z
X ( jZ ) j ® ¾
d Z ¯1 j (Z / 3) ¿
CHAPTER
<Sol.> h Scaling property in FS:

1. Differentiation in frequency, time shifting, and scaling property to be used to 1. If x(t) is a periodic signal, then z(t) = x(at) is also periodic.
solve the problem. 2. If x(t) has fundamental period T, then z(t) has fundamental period T/a.
2. Transform pair: 1 3. If the fundamental frequency of x(t) is Z0, then the fundamental frequency of
t FT
s(t ) e u(t ) mo S ( jZ )
1 jZ z(t) is Z0/a.
4. FS coefficients of z(t):
X ( jZ ) j
d
dZ
^
e j 2Z S ( jZ / 3)` a T /a
T ³0
Z [k ] z (t )e jkaZot dt
3. Treatment procedure: scaling o time-shift o differentiation
Define Y(jZ) = S(jZ/3). z (t ) FS ; aZ0
x(at ) m o 2 Z [k ] X [k ], a!0 (3.61)
y (t ) 3s(3t ) 3e 3t u (3t ) 3t
3e u (t )
h Scaling property in Discrete-Time Domain: z[n] = x[pn]
Define W(jZ) = e j2Z Y(jZ/3). 1. First of all, z[n] = x[pn] is defined only for integer values of p.
Differentiation
w(t ) y (t 2) 3e 3(t 2)u (t 2) property 2. If ~p~> 1, then scaling operation discards information.
Since d Refer to Problem 3.80.
X ( jZ ) j W ( jZ ) x(t ) tw(t ) 3te3(t 2)u(t 2)
dZ

CHAPTER
f 1 f
³ ³
2 2
3.16 Parseval Relationships x(t ) dt X ( jZ ) dZ (3.62)
f 2S f
h The energy or power in the time-domain representation of a signal is equal to Normalization!
the energy or power in the frequency-domain representation. Ɍ Energy in Time-Domain Representation
Ɍ Case for CT nonperiodic signal: x(t) l Energy in Frequency-Domain Representation u (1/2S)
1. Energy in x(t): Ɍ The Parseval Relationships of all four Fourier representations are
The integral inside
f
summarized in Table 3.10.
3.10
the braces is the FT
³
2
Wx x(t ) dt Table 3.10 Parseval Relationships for the Four Fourier Representations
f of x(t).
2
2. Note that x (t ) x (t ) x (t ) Representations Parseval Relationships
1 f f 1 f
³
jZt

X ( jZ )e

dZ
Express x*(t) in terms of its FT X(jZ):
³ 2S ³f
X ( jZ ) d Z
2 2
x (t ) FT x(t ) dt
2S f f
f ª 1 f º 1 T
¦
f
³
2 2
³f x(t ) «¬ 2S ³f X ( jZ )e dZ »¼ dt
jZt
Wx FS x(t ) dt k f
X [k ]
T 0
^ `
1 S
¦
f 2
³S
2
1 f f
DTFT x[ n] X (e j: ) d :
Wx
2S ³f
X ( jZ ) ³ x(t )e jZt dt dZ
f
n f
2S
1
¦ ¦
N 1 2 N 1 2
1 f DTFS x[n] X [k ]
2S ³f
Wx X ( jZ ) X ( jZ )dZ N n 0 k 0

CHAPTER
Example 3.50 Calculating Energy in a Signal 3.17 Time-

Time-Bandwidth Product
Let
sin(Wn) 1. Preview: 1, t d To
x[n] mo
FT
X ( jZ ) 2sin(ZTo ) / Z
Sn x (t ) ® Fig. 3.72
¯0, t ! To
Use Parseval’s theorem to evaluate
f f
sin 2 (Wn ) Direct calculation in time-
time-domain
F ¦ ¦
2
x[n ] v { Z, p { S
n f n f S 2n 2 is very difficult!
<Sol.>
1. Using the DTFT Parseval relationship in Table 3.10,
3.10 we have
1 S 2
F
2S ³S

