MINING AND ENVIRONMENT IN AFRICA

A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW REPORT

By
Thomson Sinkala

For the

UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME

Division of Technology, Industry, and Economics
Sustainable Consumption and Production Branch

June 2009

1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to thank UNEP for supporting this study. I also wish to thank Dr. Desta Mebratu of UNEP
and the UNECA members of staff Mr. Antonio Pedro, Ms. Tarik Kassa, Dr. Strike Mkandla and
Ms. M. Desta for their valuable comments as well as provision of literature. I wish to thank Mr.
Fui Tsikata for his detailed scrutiny of this report. I also wish to thank all members of the ISG, in
particular Prof. Bonnie K. Campbell, Ms. Lois Hooge, Mr. Mensan Lawson-Hechelli, Dr. Paul
Jourdan, Dr. Hudson Mtegha and Mr. Mkhululi Ncube for assistance with literature.

DISCLAIMER
The conclusions and opinions expressed in the report do not necessarily reflect the position of
the United Nations Environment Programme.

2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This study is a comprehensive review report on mining and the environment in Africa. The study
also looks at underlying reasons why Africa is failing to maximize benefits from the industry,
and presents suggestions to reverse this trend.

Africa houses a vast array of minerals and is a world leader for some of these. Minerals are
among the most valuable exports of Africa, and about 24 (45%) (see Figure below) of the 53
African countries rely on the industry as the largest exports from their countries, thus earning
these countries foreign exchange for various socio-economic activities. Mining industry provides
revenues, jobs, school and health facilities, and stimulates development of vital socio-economic
infrastructure such as electricity, roads, railways and telecommunications.

With only about 7 (13%) of the African countries carrying out some form of value addition to the
minerals (See Figure below), the continent is at present a producer of primary mineral products
which she exports to industrialized countries. Meanwhile, most pollution occurs at primary level
in the minerals value chain. About 98% of resource flows in the form of excavation residues
occur in production countries1. This means that Africa retains the environmental burden which
also reduces her already little earnings from minerals. For copper, for instance, a study2 has
revealed that the realistic price paid by EU copper buyers to EU primary copper producers has
been determined to be 33% less than they should have normally paid. The study also found that
the specific external costs for primary copper production differ also significantly between
regions. In Africa, Botswana, Congo DR, Morocco, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia
and Zimbabwe were in 2005 listed as copper producers. These countries are largely primary
copper producers and, apart from South Africa and possibly Morocco, their environmental
management standards of copper production are, on average, not likely to be as high as in EU.
The factor of external cost estimate for these African countries with reference to EU is therefore
much higher, possibly ranging from 1.6 to 3.1 (or higher) estimated for South American
countries and Russia.

The Figure below shows that 96% of the 53 African countries are emitting green house gases
(GHGs). Data for Somalia and Equatorial Guinea could not be found. In the African countries
producing cement (58%) and coal (25%), and also those countries with large scale operations
running non-cement processing plants (68%), the GHGs are likely to be significant. Apart from
estimates of emissions based on coal for South Africa, quantitative information to directly
attribute the emissions to mining activities could however not be found. To minimize energy
related impacts, effort should be directed at development and utilization of renewable energy
sources including hydro power, liquid biofuels, wind, solar and tidal wave.

1
Kuhndt M, Tessema F, and Martin H. 2008. “Global Value Chain Governance for Resource Efficiency
Building Sustainable Consumption and Production Bridges across the Global Sustainability Divides”.
Environmental Research, Engineering and Management, 2008. No. 3(45), P. 33-41.
2
Stäheli ME. 2008. “External Costs in the European Copper Value Chain - A Comparison of Copper Primary
Production and Recycling”. MSc Thesis, MAS Management Technology and Economics MTEC/BWI, Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Switzerland. May.

3
Mining industry physically occupies a significant amount of land. For example, the Figure below
shows that mine dumps are experienced in 96% of the 53 African countries. In Zambia alone,
dumps in the highly populated Copperbelt Province take up 220,000 hectares by large scale
copper mines. In South Africa, gold mining alone has degraded about 247,000 hectares of land in
highly populated areas. The cumulative dumps by small scale mining activities are also a major
source of concern, and the land degraded has not been quantified.

When other mining degraded features such as areas covered by acid mine drain, inaccessible
mine caving areas, sulphur dioxide plume areas as well as pits and quarries are taken into
account, the land used and degraded by mining is cumulatively much greater. There is scant
information on this degraded land coverage.

SOURCE: Derived from Table 6.9 of this report.

Acid mine drainage (AMD) or signs thereof, a very dangerous, sometimes irreversible and very
expensive when it occurs is reported in 13% (see Figure above) of African countries.
Consequences, especially in relation to water resources and soils are high when and where AMD
occurs.

Air and water pollution from mining industry in Africa are significant concerns (see Figure
above). Hundred percent (100%) of the 53 African countries are experiencing some type of air
pollution from various sources of mining activities including dumps, gas emissions from
smelters and mercury in artisanal/small scale gold processing activities. Ninety-eight percent

4
(98%) of the countries are experiencing pollution of water from the industry due to pollutants
such as mineral processing run-offs, heavy metals and chemicals.

Small scale gold mining and processing is carried out in 34 (64%) while cement production is
prevalent in 31 (58%) of the African countries (Table 6.10 and Figure 6.16). Both of these
activities pollute the environment with mercury. Environmental pollution and negative health
effects due to poor use of mercury as well as degradation of water resources is a major source of
concern. Intensified training, awareness and making available alternative sources of income and
cement substitutes are among the measures required to minimize the problem in these areas.

Uranium risk areas have been reported in countries including Congo D.R., Gabon, Madagascar,
Niger, South Africa and Zambia. In these countries, there is a tendency to keep environmental
pollution and the resulting health impacts a closely guarded secret [http://www.wise-uranium.org,
Wise:Uranium, 2009]. The levels of pollution are dangerously high in all the five countries, and
the likely health impacts could also be high. In South Africa, for instance, foods grown in the
uranium areas have been found to be significantly polluted [National Nuclear Regulator, 2007].
Uranium mining/contamination (Table 6.10 and Figure 6.16) is reported in 9 (17%) of the
African countries while exploration is reported in 32 (60%) of the countries. If all these
exploration activities result in productive mines, the scale of uranium contamination could scale
up and become wide-spread over the African continent if appropriate measures are not taken.
Uranium related environmental degradation and health effects are very dangerous and long
lasting. Appropriate measures are needed to stem the problem in the bud.

Africa must intensify a shift from primary production to increased value addition. At primary
production level, African countries must employ a “balance sheet” approach which, for every
investment, must indicate a prior NET GAIN economically, environmentally and socially, before
accepting the investment.

Most of the social and environmental regimes for mining industry in Africa are very weak in
their current form. In some cases, even those that are relatively comprehensive suffer from
inadequate enforcement due to reasons including inadequate resources, corruption and
complacency.

With appropriate environmental and mining codes, there are many areas in the minerals value
chain as well as those associated with environmental degradation which can be targeted for
socio-economic inclusion. The latter would be “turning waste into gold”.

The minerals sector offers immense opportunities for Africa to derive benefits from it. Based on
the analysis of this study, it is recommended that various actions are taken to improve on the
socio-environmental performance of the mining industry in the continent. The following are
some of the main ones:

• A “Balance Sheet” approach be applied when accepting mine investments. The balance
sheet should ensure that the mineral host community knows in advance the economic,
social and environmental NET GAINS to be derived from a project. Otherwise the
project must not take place.

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 • Current social and environmental regimes must be deepened to include those respective
aspects which are weakening delivery of benefits in mining industry.

• Capacity should be developed to capture the opportunities of “turning waste into gold”.
Some of what are considered environmental liabilities can be turned into business
opportunities.

• As part of CSR, mine developers must assist local communities with capacity to develop
mine investment balance sheet from a host community point of view.

• In addition to building skills for best small scale mining practices, capacity to create
alternative income generation activities in small scale mining areas and beyond must be
developed to minimize the cumulative environmental degradation by this sector.

• There is need to close the many gaps in environmental information in Africa. It is

difficult to carryout mitigation measures without quantified evidence.

• To minimize environmental burden, Africa must go beyond production of primary

mineral products. Appropriate incentives must be encouraged for value addition in
mineral producer countries.

Nearly all the above recommendations can be implemented at both national and regional levels.

6
Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT................................................................................................. 2

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.................................................................................................3

Contents..................................................................................................................... 7

1 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................11

2 THE MINERALS OF AFRICA ....................................................................................13

3 DEFINING “CONTRIBUTION” OF MINING TO DEVELOPMENT...................................15

3.1 Host Country Participation in Key Mine Investment Inputs..............................17

3.2 Participation in the Mine Production Process...................................................17

3.3 Revenues and Provision of Services to Mining Industry ..................................17

3.4 Participation in Management of the Altered Environment due to Mining

Industry.................................................................................................................17

4 CONTRIBUTION OF MINERALS TO DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA.................................21

4.1 Minerals Industry.............................................................................................22

4.1.1 Contribution by large scale mining to national development....................23

4.1.2 Contribution by artisanal and small scale mining to national development

........................................................................................................................... 23

4.2 Some Factors Affecting Mineral Wealth Contribution to African Development 25

4.2.1 Corruption and governance challenges.....................................................25

4.2.2 Poor business environment.......................................................................26

4.2.3 Inadequate corporate social responsibility................................................27

5 INITIATIVES AND TRENDS IN MINING AND MINERAL RESOURCE FLOWS................29

5.1 Global Trends.................................................................................................. 29

5.2 Trends in Mineral Resource Flows in Africa ....................................................31

5.2.1 Metallic minerals.......................................................................................31

5.2.2 Gemstones ...............................................................................................33

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 5.3 Implication of Mineral Resource Flows.............................................................34

5.3.1 Resource productivity during extraction...................................................35

5.3.2 Hidden flows in resource extraction..........................................................35

5.4 Current Trend in Mining and its Impacts on Security of Supply and Access....37

5.5 Improving Resource Productivity in Global Value Chain for Extraction Locations
.............................................................................................................................. 39

6 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACTS DUE TO MINING IN AFRICA.....................41

6.1 General............................................................................................................41

6.2 Mining, Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Climate Change................................42

6.2.1 Mining industry process and greenhouse gas emissions...........................43

6.2.2 Energy for mining and greenhouse gas emissions....................................46

6.2.3 The GHG global status for Africa...............................................................49

6.2.4 Energy options for mining industry in Africa............................................51

6.3 Landuse and Landuse Change.........................................................................53

6.3.1 Mining industry and forestry.....................................................................53

6.3.1.1 Direct use of forestry products by mining industry.............................53

6.3.1.2 Mining stimulated forestry depletion...................................................54

6.3.1.3 Mining stimulated economic benefits from forestry use.....................56

6.3.2 Land cover by surface mine facilities and dumps......................................56

6.3.3 Inaccessible hazardous land......................................................................58

6.3.4 Land polluted by mine operations.............................................................58

6.4 Water Use and Acidification.............................................................................58

6.4.1 Mining industry and inland water..............................................................60

6.4.2 Mining industry and marine water.............................................................63

6.4.3 Acidification of water environment............................................................63

6.5 Ecotoxicity and Health Effects on Humans......................................................64

6.5.1 Mining industry and mercury ....................................................................65

8
 6.5.1.1 Mercury release in gold mining in Africa.............................................67

6.5.1.2 Mercury in cement industry................................................................68

6.5.2 Uranium and the environment..................................................................69

6.5.3 Other toxic chemicals from oil and non-oil mining industry......................73

6.6 Summary on Pollution Due to Minerals Industry..............................................79

7 THE EFFICACY OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL REGIMES IN MINING INDUSTRY IN

AFRICA......................................................................................................................86

7.1 The Essence of an Environmental and Social Regime in Mining Industry........86

7.2 Profiling Social and Environmental Regimes for Mining Industry in Africa.......87

7.2.1 Objectives of the social and environmental regimes for mining industry..87

7.2.2 Measures to achieve intended results......................................................92

7.2.3 Dynamically tracking the state of intended results during the mine project
........................................................................................................................... 97

7.2.4 General observation..................................................................................98

8 “MAKING GOOD OUT OF BAD” ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN MINING

INDUSTRY...............................................................................................................100

8.1 Reprocessing of Old Mine Dumps..................................................................101

8.2 Landscaping of Mine Dumps..........................................................................102

8.3 Consultancy and Contract Work Services .....................................................104

8.4 Environmental Education..............................................................................104

8.5 Greening Mining Towns.................................................................................105

8.6 Construction Material from Mine Dumps.......................................................106

8.7 Mine Area as Tourist Attraction and Recreation Centers...............................107

www.kingsgate.com.au/links/gold-mine-tourist-attractions.htm........................107

9 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY..................................................................109

9.1 General..........................................................................................................109

9.2 Public Participation in Mining Activities ........................................................110

9
 9.3 Some Best Practices of Corporate Social Responsibility................................111

9.3.1 Material stewardship ..............................................................................111

9.3.2 Awareness and preparedness for emergencies at local level .................116

10 ENHANCING THE POSITVE DELIVERY OF THE MINING SECTOR..........................118

10.1 The Weak-Link Identification and Mitigation in Mining Industry..................118

10.2 Mining Industry in Africa Amid Current World Economic Crisis ...................120

11 CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................... 122

12 RECOMMENDATIONS.........................................................................................123

REFERENCES...........................................................................................................125

APPENDICES........................................................................................................... 132

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1 INTRODUCTION

The continent of Africa is home to almost all of the important world minerals. Mining of these
minerals in the continent at commercial scale became significant in the 19th century following
colonization in the 18th century of the continent by the European powers, mainly the Belgian,
British, French, German, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish empires. Exploitation of resources and
establishing outlet markets for European products were among the main driving forces for the
scramble for Africa3.

Historically, Africa has not experienced a net gain from the exploitation of its natural resources.
The trend by investor countries has largely been that of

• exploiting/extracting resources from Africa;

• taking these resources from Africa to investor home countries in Europe, America or Asia
for downstream processing; and
• exporting finished products to Africa.

Exploitation of mineral resources results in significant environmental degradation. Actions such

as outlined above mean that wealth taken out Africa does not match the damage caused in host
communities/countries, except perhaps for those countries in Africa where the colonizers
envisaged creating their permanent homes. The following quote summarizes this view4:

“With regard to infrastructural facilities and development, the mining towns of Obuasi, Tarkwa,
Prestea, Konongo, among others, provide a classic picture of the typical mining towns in Ghana.
These towns are far from affluent, an aberration of what communities endowed with mineral
resources, are or should look like. The towns are very much unlike other gold mining towns such
as Johannesburg in South Africa, Noranda City in Ontario, Canada, Reno in the USA or Perth
in Australia, where the scars of mining are sealed by the beauty and riches of these cities, built
out of mining”.

Many African countries have become increasingly aware of this scenario, and it has therefore
become most appropriate and urgent to evaluate past experiences in natural resources
development in Africa and to devise best practices which ensure that mineral resources
contribute to the economic and social development of host societies in a sustainable and
equitable manner.

In 2007, UNEP established the International Panel for Sustainable Resource Management
(Resource Panel) as a first step towards addressing the need to tackle resource efficiency
challenges for both renewable and non-renewable resources from a life-cycle perspective. The
overall objective of the Resource Panel is to provide independent scientific assessment on
environmental impacts due to the use of natural resources over the full life cycle and provide
advice to governments and international organizations on ways to reduce these identified
impacts.

3
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa#Causes_of_the_Scramble_for_Africa
4
http://apps.twnafrica.org/Blog/?c=environment&p=1

11
Consequently, the Big Table on “Managing Africa’s Natural Resources for Growth and Poverty
Reduction” which was held on February 2007 led to the establishment of International Study
Group (ISG) to review Africa’s mining regimes. Under the Big Table it has been suggested that
it is crucial to evaluate past experiences in natural resources development in Africa and put
forward recommendations as to how mineral rich countries of Africa might best ensure that their
natural resources contribute to the economic and social development of their societies in a
sustainable and equitable manner [ECA, 2007].

The overall objectives of the ISG to Review Africa’s Mining Regimes are to review the extent to
which Africa’s current mining regimes promote sustainable development of the mining sector as
well as the broad national and regional economy, and to propose key elements for future change
in the form of templates, toolkits and guidelines to formulate the next generation of Africa’s
mining regimes. This study on mining and environment is part of a broader study.

This study looks at the environmental sustainability component of mining regimes in Africa. The
main objective of the study is to prepare a comprehensive review report on Mining and
Environment in Africa that will feed into the general report of the International Study Group
(ISG) on Mining Regimes in Africa and the work to be done under the International Resource
Panel (IRP). The Terms of Reference for the task leading to this report can be found in Appendix
1.

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2 THE MINERALS OF AFRICA

The African continent houses a diverse mix of minerals including aluminum, antimony, chrome,
coal, cobalt, copper, diamond gold, lead, molybdenum, nickel, oil and natural gas, palladium,
platinum, coltan, ruthenium, silver, tantalum, tin, uranium, zinc and gemstones such as emerald,
tanzanite, aquamarine, garnet and amethyst. Furthermore, Africa has significant resources of
coal.

Minerals are widely distributed on the African continent. Table A2.1 in Appendix 2 gives a
summary of major mineral deposits which may be either developed or undeveloped. From the
Table, it can be observed that minerals, to various degrees, are present in every African country.

Figure 2.1: Map of some mineral deposits of Africa5.

Looking at the non-oil mineral facilities map (Figure 2.1), the largest cluster of mining activities
occurs mostly in the belt extending from southern Africa through central to western Africa, and
also the northern Africa part covered by Morocco and Tunisia.

Africa is a global leader in the production of platinum group metals (PGMs), phosphate, gold,
platinum, vanadium, cobalt, diamonds and aluminium, as shown in Table 2.1. The table also
shows that Africa is a world leader in reserves of the same minerals. A more systematic and
comprehensive geological survey may bring to light a much greater resource base.

5
http://www.aeon.uct.ac.za/content/pdf/join%20us/p5053.viewpoint42.pdf
13
 Table 2.1 Some leading African mineral resources, 2005 [ECA and African Union. 2008].
AFRICAN % AFRICAN %
MINERAL OF WORLD RANK OF WORLD RANK
PRODUCTION RESERVES
Platinum Group Metals 54% 1 60+% 1
Phosphate 27% 1 66% 1
Gold 20% 1 42% 1
Chromium 40% 1 44% 1
Manganese 28% 2 82% 1
Vanadium 51% 1 95% 1
Cobalt 18% 1 55+% 1
Diamonds 78% 1 88% 1
Aluminium 4% 7 45% 1
Also Ti (20%), U (20%), Fe (17%), Cu (13%), etc.

Regrettably, most of Africa’s minerals are presently exported as ores, concentrates or primary
metals (Photograph 2.1), without significant downstream processing to add value (Photograph
2.2). There is thus a large potential to increase revenues and employment through mineral
beneficiation on the continent.

Copper cathode Copper cables

Photograph 2.1 EXAMPLE of primary metal Photograph 2.2 EXAMPLE of fabricated metal

14
3 DEFINING “CONTRIBUTION” OF MINING TO DEVELOPMENT

The African continent, like all other landmasses, comprises the six essential “mother” resources
including land, air, water, flora, fauna and minerals (intrinsic in land) which singularly or in
multiple combinations provide the basis for socio-economic survival of the continent’s
inhabitants. It is from these resources that the continent derives goods and services for local or
international consumption.

Land-based resources are terrestrial features that exist above the mean sea level. They include
landforms such as plains, valleys, plateaux, mountains, deltas and peninsulas, islands and basins;
soils; and plants and animals. In terms of economics, land resources also include mineral and
fossil fuel deposits, natural and farmed timber, crops, animals and fish [Hamblin, 1998]. Land is
a critical factor in natural and human managed production systems, influencing the level of
natural capital, and social and economic development. These resources are important at all levels
ranging from household to global [UNEP, 2006.].

Activities that depend on land include agriculture and forestry; development and expansion of
urban infrastructure such as transportation; extraction of oil and non-oil minerals; development
of tourism and recreation; and disposal of domestic and industrial waste. Land is critical in the
cradle-to-grave cycle of both living and non-living things, providing habitats and other
ecological goods and-services, sustaining investment and human livelihoods, and absorbing solid
and liquid waste, pollutants and pesticides [UNEP, 2006; IUCN & ICMM, 2005].

Land is critical to all aspects of human well-being. It provides material resources for livelihoods,
food and health, provides security against environmental shocks and future uncertainties, and
underlies many social and cultural systems. Access to land and the resources it offers is at the
core of enhancing opportunities and choices, particularly for those who depend more directly on
it.

The above suggests that a natural resource based development which is undertaken without
evaluation of the best possible option, singularly or as a combination out of land, air, water,
flora, fauna and minerals (intrinsic in land) may be missing greater opportunities. Therefore
countries that have prioritized mineral exploitation over other natural resource options fall in this
category of likely missed opportunities.

Ideally, natural resource accounting and economic simulation should be carried out to determine
which of the natural resources, singularly or severally, would give a net gain (represented by
“NET RESULT” in Figure 3.1) to the community/country/environment where target mineral
resources are located. Therefore, only when a deposit of the target mineral in a locality is found
to give a net gain, should it then be exploited.

When can it be claimed that mining has contributed to national development? Assuming an
analysis has been carried out which indicates that mine development in a locality turns out to be
the best economic option, the next issue is to determine actions that would meet minimum
expectations from a mine development by the mineral host communities. One example can be
described as follows:

15
 Figure 3.1: The schematic illustration of the relationship between resources and inputs/outputs
leading to net result (positive/negative)and environmental alteration (positive/negative).

In areas where mineral exploitation demands resettlement of communities, the whole process of
resettlement should be addressed as a business. Each affected individual/community should as a minimum
break even, so that their socio-economic security (SES) in their new locality should as a minimum be equal
to their original state [Sinkala, 2002]. If this minimum is exceeded, the mine development can be
considered to have contributed to socio-economic development and poverty reduction.

The net gain must also translate downstream to national level, so that a situation must not arise
where the mineral host country has experienced a net loss.

In relation to contribution to national development by the minerals industry in host countries,

there are four categories in the industry’s value chain from where this contribution can be
derived (see Figure 3.1). These include:

• participation by the mineral host country in provision of key mine investment inputs;
• participation by the mineral host country in the mine production process;
• accrued benefits from outputs and provision of services in the value chain of the mineral
production sector; and
• acquisition of environmental management skills through participation by the mineral host
community in management of the altered environment, as well as the possibility for the
community to acquire an improved environment (e.g. afforested mine area in arid
regions).
16
3.1 Host Country Participation in Key Mine Investment Inputs

A host country can benefit by participating in key investment inputs including capital,
technology, policy direction skills and market. For capital, the host country can be a shareholder
in the investment. In relation to technology, the host country can participate in the development
of the mineral exploitation technology so that the country is technologically equipped beyond
just the prevailing mineral deposit being exploited. With regard to policy direction skills, the
host country can use the opportunity to develop and contribute with key skills for the policy
direction of the mineral exploitation. As for the market, the host country can be introduced to the
minerals markets where the country can participate and be equipped with skills beyond the
prevailing deposit being exploited.

Examples here include (i) Debswana, a diamond company equally owned by De Beers and the Botswana
government, and (ii) the Royal Bafokeng Nation (RBN) in South Africa provides an example of a
community, which appears to have done exceedingly well with its participation in mining operations
conducted on its land [ECA and African Union, 2008].

3.2 Participation in the Mine Production Process

Participation by a host country in the production of mineral deposit can be in form of technical
management and skills provision for the operations. Such skills are for the entire running of
minerals industry so that, in case new viable deposits are discovered, the country has technical
ability to manage their exploitation without being too dependent on outside expertise.

3.3 Revenues and Provision of Services to Mining Industry

Associated with the establishment of the mining industry are various mine investment outputs
including revenues/taxes, development of human capacity, development of communication
infrastructure, downstream processing and industry; and direct and secondary services to the
industry in which nationals can participate. Benefits that can accrue to the host country due to the
existence of the industry can be wide ranging, as indicated by the above outcomes and services.

3.4 Participation in Management of the Altered Environment due to Mining Industry

Environmental degradation due to mining industry is ranked as second after agriculture

(intensive land cultivation, over-use of agricultural chemicals, slope ploughing, intensive
irrigation, over-grazing)6’7. The environmental costs of mining, if not well handled, can be
massive in terms of land conversion and degradation, habitat alteration and groundwater
pollution. It is therefore cardinal that minerals host communities are literate about environmental
issues and skilled to manage them. They are the ones who bear the consequences during and
after mining activities occurring in their areas and therefore local capacity must developed for
them to handle environmental matters beyond mine life. In some respects, such as arid
environments, a once bare land may be greened and populated with fauna, to the benefit of host
communities.
6
http://www.grid.unep.ch/product/publication/CEO-for-Internet/CEO/ch2_2_2.htm
7
http://www.allbusiness.com/nonpoint-source-pollution/4973520-1.html
17
In a closed economy, all key mine investment inputs; management of mine production process;
accrued benefits from outputs and provision of services in the mineral production sector; and
acquisition of skills by host communities to manage altered environment due to mining industry;
must be 100% by and in the mineral host country. Gains can therefore also be 100%.

In a globalised economy however, such a situation is mostly found in developed countries, but
rare in developing countries. Producers are not necessarily consumers of the produced mineral
products. Furthermore the huge investment capital, technologies, and/or skills required by some
mining projects are in many cases way beyond many countries hosting minerals of interest.
Mineral host countries can therefore only maximize gains to the best extent possible using
various tools targeted at the four categories described above.

In October 2008, the Economic Commission for Africa jointly with African Union developed an
“Africa Mining Vision” with the theme: “Equitable and optimal exploitation of mineral resources
to underpin broad-based sustainable growth and socio-economic development”. Implementation
of the vision will be done in a phased manner as shown in Figure 3.2, and there appear to be
similarities between the principle discussed above and the ECA/AU vision. Section 1 of Article
16 of the Draft ECOWAS Directive on the Harmonization of Guiding Principles and Policies in
the Mining Sector States that:

“Mining Rights holders in Member States shall conduct their mining activities in a manner that respects the
right to development in which peoples are entitled to participate in, contribute to, and enjoy economic,
social, cultural, and political development in a sustainable manner”.

Table 3.1 is an example of an evaluation table for traceable and quantifiable wealth creation
options for mineral host communities/countries. From the table, we can compute the Net Result
based on various tools which may be prescribed in development agreements. This approximate
quantitative result would indicate the gains to be made by the mineral host country in the value
chain of mineral projects, and whether such gains are worth the natural and social environmental
damage that may be caused.

Presently, it appears African countries have historically applied inadequate analyses of natural
resource (mineral) development projects. As a result, there are many unaccounted net losses
against mineral-host environments/countries during and after closure of mine operations. Such
scenarios end-up becoming very costly [Boocock, 2002] for host countries to manage mine areas
after mine closure. Examples here include South Africa [Department of Environment and
Tourism, 2008] and Zambia [Makumba, 2007].

Although the process as described above to determine the best course of action when dealing
with natural resources may appear to be laborious, “the benefits of early action to improve
resource efficiency and sustainability outweigh the difficulties” [Mebratu, 2008].

The evident mine ruble, water and air pollution, land degradation and social disruption in mine
areas versus “wealth” created by miners which mineral host communities have not felt has given
rise to conflicts in such areas. Examples are Tarkwa gold mining in Ghana8 and fluorspar mining
8
http://www.earthworksaction.org/wassa.cfm.
18
in Kerio valley in Kenya [Ogola, Mitullah and Omulo, 2002]. Mining regimes have to therefore
be revisited for areas where they are inadequate.

Figure 3.2 Schematic resource-based African industrialization phasing

(relative economic importance) [ECA and African Union. 2008].

19
Table 3.1 Assessment of the value of development to the area/country of resource location
OPTIONS IN A GLOBALISED
WEALTH IDEAL ROUTE
ECONOMY
CREATION Value Value
ROUTE Example Action (Monetary Example Action (Monetary
equivalent) equivalent)
Local Resource LRideal LRsub
Evaluate development
• Fair share in investing company,
Own resource options, invest in resource and
process and diversify locally. • Sell resource at a fair price.
Production Inputs PIideal PIsub
• Local trust,
Money/capital Fair share
• Employee fair share.
Local parts manufacture. (NB: • Parts supply,
Technology South Africa used this during
apartheid rule) • Technology skills.
Full mastery of technology.
Skills (NB: These are on the • Technology know-how beyond
investment side) mere maintenance.

Develop local capacity to • Develop local capacity to

Product market participate in the market and
manage market.
retain.
Outputs OPideal OPsub
• Fair share of revenues through
Most of the revenues re-
Revenues taxes, part investment in local
invested in local economy
economy.
Skills with highly versatile
• Skills empowering locals beyond
Skilled nationals application beyond specific
specific technology.
technology
Communication 100% constructed by local • Local participation in
infrastructure companies infrastructure development.
Local capacity to downstream
Downstream
process nearly 100% of all • Capacity for semi-fabricates.
processing
products from the mines
All non-technology sensitive • Most non-technology sensitive
Direct industry
DIRECT services handled by DIRECT services to be handled
services
local companies by local companies.
All secondary non-specialized All secondary non-specialized services
Secondary services
services handled by locals handled by locals
All amenity services handled
Social amenities All amenity services handled by locals
by locals
Environment Eideal Esub
The altered environment
performs better than before
mining. Best practices applied in
Environmental
environmental management, resulting
alteration
Local community provided in minimal environmental liabilities.
with skills to manage the
environment.
Total = NRideal Total = NRsub

20
4 CONTRIBUTION OF MINERALS TO DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA

Africa is home to almost all minerals of the world, albeit in different amounts in relation to the
global resource base. Based on current geological mapping, the continent is world leader in both
production and reserves in some of the minerals such as diamonds, cobalt, aluminium, PGMs
and gold, as shown by Table 2.1. The continent also has significant resources of coal, of which
South Africa is the largest producer and exporter.

Minerals constitute among the most valuable exports of Africa. The largest cluster of mining
activities lies along the belt extending from southern Africa through central to western Africa,
and in north Africa in Morocco and Tunisia.

Table A2.2 shows that countries that are involved in mining of minerals, and whose exports from
these commodities rank among the top 3, include:

Southern Africa
Botswana, Congo DR, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania and Zambia,
Zimbabwe.

Central Africa
Central African Republic and Gabon.

East Africa
Djibouti (urban mining) and Rwanda.

North Africa
Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia.

West Africa
Benin, Ghana, Guinea K, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, Sierra Leon and Togo.

Djibouti inclusion in the list is because the country is practicing urban mining and export of
ferrous waste and scrap. Table 4.1, derived from Tables 6.9 and A2.2, shows that 24 (45%) of
the 53 African countries rely on minerals as the largest exports from their countries, thus earning
these countries foreign exchange for various socio-economic activities. Considering Sub-Sahara
Africa alone, 21 (40%) of the 48 countries rely on minerals as the leading exports.

21
 Table 4.1 Number of countries whose minerals rank among the top 3 export commodities (Derived from Table 6.9)
MINERALS EXPORT
REGION LARGE SCALE MINING SMALL SCALE MINING
RANK 1 - 3

SOUTHERN AFRICA (of 15) 13 14 9

CENTRAL AFRICA (of 6) 3 6 2
EAST AFRICA (of 10) 8 10 2
NORTH AFRICA (of 5) 5 4 3
WEST AFRICA (of 17) 12 17 8
TOTAL (out of 53) = 41 51 24
Prevalence (%) 77 96 45

4.1 Minerals Industry

Mining as an industry and its products constitute a major bedrock of industrial development of
any country. The equipment made from processed minerals used in construction and
communication systems and the mineral-derived chemicals for various applications in
pharmaceutical and agricultural industry, to name just a few, have given a landscape to the world
as we know it to-day.

Various countries derive benefits directly from mining or from downstream processing of
minerals. In the Southern African Development Community (SADC), for example, the mining
industry contributes about 60% of foreign exchange earnings, 10% of Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) and 5% of employment. The economies of Angola, Botswana, the DRC, Namibia, South
Africa, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe get between 22% and 96% of their foreign exchange
directly from mining and mineral exploitation [UNEP 2006, USGS9]. The above include
Angola’s oil and gas which in 2006 contributed about 52% and 96% of that country’s GDP and
exports respectively, while diamonds contributed about 3% to the country’s GDP9.

In West Africa, growth in the economies of Burkina Faso, Guinea, Ghana, Mali and Sierra Leone
has been attributed to expansion in mining [UNEP, 2006]. Mining of gold, phosphates, iron,
uranium and diamonds have offered opportunities for development in the region.

Although Africa is a mining giant with impressive production in some countries, the industrial
base is insignificant, and the majority of its people live in growing poverty. There is a need for
Africa to move from being a major exporter of primary mineral resources to strengthening its
industrial and manufacturing base. Only a few countries including South Africa, Botswana and
Namibia have utilized mineral wealth to significantly improve the economic landscapes of their
countries, for the benefit of their people.

9
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/africa.html#ao
22
4.1.1 Contribution by large scale mining to national development

Large scale mining is taking place in 41 (77%) of the 53 African countries (Table 4.1).
Contribution by large scale mining is through many avenues, such as those shown in Table 3.1
under “OPTIONS IN A GLOBALISED ECONOMY”, but to various degrees in respective
countries. In addition to tax collected by governments, large scale mining companies develop or
stimulate development of infrastructure such as roads, railways, electric power generation and
distribution, and telecommunications system, as well as social amenities such as schools,
hospitals and recreational facilities.

In addition, there are opportunities for nationals such as investing in shares in the mining
companies and participating in delivery of services for mine operations. The industry also
develops skills of nationals in various areas.

These opportunities, if maximized along the principles stated in Chapter 3 and if well managed,
have a very large potential to develop African countries.

Practically, it is easier to control activities and monitor financial transactions of large scale mines
than it is of artisanal and small scale mines.

4.1.2 Contribution by artisanal and small scale mining to national development

Artisanal and small scale mining in Africa have been in existence for centuries, but have
increased since the mid-1980s due to opportunities created by trade liberalization. If we include
quarrying for aggregate stone, sand and gravel, then artisanal/small scale mining operations
occur in 51 (96%) of the 53 African countries (Table 4.2). It is estimated that about 20 million
people depend on artisanal and small scale mining on the continent. In a number of countries,
including Mali, Tanzania, Ghana, South Africa, Zambia and Mozambique, the role of
artisanal/small scale mining in improving livelihood for rural poor communities has been
recognized and has accordingly been factored into national planning strategies [UNEP, 2006].
Artisanal and small scale mining have been a major source of income which increases the wealth
of rural populations where, in some cases, the income supports investments in agriculture and
other socio-economic activities. This increases the options available to rural communities.

Table 4.2: Prevalence of small scale mining activities in Africa [FROM Table 6.9 of this report]
NUMBER OF COUNTRIES
(%
REGION WITH SMALL SCALE
)
MINING ACTIVITIES
SOUTHERN AFRICA (out of
15) 14 93

23
 10
CENTRAL AFRICA (out of 6) 6 0
10
EAST AFRICA(out of 10) 10 0
NORTH AFRICA(out of 5) 4 80
10
WEST AFRICA(out of 17) 17 0
Total (out of 53) = 51 96
Percentage (%) = 96

The biggest problem with this scale of mining industry is that it is hard to regulate in most forms
by government. The worst cases are where licensing excludes traditional/local authorizes who
are close to sites of the mineral resources and may therefore play a major role to manage the
industry if they were given the mandate. In such situations, indigenous communities with
traditional land rights are powerless to stop rushes of artisanal miners. This scale of industry is
therefore largely an unregulated environment, to the detriment of the greater community and
economy.

Apart from difficulties in collecting tax, the industry pollutes both the environment and social
fabric, destroys land which thereafter may be lost for other economic purposes, and the people
engaged in the industry expose themselves to physical health risk as can be seen in Photographs
4.1 (in Senegal) and 4.2 in South America.

Photograph 4.1: Reed covered small scale mine shafts on a Photograph 4.2: Gold panning in South America, indicating a
hillside hosting hundreds of artisanal mines, near the village of common problem for developing countries11.
Tenkhoto, Senegal10.

10
http://abcnews.go.com/International/WireStory?id=5551166&page=3.
11
http://www.sph.umich.edu/fogartysa/bcAgenda2005.pdf.
24
Photograph 4.3: A 7-year old child 7 sells gold for Photograph 4.4: Children and women reworking old dumps and
5,000 Guinean Francs (approx. $1) in the Fatoya mine washing for gold in Murrupula, Nampula province, Mozambique
12 [SANTREN and ITDG, 2001].
region, in Guinea on April 25, 2008 .
Furthermore, the industry quite often attracts child labour, and the children of the women folk
involved in gold mines are subjected environments full of mercury vapour13.

4.2 Some Factors Affecting Mineral Wealth Contribution to African Development

4.2.1 Corruption and governance challenges

It has been observed that many resource-rich countries in Africa face special governance
challenges related to weak and poorly enforced law and policy [Pedro M.A.A, 2002]. Countries
dependent on mining that have weak political institutions often have higher levels of inequality
and poverty than non-mineral economies at similar income levels. Such countries often lag
behind in overall development, with higher levels of child malnutrition, lower educational
outcomes, and even shorter life expectancy [UNEP, 2006].

With the help of Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI), the last column in Table A2.2 compares
corruption levels in African countries for the years 2007 and 2008. Corruption Perceptions
Index is a rating published by Transparency International which orders the countries of the world
according to "the degree to which corruption is perceived to exist among public officials and
politicians". The organization defines corruption as "the abuse of entrusted power for private
gain". A higher score means less (perceived) corruption14. The performance for the years 2007/8
is summarized in Table 4.3, from which it can be observed that 25 (47%) out of the 53 countries
became more corrupt while 24 (45%) became less corrupt. Corruption levels for 4 (8%) of the
countries did not change over the period.

Table 4.3: Performance in corruption levels in African countries for 2007/2008 (From Table A2.2)

12
http://abcnews.go.com/International/WireStory?id=5551166&page=3

13
http://www.dol.gov/ILAB/media/reports/iclp/tda2004/senegal.htm.
14
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corruption_Perceptions_Index
25
 NUMBER OF
NUMBER OF
NO COUNTRIES
COUNTRIES
REGION CHAN WITH
WITH REDUCED
GE INCREASED
CORRUPTION
CORRUPTION
SOUTHERN AFRICA (out
of 15) 7 0 8
CENTRAL AFRICA (out of
6) 0 1 5
EAST AFRICA(out of 10) 4 1 5
NORTH AFRICA(out of 5) 3 1 1
WEST AFRICA(out of 17) 10 1 6
Total (out of 53) = 24 4 25
Percentage (%) = 45 8 47

4.2.2 Poor business environment

Africa ranks the most difficult continent in which to do business, as shown by Table 4.4 where
the larger the number means the more difficult it is. For the period 2006/7, the average rank of
African countries was 136 among 178 countries. Four African countries including Mauritius at
32, South Africa at 35, Namibia at 43, and Botswana at 51 had ranks in the top third. Kenya rose
to 72 and Ghana to 87. But all the others had ranks of 90 or higher.

The significance of this is that having mineral resources is not sufficient, and that it is important
to create an environment in which business by both local and foreign investors must flourish, and
the money earned from these investments channeled appropriately in social and economic
support infrastructures in order for the benefits from the resources to trickle down to nationals.

Many African countries have recognized the importance of improving business environment.
Consequently about 46 Sub-Saharan countries introduced at least one business environment
reform by 2006. Ghana and Kenya were among the top 10 reformers in the world in 2006/07.
Eleven (11) countries introduced reforms to reduce the time and cost needed to start a business.
For example, Burkina Faso created a one-stop shop for business entry, minimizing procedures
from 12 to 8 and time from 45 to 34 days [World Bank, 2007].

Table 4.4 Rank of average ease of doing business, by region, 2006/7 [World Bank, 2007].
Region 2006
East Asia & Pacifi c 76
Europe & Central Asia 77
Latin America & the Caribbean 87
Middle East & North Africa 96
South Asia 107
Sub-Saharan Africa 136

26
Quality of public institutions is judged by law and order, corruption level, court efficiency, and
quality in the provision of public services. Corruption in particular remains a serious obstacle
throughout African countries and is ranked as one of the top five overall constraints (Figure 4.1).
This is the view held among business owners, irrespective of gender and firm size.

The above scenario is another indication of one of the contributing factors leading to poor
performance in delivering goods and services in the affected countries. According to the World
Bank report for 2007 on African Development Indicators, performance indicators show that a
10% improvement in the objective measure of corruption and regulation is associated with about
a 2% increase in productivity [World Bank, 2007].

To maximize the benefits of increased economic growth, countries must build stronger
governance structures and strengthen accountability and transparency as well as eliminate graft.

Figure 4.1 Highest ranking constraints to doing business in Africa [World Bank, 2007].

4.2.3 Inadequate corporate social responsibility

African countries hosting mineral resources continue to experience poor corporate social
responsibility from the minerals industry. Reasons include inadequate development agreements
signed by host countries due to poor negotiation skills by the countries and the political
expedience to attract jobs for local people.

For most corporate decision makers, the cardinal issue narrows to whether their decisions
optimize share value. The corporate responsibility message is now widely
accepted by most leading companies, not only because they know they may
be punished by their customers if they do not appear to be trying hard to be
green, but also because it is profitable. A green business outlook is more
than just a “window dressing” action.

Evidence suggests that corporate companies applying higher levels of social responsibility are
associated with higher share values. A report released in July 2007 by Goldman Sachs, one of the
27
world’s leading investment banks, showed that in the six sectors covered including energy,
mining, steel, food, beverages, and media; companies that have sustained competitive advantage
and outperformed the general stock market by 25% since August 2005 are those that have
demonstrated leadership in implementing environmental, social and governance policies. Over
the same period, 72% of these companies also outperformed their peers in the same industries
[UNEP, 2008].

28
5 INITIATIVES AND TRENDS IN MINING AND MINERAL RESOURCE FLOWS

The increasing scarcity of minerals which are easy-to-reach and extract, the just-ended short era
of global high demand for mineral resources, and the need to understand the cradle-to-grave fate
of minerals resources for the purposes of environmental management have prompted high level
directive to carryout studies on global mineral resource flows. Study of the global metal flows
are in the centre of the 3R, namely Reduce, Reuse, Recycle Initiative proposed at the G8 Sea
Island Summit in 2004 by Japan and officially launched at the Ministerial Conference on the 3R
Initiative in Tokyo in 2005. The importance of increasing resource efficiency through
environmentally sound management in each country and establishment of the international sound
material-cycle society through the 3R initiative was reiterated at the subsequent G8 Summits.
The major world economies were urged to support and collaborate with developing countries
with the aim of establishing an international sound material-cycle society [Graedel et al, 2008].

In this regard, metals refined from mineral processing activities are high value resources. These
resources can easily be reused and recycled. By undertaking metal reuse and recycling activities
at global level, we will be closing the loops, turning waste into resources, and thereby minimize
environmental impacts, safeguard the availability of metals, minimize metal prices, and promote
meaningful and safe jobs for poor people in developing countries. Some G8 Governments have
laws on recycling, for example Germany and Japan. These countries have observed that a
significant fraction of metals never come back into the cycle and there is need to know the fate of
these metals. There is also need to know which environmental impacts can be offset by recycling
in comparison to mining, and how resource efficiency world-wide can be enhanced by more and
better reuse and recycling activities [Graedel et al, 2008].

To this effect, UNEP has constituted various expert groups to:

• Assess the quantity of metal stocks currently in use or landfilled and provide estimates as
to when in the future and what amounts will re-enter circulation;
• Assess the current metals reuse and recycling activities on a global scale with regard to
their resource efficiency, including environmental and other relevant sustainability
impacts; and
• Describe current global metals flows and provide the scientific evidence that recycling
metals is better for the environment than mining them.

5.1 Global Trends

Until a few months ago, the world experienced, more than ever before, a record high cereal, fuel
and other commodity prices. Reasons include a growing global demand for materials more
especially in the emerging economies, and also increasing concerns about supply security and
sustainability of resource use. This kind of scenario created significant macroeconomic
consequences such as inflation, and further environmental challenges associated with the
changing material flows both within and among countries.

Decisions about technological development and innovation are, among others, influenced by
prices. As a result, finding a more sustainable and efficient way to extract and use natural
29
resources, have become critical considerations, thus adding to the long-standing concerns about
environmental impacts. These realities create major economic, environmental and social
challenges for our societies and the international community. The question is how the world can
sustain long-term economic growth and wellbeing and, at the same time, ensure the sustainable
management of our natural resources and reduction in environmental pressures.

Since 1980 the global resource extraction has increased by half and is now about 60 billion
tones, and expected to reach 80 billion tonnes in 2020]. Of the current total extraction of natural
resources, 40% is by the OECD countries [Padoan, 2008.

OECD countries, with only 18% of the world’s population, consume nearly 50% of global
natural resources. However, there are significant differences between countries and regions. For
example, the OECD-Europe imports over 70% and OECD-Asia 99% of the metal resources they
consume. Consumption in the fast growing developing economies of Brazil, Russia, India, and
China (BRICs) is also increasing rapidly. For instance, China alone accounts for half of global
cement consumption and about a third of global steel, coal, copper, tin, zinc, meat and cotton
consumption. While per capita material consumption in the BRICs and other non-OECD
countries is still well below the level of the OECD countries, the production and consumption
patterns are growing.

Looking ahead, a global adoption of a “western” lifestyle and consumption pattern would reach
the physical limits of the planet, for a number of resources. Improving the resource efficiency
would not improve this scenario, but is would be good for the environment. The negative
environmental impacts associated with the extraction, use and end-of-life management of natural
resources would reduce. The measure would also help avoid situations where valuable materials
contained in waste are disposed of and ultimately lost for the economy. Furthermore, this would
help to ensure that the consumption of resources and their associated impacts do not exceed the
carrying capacity of the environment. Improving resource efficiency would make the relationship
between economic growth and resource use less linear. It would also lead to greater energy and
water efficiency.

There are a number of initiatives that are addressing the issue of resource efficiency at the global,
regional and national levels, and also in both public and private sectors. The G8 countries have
had this as an agenda item at their past five summits. The OECD Council adopted
recommendations on resource productivity in 2004 and 2008. The 2008 Council
recommendation was made public in 2008 after the OECD Environment Ministers’ Meeting. The
OECD has also just published a policy-maker’s guide on measuring material flows and resource
productivity. And in 2007, UNEP set up an International Panel on Sustainable Resource
Management. The EU adopted thematic strategies on the sustainable use of natural resources as
well as on waste prevention and recycling in 2005. Most OECD countries address efficient
management and sustainable use of natural resources. They have also launched initiatives to
promote waste prevention, sustainable materials management, integrated product policies and the
“3 R” (reduce, reuse & recycle) Initiative. China has recently adopted a law on the “circular
economy” [Padoan, 2008].

30
The business sector has for its part established stewardship programmes for materials and
products, invested in R&D and uses advanced technologies and non-technological innovation to
increase materials and energy efficiency in both production and consumption phases. It also
promotes eco-design and coherent materials supply and use systems. Sustainable resource use is
further supported by international efforts to manage natural resource rents in a more transparent
way and to promote good governance in extractive industries (e.g. the OECD Guidelines for
Multilateral Enterprises) [Padoan, 2008].

5.2 Trends in Mineral Resource Flows in Africa

5.2.1 Metallic minerals

Figures 5.1 and 5.2 clearly show that Africa is more of a supplier of raw material than a
destination. Africa is more a buyer of finished goods made from the same material originally sent
to industrialized countries that benefit more by adding value. The addition in monetary value
when minerals are further processed is illustrated by Figure 5.3 using iron ore, where it is shown
that in the iron ore value chain, the iron ore worth about US$20/t FOB will appreciate to about
US$450/t FOB when processed into steel.

Figure 5.1 A sketch indicating the global flow of copper, nickel, zinc, lead and
other ores in 1998 [Moriguchi, 2008].

31
 Figure 5.2 A sketch indicating the global levels of reserves, mining, crude,
consumption and supply of iron [Halada, 2008].

In Africa, most countries mining metallic minerals go as far as the Refining (Figure 5.4) stage
(including smelting up to casting). Countries that are doing relatively significant downstream
processing of semi-fabricates are Egypt and South Africa. For copper, for instance, Egypt the
biggest importer of copper wire bars from Zambia manufactures mostly copper wire and
transformers, but exports most of the copper products outside Africa. For 2006, countries
importing copper wire from Egypt included France (52m US$), Jordan (16m US$), Hong Kong
(9.1m US$), Ireland (6.1m US$), and China (1.2m US$). The biggest export by Egypt to
SADC/COMESA region was 0.3 million US Dollars to South Africa.

In the same year, South Africa exported:

• electric motors and generators (excluding generating sets) to Zambia (9.5m US$),
Mozambique (2m US$), and Tanzania (3m US$);
• electric generating sets and rotary converters to Zambia (3.5m US$), Mozambique (3m
US$), and Tanzania (7.3m US$);
• electric transformers, static converter (e.ge rectifiers) to Zambia (11m US$),
Mozambique (3.5m US$), and Tanzania (2.6m US$); and
• insulated wire/cable to Zambia (11m US$), Mozambique (6.8m US$), and Tanzania
(4.9m US$).

32
5.2.2 Gemstones

Gemstone industry is largely a “preserve” of small scale miners. Apart from diamonds, tanzanite,
emerald and amethyst which may be found in sufficiently large volumes of concentration, thus
able to attract medium to large scale investment, the coloured stone (such as emerald, garnet,
aquamarine, tourmaline, topaz, sapphire, ruby and opal) industry attracts mainly artisanal and
small scale miners. Until about 10 to 15 years ago when sub-regional economic groups started
promoting coloured stone cutting and polishing, almost all the stones were exported raw to
countries such as Germany, India, Israel and Thailand. Recently, cutting and polishing is taking
place to some level, but quality is yet to permeate to most levels of those involved in the
industry.

The money generated from downstream processed gemstones can be best illustrated by the
disparity in affluence of observed through assets of source and destination of gemstones, as
shown in Photographs 5.1 to 5.4. The damage caused to the environment, human health and
social fabric in the areas where the gemstones are mined do not match the wealth generated by
those involved in these areas.

Photograph 5.2: Unprocessed amethyst trading

Photograph 5.1: Unprocessed tanzanite trading centre called UK in Mapatizya, Kalomo District,
centre at Merelani, the tanzanite mining area in Zambia.
Arusha, Tanzania [Kanis and Sinkala, 2005].

Photograph 5.3: Chanthaburi Gem Centre, Photograph 5.4: Offices of a gemstone dealer in
Thailand, one of the renowned destination of Chanthaburi, Thailand, a renowned destination of
gemstones [Kanis and Sinkala, 2005].

33
 gemstones [Kanis and Sinkala, 2005].

Figure 5.3: Iron ore value chain [Department of Minerals and Energy, 2007].

Figure 5.4: Mineral value addition [Adapted from Department of Minerals and Energy, 2007].

5.3 Implication of Mineral Resource Flows

Industrialized countries have generally achieved a relative decoupling in the direct resource
consumption in recent years. Energy and materials are converted into ‘economic value’ more
efficiently than ever, partly due to an international ‘burden shifting’: Resource intensive steps in
global value chains have been relocated to other countries. These new global material flows

34
result from growing involvement of businesses in trade and the changing nature of the goods
exchanged on global markets [Kuhndt, Tessema and Martin, 2008].

5.3.1 Resource productivity during extraction

While more and more resource extraction is taking place in Africa, the resource use is largely as
far as that associated with extracting and early processes activities (e.g. smelting and refining).
During these activities, lower rates of resource productivity during extraction are frequently
observed, leading not only to international burden shifting, but most likely letting these burdens
grow [Kuhndt, Tessema and Martin, 2008].

Mineral extraction activities have increasingly been globalised (Figure 5.1) and moved to
developing countries during the past decades. For instance, the total metal consumption in
Europe in 2001 was about 2020 million tons, of which only 20% was produced domestically.
Between 1970 and 2000, domestic ore extraction had fallen by about two thirds while domestic
consumption was more or less stable.