X (e j: ) d :
2. Since Figure 3.72 (p. 305)

j:
1, : dW Rectangular pulse illustrating the inverse relationship between the time and
x[n ] mo DTFT
X (e ) ®
¯ 0, W : S frequency extent of a signal.
2. x(t) has time extent 2T0. X(jZ) is actually of infinite extent frequency.
1 W
F
2S ³ W
1d : W / S 3. The mainlobe of sinc function is fallen in the interval of ~Z~< S/T0, in which
contains the majority of its energy.
CHAPTER
4. The product of the time extent T0 and mainlobe width 2S/T0 is a constant. 9. The time-bandwidth product for any signal is lower bounded according to
5. Compressing a signal in time leads expansion in the frequency domain and the relationship
vice versa.
Td Bw t 1/ 2 (3.65)
Signla’
Signla’s time-
time-bandwidth product !
6. Bandwidth: The extent of the signal’s significant frequency content. We cannot simultaneously decrease the duration and bandwidth of
a signal.
1) A mainlobe bounded by nulls.
Ex. Lowpass filter o One half the width of mainlobe.
mainlobe. Uncertainty principle !
1/2 times its peak values.
2) The frequency at which the magnitude spectrum is 1/ Example 3.51 Bounding the Bandwidth of a Rectangular Pulse
7. Effective duration of signal x(t): Let Use the uncertainty principle to place a lower
°1, t d To
f
ª t 2 x(t ) dt º
1/ 2 x(t ) ® bound on the effective bandwidth of x(t).
« ³f
t ! To
2
» °̄0,
Td (3.63)
« f x(t ) 2 dt »
«¬ ³f
<Sol.>
»¼
1. Td of x(t):
8. Effective bandwidth of signal x(t): 1/ 2
ª To t 2 dt º
« ³To
1/ 2
ª f Z 2 X ( jZ ) 2 dZ º
« ³f
»
Bw » (3.64)
Td « To »
« f X ( jZ ) 2 dZ » «¬ ³To dt »¼
¬« ³f ¼»
CHAPTER
1/ 2
ª To t 2dt º
Td « ³To » [(1/(2To ))(1/ 3)t 3 To 1/ 2
] Td / 3
v { Z; p { S
« To » To
¬« ³To ¼»
dt
2. The uncertainty principle given by Eq. (3.65) states that

Bw t 1/(2Td ) Bw t 3 /(2To ) Rectangular in time-domain l sinc
function in frequency-domain
3.18 Duality
3.18.1 The Duality Property of the FT 2S and the
Difference in the factor 2S
1. FT pair: sign change in the complex sinusoid.
1 f f
x(t )
2S ³f
X ( jZ )e jZt dZ and X ( jZ ) ³
f
x(t )e jZt dt
2. General equation:
1 f
y (v )
2S ³ f
z (K )e jvK dv (3.66) Figure 3.73 (p. 307)
Duality of rectangular pulses and sinc functions.
Choose Q = t and K = Z the Eq. (3.66) implies that
CHAPTER
1 f v { Z; p { S
y (t )
2S ³ f
z (Z )e jZt dZ
y (t ) mo
FT
z (Z ) (3.67)
3. Interchange the role of time and frequency by letting Q = Z and K = t, then
Eq. (3.66) implies that
1 f
y (Z )
2S ³f
z (t )e jZt dt
z (t ) mo
FT
2S y ( Z ) (3.68)
Fig. 3.74
4. If we are given by an FT pair
z (t ) mo
FT
2S y ( Z ) (3.69) f (t ) mo
FT
F ( jZ ) (3.70)
Example 3.52 Applying Duality
Find the FT of 1
x(t ) Figure 3.74 (p. 309)
1 jt
The FT duality property.
CHAPTER
<Sol.> 1 2S
DTFS ; N = time index; k =
1. Note that: f (t ) e t u(t ) mo
FT
F ( jZ ) x[n ] m
N
o X [k ] (3.71)
1 jZ frequency index
2S
2. Replacing Z by t, we obtain DTFS ; 1
X [n ] m
N
o x[k ] (3.72)
1 N
F ( jt ) x(t) has been expressed as F(jt).
jt).
1 jt 3.18.3 The Duality Property of the DTFT and FS
3. Duality property: 1. FS of a periodic continuous time signal z(t):

f
F ( jt ) mo
FT
2S f ( Z ), z (t ) ¦ Z [k ]e
k f
jkZo t
X ( jZ ) 2S f ( Z ) 2S eZ u( Z ) Difference in the factor