There is also an increasing trend to externalize the most materially intensive processes of raw
material to developing countries. For instance, there is no more iron ore extraction in Germany
due to the low grades (below 10%) compared to imported ores (about 60%) from developing
countries, such as Brazil which currently meets 55% of Germany’s iron ore imports. The high
global demand of base metals during the past few years has also led to usage of lower-quality
ores. In turn, this has given rise to lower resource and energy efficiency, and has increased the
waste tonnage and processing chemicals disposed in the environments of developing countries.

High demand for base metals due to rapid industrialization of, especially, China and India has
considerably increased Asia’s share in global resource extraction. For example, extraction of
metal ores in China grew by 160% between 1980 and 2002. Latin American increase in domestic
resource extraction is largely due to specialisation in resource-intensive export products, such as
metal ores, where base metal extraction increased by 161% [Kuhndt, Tessema and Martin,
2008].

5.3.2 Hidden flows in resource extraction

The significant shift in resource requirements by industrialized countries from domestic sources
towards the use of imports from developing countries, the environmental burden due to resource
use has also shifted to those regions, Africa included. While the resource productivity in
industrialized countries is increasing, developing countries struggle to cope with the
environmental impacts of rising extraction rates, including huge amounts of waste, wastewater
and dissipative losses.

About 98% of resource flows in the form of excavation residues occur in production countries.
For example, copper is amongst the ten most resource-intensive materials. During the extraction
process up to smelting, 1 ton of copper generates about [Kuhndt, Tessema and Martin, 2008]:

35
  100-350 tons of residues
 50-250 tons of extraction waste
 30-100 GJ of energy
 200-900 m3 of mineral dressing waste and slag; and
 up to 300 Kg of S02

A survey by the Wuppertal Institute has indicated that metal ores and industrial minerals account
for about 9% of the materials directly used and processed within the EU [Moll, Bringezu and
Schütz, 2005]. This material is referred to as the Direct Material Input (DMI). However, when
considering life-cycle-wide resource consumption associated with metals and industrial
materials, the share was observed to increase significantly. The DMI accounts for 25% of the
total materials required to satisfy the EU consumption levels. These “hidden flows” stem from
resource intensive extraction and treatment activities outside Europe, especially in developing
countries. Since the domestic extraction decreased on the account of imports, the overall total
material requirement of metals and industrial minerals increased significantly throughout the
1980 - 2000 observation period.

In reality, based on the definition presented in Chapter 3 (“DEFINING “CONTRIBUTION” OF

MINING TO DEVELOPMENT”) above, the mining costs are not all there is when reflecting
whether the country has “NET” gained or not. This is because besides having the “bragged
about” beneficial effects to society, mineral production also induces unwanted side effects.
Emissions of pollutants into air, water and soil can seriously impact human health, ecosystems,
crops and infrastructures. As a consequence, additional “concealed” costs are inflicted on society
without the society’s knowledge, which are not compensated through sales from mining industry
by the producers and thus are not reflected by the mineral revenues displayed.

This is in fact the case generally in all African countries, and is more prominent where the public
is directly and indirectly paying for historical liabilities, noting that the attention we pay to
environmental issues to-day is a recent human collective realization.

To illustrate the aspect of “concealed” costs, a study was conducted in the European Union to
assess the external cost above what buyers in EU pay for copper 15. In the study, 29 copper
smelters and refineries located in Europe were considered. The copper production in the most
important trading partner countries for refined or intermediate copper products was also taken
into account.

The study aimed to evaluate external costs in the copper value chain and to compare in particular
the primary and the secondary copper production in Europe. The present level of external costs
was estimated based on the contemporary European copper cycle and current production
technology. The study found that taking into account the high environmental impacts generated
in primary copper production countries of the EU, the realistic price paid by EU buyers from EU
primary producers should have been 33% higher than they normally pay.

15
http://ewasteguide.info/biblio/Eugster_2008_ETHZ
36
The modelling results showed clearly lower specific external cost for the recycling or secondary
copper production compared to the primary production. The energy intensive smelting processes
for the concentrate and in particular for the blister copper production, contribute substantially
to the higher external costs of primary copper. In the analyzed scenarios, the external costs of
primary copper were by a factor 2.2 – 2.5 higher than for secondary copper.

The specific external costs for primary copper production differ also significantly between
regions, namely for Europe, Chile, Peru and Russia. In Europe, the lowest external costs incurred
in 2005 was due to more advanced flue gas treatment systems and therefore significantly lower
emissions. In Chile and Peru, the external costs were estimated to be by a factor 1.6 higher than
in Europe. Because of poor implementation of environmentally sound technologies in Russia, the
external costs were estimated to be by a factor 3.1 higher than in Europe.

In Africa, Botswana, Congo DR, Morocco, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia and
Zimbabwe were in 2005 listed as copper producers. These countries are largely primary copper
producers. Apart from South Africa and possibly Morocco, the environmental management
standards of copper production in these countries are, on average, not likely to be as high as in
EU. The factor of external cost estimate with reference to EU is therefore much higher for these
African countries, possibly ranging from 1.6 or higher to 3.1 or higher than estimated for the
South American countries and Russia.

5.4 Current Trend in Mining and its Impacts on Security of Supply and Access

Africa is the world’s least industrialized region with respect to manufacturing. At present, nearly
all of the region’s natural resources are exported elsewhere for secondary processing (Figures
5.1, 5.2, 5.5, 5.6 and Table 5.1). The recent surge in demand for minerals means that more
minerals, a finite resource, were taken out of Africa, thus fast depleting the available resources.
Furthermore, high demand prompted mining of even lower ore grade. Lowering ore grades
translates into increased volumes of waste that is excavated and left as unsightly and polluting
heaps. On the other hand, now that the demand for minerals has dwindled, mining companies
that insist to continue mining will raise cut-off grades, so that more mineral material will be left
in situ.

When ore is left in situ, this ore is lost in cases where underground mining is presently used for
extraction. This means reduction in accessible resources for our future generation, giving rise to
an intergenerational inequity. We have inherited Africa from previous generations and we
therefore have an obligation to pass it on in a reasonably functional condition to our future
generations.

37
 Table 5.1: EU mineral imports dependence [Solar and Christmann, 2008.]
DEPENDENCE DEPENDENCE
MINERAL MINERAL
(%) (%)
Antimony 100 Gold 96
Beryllium 100 Uranium 94
Boron 100 Chromium 94
Cobalt 100 Phosphate 93
Mollybdenum 100 Aluminium 86
Niobium 100 Iron 82
PGMs 100 Zinc 82
Rare earths 100 Nickel 74
Renium 100 Copper 65
Tantalum 100 Lead ore 56
Tin 100 Tungsten ore 48
Titanium 100
Vanadium 100

Figure 5.5: Geographical concentration of minerals [Ericsson, 2008]

38
 Figure 5.6: Transnational corporations in global mining [Ericsson M. 2008]

Since Africa has no significant downstream processing and consumption of finished products,
and since Africa does not have significant recycling technology, Africa is loosing at both ends of
the mining industry value chain. The continent is loosing both the primary material and the
possibility to significantly hold metals in form of urban reserves for future urban mining.

5.5 Improving Resource Productivity in Global Value Chain for Extraction Locations

The Wuppetal Institute has proposed measures to improve resource productivity in global value
chain for ore extraction locations, which have been categorized at policy and industry levels
[Kuhndt, Tessema and Martin, 2008].

At policy level, governments could:

 link initiatives on social issues in extraction to operational and resource efficiency

improvements;

 promote the exchange of knowledge, technologies and best experience on how to

increase resource productivity in the extraction phase;

 set up internationally harmonised labelling and information systems on the (embodied)

resource consumption of raw materials and commodities.

At operational level, industry could:

 introduce resource efficiency standards in the global extraction activity globally to

capitalize on cost savings through resource efficiency;

 raise resource productivity in partnerships with actors in artisan or small-scale mining;

and

39
 engage in partnerships with raw material suppliers to enhance resource productivity
standards.

40
6 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACTS DUE TO MINING IN AFRICA

6.1 General

Although mining provides a variety of socio-economic benefits, the environmental costs of

mining, if not well handled, can be massive in terms of land conversion and degradation, habitat
alteration, groundwater contamination and other forms of pollution.

The fast growing clearing of vegetative cover in sensitive water catchment areas and forests in
the Lamba Water Catchment area of the Zambia’s copper belt due to the peri-urban development
triggered by existing mining activities [Limpitlaw and Woldai, 2004; ZCCM-IH, 2005a] and the
recent exploration activities due to “base metal rush” in the Copperbelt Province of Zambia is
one such example of land and habitat degradation.

Large-scale mining generally produces large volumes of waste and chemical pollutants which
may cover vast tracts of land, and can have devastating impacts on ecosystems. The most
pervasive problem associated with waste dumps is acid drainage16. Furthermore, many mining
activities are also polluting the environment through the use of hazardous chemicals, such as
heavy metal mercury and chemical cyanide both of which are used in gold mining at both small
and large scales. These heavy metals and chemicals when not properly managed can contaminate
water, a very important habitat for aquatic life and can enter the human food chain with deadly
effects [UNEP, 2006].

Evidence has indicated that the environmental and social effects of mining and smelting from
previous mining spanning decades, centuries, or even millennia can be long-term. Future
societies are compelled to continue to pay for natural capital stocks that have been utilized by
past generations [Makumba, 2007].

The long-lasting impact of mining has been globally realized, and since the 1990s many
governments have enacted environmental impact assessment (EIA) policies and laws. EIAs have
to some extent helped countries to make better evaluations of the benefits and costs associated
with mining and to adopt measures, such as restoration and rehabilitation, to avoid and mitigate
harmful impacts. For example, South Africa undertook an EIA of a proposed mining venture of
titanium along the eastern shores of St. Lucia, an area renowned as a valuable source of
biological diversity. A review panel, which was charged to determine whether mining would be
compatible with nature conservation and tourism, concluded that there was no compatibility. As
a result, mining permission was refused and in 1999 the area was declared a World Heritage Site
[UNEP, 2006].

Mining by nature causes direct and indirect impacts on the environment. The direct impacts are
those caused through its direct value chain activities including prospecting, exploration, site
development (including mine surface facilities), ore/coal extraction from rock in situ, mineral
dressing, smelting, refining/metallurgy, transportation and post mining. In this value chain, the
environment is affected in different phases of the mining cycle in various ways. Indirect impacts
are those caused through avenues including infrastructure for mining inputs such as energy and
16
www.deh.gov.au/industry/industry-performance/ minerals/training-kits/p1index.html. April/May 2001.
41
water; and stimulated services such as roads and railways and amenities such as urban and peri-
urban human settlements. The following sections present some of the environmental degradation
experiences obtaining in Africa, directly and indirectly due to mining industry.

6.2 Mining, Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Climate Change

Climate change is the average significant change of weather experienced by a region over a long-
term. Of the gases causing climate change, carbon dioxide is the main culprit (Figure 6.1).
Major human activities contributing to climate change is the burning of "fossil fuels" including
coal, oil, and natural gas. When these are burned they release carbon dioxide. Coal and oil
contain sulfur. When they are burned the sulfur is transformed into fine particles which pollute
the atmosphere, thus contributing to various environmental problems. Also the main cause of the
hole in the ozone layer is chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), gases that are used in refrigerators, air
conditioners, and industrial applications17.

Coal, particularly brown coal (also called lignite), is the energy source with the highest GHG
emissions per energy unit. Burning coal generates 70% more CO2 than natural gas for every unit
of energy.

Figure 6.1 World Greenhouse gas emissions by sector [UNEP, 2008].

When assessing GHG emissions in mining industry, this should cover “cradle-to-gate” emissions
of greenhouse gases resulting from the production of a mineral or coal, from a mining

17
http://envis.tropmet.res.in/globalchanges.htm
42
perspective18. Greenhouse gas emissions are associated with the consumption of energy at every
step in the production chain, from exploration through mining to the production of refined metal
(or washed coal), and also with the use of explosives in mining. Producers of primary minerals
material employ a variety of technologies to mine, mill, smelt and refine several different types
of ore, with every orebody having its own special character. Along the production chain, the
various modes of transport of ores and intermediate products can also contribute to GHG
emissions.

Depending largely upon location, mines, smelters, refineries and electrowinning plants consume
energy in different proportions from the major primary sources – hydroelectricity, nuclear
electricity, natural gas, petroleum products and coal – each with its own GHG impact.

6.2.1 Mining industry process and greenhouse gas emissions

Greenhouse gas emissions from mining industrial processes are primarily by-products of
production, and they vary with the process technology used and the level of industrial output.
These emissions arise from non-energy related sources. For example, high temperature
processing of calcium carbonate to produce quicklime releases carbon dioxide emissions.

The sources of emissions from industrial processes include [Australian Government, 2007], for
example:

Mineral Products: carbon dioxide from cement clinker and lime production, the use of limestone
and dolomite in industrial smelting processes, soda ash use and magnesia production.

Metal Production: carbon dioxide and perfluorocarbon emissions from aluminium smelting, and
carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide emissions from iron and steel production.

Consumption of halocarbons: emissions of hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons and sulfur

hexafluoride from refrigeration and air conditioning equipment, foam blowing, metered dose
inhalers, fire extinguishers, solvent use and electrical equipment.

An example of disaggregation of the industrial processes sector for some minerals and coal is
given in Table 6.1.

Table 6.2 is an example of the global stationary annual CO 2 point sources larger than 0.1 million
tonnes. It can be observed that mining activities including production of cement, refineries and
iron and steel rank among the highest sources of CO2 emissions.

18
http://www.minecost.com/GHG_Web.pdf

43
 Table 6.1: Example of disaggregation of the industrial processes sector [Australian Government, 2007]

CATEGORY EXAMPLE INDUSTRY SUB-SECTOR

Greenhouse gases
CO2 CH4 N2O PFC SF6 HFC
Mineral Products
Cement production ♦
Lime production ♦
Limestone/dolomite use ♦
Soda ash production and usea ♦
Magnesia productiona ♦

Metal Production
Iron and steel production ♦ ♦ ♦
Aluminium production ♦ ♦
SF6 used in aluminium and ♦
magnesium foundries

Coal19 Production and transportation ♦ ♦

Combustion ♦ ♦

a Emissionsreported under this subsector include the aggregated emissions from individual subsectors that report their
emissions on a confidential bases. These industries include ammonia and nitric acid production.

19
http://www.lime.com/glossary/greenhouse_gases
44
 Table 6.2: An overview of global stationary CO2 point sources larger than 0.1 million tonnes (Mt) of CO2/yr20.
NUMBER OF EMISSIONS
PROCESS
SOURCES (Mt CO2/yr)
Power 4,492 10,539
Cement production 1,175 932
Refineries 638 738
Fossil
Iron and steel industry 269 646
fuels
Petrochemical industry 470 379
Oil and gas processing N/A 50
Other sources 90 33
Biomass Bioethanol and bioenergy 303 91
TOTAL 7,887 13,466
(FROM: IPCC Special Report on CCS, based on the IE's GHG R&D Programme)

Copper, due to its divergent properties, is a popular metal. From the ecological point of view
however, processing of copper has some drawbacks. For example, copper ores contain elements,
like sulphur, which could be damaging. Recently, global copper-demand increased, mainly due
to rising Chinese imports. In the longer-term, the environmental impacts could intensify as an
increase in demand for copper products is expected, so enforcing growing mining and processing
activities. The carbon dioxide emissions for copper are 2kg/m2 compared to aluminum of
5.2kg/m2 21.

Technological changes in production processes can affect the energy and greenhouse intensity of
industrial processes but rarely reduce process emissions, which are dictated by the process
chemistry. However, product substitution may result in substantial changes in process emissions
by changing the underlying chemistry [Australian Government, 2007].

The mining and metals industry accounts for approximately 34.3% (Figure 6.2) of the global
GHGs from industry [UNEP, 2008]. In Africa, large scale mining is taking place in 41 (77%) of
the 53 countries, cement production in 31 (58%) of the countries, while active coal mines can be
found in 13 (25%) of the countries. Other than composite GHG emissions (Table 6.9) estimated
for 51 (96%) of the African countries, no data was found on GHG emissions attributable directly
to mining and metals industry in Africa to determine the continent’s mining industry’s share of
the 34.3% above.

20
www.climateactionprogramme.org/features/article/carbon_dioxide_capture_and_storage_a_future_for_coal/.
21
http://www.iancoxroofingltd.co.uk/index.php?f=data_home&a=2
45
 Figure 6.2 Greenhouse gas emissions by sector and by activity [UNEP, 2008].

6.2.2 Energy for mining and greenhouse gas emissions

Greenhouse gas emissions are associated with the consumption of energy at every step in the
production chain, from exploration through mining to the production of refined metal, and also
with the use of explosives in mining22. For those mining activities with energy intensive
operations such as smelters, such mines are reported to consume a significant amount of energy
[Swedish Trade Council. 2007]. Consequently the environmental impacts related to energy can
be said to be significantly stimulated by energy consumption by mining industry where they are
found, and depending on the energy source. Figure 6.3 gives an indication of GHG emissions
from production of electricity using different energy forms. Clearly, coal-based electricity
generation has the largest quantity of GHG emissions per kWh. Therefore those mines using this
source of electricity stimulate large amounts of emissions.

Figure 6.3: Greenhouse gas emissions from electricity production23.

Figure 6.4 shows that, in 1997, the biggest CO2 emitting coal producing countries (Table 6.3) in
Africa were South Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe. According to the year 2003 records, these
countries used coal to generate electricity as follows24: South Africa 93.5%, Botswana 100% in
Morupule25 and Zimbabwe 47% in Hwange.

22
http://www.minecost.com/GHG_Web.pdf
23
http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmselect/cmenvaud/584/584we34.htm
24
http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/ene_ele_pro_by_sou_fos_fue-electricity-production-source-fossil-fuel
25
http://www.miningmx.com/news/energy/155401.htm
46
In terms of gas emissions, South Africa, for example, releases some 170 million tons of carbon
dioxide annually, about 0.7 million tons of nitrogen oxides and about 1.5 million tons of sulphur
oxides [Lloyd, 2002]. Based on the country’s 1994 data, South Africa is so far the only African
country ranked in the top 20 greenhouse gas emitters (including land use change and forestry)
[UNEP, 2008].

Figure 6.4 Emissions of CO2 in 1997 for selected countries26.

47
48
 Table 6.3: Coal production in Africa27
COAL USAGE
FOR POWER
GLOBAL AMOUNT
SNo. COUNTRY YEAR GENERATION
RANK (Ton)
AMOUNT YEAR
(%)
244,986,00 93.5 2003
1 6 South Africa 0 2005
2 24 Zimbabwe 3,622,000 2005 47.0 2003
3 35 Botswana 967,000 2005 100.0 2003
4 38 Swaziland 360,000 2005
5 40 Zambia 244,000 2005
6 44 Niger 182,000 2005
7 45 Congo D.R. 120,000 2005
8 50 Tanzania 75,000 2005
9 52 Malawi 65,000 2005
10 56 Mozambique 40,500 2005
11 57 Egypt 33,000 2005
12 65 Nigeria 8,000 2005
13 67 Algeria 5,000 1999
14 71 Morocco 2,000 2001
15 72 Cameroon 1,000 1997
250,710,50
Total = 0

6.2.3 The GHG global status for Africa

Figure 6.5 indicates that Africa's contribution to greenhouse gas emissions is insignificant. When
comparing the greenhouse gas emissions per capita in the typical African country with the
typical European country, the Europeans emit roughly 50-100 times more, while the Americans
emit 100-200 times more [UNEP, 2002].

Global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have increased
markedly as a result of human activities since 1750 and now far exceed pre-industrial values
determined from ice cores spanning many thousands of years. The global increases in carbon
dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land use change, while those of
methane and nitrous oxide are primarily due to agriculture. Long-term trends from 1900 to 2005
have been observed in precipitation amount over many large regions [IPCC, 2007].

26
http://www.grida.no/publications/vg/africa/page/3113.aspx
27
http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/ene_coa_pro-energy-coal-production
49
 Figure 6.5: Estimated regional carbon emissions trend between 1800 and
200028.

According to the 2002 report of the Inter Governmental Panel on Climate Change Third
Assessment Report (IPCC TAR), Africa is very vulnerable to climate change because its
capacity to respond and adapt is low [UNEP, 2002].

Based on historical records, a warming of approximately 0.7°C has occurred over most of the
African continent during the 20th century. By the end of this century, global mean surface
temperature is expected to increase between 1.5ºC and 6ºC. Sea levels are projected to rise by 15
to 95 cm. The IPCC TAR graphics indicate that temperature rise in Africa corresponds to global
temperature rise [UNEP, 2002]. The expected warming is greatest over the interior of semi-arid
margins of the Sahara and central southern Africa. Drying has been observed in the Sahel, the
Mediterranean and southern Africa29.

Adverse impacts are spread across the diverse environments of Africa, putting a huge proportion
of African continent at great risk [UNEP, 2002]. Climate variability, including extreme events
such as storms, floods and sustained droughts, has caused significant impacts on settlements and
infrastructure in Africa. From urban planning point of view, the little-characterized and
unpredictable rapid-onset disasters such as storm surges, flash floods and tropical cyclones are
the biggest threats to localized population concentrations posed by climate variability and
change. Furthermore, negative impacts of climate change could create a new set of refugees, who
may migrate into new settlements, seek new livelihoods and add stress to the already inadequate
infrastructure [Parry, Canziani, Palutikof and Co-authors, 2007].

28
http://www.globalwarmingart.com/wiki/Image:Carbon_Emission_by_Region_png
29
http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-spm.pdf
50
In contrast to its relatively low energy consumption, Africa continues to be one of the major
regions of the world that suffers most from the effects of climate change, while at the same time
least capacity to implement mitigation strategies30.

6.2.4 Energy options for mining industry in Africa

In 2006, the world generated (Figure 6.6) a total of 18,930 Terawatt-hour (TWh) of electricity
(excluding pumped storage) from mainly coal/peat (41.0%), gas (20.1%), hydro (16.0%), nuclear
(14.8%) and oil (5.8%) fuels. Other sources (2.3%) included geothermal, solar, wind,
combustible renewables and waste, and heat. Of this total, Africa was responsible for only 3.1%
(Figure 6.7).

A significant amount of consumption in Africa is by industry, and in some regions of Africa the
industrial growth has outstripped the installed power capacity. Within the industrial sector, 41
(77%) of the African countries are housing large scale mining operations. This industry has a
considerable power demand. For example, in Zambia the copper mining industry alone consumes
nearly two thirds of the power produced in the country [Swedish Trade Council. 2007].

Most of the sub-Saharan nations face electricity shortages and unprecedented power crises
(Figure 6.8). In recent years more than 30 of the 53 countries in the region have suffered acute
energy crises [IMF, 2008]. Much of the available power goes to energy-intensive industries like
mining and smelters.

Figure 6.6: Global fuel shares of electricity generation (excludes

pumped storage) in 2006. (NB: Other includes geothermal, solar, Figure 6.7: Regional shares of electricity generation for
wind, combustible renewables and waste, and heat) [IEA, 2008a]. 2006 [IEA, 2008a].

30
http://www.climateactionprogramme.org/regional_focus/africa
51
 Figure 6.8: Areas of ongoing or imminent power
shortfalls in Sub-Saharan Africa [IMF, 2008].

Whereas mining industry has stimulated development of increased power in Africa, there are
associated direct and indirect environmental problems. In short, more mining industry demands
development of more energy to meet the industrial and domestic needs, which unfortunately also
gives rise to more emissions and therefore environmental degradation.

The alternative of not developing modern energy also results in environmental problems and
perpetuates poverty. The United Nations Development Programme(UNDP) has stated that31:

“Energy is central to sustainable development and poverty reduction efforts. It affects all aspects of
development -- social, economic, and environmental -- including livelihoods, access to water, agricultural
productivity, health, population levels, education, and gender-related issues. None of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) can be met without major improvement in the quality and quantity of energy
services in developing countries”.

In fact, the problem of poverty is closely intertwined with lack of modern energy services for the
majority of rural and urban populations for both productive use and social welfare.

The importance of energy in rural industrialization cannot be over-emphasized. In a

Communiqué by “The 1st African Ministerial Round Table on ICT for Education, Training
and Development – Mission to Accelerate Building of the ICT Infrastructures and Capacities
for African Educational Systems” dated 28th May 2007, the Ministers:

“……. noted and emphasized that energy and ICTs are forces that drive
development, particularly on the African continent. It was emphasized further that
efforts should be made to balance urban and rural areas in energy and ICT
development.”

As illustrated by Figure 6.3, Africa should aim at less polluting renewable energies including
hydro-power, liquid biofuels, wind, solar and tidal wave.

31
http://www.undp.org/energy/
52
6.3 Landuse and Landuse Change

The area of Africa is about 2,978,394,000 hectares. By the year 2000, the forest cover was about
650 million hectares (21.8% of Africa’s area), a reduction by 5,262,000 hectares over a 10-year
since 1990. This forest cover is about 16.8% of the global forest cover.

There is a wide range of goods and services including fuel and construction wood, medicines and
foods derived from forests and woodlands, thus creating opportunities for development and
improving human well-being on the African continent. Other services include protecting
catchment, purifying water and regulating river flows, which in turn ensure the supply of water
for hydropower generation. Forests and woodlands also help prevent soil erosion (from water
and wind) and thus are critical for agriculture and food production. Forests also provide shade,
habitat functions, grazing, cultural (sacred groves, shade, peace trees and plants, meeting places,
boundaries and training areas) and aesthetic values [UNEP, 2006]. The overall value of these
goods-and-services as outlined above and more must be protected for the survival of the earth’s
inhabitants.

During operations of mining industry in Africa, various activities and processes have impacted
on landuse. The environmental status of these is described in the sections below.

6.3.1 Mining industry and forestry

6.3.1.1 Direct use of forestry products by mining industry

Apart from forestry clearance to pave way for mine developments, some mining processes and
related activities do make use of woods and logs. The following are the main examples of direct
use of forestry in mining:

• Hard wood is used for support of small and large scale mine excavations (Photographs
6.1 and 6.2),
• Wood/charcoal and bamboos are used in smelters,
• Hard wood is used as railway sleepers on surface and underground, and
• Wood poles are used for electric power transmission.

This author is not aware of an Africa-wide study on the amount of deforestation and forest
degradation directly attributable to mining activities. However, in Namibia the mining industry
in the prior to 2000 consumed 24,000 tons of charcoal per year before the market was overtaken
by coal [Kojwang, 2000].

53
 Photograph 6.2: An example of wooden support in large
Photograph 6.1: An example of wooden support in scale underground mines [Banks et al.].
small scale underground mines [Sinkala, 2008].

To avert use of wood and charcoal in smelters, a number of mines in Africa are considering
converting to electrical powered smelters wherever there is adequate power. For underground
support systems, the mines are switching to non-wood support systems. On the other hand, use of
metallic support systems promotes further development of mines, one of the promoters of
deforestation – a “vicious cycle”.

Some other measures undertaken by mining industry include reforestation using indigenous
trees. However, since the logs used for underground support are from indigenous hard wood
trees which take many decades to get to the harvested sizes, reforestation will usually not restore
forestry for re-harvest during the lifetime of a mine.

6.3.1.2 Mining stimulated forestry depletion

Due to scarcity of significant alternative income generation activities away from mining areas,
the often unplanned urbanization of society continues to increase in mining areas of Africa. This
urbanization stimulates uncontrolled use of forestry and other natural resources, resulting in loss
or degradation of the resources in urban and peri-urban areas32..

For example, a study by Limpitlaw [2004] has revealed that with a population of at least one
million people in the Zambian Copperbelt, charcoal demand is approximately 36,500t annually,
translating to at least 243,000t the mass of trees felled, or about 286,000 m3 if a density of 850
kg/m3 is assumed. This takes about 3,400 ha of woodland per annum. If large logs are used for
mining timber, then 2,580 ha will be required annually.

In general, the overall loss of forestry in Africa is shown in Figure 6.9 and Table 6.4. The FAO
report shows that a significant share of net forest loss is reported from those countries with the
greatest extent of forests. This is the case in, for example, Angola, the United Republic of
Tanzania and Zambia which together account for a majority of the forest loss in East and
Southern Africa. Zimbabwe, with a rate of forest loss estimated at 1.7% per year, is far above the
32
http://news.mongabay.com/2005/1115-forests.html .
54
average of 0.7% for all Southern Africa. In Northern Africa, the Sudan alone accounts for most
of the forest cover and for 60 percent of the forest reduction. For a combined West and Central
Africa, Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Nigeria together account for most
of the loss.

Figure: 6.9: Forest change rates by country or

area, 2000–2005 [FAO, 2007].

Table 6.4: Extent and change of forest area [FAO, 2007]

According to the FAO report [2007], a number of countries have stepped up afforestation efforts
with the primary objective of environmental protection. This includes afforestation of degraded
areas for soil conservation, establishment of windbreaks and shelterbelts to protect agriculture
areas, stabilization of sand dunes and urban and peri-urban planting to improve amenity values.
The 46 countries that reported on this activity indicated an increase in the extent of protective
forest plantations of nearly 400,000ha during 1990–2005. Most of the increase of over 87%
occurred in the poorly forested subregion of Northern Africa.

For Africa as a whole, the total area of forest designated for protective functions showed a slight
decrease, with Northern Africa being the only subregion with a slight increase. Nevertheless, the
area of protective forest plantations is increasing in four subregions and in Africa as a whole.
The FAO report is however unable to conclude whether protective functions are improving.
55
6.3.1.3 Mining stimulated economic benefits from forestry use

Mining industry does stimulate economic benefits for the rural poor which they generate through
the production and sale of wood, fuelwood, non-wood forest products and foodstuffs. What is
important is to have a well managed forestry industry that ensures rights to tree and forest
resources and equitable access. There is a growing awareness of the importance of urban green
spaces to the quality of the urban environment and urban life.

As part of afforestation/reforestation of degraded mining areas, communities in the areas can

take advantage of the growing biofuels era to plant perennial energy crops, such as Jatropha
described above. Such trees will not only help to green the degraded areas, but they will also
provide employment and income to the vulnerable communities [FAO, 2008; Thorpe et. al.,
2008].

6.3.2 Land cover by surface mine facilities and dumps

Mining activities will often give rise to occupancy of land surface by the following:

• prospecting/exploration activities including pits and trenches,

• mine site surface facilities including mine surface excavations, amenity buildings,
processing plants, storage sheds, dumps and dams, as well as residential and commercial
areas,
• water and sewage treatment plants,
• refuse disposal sites;
• power line access ways; and
• access road and railways.

During this write-up, the information on land occupied by these facilities in Africa was not
available to the author. For small scale mining, this lack of information applies to all countries.

Mine dumps are an issue in 51 (96%) of the African countries, as shown by Table 6.5. There is
however lack of quantified information on the dumps. The following is some information on
South Africa and Zambia:

56
 Table 6.5: Prevalence of mine dumps in Africa [From Table 6.9]
NUMBER OF
(%
REGION COUNTRIES WITH MINE
)
DUMPS AS AN ISSUE
SOUTHERN AFRICA (out of
15) 14 93
10
CENTRAL AFRICA (out of 6) 6 0
EAST AFRICA(out of 10) 9 90
10
NORTH AFRICA(out of 5) 5 0
10
WEST AFRICA(out of 17) 17 0
Total (out of 53) = 51 96
Percentage (%) = 96

SOUTH AFRICA

In 1997 approximately 471 million metric tonnes of mining waste (general and hazardous) was
generated, with gold contributing to almost half of this. Over 200,000 hectares of natural habitat
have been transformed by mining activities. Slimes dams and waste rock dumps cover nearly
47,000 hectares [Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 2005].

ZAMBIA

The copperbelt of Zambia occupies an area of about 150 km by 50 km. In the same area are
emeralds mining activities south-west of Kitwe mining town. There are also two new mines
(Lumwana and Kansanshi mines) in the North Western Province of Zambia. Over time,
Zambia’s mining industry has accumulated a tremendous amount of dump material, as shown in
Table 6.6.

Table 6.6: Mine dumps and area covered in the Zambian Copperbelt [Sikaundi, 2008].
TONNAGE AREA COVERED
TYPE OF DUMP UNITS
(million metric tones) (Hectares)
Overburden dumps 32 1,899 206,465
Waste rock dump 21 77 388
Tailings dump/dam 45 791 9,125
Slag dump 9 40 279
TOTAL 107 2,807 216,257

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6.3.3 Inaccessible hazardous land

All mine areas operating underground mines using, especially, caving mining methods do
prohibit entry into such areas because such areas pose danger to humans and animals due to
subsidence. Zambia, for instance, lost 89 people in 1970 due to a caving related accident33.

No information was available at the time of this report.

6.3.4 Land polluted by mine operations

In South Africa, more than 50,000 tonnes of salts seep out of tailings dams in the Vaal region
annually [Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 2005]. This severely contaminates not only the
water, but also the soil and vegetation. There is no information about the area covered by this
contamination, but landuse is most likely not suitable for food crops, for example.

In Zambia, the areas of intense suphur dioxide plume in Mufulira and Kitwe cover
approximately 12,000 hectares. In these areas, the air for the residents is polluted and vegetation
is barely able to grow. Also, most effluent from the mines end up in the Kafue River, a source of
drinking water for about 40% of Zambia’s population [Nkandu, Sinkala and Simukanga, 1996].

Africa wide information was not available at the time of the study, let alone for small scale
mining areas.

6.4 Water Use and Acidification

Most people in Africa live in rural areas and are heavily dependent on agriculture for their
livelihoods. The availability of and access to freshwater is therefore an important determinant of
patterns of economic growth and social development. It is difficult in all sectors to sustain
economic development without a water resource. Freshwater is a necessary input for industry
and mining, hydropower generation, tourism, subsistence and commercial agriculture, fisheries
and livestock production, and tourism. These activities are central to livelihoods and human
well-being; they provide employment and contribute to national economies through, among
others, export earnings. Furthermore, with provision of safe drinking water and adequate
sanitation facilities, mortality rates related to water-borne and water-related diseases, such as
cholera, diarrhoea and malaria can minimize. These, if not well managed can add to the cost of
operations due to time lost by having a sickly workforce.

Africa with a population of 13% of the world’s total holds about 11% of global water resources
(Figure 6.10). The state of freshwater systems will continue to deteriorate due to climate change
and variability as discussed in earlier sections, population growth and increasing water demand,
overexploitation and environmental degradation. Poor land-use practices have resulted in
pollution and sedimentation of river channels, lakes and reservoirs, and changes in hydrological
processes. Dams (Figure 6.11), in particular large dams, threaten freshwater resources by
fragmenting and transforming aquatic systems.
33
http://www.wise-uranium.org/mdaf.html
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Also, Africa is marked by a recurrence of climatic extremes in the form of flooding and drought.
Global change scenarios predict a continuing global warming for this century of between 1° and
6°C, a sea-level rise of between 0.1 and, and an increasing frequency of climatic extremes that
may further aggravate the state of available freshwater resources [UNEP, 2006]. Not only is the
quantity of freshwater fundamental for the development of all sub-regions, but the quality of the
resource is equally important. Meanwhile, global freshwater consumption is on the rise. In 2000,
the United Nations noted that two out of every three people on Earth will live in that condition
by 2025”.

Figure 6.10: The global overview of water availability versus the population [UNEP, 2006].

Figure: 6.11: Dams in Southern Africa [UNEP, 2006].

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Water pollution due to mining activities is a widespread problem in Africa. Table 6.7 shows that
52 (98%) of African countries experience some form of water pollution by mining activities.
However, there is scarce quantified information on the extent of the pollution due to these
activities.

Table 6.7: Prevalence of mining related water pollution in Africa [From Table 6.9]
NUMBER OF COUNTRIES WITH
(%
REGION WATER POLLUTION DUE TO
)
MINING AS AN ISSUE
SOUTHERN AFRICA (out of
15) 14 93
10
CENTRAL AFRICA (out of 6) 6 0
10
EAST AFRICA(out of 10) 10 0
10
NORTH AFRICA(out of 5) 5 0
10
WEST AFRICA(out of 17) 17 0
Total (out of 53) = 52 98
Percentage (%) = 98

6.4.1 Mining industry and inland water

In developed countries, the leading sources of diffuse (non-point) water pollution are
agriculture, industries, and mining34. With sparse presence of manufacturing industry in Africa,
the mining sector is the second largest source of diffuse water pollution, after agriculture. The
mining industry sector produces high concentrations of wastes and effluents. These sources act
both as point- and diffuse sources of water quality degradation (Photographs 6.3 and 6.4) and
acid mine drainage.

The potential impacts of mining on the water environment are subdivided into those associated
with phases of mining operations, namely [Department of Environment and Tourism. 2008]:

• the act of mining itself;

• seepage of contaminated water from mine residue deposits (waste rock dumps and tailings
dams) resulting from mineral processing/beneficiation;
• dewatering of active mining operations; and
• rewatering (flooding) of defunct/closed mine voids and discharge of untreated mine water.

34
http://www.slideshare.net/Shohail/environment-22
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Mining industry consumes a significant amount of water, especially during mineral processing.
In South Africa, for example, the mines together with bulk industrial activities consume close to
6% of the available, but scarce water [Environmental Affairs and Tourism, 2005].

Photograph 6.3: Transporting water at a Galamsey Photograph 6.4: Water resource degradation by small
gold mining operation, Ghana [CASM, 2003]. scale diamond miners in Angola [PAC, 2007].

The water used by the mines is either from surface in natural rivers or lakes, or underground
workings or boreholes in mining areas. Although this water is mostly renewable, the mine
requirements may exceed water availability and arouse conflicts with other users. The mining
activities may also contaminate water, thus reducing the quality and quantity of fresh water
resources available for use (Box 6.1).

Box 6.1: An example of water contamination due to mining activities

In Ghana, a tailings dam burst at the Tarkwa gold mine in the Wassa West District on
October 16, 2001. Thousands of cubic meters of mine waste ended up into the Asuman River
and contaminated it with cyanide and heavy metals. The incident left more than one thousand
people without access to drinking water. Virtually all life forms in the river and its tributary
were killed. Hundreds of dead fish, crabs, and birds lay on the banks of the river and floated
to the surface.

The broken dam

“….. The spill at Tarkwa was one of five cyanide spills in Ghana over a period of seven years
which have polluted water supplies and forced many families to abandon their farms. To
make the situation even worse, in January 2003, water from an abandoned underground mine
at Tarkwa seeped into the Asuman River creating new worries of water contamination.

In the Wassa area, mining displaced 30,000 people between 1990 and 1998. At the same
time, mining has caused social turmoil in affected communities by taking away large tracts of

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 land from farmers, …..”. http://www.earthworksaction.org/wassa.cfm.

Some mines, small to very large, are located in/near aquifer rocks. For example, some of South
Africa’s largest mines are located in or very near to the dolomitic rocks of the Transvaal
Sequence, which is that country’s most important aquifer [Department of Environment and
Tourism. 2008]. This is a major threat to the urban populations reliant on it for their water
supplies. According to the Department of Tourism [2008], large-scale mining in Gauteng and
surroundings, for instance, has resulted in subsistence in the dolomite rock causing localized
sinkholes and earthquakes. Similarly, Lusaka in Zambia is built over a karstic dolomite aquifer,
yet is littered with small to medium quarries which are often inundated with waste water and
pollutants [Lusaka City Council, 2008]. Furthermore, shanty compounds using pit latrines are
also built on this aquifer. Ground water accounts for 61% of the total water supply within
Lusaka, while the rest comes from water pumped from Kafue River.

For arid lands which depend largely on ground water, increased groundwater pollution is a
serious concern [UNEP 2006; Shoko 2002; Savornin, Niang and Diouf, 2007]. This is the case in
mining areas in Kalahari and Sahara deserts and their fringes. Mercury pollution and land
degradation is reported in almost all small scale gold mining areas in such environments in West
Africa, East Africa, and Southern Africa (Table 6.8). Continued water pollution by the mining
industry, like by any other industry, will significantly deplete available resources and increase
water scarcity.

The quality of water resources in parts of Central Africa (which is largely a rain forest) is
declining due to pollution from industrial effluents and sewage outflows, agricultural run-off
and, in coastal areas, from seawater intrusion. Further threats include logging operations (that
impair water quality through sedimentation) and mining operations [UNEP, 2006].

In Southern Africa, the limited water resources where the population is largely rural and heavily
dependent on agriculture makes this sub-region vulnerable to environmental change. The sub-
region has 12 major internationally shared river basins, of which the four largest basins are the
Zambezi, Orange, Okavango and Limpopo river basins. Gold mining associated with use of
mercury and therefore a threat to water quality are taking place mostly in Mozambique
(Photograph 6.5), Tanzania (Photograph 6.6) and Zimbabwe [Shoko, 2002], which are parts of
the Limpopo and Zambezi river basins.

Photograph 6.6: Use of water in gold sluicing mining in

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Photograph 6.5: Sluice box built from tree barks in Tanzania [SANTREN and ITDG, 2001]..
Sussundenga, Manica Province [SANTREN and ITDG,
2001].

6.4.2 Mining industry and marine water

Southern Africa is a hive of both small and large mining activities. The region is exploiting
mainly onshore mineral resources [UNEP, 2006]. Diamond mining from coastal sand dunes and
by dredging inshore seabed sediments is a major industry in Namibia and western South Africa.
In coastal sediments on the Indian Ocean shores of South Africa and Mozambique, there are
commercially viable titanium and zirconium minerals, also derived from the hinterland. The
marine diamond mining industry in Namibia and South Africa yields close to a million carats of
diamonds each year.

Coral reefs continue to suffer pressures from increasing populations, coastal development and
marine-transported litter. Mining of coral and sand for use in construction is also damaging
habitats, with most states implementing stricter legislation and licensing. In São Tomé, coastal
erosion, exacerbated by beach sand mining (now largely banned), has been reported to be
threatening infrastructure in the southern part of the main island [UNEP, 2006].

The reduction of forests in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia has resulted in a reduced effect on
regulating water and maintaining soil. Recently, road construction, quarrying and mining
industries, building dams and construction of irrigation canals have contributed to the
deterioration of forest ecosystems by reducing forest areas and destroying habitats, thus affecting
forest biodiversity [UNEP, 2006].

6.4.3 Acidification of water environment

Acid mine drainage (AMD), when it occurs, is one of the most serious problems that affect mine
environments. AMD is characterized by low pH (high acidity), high salinity levels, elevated
concentrations of sulphate, iron, aluminium and manganese, raised levels of toxic heavy metals
such as cadmium, cobalt, copper, molybdenum and zinc, and possibly even radionuclides. The
acidic water dissolves salts and mobilizes metals from mine workings and residue deposits.
AMD is not only associated with surface and groundwater pollution, but is also responsible for
the degradation of soil quality, aquatic habitats and for allowing heavy metals to seep into the
environment. Worse still is the characteristic of AMD to persistence in the environment, so that
it is extremely difficult and very costly to clean up. For instance, in the US the cost of
remediation of acid mine drainage, which affects some 20,000 km of watercourses, was
estimated to be between US$2 billion and US$35 billion in 1998 [Boocock CN. 2002].

A number of countries including Ghana, Nigeria35, South Africa36, Zambia (Figure 6.7) and
Zimbabwe37 have reported either acid mine drainage or susceptibility of their mine environments
to acid mine drainage.
35
http://www.springerlink.com/content/n4l5177106rgxg1v/fulltext.pdf?page=1
36
http://www.miningweekly.com/article/in-the-midst-of-a-disaster-2009-05-08
37
http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=1249686

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 Photograph 6.7: An example of acid drainage due to
oxidation of sulphide ore at Chibuluma, Copperbelt of
Zambia

In South Africa, for example, the major impacts of mining are related to mine dewatering,
tailings management, atmospheric emissions and acid mine drainage, which in some cases are
specific to the type of mining. South Africa is also confronted by the problem of the
environmental legacy of past mining, particularly acid mine drainage from abandoned coal and
gold mines [Boocock CN. 2002].

Acid mine drainage in South Africa was observed at the West Rand in Gauteng Province where
acid mine water started to decant from defunct (closed) flooded underground mine workings on
the West Rand in August 2002.

“Decant has subsequently been manifested at various mine shafts and diffuse surface seeps in the area.
Dark, reddish-brown water and pH values as low as 2.5 persist at the site. Up until early-2005, and
completion of storage and pumping facilities to contain and manage on average of 15 Mega-Litres per day
(ML/d) of decant, the AMD found its way into an adjoining natural water course and flowed northward
through a game reserve, and towards the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site” [Department of
Environment and Tourism. 2008].

6.5 Ecotoxicity and Health Effects on Humans

Chemical substances and their derivatives are widely used in mining industry for various
purposes in its value chain. Poor management of the chemicals during production, transportation,
application, storage and disposal are areas requiring attention in order to minimize pollution to
environment. By world standards, Africa is currently not a major consumer or producer of
chemicals. Nevertheless, the level of risk posed to poor countries is disproportionately higher
than in those with sufficient resources to effectively manage and monitor chemical use. With the
recently registered growth, there is likelihood that Africa may become both a producer and
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consumer of chemical products. Coupled with a trend to relocate chemical production away from
developed countries, it is increasingly importance to give the issue of chemicals an appropriate
attention.

Apart from chemicals, intentional or unintentional outflow of pollutants to the environment in

concentrated form also affect the health of the environment. These include air pollution due to
emissions such as sulphur dioxide from processing plants, run-offs from mine processes
containing various elements and chemicals, tailings (containing treated ore, heavy metals in
solutions, and chemicals), leakages from rock and tailings dumps. Much of these pollutants
contain metal and sulphur compounds, which are sources of acid drainage that may need
treatment or control for hundreds of years and, together with sulphur dioxide emissions from
smelting, pose serious environmental problems for affected areas.

Figure 6.12 illustrates pathways of contaminants from mineral waste disposal facilities to the
ambient environment and humans. In blue - transport of contaminants in water, dissolved and
suspended; in black - transport of contaminants in solid particulate matter and solids in general;
in red - direct irradiation, and inhalation of radon-222.

Figure 6.12: Pathways of mineral waste [ZCCM, 2005].

6.5.1 Mining industry and mercury

Mercury is used for various purposes including making thermometers, dental fillings and gold
extraction (Figure 6.14). In mining industry, the largest use is in gold extraction. But also,
mercury is the basis of fulminating mercury, the explosive powder put into percussion caps,
cartridges, and fuses. Dry fulminating mercury will explode violently when struck with a
hammer or any other hard object. When wet, it is non-explosive and is kept in this condition until

65
wanted for use38. In mining industry, mercury is also released to the air during cement
production.

Mercury is poisonous, and its toxic effects include damage to the brain, kidney, and lungs39.

Global consumption of mercury in 2000 was estimated at about 2,269 metric tons, of which 18%
was in Africa (Figure 6.13). Of the global consumption of 3,439 metric tons in 2005, 29% (or
1,000t) was attributed to gold extraction in small scale mining world-wide. Figures 6.13 and 6.14
also indicate that over the five-year period from 2000 to 2005, mercury global consumption
increased by 52%.

Total = 2,269 metric tons

Figure 6.13: Regional mercury Total = 3439 metric tons (52% more than in 2000)
consumption for 2000 [Bailey, 2007].
Figure 6.14: Estimated global mercury
consumption by sector for 2005 [Bailey, 2007].

The mercury emissions map shown in Figure 6.15 indicates that mercury emissions are more
concentrated in the mineral belts of Africa, stretching from South Africa through Central to West
Africa, and then North Africa. The highest concentrations in these belts are in South Africa,
Zimbabwe, Congo DR, Nigeria, Ghana and Algeria. The 2000 estimates show that South Africa,
at 257 tons (87.41%) per year, was the biggest consumer in Africa.

Two of the most prevalent mercury related human health risk areas in African mining activities
are associated with gold mining and cement production (Table 6.8).

38
http://chestofbooks.com/crafts/metal/Applied-Science-Metal-Workers/524-Uses-Of-Mercury.html
39
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury_poisoning
66
 Figure 6.15: Map of diffuse plus point sources of mercury emissions for 2000 [Bailey, 2007].

6.5.1.1 Mercury release in gold mining in Africa

Table 6.8 shows that gold mining is taking place in 34 (64%) of the 53 African countries, but
there was no quantitative information found on the amounts of mercury used to process gold. In
gold mining, mercury is used to separate and collect the gold from the rocks in which it is found
[UNEP, 2008b]. The three most common methods used by artisanal and small scale gold miners
are whole ore amalgamation, gravity concentration or “panning”, and burning amalgam [UNEP,
2008b].

Table 6.8: Countries involved in cement production and in gold mining and mercury usage [From Table 6.9]
COUNTRIES
GOL CEME WITH
REGION (%)
D NT MERCURY
POLLUTION
SOUTHERN AFRICA (out of
15) 7 8 9 60
CENTRAL AFRICA (out of 6) 6 3 6 100
EAST AFRICA(out of 10) 7 6 7 70
NORTH AFRICA(out of 5) 2 5 5 100
WEST AFRICA(out of 17) 12 9 14 82
Total (out of 53) = 34 31 41 77
Percentage (%) = 64 58 77

For the whole amalgamation process technique in which mercury is added to all of the ore being
processed during crushing, grinding or sluicing, only 10% of the mercury added to an
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amalgamating barrel or pan (in the case of manual amalgamation) combines with gold to produce
the amalgam. The rest (90%) is excess and must be removed and recycled or is released into the
environment, which may lead to harm on the miners. For example, a study of panners in Insiza
District in Zimbabwe identified symptoms characteristic of occupational mercury poisoning. Of
those sampled, 60% had general body weaknesses, 55% had nausea symptoms, 50% had lost
teeth and 45% had a history of respiratory diseases [UNEP, 2006].

In the gravity concentration or “panning” technique where gold with the heavier particles are
concentrated in the pan while lighter particles are sluiced away, mercury is added to the
concentrates in order to amalgamate or gather the fine gold particles. Although this process is an
improvement over whole ore amalgamation, this process results in about 10-15% of mercury loss
to the environment in artisanal scale gold mining [UNEP, 2008b].

In the burning amalgam technique, miners heat amalgam to recover the gold. When this is done
without the use of a retort, mercury vapours are released to the air and are inhaled by the miners,
their families and others nearby. This practice produces atmospheric mercury emissions of
around 300 metric tonnes per year worldwide [UNEP, 2008b].

The extent of impact on the environment is further spread since the panners dilute the mercury
with water to increase quantities. When mixed with water, mercury is lethal to human beings and
plants, and the problem is that mercury has a long life – up to 30 years from the time of
immersion. It is therefore active in water bodies for a long time, compounding the pollution and
human health problems [UNEP, 2006].

6.5.1.2 Mercury in cement industry

Cement kilns are some of the biggest mercury polluters in the world 40. In the USA, for instance,
the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) says cement kilns are America's fourth-largest
source of airborne mercury. The agency says the proposed limits would save up to 1,600 lives a
year41. EPA's proposed rule would require the nation's 99 cement plants to make steep reductions
in releases of pollutants such as mercury, hydrochloric acid, hydrocarbons and soot.

The following are some of the areas in the cement process where mercury is found [Smith,
2006]:

• Mercury is present in raw materials; both natural and recycled inputs;

• Limestone/shale can contain mercury, and can be significant due to volume of limestone
used;
• Recycled streams such as fly ash from electric power generation often also contribute
significantly;
• Fuels (coal, waste-derived fuels) also contribute varying, sometimes significant amounts;
and

40
http://action.earthjustice.org/campaign/mercury_0409
41
www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/23/cement-industry-mercury-a_n_190478.html.
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 • A significant fraction of the mercury present in the feed is not retained in the product; the
fraction of that which escapes and is a solid is collected in the particulate air pollution
control system, but mercury also exists in the exhaust as a gas.

This survey indicates that 32 (62%) of the 53 African countries produce cement (Table 6.8). No
quantitative information was however found on the amount of mercury release to the
environment or the harm caused in the environment due to cement production in the areas of
mining operations.