2. DTFT of an nonperiodic discrete-time signal x[n]:
3.18.2 The Duality Property of the DTFS N and the sign change
f
in the complex
1. DTFS Pair for x[n]: sinusoidal frequency.
X (e j : ) ¦ x[n]e
k f
j:n
N 1 N 1
Require
1
x[n] ¦ X [k ]e
k 0
jk :O n
and X [k ]
N
¦ x[n]e
n 0
jk :O n 3. Duality relationship between z(t) and X(e j:) T = 2S
: In the DTFT l t in the FS
Assumption: Z0 = 1
2. The DTFS duality is stated as follows: if n In the DTFT l k in the FS
CHAPTER
4. FS coefficients Z[k]: Table 3.11 Duality Properties of Fourier Representations

: In the DTFT l t in the FS
1 S
f (t ) mo
FT
F ( jZ ) F ( jt ) mo
FT
2S f ( Z )
³ S z(t )e FT
jkt
Z [k ] dt n In the DTFT l k in the FS
2S
DTFS ; 2S / N DTFS ; 2S / N
DTFS x[n ] m o X [k ] X [n ] m o (1/ N ) x[ k ]
5. DTFT representation of x[n]:
FS-DTFT x[n ] mo X ( e j: )
DTFS
X (e jt ) m
FS ; 1
o x[ k ]
1 S
³ S X (e
j: jn :
x[n ] )e d:
2S
p{S
6. Duality property between the FS and the DTFT: if
x[n ] m
DTFS
o X ( e j: ) (3.73)
X ( e jt ) m
FS ;1
o x[ k ] (3.74)
Ɍ The Duality Properties of Fourier representations are summarized in
Table 3.11.
3.11
Figure 3.75 (p. 311)
Example 3.53 FS-DTFT Duality Example 3.53. (a) Triangular spectrum. (b) Inverse DTFT.
Use the duality property and the results of Example 3.39 to determine the 1. Define a time function z(t) =X(e jt).
inverse DTFT of the triangular spectrum X(e j:) depicted in Fig. 3. 75 (a).
(a). 2. Duality property of Eq. (3.74): if
<Sol.>
CHAPTER
z (t ) m
FS ;1
o Z [k ] x[n ] Z [n ] 3.19 Exploring Concepts with MATLAB
Hence, we seek the FS coefficients Z[k] associated with z(t). 3.19.1 Frequency Response of LTI Systems from Impulse Response
h Discrete-time system x[n] LTI System y[n]
3. Assuming that T = 2S, z(t) is a time-shifted version of the triangular wave y(t),
i.e. h[n]
z (t ) y (t S / 2) 1. The frequency response of a discrete-time LTI system with finite-duration
impulse response may be determined with the use of a finite-duration input
S, k 0 sinusoid that is sufficiently long drive the system to a steady state.
jkS / 2 °
Z [k ] e Y [k ] ® 4 j sin( kS / 2)
k 1 2. Suppose that h[n] = 0 for n < kh and n > lh.
°̄ , k z0
Sk2 Let input be the finite-duration sinusoid:
4. From x[n] = Z [ n], we obtain v[n ] e j : n u[n ] u[n lv ]
S, n 0 Fig. 3.75 (b) 3. System output: y[n] h[n]* v[n]

° lb
x[n] ® 4( j ) n 1 sin(nS / 2)
° , nz0 ¦ h[k ]e j: ( n k )
, lb d n kh lv
¯ S n2 k kb
h[n]* e j:n , lb d n kh lv
H (e j: )e j:n , lb d n kh lv
CHAPTER
Hence, the system output in response to a finite-duration sinusoidal input 1. kh = 0 and lh = 1. to obtain 50 values of the sinusoidal steady-state response,
corresponds to the output in response to an infinite-duration sinusoidal we require that lv t 51.
input on the interval lh d n < kh + lv.
2. MATLAB commands:
4. The magnitude and phase response of the system are determined from y[n], Obtaining the
>> omega1=pi/4;omega2=3*pi/4; output signals
lh d n < kh + lv, by noting that
>> v1=exp(j*omega1*[0:50]);
y[n] H (e j: ) e
^ ` , l d n k l
j ( :n arg H ( e j: ) ) >> v2=exp(j*omega2*[0:50]);
b b b
>> h=[0.5,-0.5];
y[n] H (e j: ) , lh d n kh lv >> y1=conv(v1,h);y2=conv(v2,h);
1) Magnitude:
3. Plots for the output signals:
2) Phase: arg ^ y[n]` :n arg ^ H (e j: )` , lh d n kh lv 1) MATLAB commands for plotting the real and imaginary components of y1:
Example >> subplot(2,1,1)
Consider the system with impulse response >> stem([0:51],real(y1))
>> xlabel('Time');ylabel('Amplitude');
1 1
h2 [n] G [n] G [n 1] >> title('real(y1)')
2 2 Fig 3. 76 (a) and (b)
>> subplot(2,1,2)
Let us determine the frequency response and 50 values of the steady-state >> stem([0:51],imag(y1))
output of this system for the input frequencies : = S/4 and 3S/4. >> xlabel('Time');ylabel('Amplitude');
<Sol.> >> title('imag(y1)')
CHAPTER
real(y1)
0.5 2) MATLAB commands for obtaining the magnitude and phase components from
Figure 3.76 any element of the vectors of y1 and y2:
Amplitude
(p. 314) Ex. Find the fifth element:
Sinusoidal 0
>> H1mag=abs(y1(5)) The phase response
steady-state H1mag = is measured in
response 0.3827 radians.
computed with -0.5 >> H2mag=abs(y2(5))
the use of 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
H2mag =
MATLAB. The Time
imag(y1)
0.9239
values at times 1 >> H1phs=angle(y1(5))-omega1*5
0.5
through 50 H1phs =
represent the -5.8905
Amplitude
sinusoidal steady- >> H2phs=angle(y2(5))-omega2*5

state response. 0
H2phs =
-14.5299
h The angle command always returns a value between S and S radians.
-0.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 h Command: angle(y1(n))-omega1*n may result in answers that differ by integer
Time multiples of 2S when different values of n are used.
CHAPTER
3.19.2 The DTFS Fast Fourier transform Example

1. DTFS pair: Consider using MATLAB to solve Problem 3.3 (a) for the DTFS coefficients.
The signal is
N 1
1 N 1
§ 3S ·
x[n ] ¦ X [k ]e
k 0
jk :0n
(3.10) and X [k ]
N
¦ x[n]e
n 0
jk :0n
(3.11) x[n ] 1 sin ¨ nS /12
©
¸
8 ¹
<Sol.>
2. MATLAB commands fft and ifft may be used to evaluate the DTFS. >> x=ones(1,24)+sin([0:23]*pi/12+3*pi/8);
1. Period = 24. 2. MATLAB command:
1) Given a length-N vector x representing one period of an N periodic signal x[n
n], >> X=fft(x)/24
Output:
the command
MATLAB run from 0 to N 1 X=
>> X=fft(x)/N
Columns 1 through 5
produces a length-N vector X containing the DTFS coefficients X[k]. 1.0000 0.4619 - 0.1913i 0.0000 + 0.0000i -0.0000 + 0.0000i -0.0000 + 0.0000i
Columns 6 through 10
Ɍ The division by N is necessary because fft evaluates the sum in Eq. (3.11) without
-0.0000 - 0.0000i 0.0000 - 0.0000i 0.0000 - 0.0000i 0.0000 + 0.0000i -0.0000 - 0.0000i
dividing by N. Columns 11 through 15
2) Given DTFS coefficients in a vector X, the command -0.0000 - 0.0000i -0.0000 - 0.0000i 0 -0.0000 + 0.0000i -0.0000 + 0.0000i
Columns 16 through 20
>> x=ifft(X)*N -0.0000 + 0.0000i 0.0000 - 0.0000i 0.0000 + 0.0000i 0.0000 + 0.0000i -0.0000 + 0.0000i
produces a length-N vector x that represents one period of the time-domain Columns 21 through 24
waveform. -0.0000 - 0.0000i -0.0000 - 0.0000i 0.0000 - 0.0000i 0.4619 + 0.1913i