6.5.2 Uranium and the environment

Wherever uranium mining and processing is taking place, uranium tailings will remain
radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years, and will require such expensive long-term
surveillance and maintenance by government and the local citizenry as to make statements about
uranium mining providing revenue very misleading.

Misuse of uranium tailings has led to internal lung doses calculated to be 100 rems per year to
the public. Conservative calculations show that the public near uranium tailings will receive a 25
percent increase in lifetime radon daughter radiation. Uranium tailings will have appreciable
radioactivity for more than 100,000 years. There have been many uranium tailings disasters in
Australia, Canada and the United States, even with the most modern ''state of the art'' tailings
dams [Young and Woollard, 1980].

The following are uranium activity risk areas in Africa, notably in Congo DR, Gabon,
Madagascar, South Africa and Zambia, which may have hazardous effects on their respective
environments42:

CONGO D.R.

Since 1997 miners have been entering the former Shinkolobwe mine site each day without
authorization. They have excavated a huge open pit next to the former uranium mine, which had
been flooded after it was mined out. The miners are interested in cobalt rather than uranium.
However, uranium could also be extracted from the ore. In view of the possibility of uranium
being extracted and circulated without any control, the United States has demanded the DR
Congo government to regain control over the mine site. The 15,000 miners now working the
Shinkolobwe mine without authorization from the government risk contracting cancer and
developing other health problems because of high radiation levels at the site, concluded
investigators from the U.N. mission in Congo42.

42
http://www.wise-uranium.org/udec.html#CD
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GABON

On April 4, 2007, the organizations SHERPA, CRIIRAD and Médecins du Monde presented the
results of an investigation into the health and environmental situation at Areva/COGEMA's
former Mounana uranium mine. The resulting report is based on a site tour in June 2006, and
evidence of former miners, among others. In summary, CRIIRAD concludes:

• During the active mining phase, protection of the workers was not assured appropriately;
• The follow-up of the health of the former miners is inadequate;
• In Mounana, several buildings were constructed with radioactive material, some of these
buildings had to be demolished;
• More than 2 million t of uranium mill tailings were simply released into a river between
1961 and 1975, presenting a long-term health hazard; and
• The reclamation of the site was done in a totally inadequate way.

During the first years of operation, COMUF simply released a total of over 2 million tonnes of
uranium mill tailings into the next creek. This creek, the Ngamaboungou, then carried them over
kilometers to the Mitembe river. Later, another 4 million tonnes of tailings were dumped in the
former open pit mine. Only in 1990, COMUF built a dam to hold the tailings produced during
the last years of operation. It has received, however, only the small remainder of the total of
nearly 7 million tonnes of tailings43.

The mine and mill effluents led to high contaminant concentrations even in the Mitembe river,
and dead fish were often observed in the river. In 1996/1997, still, levels of up to 3.2 Bq/l of
soluble radium-226 and 1.7 mg/l of soluble uranium-238 were found in the river water. After
shutdown of the mine in 1999, these values are reported to have decreased to below 0.7 Bq/l for
radium, and below 0.1 mg/l for uranium (for comparison: WHO recommends 0.015 mg/l for
uranium in drinking water).

In the creek valley, the tailings deposited on the river bed, forming a reservoir for long-term re-
mobilization of contaminants. The tailings moreover formed deposits in the valley, presenting a
hazard from external radiation and from re-suspension of radioactive dust. COMUF calculated
that residents crossing the valley (Photographs 6.8 and 6.9) to reach their plantations have
received annual radiation doses between 2.3 and 2.9 mSv per year. After covering some of the
material, the radiation doses are expected to decrease to 0.8 mSv per year.

The tailings dumped in the open pit were left without a cover for long years and children used to
play on the dusty surface of it. The tailings dam built in 1990 was erected across the
Ngamaboungou creek, without providing an - elsewhere mandatory - diversion channel for the
creek: the creek is flowing through the dam still (!), leaving it via an overflow, without any
treatment.

43
http://www.wise-uranium.org/udec.html#CD
70
Recently, a large part of the waste piled up at the Ngamaboungou creek has been covered with
soil. The mayor of Mounana, however, anticipates that the cover will not last longer than a few
years, given the extremely high precipitation rate in the area44.

Photograph 6.8: Detail at confluence of Ngamaboungou Photograph 6.9: Residents crossing the Mitembe river a
creek with Mitembe river. few meters behind the confluence with the
Ngamaboungou creek on the way to their plantations.

MADAGASCAR

The site has been exploited by open cast mining by French Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique
between 1937 and 1954. A monitoring survey of the abandoned mine site and its vicinity
revealed radiation doses from gamma radiation and radon 13 times "normal" exposure. The
gamma dose rate varies between 250 and 1466 nGy/h, corresponding to annual equivalent dose
rates of 2.19 - 12.85 mSv/a44.

NAMIBIA

On 20th September 2005 Namibia commissioned a second uranium mine despite strong
opposition from human rights and environmental groups who fear it could pose an ecological
hazard. The Langer Heinrich Mine, 80 km east of the coastal town of Swakopmund, is located in
in the protected Namib Naukluft Park. This is Namibia's second uranium mine after Rio Tinto's
Rossing Uranium, also situated in the Namib Desert.

The mine is wholly owned by Australian exploration and development company Paladin
Resources, which got a government go-ahead last month after being awarded a 25-year mining
license by the Ministry of Mines and Energy.

The World Information Services on Energy (WISE), a pressure group working on nuclear energy
issues, has strongly opposed the venture, voicing fears ranging from ground and surface water
pollution to radioactive gas emission.
44
http://www.wise-uranium.org/udec.html#CD
71
Environmental lobby groups Earthlife Namibia and Germany's Oeko Institute said the
environmental impact assessment for Langer Heinrich had grossly underestimated the hazards.
Earthlife Namibia alleged that people visiting the park, a major tourist attraction, would be
exposed to higher than internationally acceptable levels of radiation. The mine would also
become the single largest consumer of water in Namibia, using 1.3 billion litres per year45.

SOUTH AFRICA

There are several areas and reports of environmental risks due to uranium mining in South Africa
[www.wise-uranium.org]. Below is one cited example:

“Investigations of risks due to gold and uranium mining in the West Rand and Far West Rand
goldfields of South Africa have …….. revealed An unacceptable level of risk has been
identified, primarily due to the chemical toxicity of uranium on ingestion via drinking water.

Radioactive levels three times higher than permitted have been found in vegetables grown in
wetlands in the Wonderfonteinspruit area between Randfontein and Potchefstroom, ….
According to the report by the South African Nuclear Energy Corporation (Necsa) drawn up at
the request of the National Nuclear Regulator.

Tests on asparagus, oats and onions produced in the Gerhard Minne wetlands showed that the
level of radioactive substances was three times higher than the safe permissible level for human
consumption. Pointing out that intensive gold mining takes place in the area - and that uranium
as a by-product is found in mine dumps there - the news report said large tracts of land in the
area of the Wonderfonteinspruit were 150 times more radioactive than the permitted level. It
quoted an unidentified spokesperson for the National Nuclear Regulator as saying that the test
results in the report were worrying [National Nuclear Regulator, 2007].

ZAMBIA

Uranium was mined at Kitwe, where the mine is now operated by Mopani Copper Mines (MCM)
Plc, during the 1950s when a company called Amco was contracted to sink shafts at Mindola.
The uranium was shipped to the United Kingdom, whose colony northern Rhodesia was then, but
since then, the mineral has not been actively mined.

From about 100,000 tonnes of uranium ore mined at a grade of 0.19 per cent U, about 100 tonnes
U were produced.

45
www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a=1430
72
6.5.3 Other toxic chemicals from oil and non-oil mining industry

Mining industry is also associated with various other toxic chemicals that can cause a variety of
adverse health effects. Toxic substances such as arsenic, cadmium, lead (Box 6.2) and sulphuric
acid contaminate water and soil, and affect human health. Heavy metals pose serious threats,
particularly to children and during foetal development. Among the pollutants from oil industry
include petroleum hydrocarbons and sulphur.

Box 6.2: Lead poisoning in Kabwe, Zambia, a former lead-zinc mining town
In many mining centres, average atmospheric lead concentrations reach 0.3-0.5 μg/m3 and exceed 1
000 μg/g in dust and soils. The people of Kabwe, in Zambia, face a serious threat from lead and zinc
mining activities. At its peak, Kabwe was the largest and richest lead mine in Africa. Unfortunately
there were few pollution controls. The mine closed in 1994 and since then the town and province have
not only faced growing economic hardship but also the risk of lead poisoning. The vegetation, water
and soil are contaminated and about 90,000 children are at risk from lead poisoning. Concentrations of
5 μg/dl threaten brain development; in Kabwe, many children have concentrations exceeding 300
μg/dl. Average blood level is 60-120 μg/dl.

To address the problem of lead pollution in Kabwe, the Zambian government has adopted various
programmes. There are proposals to either cover the mine dumps with vegetation or cap them with
concrete to prevent air pollution. In 2003, the Zambian government asked 2,000 residents to vacate
their canal-side homes so that the waterways could be dredged. However, for most residents, finding
alternative accommodation is not a reality.

Lead can damage the nervous and reproductive systems, and the kidneys, and it can cause high blood
pressure and anaemia. Lead accumulates in the bones and lead poisoning may be diagnosed from a
blue line around the gums. Children are amongst the most vulnerable. Lead is especially harmful to the
developing brains of foetuses and young children and pregnant women. Lead interferes with the
metabolism of calcium and Vitamin D. High blood lead levels in children can lead to irreversible
learning disabilities, behavioural problems and mental retardation. At very high levels, lead can cause
convulsions, coma and death.
FROM: UNEP. 2006. “Africa Environment Outlook 2: our environment, our health”. United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, 00100, Kenya.

These chemicals pose serious risks that are compounded by the lack of adequate access to
information regarding safe handling, use and disposal of chemicals due to poverty. In the context
of scarce resources, chemical containers are often re-used by rural people for household purposes
including the collection of water and can result in poisoning. Beyond mining, more than 11
million poisoning cases by pesticides occur annually in Africa, yet few African countries have
specialized poison centres. In 2004, only ten African countries had poison centres, and none had
more than five [UNEP, 2006].

73
Country examples

The following are selected country examples:

NIGERIA

Studies on the quality of seafood resources and sediments of the Qua Iboe
river mangrove swamps were conducted between 2003 and 2004 [Nsikak
UB, Essien JP, Antai SP. 2007]. The impact of anthropogenic influences
principally offshore petroleum activities, solid waste dumping and incessant
oil spills on the biotic resources and overall ecological perturbations were of
concern. The study analysed for petroleum hydrocarbons and heavy metals
loads in 72 samples, each of mangrove epipellic and benthic sediments,
Tympanotonus fuscatus and surface water from Qua Iboe Estuary, Nigeria. The
levels of heavy metals in the epipellic sediments were comparatively higher
in the wet than dry season. The range of average concentrations increased
by 1.29%(Cr), 14.98%(Cu), 10.53% (Fe), 7.50% (Ni), 1.57% (Pb), 5.96% (V)
and 11.945 (Zn). Mean metal levels in benthic sediments were also higher
during the wet than dry seasons with concentrations of 27.06±1.11,
0.66±0.05, 965.13±215.32, 36.42±0.92, 28.97±1.66, 2.99±0.15, and
4.18±0.72 mg/kg for Cu, Cr, Fe, Ni, Pb, V and Zn respectively. The metal
concentrations of the freshwater reaches were generally lower than in the
estuarine ecozones.

The total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) levels in sediments and T. fuscatus

were highly variable. The overall levels of heavy metals and TPH in the
estuary when compared to similar ecosystems with substantial industrial and
domestic coastal activities worldwide revealed a moderate to high levels of
heavy metal and hydrocarbon pollution.

ZAMBIA

With large scale mining activities for almost a century, there are serious environmental problems
that have occurred over these years. These range from air pollution (Photograph 6.10) in the
form of sulphur dioxide, approximately 300,000 to 700,000 tons emitted in the air per year prior
to installation of electric furnaces, soil contamination as a result of sulphur dioxide fallout and
contained copper and other elements that end up into natural water systems and on the ground,
water pollution from runoff (Photograph 6.11) and leakage from existing mine waste dumps and
potential for tailings dam failure that could cause extensive physical damage to the ecology with
possibility for loss of life. The impact of pollution from mining operations is compounded by the
fact that nearly 90% of the population on the Copperbelt is urban. This has resulted in
concentrated demand for natural resources such as water, energy and food. The competing
demand for water by industry and households has constrained the sustainable use of water
resources [Makumba, 2007].

74
Photograph 6.10: Air pollution at Nkana mine, Copperbelt of Zambia Photograph 6.11: Uncontained tailings flow at Nchanga
mine, Copperbelt of Zambia

GHANA

Ghana, where mining has been going on for over 100 years now, hosts the second-largest gold
deposits in the African region after South Africa. Consequently, the country derives 90% of its
external revenues from gold mining. Apart from gold, Ghana also produces significant quantities
of bauxite and diamonds, and is also among the top five nations across the globe for its
manganese ore production.

Though the mining industry has been successful in attracting foreign capital, it has also been
subject to criticism from the Ghanaian government, environmentalists and human rights activists.
Foreign players are reported to exploit legal loopholes and abuse both human rights as well as
the environment. Unmonitored releases of mercury—used in the gold-amalgamation process—
have caused numerous environmental problems (Photographs 6.12 and 6.13) throughout rural
Ghana.

Photograph 6.12: Panning of tailings for gold nuggets at Photograph 6.13: Degraded land due to small scale gold
Teshi, Ghana[Hassan, Nartey and Amankwah, 2007]. mining at Teshi, Ghana [Hassan, Nartey and Amankwah,
2007].

A number of studies conducted in small scale gold mining areas have revealed that small scale
gold mining is a potential source of heavy metal pollution in Ghana. Metals in their natural states
are not bio-available but are released into the environment through gold processing. Gold
recovery methods include crushing of the ores, gravity separation and amalgamation with
75
Mercury (Hg). Mercury, which does not occur naturally in most mining areas, is introduced into
the environment when it is used to amalgamate the gold in the process of extraction. Tailings
with varying levels of contaminants are often discarded in farm fields and into rivers. Tailings
are generally sandy with little fine fraction, and they vary from highly acidic (e.g. Tamso site) to
alkaline (e.g. Obuasi site).

The studies [Manu A. et al. 2007] have revealed very high concentrations of metals in tailings in
some places, for example Arsenic (2,409 mg/kg at Obuasi site), Mercury (from 22.2 to 44.0
mg/kg). These values are several magnitudes greater than the natural background concentrations
of Hg in soil systems. Pollution of the environment through the release of heavy metals from
small scale mining operations is most severe at the Obuasi site. Tailings at Tamso, Senyakrom,
Baako Akohu sites are discarded in streams which eventually become the source of drinking
water downstream.

Studies are required to test crop fields on which tailings have been discarded for heavy metals, as
these metals may become bio-available with time and enter the food chain.

KENYA

A study site in the Migori Gold Belt of Kenya found high levels of metals in the tailings
including Lead (510 mg/Kg), Arsenic 76.0 mg/kg), and Mercury (1920 mg/Hg/kg). In stream
sediments, the levels of these metals were as high as 11,075 mg/Kg for Lead, 1.87 mg/Kg for
Arsenic and 348 mg/Kg for Mercury. These values were above background levels of these
metals in the soil [Ogola, Mitullah and Omulo, 2002].

The highest metal contamination was recorded in sediments from the Macalder stream (11075
mg kg–1 Pb), Nairobi mine tailings (76.0 mg kg–1 As) and Mickey tailings (1920 mg kg–1 Hg).
Inhaling large amounts of siliceous dust, careless handling of mercury during gold panning and
Au/Hg amalgam processing, existence of water logged pits and trenches; and large number of
miners sharing poor quality air in the mines are the major causes of health hazards among
miners. The amount of mercury used by miners for gold amalgamation during peak mining
periods varies from 150 to 200 kg per month. Out of this, about 40% are lost during panning and
60% lost during heating Au/Hg amalgam. Mercury has a long residence time in the environment
and this makes its emissions from artisan mining a threat to health.

The use of pressure burners to weaken the reef is a deadly mining procedure as hot particles of
Pb, As and other sulphide minerals burn the body. Burns become septic. This, apparently, leads
to death within 2–3 years.

A study to determine the levels of pollution due to mining activities in the Kerio valley revealed
that there are high levels of iron present in the river and its environs. The Kerio River water had
0.883 parts per million (ppm) of iron, which is about three times the World Health Organization
(WHO) recommended value of 0.3ppm. The levels of fluoride and heavy metals emitted into the
environment from Fluorspar Mining Plant in Kerio Valley were also high. High concentrations
were found in the soils, plants and water in the vicinity of fluorspar mining and processing

76
operations, which the culprit factory intentionally discharged into the river at night Redorbit,
2006].

TANZANIA

In another study in Tanzania, analysis of gold ore tailings by Ikingura et al. (1997) revealed Hg
concentrations to be as high as 31.15 mg/kg, with an average concentration of 10.27 mg/kg. The
high Hg content in the tailings is an indication that a significant amount of Hg is left in the
tailings after the amalgamation process [Manu A. et al. 2007].

SOUTH AFRICA

The coal industry has not only provided a sizeable source of income through generating export
revenues, and created a large number of jobs; it has also provided the bulk of the country's
energy needs. Today, coal accounts for almost 75% of energy consumption in South Africa,
covering all energy, industrial and transport uses.

However, South Africa, the industrial power-house of Africa, is also the biggest environmental
polluter. It is responsible for 90% of energy sector carbon dioxide emissions in Sub-Saharan
Africa. The two major types of pollution in South Africa are air and marine pollution. The
industrial sector is the prime contributor to air pollution. More than 90% of South Africa's
electricity is generated from the combustion of coal that contains approximately 1.2% sulfur and
up to 45% ash. Coal combustion can lead to particulate matter in the air, as well as contribute to
acid rain. Nitrogen dioxide levels in Capetown, South Africa, for instance, have been found to
surpass the World Health Organization's annual mean guideline for air quality standard of 50
micrograms per cubic meter46.

South Africa also experiences negative environmental impacts from mining activities. Pollution
from mining activities is probably the most direct cause of groundwater pollution in South
Africa. Acid mine drainage (AMD) is also occurring in South Africa, an example of which is
reported at the West Rand in Gauteng Province [Department of Environment and Tourism.
2008].

Furthermore, small waste coal dumps cause both pollution and safety problems, as waste coal
may spontaneously ignite.

LIBERIA

In Liberia which has just emerged from war, thousands of Liberians rely upon mining for their
livelihoods. For example, since 2003, intensive mining in the park has occurred and two major
mining settlements – called Iraq and Baghdad – were established with a population of between
3,500 – 5,000 people [SDI, 2005]. Research, in the region of Iraq, showed that gold mining and
trading is was the main economic activity, generating for some miners about 198.45 gram of
gold a week. At a minimum price of U$9 per gram in Monrovia, this amounts to an income of
U$1,786 a week [UENP, 2006].
46
http://corrosion-doctors.org/AtmCorros/mapSA.htm
77
However, the various negative environmental impacts of the alluvial mining techniques are
hardly regulated. Mining results in the discharge of large amounts of suspended solids into
watercourses, and the release of large amounts of mercury into the environment.

78
6.6 Summary on Pollution Due to Minerals Industry

Mining industry is a significant source of pollution and in Africa ranks second after agriculture.
Table 6.9 is a summary of the existence of small and large scale mining activities and the
prevalence of environmental issues in African countries. In the Table, “X” means an
environmental issue is present in the respective country, but that there is no quantitative
information available. A “shade” means either the environmental aspect is not present, or this
author did not come across the respective information.

The Table shows that artisanal/small scale mining activities exist in 51 (96%) of the African
countries while large scale mines exist in 41 (77%) of the countries (Table 6.9). Figure 6.16 is a
summary of selected pollution prevalent in Africa. The numbers in the figure are percentages of
the countries experiencing the respective pollution, out of the total of 5347 African countries.

MINING, GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS AND ENERGY

Table 6.10 and Figure 6.16 shows that 51 (96%) of the 53 African countries are emitting green
house gases (GHGs). Data for Somalia and Equatorial Guinea could not be found. In the African
countries producing cement (62%) and coal (25%), and also those countries with large scale
operations running non-cement processing plants (68%), the GHGs are likely to be significant.
Apart from estimates of emissions based on coal for South Africa, quantitative information to
directly attribute the emissions to mining activities could however not be found.

To minimize energy related impacts, effort should be directed at development and utilization of
renewable energy sources including hydro power, liquid biofuels, wind, solar and tidal wave.

LANDUSE AND LANDUSE CHANGE

Mine dumps are experienced in 51 (96%) of the African countries (Table 6.10 and Figure 6.16).
Mining industry physically occupies a significant amount of land. In Zambia alone, dumps in the
Copperbelt Province take up 220,000 hectares by large scale copper mines. In South Africa, gold
mining alone has degraded about 247,000 hectares of land. The cumulative dumps by small scale
mining activities which are prevalent in 51 (96%) of the countries on the continent is also a
major source of concern, and the land degraded has not been quantified.

When other mining degraded features such as areas covered by acid mine drain, inaccessible
mine caving areas, sulphur dioxide plume areas as well as pits and quarries, the land used and
degraded by mining is cumulatively much greater. There is scant assessment of this land
coverage.

Recycling of dump material, conversion of safe dump areas to other economic uses and
involvement of traditional authorities in monitoring small scale mining activities are among
measures that can be applied to minimize wasteful land occupancy by mining activities.

47
http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/africa.pdf
79
Table 6.9: Summary of mining and environment in Africa
SMALL PRIMARY CO248 / MINE WATER URANIUM ACID
VALUE MINE MERCUR MAJOR WATER AIR
LARGE SCALE SCALE MINERAL DUMP CONSUM CYANID EXPLORAT / MINE
COUNTRY
MINING MINING EXPORT
ADDITIO TOTAL49 GHG DUMPS
COVER PTION
Y
E CONTAMINA DRAINAG
MINE POLLUTIO POLLUTI
N Emissions50 (Mt) (xMln t) (tonnes) ACCIDENTS N54 ON55
RANK 1 - 3 (x1000 ha) (Bln lit/yr) TE E
S. AFRICA
Angola D, Cem D, Au 8.56 / X X X X
Botswana D, Ni D,Coal 1,2 4.54 / 9.29 X X X Expl / X X
Comoros IM 0.09 / 0.52 X X
Congo D.R. D,Ot,Cem D,Au51,Ct 1,2 2.33 / 44.53 >113 >3.05 X Expl / X X X X X
Lesotho D D 3 / 182 X X
Madagascar Ilm,Cem Au, Gs 2.73 / 21.93 X X Expl / X X X
Malawi Cem,Coal Gs,IM 1.05 / 7.07 X X Expl / X X X
Mauritius Fe,Mn,Co D 3.20 / 3.36 X X X
Mozambique Al,Cem Gs,Au 1 1.62 / 8.19 X X Expl / X X
Namibia D,U,Zn D 1,2,3 2.98 / 5.60 X >1.3 Expl / X X X
South Africa PGMs,Au,U,D,Coal D,Au,Gs 1,2,3 Cu, Fe 341.96/379.84 >471 >47 6% X Expl / X X X X X
Swaziland Asb,Coal 0.96 / 2.64 X X X
Tanzania Au,Cu,Cem D,Au,Gs 1,3 4.79 / 39.24 X X Expl / X X
Zambia Cu,Co,Coal,Cem Gs 1,2 Cu 2.26 / 32.77 >2807 >220 Expl / X X X X X
Zimbabwe Pt,Ni,Cem,Coal Au,D,Gs 2,3 9.88 / 27.59 X X 3052 X Expl / X X X X
C. AFRICA
Cameroon Al, Cem D,Au 3.12 / 165.73 X X Expl / X X
Central
Au,D 1 0.25 / 38.34 X X Expl / X X X
African Rep
Chad Au,D,IM 0.13 / 8.02 X X Expl / X X
Congo Braz. Cem Au, D, 1.18 / 1.38 X X X X
Equatorial
Au,IM X X X X
Guinea
Gabon Mn,Cem,U Au,D 3 2.09/6.52 X X Expl / X X X
E. AFRICA
Burundi Sn,Au Au53 0.22 / 2.00 X X Expl / X X
Djibouti Scrap Salt 3 0.37 / 0.51 X X
Eritrea Cem Au,IM 0.53 / 0.60 X X X X
Ethiopia Tant,Cem Au,IM,Pt 5.27 / 47.75 X X X X
Kenya Fluors,Cem Gs,Au 11.0 / 21.47 3.7 X X X
Rwanda Mo,Nb,Sn,Cem Au 2,3 0.57 / X X X X

48
http://www.iea.org/Textbase/country/maps/AFRICA/co2_tpes.htm
49
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/air_greenhouse_emissions.htm
50
Million tonnes of CO2 equivalent
51
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pnDExclWFhw
52
Veiga MM, Maxson PA and Hylander LD. 2006. “Origin and consumption of mercury in small-scale gold mining”. Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 14, Issues 3-4, 2006, Pages 436-447.
53
http://indexmundi.com/minerals/?country=bi&product=gold&graph=production.
80
Table 6.9 (continued)
SMALL MINERAL MINE WATER URANIUM ACID
VALUE MINE MAJOR WATER AIR
LARGE SCALE SCALE S EXPOT CO2 / TOTAL GHG DUMP CONSUM MERCUR EXPLORAT MINE
COUNTRY ADDITIO DUMPS CYANIDE MINE POLLUTIO POLLUTI
MINING MINING RANK 1 - 3 Emissions (Mt) COVER PT Y / DRAINAG
N (xMln t) ACCIDENTS N54 ON55
(x1000 ha) (Bln lit/yr) CONTAMIN E
Seychelles IM 0.55 / 0.26 X X X
Somalia Gs,Salt X X Expl / X X
Sudan Cem Au 11.43 / 54.24 X X Expl / X X
Uganda Cem Au,Co,IM 1.83 / 42.60 X X Expl / X X
N. AFRICA
Algeria Cem,Fe,IM Au 85.91 / X X X Expl / X X
Cem,Coal,Fe,Al, X X X Expl / X X X
Egypt Cu
IM 3 Cu 152.74/117.27
Libya Fe,Cem,IM Salt 42.44 / X X X Expl / X X
Morocco Aci,Wr,CP,Au,
Co,Cu,Ag,Cem
Pb,Zn 1,2,3 Cu, Ox 39.80 / 44.37 X X X Expl / X X
(+W. Sahara)
Tunisia Cem,Fe,Wr 3 Cu 19.70 / 25.14 X X X X X
W. AFRICA
Benin Scrap,Cem Au,IM 3 3.01 / 39.35 X X X X
Burkina Faso Cem Au,IM 1.10 / 5.97 X X Expl / X X X
Cape Verde56 Cem Salt 0.28 / 0.29 X X X X X
Gambia IM 0.29 / 4.24 X Expl / X X
Ghana Mn Au,D 2 8.64 / 13.40 X X X X X
Guinea-K. Al,Cu Au,D 1,2,3 1.34 / 5.06 X X Expl / X X X
Guinea-B. IM 0.27 / X X X
Ivory Coast Au Au,D,IM 6.13 / X X X X
Liberia Cem D,Au 0.47 / X X X X X
Mali Au 0.57 / 8.67 X X Expl / X X X
Mauritania Fe,Cem,Cu,Au Au 1 2.56 / 4.33 X X X Expl / X X
Niger U Au 1 1.2 / 4.86 X X Expl / X X X
Nigeria Fe,Cem,Coal Gs 51.42 / 242.63 X X Expl / X X X
Sao Tome &
IM 0.09 / X X X
Principe
Senegal Aci,Cem Au,Salt,IM 1 Ox 4.46 / 9.57 X X Expl / X X
Sierra Leone D,Cem D,Au 1,3 0.99 / X X Expl / X X
Togo Cem,CP,IM Au,D 2 0.90 / 6.28 X Expl / X X
MINEREX MINE WATER URANIUM ACID
SMALL VALUE MINE MAJOR WATER AIR
LARGE SCALE PORT CO2 / TOTAL GHG DUMP CONSUM MERCUR EXPLORAT MINE
COUNTRY SCALE ADDITIO DUMPS CYANIDE MINE POLLUTIO POLLUTI
MINING
MINING
RANK 1 - 3
N Emissions (Mt)57 (xMln t)
COVER PT Y / DRAINAG
ACCIDENTS N ON
(x1000 ha) (Bln lit/yr) CONTAMIN E
PREVALENCE
(%) 77 96 45 13 96 6 96 21 79 2 60/17 13 15 98 100

54
[UNEP, 2006]
55
http://www.uneca.org/csd/CSD4_Report_of_African_Atmosphere_and_Air_Pollution.htm
56
http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/africa.html,
57
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions
81
KEY for TABLE 6.9: Aci=Acids, Ag=Silver, Al=Aluminium, Asb=Asbestos, Au =Gold, Cem=Cement, Co=Cobalt, CP=Calcium(natural) Phosphate, Ct=Coltan, Cu=Copper, D=Diamonds,
Expl=Exploration, Fe=Iron, Fluors=Fluospar, Gs=Gemstones, Ilm=Ilmenite, IM=Industrial Minerals (Clay, sand, gravel, crushed stone, etc), Mn=Manganese, Mo=Molybdenum, NG=Natural gas,
Nb=Niobium, Ni=Nickel, O=Oil, Ot=Other minerals, Ox=Oxides, Pt=Platinum, Sn=Tin, Tant=Tantalum, U=Uranium, Wr=Wire/conductors, Zn=Zinc.
X = this is an issue, but there is no quantitative information available. Shade=it is not an issue, or the author did not find information.