CHAPTER
3. Explicit answer in rectangular form: ans =

1, k 0 1.9239-0.0000i 1.9914+0.0000i 1.9914+0.0000i 1.9239-0.0000i
°0.4619 j 0.1913, Answer to
° k 1 Example
Problem 3.3 (a)
X [k ] ® The partial-sum approximation used in Example 3.7 is easily evaluated in MATLAB:
° 0.4619 j 0.1913, k 23
¯° 0, otherwise on 0 d k d 23 >> k=1:24;
>> n=-24:25;
h Using indices 11d k d 12, we may also write the answer by specifying one period >> B(1)=25/50; % coeff for k=0
as >> B(2:25)=2*sin(k*pi*25/50)./(50*sin(k*pi/50));
1, k 0 >> B(26)=sin(25*pi*25/50)./(50*sin(25*pi/50)); % coeff for k =N/2
°0.4619 j 0.1913,
° k 1 >> xjhat(1,:)=B(1)*cos(n*0*pi/25);
X [k ] ® % term in sum for k=0
°0.4619 j 0.1913, k 1
%accumulate partial sums
¯° 0, otherwise on 11 d k d 12 >> for k=2:26
4. Using ifft, we may reconstruct the time-domain signal and evaluate the first four xjhat(k,:)=xjhat(k-1,:)+B(k)*cos(n*(k-1)*pi/25);
values of the reconstructed signal with the command: end
>> xrecon=ifft(X)*24; h This set of commands produces a matrix xjhat whose (J + 1)st row corresponds to
>> xrecon(1:4); xˆ J [n]
CHAPTER
3.19.3 The FS 3. With plot command, a good approximation to continuous cosine can be achieved
h Trigonometric FS expression of x(t) in Example 3.14: by the order of 20 samples per period.
f Ts T /(20 J max )
x (t ) ¦ B[k ]cos(kZ t )
k 0
0 (3.29)
Note that the total number of samples in one period is then 20 Jmax.
where 4. Assuming Jmax = 99 and T = 1, the MATLAB command for computing the partial-
B[0] 2T0 / T
sum from the given B[k] is as below:
2sin( k 2S T0 / T )
B[k ] , k z0 (3.28) >> t=[-(10*jmax-1):10*jmax]*(1/(20*99));
kS ፂ৫‫ڶ‬ԫࠄᙑᎄ
ፂ৫‫ڶ‬ԫࠄᙑᎄ!!
>> xjhat(1,:) = B(1)*cos(t*0*2*pi/T);
Let the partial-sum approximation to the FS in Eq. (3.29), be given by >> for k=2:100
J xjhat(k,:) = xjhat(k-1,:)+B(k)*cos(t*(k-1)*2*pi/T);
xJ t ¦ B >k @ cos kZ t
k 0
0 end
5. The row of xjhat represents samples of a continuous-valued function.
1. We must use sufficiently closely spaced samples to capture the details in xˆ J (t )
We should use plot instead of stem to display xjhat.
2. Requirement:
The partial-sum for J = 5 can be displayed by the command:
The highest-frequency term in sum: cos( J maxZ0t ) is well approximated by the
plot(t, xjhat(6,:))
sampled signal: cos( J maxZ0nTs )

CHAPTER
3.19.4 Frequency Response of LTI Systems Described by Differential or Example

Difference Equations The frequency response of the MEMS accelerometer depicted in Fig. 3.58 for Q =1
1. MATLAB commands: is obtained via the MATLAB commands:
-155
freqs Frequency response of LTI system described by differential eq. >> w=[0:100:100000];
freqz Frequency response of LTI system described by difference eq. >> b=1; -160
>> a=[1 10000 10000*10000]; -165
2. MATLAB command: >> H=freqs(b,a,w);
h=freqs(b,a,w) returns the values of the CT system frequency response given by >> plot(w,20*log10(abs(H))) -170
Eq. (3.47) at the frequencies specified in the vector w, where
-175
3. MATLAB command:
b [bM , bM 1 ,..., b0 ]
h=freqz(b,a,w) returns the -180
Coefficients of the differential equation.
a [a N , a N 1 ,..., a0 ] values of the DT system -185
frequency response given
M -190
¦ b jZ by Eq. (3.55) at the
k
k
frequencies specified in the
H jZ k 0 -195
N (3.47) vector w, where
¦ a jZ
k -200
k 0 2 4 6 8 10
k 0
b [bM , bM 1 ,..., b0 ] 4
x 10
Coefficients of the difference equation.
a [a N , a N 1 ,..., a0 ]
CHAPTER
Bw | N/(2M +1) = Bandwidth = the “frequency” of the first null of X[k]
h The entries of w must lie between 0 and 2S.
M
h The time-bandwidth product for the square wave, Td Bw | N, is independent of M.
¦b e k
j: k
4) MATLAB command:
H e j: k 0
N (3.55) >> N=50; Fig. 3. 12 (b)
¦a e Z j k
k DT periodic >> M=12;
k 0 signals >> x=[ones(1,M+1),zeros(1,N-2*M-1),ones(1,M)];
0.5
3.19.5 Time-
Time-Bandwidth Product >> X=fft(x)/N;
>> k=[0:N-1]; %frequency index
1. Command fft can be used to evaluate DTFS and explore the time-bandwidth >> stem(k,real(fftshift(X)))
0.4
product property.
0.3
2. Example 3.6 fft o find DTFS coefficients
1, n dM stem o display the results 0.2
1) Time-domain signal: x[ n] ®
¯0, M n N M real o suppress any small
0.1
imaginary components
1, n dM fftshift o reorder the elements of
2) DTFS coefficients: x[n] ® 0
¯0, M n N M the vector X to generate

the DTFS coefficients -0.1
3) Parameter definitions:
centered on k = 0
-0.2
Td = 2M +1 =the nonzero portion of one period of x[n] 0 10 20 30 40 50