NOTE also that Table 6.9 summarizes information from the various sections and sources above.

Table 6.10: Summaries of regional mining and environment in Africa [From Table 6.9]
CO2 / MINE WATER
TOTAL URANIUM MAJOR
LARGE SMALL MINERAL VALUE MINE DUMP CONSU URANIUM ACID WATER AIR
MERCU MINING / MINE
REGION SCALE SCALE S EXPORT ADDITIO GHG DUMPS COVER MPTION
RY
CYANIDE EXPLORAT
CONTAMI
MINE
ACCIDEN
POLLUTIO POLLUTI
MINING MINING RANK 1 - 3 N Emission (xMln t) (x1000 (Bln ION DRAINAG N ON
NATION TS
ha) lit/yr)
s (Mt)

SOUTHERN AFRICA (of 15) 13 14 9 3 15 3 14 4 9 1 10 6 4 4 14 15

CENTRAL AFRICA (of 6) 3 6 2 0 5 0 6 0 6 0 4 2 0 0 6 6
EAST AFRICA (of 10) 8 10 2 0 9 0 9 0 7 0 4 0 0 0 10 10
NORTH AFRICA (of 5) 5 4 3 3 5 0 5 5 5 0 4 0 1 0 5 5
WEST AFRICA (of 17) 12 17 8 1 17 0 17 2 14 0 10 1 2 4 17 17
TOTAL (out of 53) = 41 51 24 7 51 3 51 11 41 1 32 9 7 8 52 53
PREVALENCE (%) = 77 96 45 13 96 6 96 21 77 2 60 17 13 15 98 100

82
Figure 6.16: Prevalence of selected pollution in Africa due to mining industry [From Table 6.9].

83
WATER USE AND ACIDIFICATION

Acid mine drainage (AMD) or signs thereof, a very dangerous, sometimes irreversible and very
expensive when it occurs is reported in a number of African countries. Consequences, especially
in relation to water resources and soils are high when that occurs. AMDs must not be allowed to
occur in the first place. Fourteen percent 7 (13%) of the African countries have reported either
existence of AMD or susceptibility of their mine environments to AMD (Table 6.10 and Figure
6.16).

AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution from mining industry in Africa is a significant concern. As shown in Table 6.11
and Figure 6.16, all (100%) of African countries are experiencing some form of air pollution
from various sources of mining activities, including dumps, gas emissions from smelters and
mercury in artisanal/small scale gold processing activities.

Table 6.11: Prevalence of air pollution in Africa due to mining activities [From Table 6.9]
NUMBER OF COUNTRIES WITH
REGION MINING RELATED AIR
POLLUTION AS AN ISSUE
SOUTHERN AFRICA (of 15 ) 15
CENTRAL AFRICA (of 6 ) 6
EAST AFRICA (of 10 ) 10
NORTH AFRICA (of 5) 5
WEST AFRICA (of 17) 17
Total = 53
Percentage (%) 100

MERCURY POLLUTION, HEALTH AND WATER RESOURCE

Small scale gold mining and processing is carried out in 34 (64%) while cement production is
prevalent in 33 (62%) of the African countries (Table 6.10 and Figure 6.16). Both of these
activities pollute the environment with mercury. Environmental pollution and negative health
effects due to poor use of mercury as well as degradation of water resources is a major source of
concern.

Intensified training, awareness and making available alternative sources of income and cement
substitutes are among the measures required to minimize the problem in these areas.

84
URANIUM AND THE ENVIRONMENT AND HEALTH

Uranium risk areas have been reported in countries including Congo D.R., Gabon, Madagascar,
Niger, South Africa and Zambia58. In these countries, there is a tendency to keep environmental
pollution and the resulting health impacts a closely guarded secret. Section 7 of Article 13 of the
Draft ECOWAS Directive on the Harmonization of Guiding Principles and Policies in the
Mining Sector States that:

“No data shall be considered confidential if it relates to degradation or claimed degradation of human health,
the environment, or worker safety”.

The levels of pollution are dangerously high in all the five countries, and the likely health
impacts could also be high. In South Africa, for instance, foods grown in the uranium areas have
been found to be significantly polluted [National Nuclear Regulator, 2007].

Uranium mining/contamination (Table 6.10 and Figure 6.16) is reported in 9 (17%) of the
African countries while exploration is reported in 32 (60%) of the countries55. If all these
exploration activities result in productive mines, the scale of uranium contamination could scale
up and become wide-spread over the African continent if appropriate measures are not taken.

Uranium related environmental degradation and health effects are very dangerous and long
lasting. Appropriate measures are needed to stem the problem in the bud.

MULTIPLE LOSSES BY AFRICA

Africa at present is a producer of primary mineral products which she exports to industrialized
countries. Meanwhile, most pollution occurs at primary level in the minerals value chain. About
98% of resource flows in the form of excavation residues occur in production countries. This
means that Africa retains the environmental burden which has the effect of reducing the
continet’s earnings from minerals. For copper, for instance, the realistic price paid by EU buyers
has been determined to be 33% less than they should have normally paid to primary copper
producers in the EU. The cost borne by primary copper producers in Africa which lack
downstream processing could be 3 times, or more, higher than the EU counterparts.

Only about 7 (13%) of the African countries are carrying out some form of value addition to the
minerals (Table 6.10 and Figure 6.16). The continent must intensify a shift from primary
production to increased value addition. At primary production level, African countries must
employ a “balance sheet” approach which, for every investment, must indicate a prior NET
GAIN economically, environmentally and socially, before accepting the investment.

To achieve this, it is necessary to develop appropriate mining investment and socio-

environmental regimes. In the following Chapters, the main focus is targeted at assessing the
efficacy of the current socio-environmental regimes in Africa.

58
http://www.wise-uranium.org
85
7 THE EFFICACY OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL REGIMES IN MINING
INDUSTRY IN AFRICA

Historically, large scale mining began during the colonial period. During the colonial period
there was very limited, if any, public accountability, and there was widespread environmental
damage. In the follow-up years, environmental degradation continued or even increased for those
newly independent countries that were led by dictatorial regimes because of the financial
constraints under which the mines operated. In countries where governments were immune to
public pressures, especially in Eastern Europe, Africa and Asia, the process of degradation
continued and when Governments themselves were involved in mining it remained an
uncontrolled industry and hence environmental decay continued.

7.1 The Essence of an Environmental and Social Regime in Mining Industry

Simply defined, an environmental and social regime in mining development projects which are
based on extraction of natural resources should be ensuring that mining activities do not cause
adverse effects on the social and natural environment. Humanity will continue to exist beyond
mine projects. This existence will however progressively become unsustainable if mine projects
degrade or wipe out the natural resources on which humanity depends.

For this reason we should, to the greatest extent possible, at any given time quantitatively
account for the state of environment during and after the mine project. At any such state, the host
communities of the mine development should QUANTITAVELY ensure that they are not
disadvantaged environmentally, socially and economically. Based on the NET-GAIN principle
discussed in Chapter 3 of this report, an environmental and social regime balance sheet for
mining industry can be categorized in three sequential parts, as shown by in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1 Sequential parts of the environmental and social regime balance sheet in mining industry
Part 1 Part 2
OBJECTIVES OF AN REGIME-BASED ACTIONS Part 3
ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL DURING AND AFTER MINE STATE OF RESULTS AT ANY
REGIME PROJECT TIME OF THE MINE PROJECT &
ITS CLOSURE

In Part 1, the regime should define its
position and attitude towards
environment and natural resources.
Consequently, it should also clearly
declare the need to achieve a NET GAIN
socially and economically. Furthermore,
it must demand that at the end of the
mine development, there should be no
liabilities, and environment must be left
“AS WAS” before development or
BETTER.
In Part 2, The necessary actions required
to achieve the objectives should be
explicitly outlined, and they should be
diligently implemented. Their roles, big
or small, are what make the chain/bridge
(regime) complete to deliver the
intended results.
The efficacy (strength) of this bridge
(Environmental Regime) is only as
effective (strong) as the weakest
element/action (link) in its midst.
Part 3 is the dynamic NET picture
resulting from the actions of Part 2. Both
the mine developer and the mineral host
country should be able to track the
performance of the environmental
regime at any given time during the life
of the mine, and after closure.
The operation must be terminated
if/when NET negative results, with no
sign of likely positive change, start to
occur.

The above must be NON-

NEGOTIABLE.

86
The premise over which this balance sheet is developed is simple. It is likened to a mine
developer whose aim is to make a profit. Both the projection in the business plan and the actual
operation must always remain favourable, failure to which the investor will not proceed.
Similarly, therefore, the mineral host community/country should not proceed with the mine
project unless the projection and eventual operation indicate that the project will be socially,
economically and environmentally favourable. That is, a mine project should be accepted only if
it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs.

7.2 Profiling Social and Environmental Regimes for Mining Industry in Africa

Based on the above concept, environmental and social regimes from a sample of thirteen (13)
African countries including Botswana, Congo D.R., Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea,
Mozambique, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe were profiled for
their provisions in terms of Table 7.1. A sample of this profiling is presented in Table 7.2.
Results of the entire profiling are presented in Appendix 4.

Summaries of results of the profiling of a sample of 13 social and environmental regimes for
mining industry in Africa are presented in Tables 7.3 and 7.4. In Table 7.3, “1” indicates that the
regime in the respective country has a provision while a shade indicates that there is no
provision. From these tables, the following can be observed:

7.2.1 Objectives of the social and environmental regimes for mining industry

Explicitly stating objectives of a regime sets a reference point for social and environmental
activities for all players related to mining projects. Mine developers, for example, will take the
actions they do, only because it is a requirement and not because they appreciate.

7.2.1.1 Sub-objective on sustainable development

Only 54% (7 out of 13) of the sample countries have explicitly defined the objectives of their
environmental regimes. However, the objectives are only directed at the intention to ensure
sustainable development by protecting the environment and associated natural resources.

7.2.1.2 Sub-objective on a development that adds value

Even for those countries that have stated sustainable development objectives in their
environmental regimes, none (0%) of the objectives mentions the fact that the purpose of a mine
development is to socially, economically and environmentally (NET) add value to the host
community.

87
Table 7.2 Profile of social and environmental regimes in mining industry in Africa
DESIRED DESIGN
BRIDGE FOR AN
EFFECTIVE SOCIAL
AND ELEMENTS
ENVIRONMENTAL
REGIME
(a)
Development that meets the
1 development by coordinating the
needs of the present without
compromising the ability of
Mission / future generations to meet
Objective(s) of the their own needs.
social and
environmental law
(b)
A NET GAIN socially,
economically and
environmentally.
(a)
Presence of a social and
environmental regime for
2 mining industry
Ingredients of an
(b)
enabling bridge to
Autonomous body with
desired results
capacity to enforce the
environmental laws.
(c)
Integration of environmental
requirements into mining
legislation.
(d)
Mandatory environmental
prerequisites / preconditions
to exploration / mining rights.
(e)
Sufficient resources for
implementation of the
environmental regime.
(f)
Capacity to negotiate for
benefits and environmental
protection.
JUSTIFICATION / DESCRIPTION
Humanity will continue to exist beyond a
mine project. Continuity of human existence
will be threatened if a mine project is
wasteful of natural resources.
A mining project must socially, economically
and environmentally NET add value to the
host community.
Environmental regime sets the framework
for implementing environmental protection
activities in mining operations.
An environmental regime will be “lame” in
the absence of an autonomous body with
capacity to enforce it.
A reflection of environmental requirements
in mining legislation is a strong recognition,
at policy level, of the need to address
environmental issues in mining industry.
Need to carry out mining operations in an
environmentally friendly manner should be
non-negotiable, and must be mandatory.
Sufficient technical and financial resources
are necessary to effectively enforce
environmental regime.
Inadequate negotiation capacity
disadvantages the mineral host community to
bargain for environmental protection and
mineral wealth benefits.
BOTSWANA
To foster the pursuit of sustainable
protection of the country’s environment
and the conservation of its natural
resources.
Mines and Minerals Act 1999, sec. 14(1)
(b).
The Department of Environmental Affairs
Act 6, 2005 [Ch6507s2]2.
AUTONOMOUS?
Provisions for environmental requirements
in the Mines and Minerals Act 1999, sec.
14(1)(b).
(i). Exploration rights [Sec. 14(1)(b)]
(ii) Mining rights [Sec. 65].
(iii) Quarry rights (Art. 154(b))
Department should be efficiently managed
and provided with the necessary resources
[www.saiea.com/dbsa_book/Botswana.pdf]
NIL
EXISTING DESIGN
CONGO D.R.
Mining Code, Art. 39&42.
Department in charge of the
Protection of the Mining
Environment, Ministry of Mines
(Art. 15).
AUTONOMOUS?
Provisions for environmental
requirements in the Mining
Code, Art. 39&42.
(i) Requirement to develop an
environmental management plan
to obtain mining rights (Art.42).
(ii) Existence of rehabilitation
plan for mine closure (Art. 80(c))
NIL
NIL
ETHIOPIA
To improve and enhance the health
and quality of life of all Ethiopians
and to promote sustainable social
and economic development through
the sound management and use of
natural, human-made and cultural
resources and the environment as a
whole so as to meet the needs of
the present generation without
compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own
needs
[www.epa.gov.et/AboutEPA.htm].
Mining Proc. No 52/1993, Article
26(3).
The Environmental Protection
Authority (EPA) and Regional
Environmental Agencies (EIA
Proc. No 299/2002 &
Environmental Pollution Control
Proc. 300/2002).
AUTONOMOUS?
Provisions for environmental
requirements in the Mining
Proclamation No 52/1993, Article
26(3).
(i) No environmental preconditions
for exploration rights.
(ii) Yes for mining rights [Mining
Proc. No 52/1993, Article 46(2)
(h)& Mining Regulation, Article
5(2)(d)].
NIL
NIL
88
Table 7.2 (Continued)
(g)
A well informed and
adequately vigilant public
against environmental
mismanagement.
(h)
Adequate public participation
in environmental management.
(i)
Socially responsible mine
project.
(j)
Quantified expectations
known, traceable and
accessible by all players.
(a)
Quantified NET benefits
(envisaged to be POSITIVE).
3 compliance (Sec. 21), suspend/terminate license if
Quantifiable /
measurable (b)
NET results Quantified environmental and
social liabilities (envisaged to
be ZERO)
Absence of a well informed and adequately
vigilant public to bring to fore any
environmental mismanagement may result in
many vices being “swept under carpet” or
simply ignored.
Participation of host community in
environmental management strategically
cardinal during active mine period and for post
mining period.
A mine project must be socially and
economically responsible to host community.
All benefits (environmental, monetary, etc)
should be quantified and known in advance
and traceable during and after mine project.
The NET result (environmental, monetary, etc)
of the measures of the environmental regime
must be dynamically assessed against planned
targets, and to terminate the mine project if
results become significantly unacceptable.
The liabilities of a mine project must be
dynamically assessed against projections, and
to terminate a mine project if liabilities begin to
indicate unfavourable state.
(i) Promotion of environ education & public
awareness programs (Dept of Environmental
Affairs)
[www.saiea.com/dbsa_book/Botswana.pdf]
(ii) Public hearing/comments on EIA Sec. 12(2)
(a).
NIL
(i) Jobs and on-job training
(ii) No displacement without consent
(iii) Compensation (Mines and Minerals
Act 1999, Sec. 63).
(iv) Preference for domestic goods and
services owned by Botswana citizens
(Mines and Minerals Act 1999, Sec. 12).
Management of postmine social
impacts?
NET GAIN/LOSS quantified?
(i) Taxes, royalties, etc.
NET quantified gain/loss?
(i) Biennial environmental audits to ensure
mine project fails to comply with environmental
commitments.
(ii) Mine project must rehabilitate mine area on
closure (Mines and Minerals Act 1999, Sec. 65).
(iii) Security fund for environmental liabilities
(Mines and Minerals Act 1999, Sec. 65(9)).
ZERO LIABILITY?
(i) NO PROACTIVE promotion of
environ studies, research, surveys and
analyses; formal and non-formal environ
education programmes for public
awareness; environ database for the
public; and environ seminars, training,
reports and information.
(ii) NO Public hearing/comments
NIL
(i) Jobs and on-job training. (Art.
273(c)).
(ii) Priority to Congolese firms for any
mining contracts with conditions in
terms of quantity, quality, price and
delivery and payment dates (Art.
273(f)).
(iii) Consent to operate near occupied
land (Art. 279).
(iv) Compensation for damages even
after rights granted (Article 280 & 281).
(v) Plan for social responsibility (Art.
69(g)).
Management of postmine social
impacts?
NET GAIN/LOSS quantified?
(i) Taxes, royalties, etc.
NET quantified gain/loss?
(i) 0.5% of turnover rehabilitation fund
(Art. 204, Art. 258).
(ii) Mine project must rehabilitate after
sampling / mining closure (Art. 147,
Art. 294).
ZERO LIABILITY?
(i) NO PROACTIVE promotion of
environ studies, research, surveys and
analyses; formal and non-formal environ
education programmes for public
awareness; environ database for the
public; and environ seminars, training,
reports and information.
(ii) Public hearing/comments on EIA
(Article15).
NIL
(i) Jobs & on-job training (Mining Proc.
No 52/1993, Article 46(2)(h)& Min.
Reg., Article 5(2)(d)).
(ii) Domestic goods and services
(Mining Proc. No 52/1993, Art. 27(3))
(ii) No displacement without consent
(iii) Compensation where necessary
(Mining Proc. No 52/1993, Article 24).
Management of postmine social
impacts?
NET GAIN/LOSS quantified?
(i) Taxes, royalties, etc.
NET quantified gain/loss?
(i) Suspend/terminate license if mine
project fails to comply with
environmental commitments (EIA proc.
299/2002, Article 12).
(ii) Mine project must rehabilitate mine
area on closure (Mining Proc. 52/1993,
Art. 52(3)& Mining Regulation, Art.
29).
(iii) Mine project MAY require to
deposit security for environmental
liabilities (Mining Proc. 52/1993, Article
45).
ZERO LIABILITY?
89
Table 7.3 Results of the profiling of a sample of 13 social and environmental regimes for mining industry in Africa.
COUNTRY
BRIDGE ELEMENTS Congo South TOTAL %
Botswana Ethiopia Gabon Ghana Guinea Mozamb Nigeria Tanzan Uganda Zamb Zimbab
DR Africa

a Regime for what? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 54

1
b $ PROJECTED NET gain NIL NIL

a Environment regime available 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 100

b Autonomous authority 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 100

c Environ in Min Act 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 100

Preconditions for Explo rights 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 54

d
Preconditions for Minin rights 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 85

e Implementation Resources 1 1 1 3 23

f Capac to negotiate NIL NIL

Educate public 1 1 1 1 4 31
g
2 Public hearing 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 62

h Active Public Participation 1 1 8

Jobs to locals 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 85

Training locals 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 12 92

Business to locals 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 62
i
Consent to move in 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 62

Compensation 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 100

CareforClosure SocioImpacts NIL NIL

j Pre-Publicized $ benefits NIL NIL

Taxes, royalties, etc. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 100

a
$Dynamic Balance Sheet NIL NIL

Periodic environ audits 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 46

3
Rehabilitation fund 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 62
b
Rehabilitate at closure 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 85

$Dynamic State of Liability 1 1 8

ELEMENTS COVERED OUT OF 25 18 13 13 11 17 10 7 11 19 10 15 17 10

ELEMENTS COVERD (%) 72 52 52 44 68 40 28 44 76 40 60 68 40

90
Table 7.4 A summary of results of the profiling in Table 7.3.
DESIRED DESIGN STATUS
BRIDGE FOR A SOCIAL Total
REMARKS
AND ENVIRONMENTAL ELEMENTS OF THE BRIDGE Sample Score %
REGIME
(a) Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
1 Mission / Objective(s) of
generations to meet their own needs. Regime for what? 13 7 54
the social and
$ PROJECTED NET
environmental law
(b) A NET GAIN socially, economically and environmentally. gain? 13 NIL NIL
(a) Presence of a social and environmental regime for mining industry Environ regime? 13 13 100
(b) Autonomous body with capacity to enforce the environmental laws. Autonom authority? 13 13 100
(c) Integration of environmental requirements into mining legislation. Environ in Min Act? 13 13 100
Preconds for Expl rts 13 7 54
(d) Mandatory environmental prerequisites / preconditions to exploration / mining rights
Preconds for Min rts 13 11 85
(e) Sufficient resources for implementation of the environmental regime. Implem. resources? 13 3 23
(f) Capacity to negotiate for benefits and environmental protection. Capac to negotiate? 13 NIL NIL
Train public 13 4 31
2 Ingredients of an enabling (g) A well informed and adequately vigilant public against environmental mismanagement.
bridge to desired results (to Public hearing 13 8 62
attain the objectives) (h) Adequate public participation in environmental management. Public participation? 13 1 8
Jobs 13 11 85
Training 13 12 92
Business 13 8 62
(i) Socially responsible mine project. Consent 13 8 62
Compensation 13 13 100
Post mine social
impacts? 13 NIL NIL
(j) Quantified expectations known, traceable and accessible by all players. Publicised $ benefits? 13 NIL NIL
Taxes, royalties, etc. 13 13 100
(a) Quantified NET benefits (envisaged to be POSITIVE). $DYNAMIC Balance
Sheet? 13 NIL NIL
3 Quantifiable / measurable
Periodic environ audits 13 6 46
results at any stage of the
mine project Rehabilitation fund 13 8 62
(b) Quantified environmental and social liabilities (envisaged to be ZERO) Rehabilitate at closure 13 11 85
$DYNAMIC state of
liability? 1 8

91
7.2.2 Measures to achieve intended results

7.2.2.1 Presence of a social and environmental regime for mining industry

All (100%) of the thirteen countries sampled have social and environmental regimes, or
provisions thereof to various degrees in the mining codes, for mining industry. The number and
distribution of “1” markings in Table 7.3 is an indication of the degree of comprehensiveness
and coverage on social and environmental issues by the respective regimes.

The analysis (Figure 7.1) shows that only 7 (54%) out of the 13 sample countries have regimes
which have addressed more than 50% of social and environmental bridge elements. With 19
(76%) out 25 elements addressed, South Africa has the most comprehensive regime followed by
Botswana (72%), with Ghana and Zambia in third position at 68% each.

Figure 7.1: Comprehensiveness of social and environmental regimes

for mining industry in Africa (in %)

It is however important to note that having a regime does not automatically mean that all is well
with social and environmental issues. All the elements of the regime have to be effectively
implemented for the objectives to be met.