CHAPTER
>> N=50; 3. Effective duration and bandwidth for the discrete-time periodic signals:
>> M=4; Fig. 3. 12 (a) 1 1
>> x=[ones(1,M+1),zeros(1,N-2*M-1),ones(1,M)]; ª ( N 1) / 2 2 2 º2 ª ( N 1) / 2 2 2 º2
>> X=fft(x)/N; « ¦ n x[n] » « ¦ k X [k ] »
>> k=[0:N-1]; %frequency index 0.2 Td « n ( N 1) / 2 » (3.75) Bw « k ( N 1) / 2 » (3.76)
« ( N 1) / 2 2 » « ( N 1) / 2 2 »
>> stem(k,real(fftshift(X)))
« ¦ x[n] » « ¦ X [k ] »
¬ n ( N 1) / 2 ¼ ¬ n ( N 1) / 2 ¼
0.15
h MATLAB function for >> function TBP=TdBw(x)
computing the product >> %Compute the Time-Bandwidth product using the DTFS
0.1 TdBw: >> %One period must be less than 1025 points
>> N=1025;
1) The length of input vector >> M=(N-max(size(x)))/2;
0.05 x = odd and centers on >> xc=[zeros(1,M),x,zeros(1,M)];
middle >> % center pulse within a period
2) .* = element-by-element >> n=[-(N-1)/2:(N-1)/2];
0 >> n2=n.*n;
product
>> Td=sqrt((xc.*xc)*n2'/(xc*xc'));
3) * = inner product >> X=fftshift(fft(xc)/N); % evaluate DTFS and center
4) ' = complex-conjugate >> Bw=sqrt(real((X.*conj(X))*n2'/(X*X')));
-0.05
0 10 20 30 40 50 transpose >> TBP=Td*Bw;
CHAPTER
4. Use the function TdBw to evaluate the time-bandwidth product for two >> n=[-500:500];
rectangular, raised cosine, and Gaussian pulse train as follows: >> x=exp(-0.001*(n.*n)); % Narrow Gaussian pulse
>> x=ones(1,101); % 101 point rectangular pulse >> TdBw(x)
>> TdBw(x) ans =
ans = 81.5669
788.0303 >> x=exp(-0.0001*(n.*n)); % Broad Gaussian pulse
>> x=ones(1,301); % 301 point rectangular pulse >> TdBw(x)
>> TdBw(x) ans =
ans = 81.5669
1.3604e+003 h Note that the Gaussian pulse trains have the smallest time-bandwidth product.
>> x=0.5*ones(1,101)+cos(2*pi*[-50:50]/101); % 101 point rectangular pulse
>> TdBw(x) h Time-bandwidth product is identical for both the narrow and broad Gaussian pulse
ans = trains .
277.7327
>> x=0.5*ones(1,301)+cos(2*pi*[-150:150]/301); % 301 point rectangular pulse
>> TdBw(x)
ans =
443.0992


Lecture03 Fourier Representations of Signals

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lecture03 Fourier Representations of Signals

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER

Fourier Representations of Signals & LTI Systems CHAPTER

3. Frequency response: <Sol.> Frequency response:

[B] Discrete-time case: 3.3.1 Periodic Signals: Fourier Series Representations

There are only N distinct complex sinusoids of the form exp(jk:0n)

h Symmetries in x[k]: k =  (N  1)/2 to (N  1)/2

N 1 Fourier coefficients; Frequency domain

X [ 2]e  j 2S n / 3  X [ 1]e  jS n / 3  X [0]  X [1]e jS n / 3  X [2]e j 2S n / 3  X [3]e jS n

Signals and Systems_Simon 13 Signals and Systems_Simon 14

­e  jI / 2, k 1 Example 3.4 DTFS Representation of An Impulse Train

Figure 3.9 (p. 207)

e j 2S / 3e j 6S n / 9  2e jS / 3e j 4S n / 9  1  2e jS / 3e j 4S n / 9  e j 2S / 3e j 6S n / 9

requires that N > 2M +1. 3. For k = 0, r N, r 2N, …, we have

3. For k z 0, r N, r 2N, …, we may sum the geometric series in Eq. (3.15) to

Signals and Systems_Simon 21 Signals and Systems_Simon 22

h Symmetry property of DTFS coefficient: X[k] = X[ k]. ­ X > k @, k 0, N / 2

N / 2 1 h A similar expression may be derived for N odd.

4. Define the new set of coefficients

Figure 3.14a (p. 213)

1. Continuous-time periodic signals are represented by the Fourier series (FS).

xˆ t at all values of t; it simply implies that there is zero power

Signals and Systems_Simon 33 Signals and Systems_Simon 34

sinusoid, it is easier to obtain X[k] by inspection. The method of inspection is °2 e

¦ 1 / 2 e jkS / 20 e jkSt  ¦ 1 / 2 e  jlS / 20 e  jlSt

1. Fundamental frequency: Zo = 2S/T. 2 sin kZ 0T0 2T0

Figure 3.22a&b Figure 3.22c

Signals and Systems_Simon 41 Signals and Systems_Simon 42

Signals and Systems_Simon 45 Signals and Systems_Simon 46

Figure 3.25a (p. 225)

Figure 3.25b-3 (p. 226)

Figure 3.25e (p. 226) 5. Frequency response of the RC circuit:

Fig. 3.2 in response to the square-wave input depicted in Fig. 3.21,

Figure 3.26 (p. 228) Figure 3.26 (p. 228)

Signals and Systems_Simon 51 Signals and Systems_Simon 52

2. The harmonic at 60 Hz in the trigonometric FS representation of x(t) has 3.6 Discrete-

Signals and Systems_Simon 57 Signals and Systems_Simon 58

Signals and Systems_Simon 59 Signals and Systems_Simon 60

1 j :n W Example 3.20 DTFT of The Unit Impulse

1 S Example 3.22 Moving-Average Systems: Frequency Response

Magnitude response: Phase response: p{S

§:· ­ : Example 3.23 Multipath Communication Channel: Frequency Response

1  a cos :  arg ^a`  a

Figure 3.38 (p. 241)

h Zero squared error does not imply pointwise convergence [i.e., x t xˆ t ]

Signals and Systems_Simon 75  S/2

v { Z; p { S As W increases, the frequency-domain reprsentation becomes less

h Notation for FT pair: G t mo 1,

Signals and Systems_Simon 85 Signals and Systems_Simon 86

2 sin ZT0 2 2 sin Z  2S T0 T0 2 2 sin Z  2S T0 T0 2

Figure 3.47 (p.

Signals and Systems_Simon 89 Signals and Systems_Simon 90

3.9 Linearity and Symmetry Properties

periodic signal depicted y t m

i The conjugate symmetry property for DTFS: h Complex-conjugate symmetry in FT:

3. Substituting this expression into the convolution integral yields

2. FT of x(t  W): (1/(St))sin(2St). Find the output y(t) = x(t) h(t).

<Sol.> x(t) = (1/(St))sin(St) <Sol.>

h Convolution of Nonperiodic Signals — Continuous-

y[n] x[n]* h[n] m

Figure 3.55a&c (p. 265)

h inv > n @ a u > n @

3. FS Coefficients of y(t): 3. One period of the

3.11 Differentiation and Integration Properties

h Symmetries in x[k]: k = (N 1)/2 to (N 1)/2

N 1 Fourier coefficients; Frequency domain

X [ 2]e j 2S n / 3 X [ 1]e jS n / 3 X [0] X [1]e jS n / 3 X [2]e j 2S n / 3 X [3]e jS n

e jI / 2, k 1 Example 3.4 DTFS Representation of An Impulse Train

e j 2S / 3e j 6S n / 9 2e jS / 3e j 4S n / 9 1 2e jS / 3e j 4S n / 9 e j 2S / 3e j 6S n / 9

h Symmetry property of DTFS coefficient: X[k] = X[ k]. X > k @, k 0, N / 2

N / 2 1 h A similar expression may be derived for N odd.

¦ 1 / 2 e jkS / 20 e jkSt ¦ 1 / 2 e jlS / 20 e jlSt

§:· : Example 3.23 Multipath Communication Channel: Frequency Response

1 a cos : arg ^a` a

Signals and Systems_Simon 75 S/2

h Notation for FT pair: G t mo 1,

2 sin ZT0 2 2 sin Z 2S T0 T0 2 2 sin Z 2S T0 T0 2

periodic signal depicted y t m

2. FT of x(t W): (1/(St))sin(2St). Find the output y(t) = x(t) h(t).

y[n] x[n]* h[n] m

h inv > n @ a u > n @

Ɍ Differentiation of X(jZ) in Frequency-Domain l ( jt) u x(t) in Time-Domain 1 d

3. Change variable by W = t t0: x > n n0 @ m

z > n k @ m o e jk: Z e j:

Ɍ The frequency-shift properties of Fourier representations are 1, t S

X ( jZ ) 2S f ( Z ) 2S eZ u( Z ) Difference in the factor

4. From x[n] = Z [ n], we obtain v[n ] e j : n u[n ] u[n lv ]

S, n 0 Fig. 3.75 (b) 3. System output: y[n] h[n]* v[n]

¯0, M n N M the vector X to generate