92
7.2.2.2 Autonomous body with capacity to enforce the environmental laws

All (100%) of the sample regimes (2(b) in Tables 7.3 and 7.4) indicate existence of some form of
authority to enforce the social and environmental regime. The structures range from
environmental authorities established to run independently, to departments within ministries.
Establishments which run independently with independent boards/councils appear to have more
autonomy than those running as departments in mainstream ministries. Such autonomy is also
spelt out by the powers given to them, as opposed to those serving only as advisory entities in
ministries.

Regimes with autonomous bodies will generally achieve more than those in advisory capacity, as
the advise may be compromised.

7.2.2.3 Integration of environmental requirements into mining legislation

All (100%) of the sample regimes (2(c) in Tables 7.3 and 7.4) have some mention of
environmental and social issues in the mining codes. Again, the depth of integration range from a
few lines (e.g. Zimbabwe) to the whole section (e.g. South Africa) dedicated to social and
environmental issues.

A reflection of environmental requirements in mining legislation is a strong recognition, at

policy level, of the need to address environmental issues in mining industry. The weaker the
policy, the less will be the attention to social and environmental issues in mining industry of the
associated country.

7.2.2.4 Mandatory environmental preconditions to obtain exploration/mining rights

Fifty-four (54%) and 85% of the sample regimes (2(d) in Tables 7.3 and 7.4) have provided for
mandatory environmental prerequisites for obtaining prospecting and mining licenses,
respectively. Where left optional, it may be difficult to carryout correctional measures in case a
prospector/miner pollutes. This is especially the case for prospecting which usually takes place in
poorly accessible areas.

7.2.2.5 Sufficient resources for implementation of the environmental regime

Only 3 (23%) of the countries (2(e) in Tables 7.3 and 7.4), namely Botswana, Ghana and South
Africa, have explicitly provided for sufficient resources in their social and environmental
regimes to execute them.

For example, in Botswana the overall objective of the Department of Environment is to

“foster the pursuit of sustainable development by coordinating the protection of the
country’s environment and the conservation of its natural resources”.

The Government of Botswana states that the Department must be “……. provided with the
necessary resources and further ensuring that all resources allocated to the Department are
effectively and optimally utilized” [www.saiea.com/dbsa_book/Botswana.pdf].

93
A social and environmental regime can hardly serve any purpose if it is inadequately funded. The
relative level of funding is a strong indicator of the seriousness a country attaches to the regime.

7.2.2.6 Capacity to negotiate for benefits and environmental protection

In many cases, an investor is in a stronger position than the host community/country when
negotiating for a development agreement. This is because an investor has money, more technical
and negotiation knowledge and experience (“tricks”), and more powerful networks in terms of
finance capital, commodity market and national/international decision makers. It is therefore
necessary to develop capacity at all levels in a mineral host community/country for such
community/country to adequately bargain for its share of the mine development.

In the 13 regimes analyzed (2(f) in Tables 7.3 and 7.4), none (0%) of the countries have provided
for this very important aspect in minerals industry. This could be one contribution to poor terms
of agreement between mineral hosts and mine investors, leading to NET losses out of the
developments.

7.2.2.7 An environmentally well informed and adequately vigilant public

The analysis (2(g) in Tables 7.3 and 7.4) indicates that only 4 (31%) of the sample regimes have
provided for developing and/or implementing programs for social and environmental education
for the public.

For example, in the Ghanaian EPA Act 1994, Part I, the functions of the Environmental
Protection Agency include:

“(l) to promote studies, research, surveys and analyses for the improvement
and protection of the environment and the maintenance of sound
ecological systems in Ghana;

(m) to initiate and pursue formal and non-formal education programmes for
the creation of public awareness of the environment and its importance
to the economic and social life of the country;

(o) to develop a comprehensive database on the environment and

environmental protection for the information of the public;

(p) to conduct seminars and training programmes and gather and publish
reports and information relating to the environment;”

Programs of this nature give birth to public pressure groups such as the Third World Network –
Africa (www.twnafrica.org) of Ghana and Citizens for Better Environment of Zambia
(www.cbezambia.org/networking.html). These groups play a role of an independent “eye” over
how natural resources are being managed in a country.

A study carried out by the Southern African Institute for Environmental Assessment (SAIEA)
revealed that key environmental policy areas requiring support include environmental
information and education [SAIEA, 2003]. Absence of a well informed and adequately vigilant

94
public to bring to fore any environmental mismanagement may result in many vices being
“swept under carpet” or simply ignored.

Still under this element, 8 (62%) of the regimes provide for public hearing, as part of the
environmental impact assessment (EIA), disclosure, or similar process. This gives the public to
air views, but the usefulness of the views are limited by the level of awareness and the extent to
which information has been disclosed.

7.2.2.8 Adequate public participation in environmental management

Here (2(h) in Tables 7.3 and 7.4), only South Africa explicitly provides for active public
participation in environmental management. The South African National Environmental
Management Act, 1998 (ACT NO 107 OF 1998, Section 4.3.1 (ii) states that an environmental
management plan must:

“Enhance the participation of stakeholders, to play an active role in minerals, metals and
mining development throughout the life cycles of mining operations, in accordance with
national regulations and taking into account significant transboundary impacts”.

And, the Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act, 2002 (Act No. 28 of 2002),
Section 52(g) states that an environmental management plan must contain:

“a record of the public participation undertaken and the results thereof”.

Active public participation not only builds capacity in the local community to management
environmental projects, but also prepares the community for future environmental problems that
they may be encountered beyond a mine project.

7.2.2.9 Socially responsible mine project

A social and environmental regime for mining industry should provide for ensuring that
developers are socially and economically responsible to host communities. Mine projects ought
to, among others,

• offer jobs to national,

• train nationals,
• give priority to nationals and local products and services with regard to involvement in
mine project business,
• get consent of holders of property who may be disturbed by mine projects;
• give compensation for displacement or damage to property owners; and
• ameliorate any post closure impacts on the host communities.

Analysis (2(i) in Tables 7.3 and 7.4) of the 13 samples regimes indicate that 11 (85%) provide
for jobs to nationals, 12 (92%) provide for training of nationals, 8 (62%) provide for prioritizing
nationals and national products and services in mine projects, 8 (62%) provide for consent before
95
proceeding with mine project; and all (100%) provide for compensation to property owners in
case of displacement/damage by mine developers.

7.2.2.10 Quantified expectations known, traceable and accessible by all players

A mine developer will quantifiably project the investment picture and display it to the share
holders. This investment picture will also indicate the likely layout of liabilities and how to
manage them, but must still remain profitable. If a positive picture does not emerge, a mine
development will not take place.

Similarly, a mineral host community/country should project this kind of picture. The picture
should not only indicate the anticipated NET gain, but should also ensure that there are no
liabilities at the end of mine project which might wipe out or even exceed any financial gains
made. Both the anticipated NET gains and the environmental outlook must become a reference,
and must be publicly displayed, traceable and accessible at any time by the host
country/community. If a NET positive picture does not emerge, the host community/country
must reject the investment. Although it does not contain some of the information being
recommended here, Figure 7.1 gives an example of Kinross publicized benefits to the local
community in Alaska where it is operating.

Figure 7.2: An example of publicized benefits to the local community59

A study carried out by the Southern African Institute for Environmental Assessment (SAIEA)
revealed that among the key environmental policy areas requiring support are the economics of
sustainable development [SAIEA, 2003]. For this, the priority areas envisaged were to carry out
economic, equity and environmental assessments. In meeting the requirements of this
component, SADC ELMS prepared a project proposal entitled, “Capacity Building for EIA in
the Southern African Development Community”. It was expected to be implemented between
1995 and 1999, but was not due to lack of funding.

59
http://dnr.alaska.gov/mlw/mining/largemine/fortknox/pdf/fk2009ppt.pdf
96
To promote transparency, good governance and public access to information in mining industry,
Article 13 of the Draft ECOWAS Directive on the Harmonization of Guiding Principles and
Policies in the Mining Sector States that:

“Records, documents and information furnished or attained ……… which relate to a mining right granted
should be considered public and shared with the public. ECOWAS member States that do not have laws on the
free flow of information are encouraged to develop them to promote public and media access to information
regarding mining”.

Based on the analysis (2(j) in Tables 7.3 and 7.4) of the sample regimes, NONE (0%) provides
for quantified expectations known, traceable and accessible by all players.

7.2.3 Dynamically tracking the state of intended results during the mine project

7.2.3.1 Quantified NET POSITIVE benefits.

Among a number of avenues governments use to collect revenue include taxes, royalties and
resource rents. The analysis (3(a) in Tables 7.3 and 7.4) shows that all (100%) of the regimes in
the thirteen sample countries provide for various combinations of these forms of revenue
collection.

However, since none of the regimes has a reference balance sheet such as the one described in
Section 7.2.2.10 above, it cannot be demonstrated whether a NET gain from a mine development
has been achieved at any one time. Just like an investor would terminate a business operation if
the current balance sheet indicates losses with no hope of it getting better, a mineral host
community/country should be able to demand a closure of business if the balance sheet starts
becoming irreversibly unfavorable. But this is only possible if a prior and tractable projection has
been established from the start.

Lack of this tool makes it difficult for a mineral host community/country to assess their ability to
cope with possible future social and environmental liabilities. This is actually the case in a
number of countries, such as South Africa [Department of Environment and Tourism, 2008] and
Zambia [Makumba, 2007] where they have had to take on very high and unforeseen costs to deal
with liabilities long after mine developers have left.

7.2.3.2 ZERO (environmental and social) liabilities

Liabilities of a mine project must be dynamically assessed against projections. The state of
liability must be periodically assessed, and not left to the end of the project. If the assessment
shows that the project is exhibiting signs of liabilities towards an unfavorable and irreversible
state, the project must be terminated.

Another important precautionary tool here is for a mine developer to begin to reserve a
rehabilitation fund from the start of operations. This fund must be adjusted to match the changing
state of liabilities during a mine life. In this way, the host community/country will avoid
incurring costs which should have been borne by the developer.

97
From the analysis (3(b) in Tables 7.3 and 7.4) of the thirteen sample regimes, only 6 (46%) of
the regimes provide for need for periodic environmental audits, only 8 (62%) provide for a
rehabilitation fund, 11 (85%) provide for need for a mine closure plan, and only South Africa
provides for need to annually carryout environmental audits and making appropriate adjustments
to the environmental fund. The Mineral and Petroleum Resources Development Act 28, 2002,
Sec 41(3) states:

“The holder of a prospecting right, mining right or mining permit must annually assess
his or her environmental liability and increase his or her financial provision ……”.

7.2.4 General observation

Figure 7.3 shows that out of the 25 identified elements in a complete environmental regime being
suggested, five elements including need to:

• project NET GAIN (balance sheet) as an objective (1b);

• build capacity in communities for them to competently handle negotiations (2e);
• provide for post mine closure management of social impacts (2i-6);
• publicize quantified expected NET GAIN benefits before start of project (2j); and
• dynamically display the status of the balance sheet to all players (3a-2)

are absent in the regimes, or could not be detected by this author in the regimes.

98
 Figure 7.3: Depth (in %) to which the thirteen social and environmental sample regimes have addressed the key
success elements of the regimes in mining industry in Africa.

If all the above elements were incorporated and implemented, coupled with zero tolerance for
corruption, the bridge will have been completed for a strong and successful social and
environmental regime for mining industry in Africa, and it is this author’s belief that the
continent would substantially and sustainably benefit from the minerals industry.

99
8 “MAKING GOOD OUT OF BAD” ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN
MINING INDUSTRY

The environmental situations in mining industry range from abandoned (orphaned) to active
mines. In principle, active mines are catered for through obligations imposed by environmental
regimes, of course keeping in mind the various regime weaknesses by design and
implementation. On the other hand, abandoned mines, which are mines for which the owner
cannot be found or is financially unable or unwilling to carry out site rehabilitation, require
innovative regime approaches. Some of these mines pose environmental, health, safety and
economic risks to communities, the mining industry and governments where they are found
[NOAMI undated]. Nevertheless, a number of such mines offer immense opportunities for
involving affected communities to manage them in less complicated arrangements than those
often associated with development agreements between the host country/community and mine
developers. Environmental management for both abandoned and active mines have socio-
economic linkages, as illustrated in Figure 8.1. The linkages can be variably upward, downward
and/or lateral, depending on the situation and the way participation is structured. Some of these
linkages will be elaborated below.

Figure 8.1 Socio-economic linkages in environmental management in mining industry.

100
8.1 Reprocessing of Old Mine Dumps

The three main reasons for reprocessing old mine dumps are mineral extraction, safety
enhancement and environmental protection [Vanicek and Vanicek, 2008].

8.1.1 Mineral extraction

Numerous old dumps in various countries contain high metal grades. The high grades are largely
due to inefficient technologies with which mining and mineral processing in the old times were
done. The recent surge in metal demand also meant that low grade dumps became of interest, as
they could be economically reprocessed due to the high metal prices at the time. Examples of
countries that are reprocessing of old dumps include Congo D.R (Yager, 2007), Ghana [Coakley,
2003], South Africa [EMJ, 2008], Zambia [Mobbs, 2008].

While the main motive is to extract minerals, the mine dump operators have to abide by
conditions set-out by environmental regimes in respective countries, when disposing of waste
from the reprocessed dumps. For those dumps that would have required attention from
environmental and safety point of view, this becomes a case of a “win-win” situation, without
which the dumps would have been complete liabilities requiring governments to look for extra
funding to manage them.

8.1.2 Safety enhancement

A number of old tailings dams may need reprocessing to prevent failures, breaching and
flooding, as consequences of flow failures or overtopping. The potential risk of failure of old
dumps; especially that in form of tailings dams is very high. Many of these dams are situated in
highly built up areas (e.g. gold mining dumps in Johannesburg, South Africa) or in important
river basins (e.g. copper mining dumps in the Kafue River basin, Copperbelt of Zambia). The
already discussed tailings dam burst60 at the Tarkwa gold mine in the Wassa West District on
October 16, 2001, is one such example.

For dumps in orphaned mines with no possibility to economically reprocess them, funds for
rehabilitation have to be raised by governments. Here lie opportunities for engaging local
communities with the help of local and/or foreign expertise to do the rehabilitation work. In
planning for the remediation of abandoned and orphaned mines, members of local communities
should have equal opportunity to contribute to decisions and processes that will affect them
[ICME, 1999]. According to experiences in Canada and the United States, these processes should
be as open and transparent as possible, and the definition of “affected community” should be a
product of citizen self-analysis where opportunity exists to contribute to decision-making
processes [NOAMI undated].

60
www.earthworksaction.org/wassa.cfm
101
8.1.3 Environmental protection

The way a number of old dumps were constructed does not meet the current environmental
standards. For example, gold mining in South Africa resulted in vast volumes of waste material,
mainly in the form of tailings material. Poor management of most of the tailings dams resulted in
the release of acid mine drainage that in some cases caused soil degradation and water
contamination underneath and around these sites [Rosner, 1999]. In another example, a report by
the South African Nuclear Energy Corporation revealed that tests on asparagus, oats and onions
produced in the Gerhard Minne wetlands showed that the level of radioactive substances was
three times higher than the safe permissible level for human consumption. Pointing out that
intensive gold mining takes place in the area - and that uranium as a by-product is found in mine
dumps there - large tracts of land in the area of the Wonderfonteinspruit were 150 times more
radioactive than the permitted level61.

Reprocessing may therefore be done to eliminate sources of acid generation, ground water
contamination, or aerial pollution [Vanicek and Vanicek, 2008]. Like in the above example
(Section 8.1.2), local communities with the help of local and/or foreign expertise can be used to
carry out the rehabilitation work. Experience with abandoned and orphaned mines in the United
States has shown that public participation and community involvement can provide the essential
knowledge, information and insight to enhance the efficiency of administrative decision-making,
contribute to conflict resolution and support the implementation of actions and decisions
[NOAMI undated]. Such capacity inevitably leads to more sound risk management and trust
between parties, as communities can be a vehicle for identifying health concerns/indicators and
key issues of priority to which decision-makers should give attention.

8.2 Landscaping of Mine Dumps

8.2.1 Mine dump construction

Construction of mine dumps, following professional design, involves material (rock, tailings or
slug) movement and profiling, construction of skates/berms as well as drainages. Communities
can be appropriately involved, especially in less complicated activities such as drainage
construction.

8.2.2 Revegetation

Some areas where the local community may be contracted to provide services include seed
collection, propagation of seedlings and management of a nursery, revegetation works,
rehabilitation monitoring, weed management and fire management. Such practices are common,
for example in Australia62, Canada and United States [NOAMI undated].

In South Africa, the Johannesburg community has partnered with large mining houses to green
mine dumps (Photographs 8.1 and 8.2). Johannesburg’s distinctive mine dumps are the visible
legacy of the city’s origins as a mining town. The project is considered to be a way to stabilize
61
www.wise-uranium.org/udec.html#ZA
62
www.nt.gov.au/nreta/environment/assessment/register/matildaminerals/pdf/s21.pdf
102
the soil and prevent air pollution from the fine dust from the dumps. It is thought that besides
being a long term investment in the health of Johannesburg’s residents, it would add new notches
to Johannesburg’s green belts63.

Photograph 8.1: A mine dump in Johannesburg [www.joburg.org.za].

In Ghana, mine closure has brought shocks to communities in mine areas and beyond. Economic
tree planting programs have therefore commenced as one way to reduce shocks, as explained in
Box 8.1 (Thorpe et. al., 2008].

Box 8.1 Revegetating mine dumps with economic plants.

We are committed to extending the benefits of our mining operations in Western Ghana to our
stakeholder communities and to making that benefit extend beyond the life of the mine. Through
community consultation, we are able to determine the post‐closure land use that will best suit our
stakeholder communities and then develop rehabilitation plans aimed at meeting those needs. As
such, we are currently developing Jatropha on waste dumps at our Wassa mine and an oil palm
plantation on our closed tailings disposal facility at our Bogoso / Prestea operation.

The shock to the local economy of mine closure is extensive. However, to address this eventual
reduction in the local economy, we have established Golden Star Oil Palm Plantations Limited.
This innovative, community‐based oil palm plantation development company aims to reduce
poverty in our stakeholder communities and provide beneficial economic development
opportunities that will endure beyond the life of our operations (Thorpe et. al., 2008].

63
www.joburg.org.za
103
Apart from trees, mine dumps also require grass, such as Vetiver grass which is a member of the
same part of the grass family as maize, sorghum, sugar cane and lemongrass. It is an ancient
plant that has grown around the world to great benefit for centuries64.

For both tree and grass planting activities, communities can either grow plants/trees and sell for
greening the mine areas, or they can be contracted to carryout both the raising of nurseries and
planting them.

8.3 Consultancy and Contract Work Services

8.3.1 Studies

Research and compilation of information on mine areas is necessary to enable sound decision-
making, cost-efficient planning and sustainable rehabilitation. Such information is also necessary
to ensure transparency of decision-making and access to information by governments, civil
society, industry and other communities of interest [NOAMI undated].

Engagement of local communities in the studies helps to build capacity and to ready the
community to deal with environmental issues during and beyond mine life. Based on various
national and international publications and conferences (e.g., See the First International
Conference on Environment Research, Technology and Policy, ERTEP 2007, Accra, Ghana.16-
19 July), a number of African countries, notably South Africa, Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania,
Zambia and Zimbabwe are involving nationals in social and environmental studies in mine areas.

8.3.2 Mine dump management

Beyond mine dump construction, the dump needs to be managed until it is completely stable.
Communities can be engaged to monitor and manage the dumps for activities including water
quality studies, flora and fauna establishment and erosion control.

8.3.3 Acid management in mine areas

Current approaches to reclaiming acid generating tailings include permanent water cover or
encapsulation with various synthetic liners and/or clay. Although these methods can be effective,
some ongoing maintenance will be required in perpetuity to ensure that water levels are
adequately maintained or that the integrity of any capping system is protected. The successful
creation of wetlands in tailings basins in Ontario, Canada, offers the possibility of creating a
stable environment for the tailings with minimal maintenance [Eger et al., 2007].

Communities can be involved in pH monitoring and management as well as construction of the

wetlands in dump basins.

8.4 Environmental Education

64
www.theherbcottage.com/vetiver_sales1.html
104
The analysis (See Chapter 8) of thirteen sample social and environmental regimes for mining
industry in Africa indicates that countries such as Botswana, Ghana, South Africa and Zambia
promote environmental studies, research, surveys and analyses. They also promote formal and
non-formal education programmes for the creation of public awareness of the environment, as
well as seminars and skills training programmes.

There is a significant involvement by educational institutions, consultants and NGOs in Africa in

the development and delivery of environmental courses at various levels. Courses with greater
impact are those in form of case studies developed based on actual situations directly facing
communities in mining areas65. These capacity building initiatives, apart from their importance in
sustainable development, are also vital as income generation activities.

8.5 Greening Mining Towns

Mining towns in Africa often experience rapid forest degradation and/or deforestation, due to
unsustainable urbanization. The mushrooming townships that emerge due to this urbanization are
often not provided with electricity network. As a result wood and wood charcoal become the
main source of energy. As part of corporate social responsibility, a number of mining companies
are supporting reforestation programs, such as illustrated in Box 8.2 - an experience in Tanzania.

Box 8.2: Mine support to community for reforestation of mine area in Tanzania

GOLDEN PRIDE MINE - TANZANIA

Environmental performance at Golden Pride continues to improve. Highlights include the approval of
the 2007 Environmental Management Plan, a milestone reached of over 500,000 seedlings planted on
the Golden Pride lease since the project commenced in 1998, development of Environmental
Geographic Information System to improve land management and monitoring, waste rock dump water
management improvements, staging of the Resolute Group Environmental Conference, and continued
development of environmental personnel.

Community environmental support and development continued with additional training of local
community members in plant nursery and reforestation management and donation of 21,000 Golden
Pride seedlings to local reforestation programmes. Since commencement of operations in excess of
350,000 seedlings have been donated to the community

[www.resolute-ltd.com.au/cr-environment.html].

In Johannesburg, apart from greening mine dumps there is also greening of the city which has
lost trees over years (Photograph 8.2).

The choice of trees to plant depends on various conditions and purpose, but can include
indigenous, ornamental and economic trees such as palm plants and Jatropha.

65
http://www.hoffmann-reif.com/e3091/e16/e1029/e3990/proj_files3999/Santren_eLearning.pdf
105
 Photograph 8.2: Tree planting in Johannesburg
[www.joburg.org.za].

8.6 Construction Material from Mine Dumps

Many mine dumps materials have limited potential for use as aggregates because of their
fineness, high impurity content, trace metal leachability, propensity for acid generation, and/or
remote location (i.e., away from aggregate markets). However, when the location and material
property characteristics are favorable, some sources of waste rock or coarse mill tailings may be
suitable for use as granular base/sub-base, railroad ballast, Portland cement concrete aggregate,
asphalt aggregate, flowable fill aggregate or fill, and engineered fill or embankment. In the USA,
large quantities of these materials have historically been used, at least in 34 different states, as
highway construction materials whenever it has been economical and appropriate to do so
[RMRC, 2007].

A variety of products can be developed from mine waste as long as they meet the standards
specified for each application [Chidavaenzi 2004; Lemeshev et. al. 2005]. Mill tailings
consisting of quartz, feldspars, carbonates, oxides, ferro-magnesium minerals, magnetite, and
pyrite have been used in the manufacture of calcium silicate bricks, and have also been used as a
source of pozzolanic material [RMRC, 2007].

The opportunities for communities to earn income through use of mine waste at the same time as
they clean up mine environment are enormous.

106
8.7 Mine Area as Tourist Attraction and Recreation Centers

Many mining areas, both closed and active, are very suitable for tourist attraction and examples
(Photograph) abound, especially in the USA66, Canada, Europe67,68, Australia69, New Zealand70,
but also in South Africa71. The variety of tourist attraction activities tend to be more in closed
mine areas, because they are free from interfering with production, and the safety issues are less
cumbersome. Children and adults alike learn about minerals mining and the life of miners.
Visitors can even take home samples of ore. Various attractions including mine drilling, search
for minerals, recreation of old mineral mining towns complete with actors in costumes from the
pertaining era and period accommodation can be put in place to improve or widen patronage.
The areas can also be populated with animal parks and hotels with associated mineral-based
souvenirs.

Following the closure of Martha mine in New Zealand in late 2006, a Waihi Community
Consultative Group was formed to brainstorm on a wide range of issues and options relating to
the future of the town and district72. The ‘Blue Skies’ initiative, “what could we achieve together
as a community following mine closure?”, came out of those discussions, with example options
as shown in Box 8.3.

Australia
www.marthamine.co.nz/09_12_03_UDM.html.

Gold Reef City fun park in Johannesburg. USA

http://members.virtualtourist.com/m/p/m/3393 www.roadsideamerica.com/story/11496
4a/
Photographs 8.3: Examples of tourist attractions at closed mines

Examples in Box 8.3 by the Martha mine community show that there are immense socio-
economic opportunities that can be derived from mining areas, closed or active. The need to

66
http://www.roadsideamerica.com/story/11496

67
www.penzance.world-guides.com/penzance_attractions.html.
68
www.raa.se/cms/en/places_to_visit/world_heritage_sites/
69
www.kingsgate.com.au/links/gold-mine-tourist-attractions.htm.
70
www.marthamine.co.nz/09_12_03_UDM.html
71
http://members.virtualtourist.com/m/p/m/33934a/
72
www.marthamine.co.nz/09_12_03_UDM.html.
107
achieve these benefits would be one driving force to engage communities in the areas to clean up
the environment so as to pave way for these socio-economic activities.

Box 8.3: The ‘Blue Skies’ Initiative following the closure of Martha mine in New Zealand
www.marthamine.co.nz/09_12_03_UDM.html
If funding and other considerations were not an issue, what could we achieve together as a community? The list is
presented here. The challenge now is to work together to investigate likely options, seek sources of funding, produce
business proposals and talk with each other to ensure the very best possible future for Waihi.
Heritage Social Impact
• Link to Union Hill heritage features • Restore residential confidence
• Linking of all features within Waihi Gold’s licence area • Restore public access to Pumphouse
• Links to dams, water races, batteries, tram lines, and many others • Extend Vintage Railway into town possibly following old Rake Line,
• Links to wider heritage features including aspects of interest at Union Hill, Martha, Favona with a
• Set up a Heritage Trust central business stopover.
• Leaving things from current mining as heritage features for • Any extension of train into town would complement any “historical
tomorrow. street” scenarios
• Provide more “after 5” activities e.g. movie theatre, hot pool
Environmental • Power generation (possibly from lake water flow or windmills at the
• Make areas available for rare/endangered birds/plants possibly with tailings storage facilities)
predator fences (mainland islands) • Must consider how Golden Legacy might impact on residents
• Kauri banks and other important local species • Consider ratepayers and the return for them.
• Recreating what vegetation used to be like in Waihi
• Bird corridor using other areas e.g. Union Hill, Black Hill Social Development
• Remove goats from Union Hill to allow native species to regenerate • Acknowledgement & clarity of process re social impact of mining
• Wetlands, possibly incorporating a water race including cultural impact on Maori
• Community gardens – organic, heritage, plant deciduous trees for • Public transport
shading buildings, fruit & nut trees for community • Alternative education opportunities (’Aroha’ Learning Centre)
• Tricycle and bicycle ways (cycle friendly town) possible extension to • Full-time Hauraki Regional Youth Worker
Karangahake and beach. Separate from walking tracks. • Apprenticeship trade opportunities
• Maori medicinal plants • Creative pursuits opportunities e.g. music, performing arts, film and
• Education – many opportunities, primary, secondary and tertiary, media studies, art, jewellery.
research studies, mining impacts
• Horse/lama treks Education
• Establish relations with group to “add value” e.g. National • Outdoor education e.g. kayaking, sailing, water related activities,
Geographic abseiling/rock climbing, guided mine site/Union Hill tours for schools,
walkways of varying lengths and purposes, some wheelchair friendly,
Tourism interpretive signs and displays, amenities for school groups e.g. shelter
• Interactive Gold Mining Discovery Centre incorporating expanded area, BBQ area, Outward Bound style Education Centre
information centre • Build links with primary, secondary & tertiary institutions for field
• Themed hot pool complex trips e.g. geology, biology & link to existing providers e.g. museum,
• Ore cart transportation system linking Martha Mine to Union Hill, train to provide total packages
Mill and tailings storage facilities areas • Centre for native plant study
• Development of earth study/geology/history campus • 4 wheel drive training school
• Sports academy focusing on water sports • Historical bush camp experience
• Jewellery School • ‘Ranges to Sea’ walkway
• International Standard Conference Centre • Maori carving school
• Themed cinema (possibly incorporate in PYE building) • Links to community marae
• Gold Trail (using Iron Trail, Minnesota model) www.irontrail.org • Multisport/triathlon/mountain bike course.
• Underground public toilets at Info Centre with car and bus park
• International mountain bike course designed by world champ (similar Business
to Bob Charles Golf Course idea) • Utilise existing labour force once mining complete
• Tent & breakfast camp idea • Utilise existing mine facilities once mine closes
• Historic village • Model boats
• Have a paid Golden Legacy Development Manager to follow through • Industry to support other Golden Legacy initiatives
on CCC ideas for future developments. Possibly form a “future Waihi” • Working mine display/theme park idea with rides etc
trust with a team of volunteer trust members. • Use labour for walkway development
• Multicultural Centre
• Using old mine timber
• Paid mine tours

108
9 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY

Section 8 has extensively illustrated areas of community empowerment in both active and
abandoned mines. The avenues through which communities can be empowered include
government legislation, corporate social responsibility and community effort itself, as for
example in the case of community self-drive by Martha Mine in New Zealand.

9.1 General

Mining industry is increasingly becoming under public pressure “to show good” to communities
in which they operate, and the term Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is gaining
prominence. Mineral host governments, regional bodies and international institutions are all
adding weight on the need for CSR in mining industry. In the absence of a predetermined Net
Positive Balance Sheet approach discussed in Chapters 3 and 7, increasing social, economic and
environmental corporate responsibilities by mine developers in mineral host communities at
present takes a tripartite approach, as shown in Figure 9.1.

Figure 9.1: The current tripartite approach to increasing social, economic and environmental corporate
responsibilities by mine developers

GOVERNMENT REGULATION

Through regulation, governments can set preconditions to be fulfilled by developers form them
to obtain licenses. But as was observed in the analysis of the thirteen mining regimes, there are
glaring inadequacies in most regimes so that the delivery from this angle is very minimal. Even
where provisions in the regimes may be reasonably significant, implementation in many cases is
undermined and only becomes mostly a lip service [ECA, 2004].

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CORPORATE SELF REGULATION

Corporate self-regulation requires that mine developers integrate their “self regulation” into a
business model to meet their social and environmental obligations. In this case, CSR policy
would function as a built-in, self-regulating mechanism whereby mine developers would monitor
and ensure their adherence to law, ethical standards, and international norms. The developers
would embrace responsibility for the impact of their activities on the environment, consumers,
employees, communities, stakeholders and the general public sphere73,74.

Furthermore, the developers would proactively promote the public interest by encouraging
community growth and development, and voluntarily eliminating practices that harm the public
sphere, regardless of legality. Essentially, CSR is the deliberate inclusion of public interest into
corporate decision-making, and the honoring of a triple bottom line: People, Planet, Profit.

PUBLIC PRESSURE

A well informed public will exert pressure on both mine developers and government when
irresponsibility is observed on the part of both the governments and mine operators. Due to
public pressure, the Zambian Government was forced to introduce a windfall tax and a variable
profit tax that was designed to work in periods of both high and low prices and for both low and
high cost mining projects75.

9.2 Public Participation in Mining Activities

Among the several measures through which mining projects will benefit host communities is
improving public participation. Public participation and sustainable development have become
central and interconnected terms in present day development discourse [ECA, 2004; World
Bank, 2004]. The ECA report identifies the following as avenues of participation which may
require consideration:

Participation in decision-making
• Public participation in the procedures of impact assessments to contribute to management
of natural resources;
• Involvement screening environmental impact assessment activities
• Institutional arrangements for project approvals
• Procedures for participation in project impact assessment
• Rights of access to information
• Participation in monitoring and enforcement
• Participation in policy formulation

73
www.icmm.com
74
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility.
75
http://www.mibs.gov.zm/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=285&Itemid=142
110
Allocation of benefits from mining
• Forms of benefit
• Local community allocation from national revenue
• Managing revenue
• Infrastructure provisions
• Tri-sector partnerships
• Equity participation
• Economic empowerment of the previously disadvantaged communities

Another area of participation recommended by the ECA report is through integration of mining
into national economies in order to improve the retention of benefits from mining industry. At
present, almost all important mine investment aspects including capital, equipment and key
personnel with huge emoluments are foreign.

Mining policies which capture these forms of participation while also localizing key investment
factors would minimize the huge drain on money earned from the industry, which would
otherwise benefit the African continent [ECA, 2004].

9.3 Some Best Practices of Corporate Social Responsibility

The best practices described here are with respect to social and environmental corporate
responsibilities. Although some of the CSRs have been discussed in Chapter 8, such as the
support of mine developers to communities in tree planting, special mention will be done here
for two selected ones, namely Material Stewardship and APELL, which are implemented by
mining industry. These are especially discussed because Material Stewardship addresses CSR in
the life cycle of minerals while APELL addresses the disaster aspect of the mining industry.
These two are cardinal in CSR concerns.

9.3.1 Material stewardship

9.3.1.1 Defining Material Stewardship

Material stewardship is the act of various stakeholders along the mineral value chain undertaking
activities that enhance the durability and recyclability of minerals and metals, increase the
efficiency of their production and use, and minimize associated risks in order to maximize the
value of the minerals. For investing companies, this entails responsible product design, use, re-
use, recycling and disposal of their products.

The success of material stewardship hinges upon input and co-operation of value chain
stakeholders including mining companies, suppliers to mining operations, the users of minerals,
product designers and engineers, regulators, communities, workers, policy makers, the recycling
industry and non-governmental organizations all have roles to play [ICMM, 2006].

Materials stewardship encompasses both process and product stewardship. Process stewardship
refers to activities undertaken by a company to ensure that its processes to explore, extract and
refine minerals and metals are done in a way that minimize environmental impacts and health
111
and safety risks. Product stewardship addresses the minerals and metals utilized in product
systems by others, and refers to activities that influence or guide their application in order to
minimize environmental, health and safety risks and enable recovery, reuse or recycling, as
appropriate. The implementation of materials stewardship requires:

• Understanding the social, environmental and economic impacts of materials as they move
through the life cycle from mining to use and through to the end of their life.

• Developing relationships with different stakeholders to assist and influence beneficial use of
materials as well as the minimization or elimination of risks to human health and the
environment.

9.3.1.2 Materials stewardship and the minerals and metals life cycle

Figure 9.2 illustrates the scope and key themes around which materials stewardship for a mineral
and metal life cycle activities can be organized, highlighting key operations and activities from
production through end-of-life and recycling [ICMM, 2006].

The mining industry in Africa is primarily in the early stages of this life cycle, namely
exploration, mining, processing, smelting and refining. These stages are areas where the primary
stewardship activities are focused on efficiency, productivity of resources and minimizing
environmental, health and safety risks. They are areas which are relatively manageable compared
to widespread use such fabrication, where stewardship responsibilities widen. This manageable
part of stewardship is referred to as process stewardship. The characteristics of specific minerals
and metals can help determine where materials stewardship activities need to be undertaken. For
example, a mineral or metal with hazardous properties may require more co-ordinated and
structured materials stewardship activities than a more benign substance.

112
 Figure 9.2: Themes and activities in materials stewardship [ICMM, 2006].

The stewardship beyond refining demands supporting appropriate applications and facilitating
efforts towards recovery and re-use as appropriate, and is referred to as product stewardship.
This involves many more actors in the value chain.

9.3.1.3 Implementation of materials stewardship in Africa

To the knowledge of this author, there are two associations in Africa, namely Chamber of Mines
of South Africa and Mining Industries Associations of Southern Africa, that are members of the
International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM). It is possible, though, that companies
operation in other regions other than Southern Africa are members of ICMM through commodity
associations such as International Aluminium Institute, International Copper Association, World
Coal Institute, International Zinc Association and Nickel Institute [Davies, 2007].

To illustrate the importance of material stewardship, two case examples cited by Gold Fields
Limited of South Africa are presented in Boxes 9.1 and 9.2 in South Africa and Ghana,
respectively.

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Box 9.1: SOUTH AFRICA - Material stewardship and supply chain management
Procurement

Our Project Beyond in South Africa set out in financial year 2005 to achieve cumulative contracted benefits of R300
million. This project focuses on three pillars which are:
• Quality and safe underground mining;
• New technology and innovation; and
• Power, people and surface optimisation.
•
To date, this project has delivered contracted total cost benefits for SA operations in excess of the target (around R20
million beyond the target). During the reporting period, another R31 million in contracted benefits were delivered,
excluding cost avoidance estimated around R34 million over this period. Although real record high inflation over the last
year outstripped the contracted benefits delivery, it does imply a reduced basket inflation impact compared to doing
nothing. Likewise, the International operations, through integrated supply chain initiatives, added approximately US$36
million in contracted benefits since 2005, with around US$8 million in benefit added over this financial year.

For the South African operations, the in-house shared workshop operations managed to turn the facility from a loss
making model during the first part of the financial year to a cost savings model over the second part of the year, over and
above the critical enabling support that this capability provides to the South African operations.

Local procurement and empowerment

Our policy objective for South Africa is to identify and approve Historically Disadvantaged South African (HDSA)
suppliers, increase the level of spend to previously disadvantaged individuals and to increase business opportunities and
set targets for HDSA procurement spend.

When applying for registration on our database we evaluate the following criteria:
• Ownership;
• Black empowerment programme; and
• Size of enterprise relating to turnover and staff.

Should an HDSA vendor not qualify as a result of safety, quality and service, Gold Fields will at, its discretion, support
and develop the supplier to be able to meet our criteria as set out in the Gold Fields Policies and Procedures.

As a matter of course, we monitor and verify all information received to ensure accuracy by making use of external
auditing companies and preference is given to HDSA suppliers where Gold Fields criteria are achievable. The policy
extends to all tenders regarding any supply contract entered into by any Gold Fields Limited affiliate.

http://onlinewebstudio.co.za/online_reports/gold_fields_ar08/sus_chain_management.php

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 Box 9.2: GHANA - Material stewardship and supply chain management

GHANA
In Ghana, our major business partners continue to support our SEED programme’s educational projects. A Gold Fields
strategic supply partner, Sandvik, assisted in financing a new junior high school classroom building at Awudua in
Tarkwa.

We are also engaging in strategic partnerships with local suppliers. Gold Fields Ghana and Tema Steel (a local steel mill)
have a mutually beneficial relationship that has seen Tema Steel grow in confidence to a point where their products meet
quality criteria and there is a growing market evident not only in Ghana but in the West African region. Tema Steel has
embarked on an expansion and modernisation of their production capacity which is expected to produce 20,000 tons of
grinding media per annum by the end of next year.

We have also engaged E&P, a local engineering company, in developing the Phase 5 Heap Leach Expansion Project. It is
expected that resources generated from this venture will be re-invested into the local economy.

Gold Fields Ghana continues to develop the Electrofax Engineering Company, another wholly Ghanaian owned company,
by engaging them in a partnership for all electrical works. This company is presently providing a consultancy service and
has been encouraged to set up a motor rewinding facility in Tarkwa, the first of its kind by a private company in the area.

A local joint venture investment with OTR tyres at Tarkwa through a newly built tyre retread facility was also
commissioned during the third quarter of financial year 2008. The first product was produced in February 2008. This
business venture is not only critical to ensuring a reduction of the risk of short supply, but will also service the greater
region and industry as part of a future hub for tyre retreading. This new manufacturing facility obviously also created
employment opportunities for local people and an added economic contribution to the community.

The Damang operation increased their local supplier spend from less than 10 per cent in 2003 to over 30 per cent to date.
Certain material is provided free of charge to a local Chief and we have also agreed to establish a shop where minor
consumables like cement blocks and other building materials can be bought. Damang are also buying soap, rags and
timber from suppliers in the village and workers’ uniforms are sewn at the Damang Village.

http://onlinewebstudio.co.za/online_reports/gold_fields_ar08/sus_chain_management.php

However, African countries have realized that “some mining companies are departing from their
previous approaches to development and community relations, variably characterized as “Strictly
business”” [ECA and African Union, 2008]. Africa aims to assess successful companies
according to a triple bottom line, namely financial success, contribution to social and economic
development, and environmental stewardship. Therefore, successes such as the ones cited in
Boxes 9.1 and 9.2 emphasize the point that mining companies applying materials stewardship
have everything to gain and that their care about the environment will not only uplift their image,
but their operations are also likely to be more sustainable.

Urging small scale miners to implement material stewardship is a very difficult task, but the
sector is probably best dealt with side by side with large scale operators, and also as part of the
local community natural resources stewardship in a broader sense. Local management
engenders local stewardship of natural resources, which, in the end results in a
sustainable natural resource management [Shoko, 2002].

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9.3.2 Awareness and preparedness for emergencies at local level

Mining is one of the industries that have experienced disasters, as shown by examples in Table
9.1. When these accidents, for example tailings spills, occur they cause serious environmental
and community impacts. Given the number of mining operations in Africa where communities
are not technically, socially, environmentally and economically prepared, the consequences are
immense. Some of the accidents shown in Table 9.1 resulted in fatalities, and also caused
physical damage to property and farmland. Where chemicals have been released, such as the case
of the tailings dam burst at the Tarkwa gold mine in the Wassa West District, Ghana, on October
16, 2001, fish and other species have been killed and human health and livelihoods threatened 76.
Accidents have also had serious financial consequences for companies, and have also seriously
damaged the image of the industry as a whole.

Awareness and preparedness for emergencies at local level (APELL) helps to prepare mining
industry prevent accidents and ensures that contingency planning, awareness and communication
reduces their impact [UNEP, 2001]. The industry, as part of corporate social responsibility,
should prepare society where it operates for such eventualities.

76
www.earthworksaction.org/wassa.cfm
116
 Table 9.1: Chronology of major tailings dam failures in Africa (since 1960)
[http://www.wise-uranium.org/mdaf.html].
Parent Ore Type of
Date Location Release Impacts
company type Incident
Release of highly acidic
failure of tailings tailings into Kafue river;
Konkola Copper
slurry pipeline high concentrations of
Nov. Nchanga, Mines Plc
from Nchanga copper, manganese, cobalt
6, Chingola, (KCM) (51% copper ?
tailings leaching in river water; drinking
2006 Zambia Vedanta
plant to Muntimpa water supply of
Resources plc)
tailings dumps downstream communities
shut down
Tailings traveled 4 km
1994, Harmony, Dam wall breach
Harmony Gold 600,000 downstream, 17 people
Feb. Merriespruit, gold following heavy
Mines m3 killed, extensive damage
22 South Africa rain
to residential township
slurry overflow
Corsyn 1 person killed, extensive
1978, Arcturus, after continuous 30,000
Consolidated gold siltation to waterway and
Jan. 31 Zimbabwe rain over several tonnes
Mines adjoining rough pasture
days
embankment
12 people killed in a mine
1974, failure by
Bafokeng, 3 million shaft inundated by the
Nov. ? platinum concentrated
South Africa m3 tailings; tailings flow 45
11 seepage and piping
km downstream
through cracks
liquefaction of
some 1
Mufulira, tailings, flowing
1970 ? copper million 89 miners killed
Zambia into underground
tons
workings
tonnes = metric tonnes

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10 ENHANCING THE POSITVE DELIVERY OF THE MINING SECTOR

In relation to the definition discussed earlier in Chapter 3, and in the light of mineral resource
flow pattern in Africa, Africa is currently the source of primary minerals materials whose value
does not significantly benefit the continent. The lack of value-adding industry means that the
continent is far from realizing full potential from mineral resources. At the same time, the
environmental damage caused by the extraction and transportation of these minerals does not
match the revenues realized. There is therefore need to approach the development of the industry
holistically in order to enhance and positively transform the impact of the mining sector in
Africa.

10.1 The Weak-Link Identification and Mitigation in Mining Industry

To enhance the positive delivery impacts of the mining sector in Africa, one approach is to
apply, among others, a series of tools including:

• identifying leverage points (i.e. weak links) in the mining investment and socio-
environmental codes, as well as the mining value chain;
• where applicable, applying Logic Modeling to identify root causes of the weak links; and
• applying solutions / mitigation measures to improve the overall performance of the
mining sector.

Application of these tools is illustrated in Figure 10.1. The above approach derives from the
basis that any chain is only as strong as its weakest link. Some of these weak links were observed
in the current socio-environmental regimes presented in Chapter 7. If we can tune up these
weaknesses, whether infrastructural or managerial in nature, the system (mining sector)
performance should improve to achieve desired developmental goals. This is particularly
important now that Africa, in The Africa Mining Vision, has outlined the resource-based
African industrialization, so that the suggestion put forward here by this author provides the
“nuts and bolts” action for its implementation.

Figure 10.1 An approach to improving system performance

118
Brazil, for example, has applied this approach to “maximize national content in the goods and
services industry, within competitive and sustainable basis, in the implementation of oil and gas
projects” [Sinkala and Mulenga, 2008]. Factors influencing ability to establish national content
in products and services industry are shown in Figure 10.2, while strategic subjects affecting
ability to maximize local content in products and services are shown in Figure 10.3.

Figure 10.2 Factors influencing ability to infuse national content in products and services industry
[Sinkala and Mulenga, 2008].

Figure 10.3 Strategic subjects affecting ability to maximize local content

in products and services [Sinkala and Mulenga, 2008].

Brazil considers national content in products and services as very crucial for creation of industry
around industry, creation of jobs, and for stabilizing the economy. Improving national content in
national industry also facilitates innovations in the industrial complex where local providers of
products and services have to compete with foreign companies (Figure 10.4).

119
 Figure 10.4 Trade scenarios towards achieving a greater local content for various zones [Sinkala and Mulenga, 2008].

10.2 Mining Industry in Africa Amid Current World Economic Crisis

“The world is presently experiencing a deepening economic crisis, with the slowdown in
advanced economies now spreading to major emerging markets such as China, India, and
Brazil”, warned Dominique Strauss-Kahn, IMF Managing Director77. Sub-Saharan Africa's
prospects have deteriorated somewhat and the risks have increased, according to the October
2008 Regional Economic Outlook. Growth in the region is projected to dip to 6 percent in 2009.
The fall is due mainly to the global food and fuel price shock, which has weighed particularly on
growth in oil-importing countries, and to the global financial market turmoil, which has slowed
global growth and demand for Africa's exports. There are significant risks to the outlook related
to a potentially deeper and longer period of global financial turmoil and resulting slowdown in
global activity, and substantial uncertainty concerning commodity prices.

This turmoil has affected several African countries so that some mines have closed and people
have lost jobs. This is particularly acute for copper mining and oil industry.

However, IMF has said that even though the financial crisis had started in the United States, the
recent strength of the dollar showed that people around the world still had confidence in the U.S.
economy. As long as that confidence remained, the United States would be able to finance its
large deficit. Even though the Chinese economy was on the rise, the United States would still
remain formidable. Through globalization, both economies would remain dependent on the rest
of the world.

Africa should use this crisis to reorganize herself using, for instance, the Brazilian approach, not
only to develop her capacity to manage the mining industry but also to seriously implement the
77
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2009/NEW012109A.htm
120
Vision 2050 towards attaining a significant value addition. Henry Kissinger, the former US
Secretary of State, has predicted a new world order in which Brazil, China, India and perhaps
South Africa will become major players78. Africa has room to find her equitable position in the
new order, but that is if Africa works to realistically prepare itself. It is said that “it is better to be
prepared and not have an opportunity, than have an opportunity and you are not prepared”.

78
http://www.economist.com/theworldin/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12574180
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11 CONCLUSIONS

Africa houses a vast array of minerals and, for some of these, the continent is a world leader.
Minerals constitute the most valuable exports of Africa, and 24 (45%) of the 53 African
countries rely on minerals as among the top three exports from their countries, thus earning these
countries foreign exchange for various socio-economic activities. Of the 53 African countries, 41
(77%) have large scale mining operations while 51 (96%) house small scale mining operations.
Mining industry provides revenues, jobs, school and health facilities, and stimulates development
of vital socio-economic infrastructure such as electricity, roads, railways and telecommunication
facilities.

Whereas in the short term these positive aspects are highly valuable, it is unfortunately not
presently quantifiably clear whether for many mining investments in Africa there is a Net Gain
or Net Loss. Nevertheless, looking at infrastructure that comes out of the investments at both the
source of minerals and the investor home countries, it can be concluded that Africa has
experienced a Net Loss. In fact, the cost of environmental liabilities alone outstrips the little that
Africa has collected as revenues from the industry, especially for defunct mine sites.

In terms of mineral resource flow, Africa is a primary producer up to refinery stage in the
minerals value chain. The implication of this is that Africa bears most of the wastes and
pollution, estimated to be 3 times or more than their primary producer counterparts in EU, in the
value chain. Pollution and environmental degradation is considerable in form of landuse and
landuse change, large volumes of emissions which contribute to GHG, toxic substances which
pollute soils and water resources, and many other environmental problems.

The problem of pollution is relatively well monitored for large scale mining operations. Small
scale mine operations however “do as they like”, partly due to the remoteness of their operations
and partly due to a “double standard” enforcement of environmental laws, where these laws
exist.

Quantitative data on pollution levels due to mining industry is hard to access for most African
countries. If there is, the information is not made public. It is also worrying that more
information on Africa is to be found in information repositories outside of the continent, despite
the digital information age. This is an indication that Africans do not know much about the state
of health of their own environment, which makes it even more difficult for them to participate in
corrective measures [UNEP, 2001].

Most of the social and environmental regimes for mining industry in Africa are very weak in
their current form. In some cases, even those that are relatively comprehensive suffer from
inadequate enforcement due to reasons including inadequate resources, corruption and
complacency.

There are many areas in the minerals value chain as well as those associated with environmental
degradation which can be targeted for socio-economic inclusion. The latter would be “turning
waste into gold”. A number of these have been illustrated in Chapter 8.

122
The minerals sector offers immense opportunities for Africa to derive benefits from it. The
benefits can be maximized if:

 mining codes are enhanced to adequately address environmental, social and economic
aspects with a view to achieve NET gains from mining projects;
 economic evaluations are performed to determine whether a mine development project is
a better option than working out other natural resources in the same environment;
 promoting value addition within mining project host African countries;
 prioritizing and enabling mining industry host communities to participate throughout the
value chain;
 enhancing the performance of upward, lateral and downward economic linkages of mine
areas before and after closure; and
 improving on the delivery of CSR designs and implementation.

12 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the analysis of this study, it is recommended that various actions are taken to improve
on the socio-economic and environmental performance of the mining industry in Africa. The
following are some of the main ones:

12.1 Socio-Economic and Environmental Benefits

It is recommended that a “Balance Sheet” approach be adopted and made the cornerstone when
accepting mine investments. The balance sheet should ensure that the mineral host knows in
advance the economic, social and environmental NET GAINS to be derived from a project.
Otherwise the project must not take place, as similarly the investor would not commence a
project when there is not profit to be made.

12.2 Social and Environmental Regimes for Mining Industry

Work is required to deepen the current social and environmental regimes to include those
respective aspects which are weakening delivery benefits in mining industry. These aspects have
been outlined in Chapter 7 of this study.

12.3 Socio-economic and Environmental Linkages in Mining Industry

Capacity should be developed to capture opportunities of “turning waste into gold”. Some of
what are considered environmental liabilities can be turned into business opportunities. These
aspects have been outlined in Chapter 8 of this study.

12.4 Corporate Social Responsibility

In addition to current efforts on CSR, mine developers must assist local communities with
capacity to develop mine investment balance sheet from a host community point of view. In

123
troubled times, such balance sheets will help all players address real issues than dwell on
acrimony.

12.5 Small Scale Mining Industry and the Environment

The cumulative environmental degradation by small scale mining industry should be taken
seriously. In addition to building skills for best small scale mining practices, capacity to create
alternative income generation activities in mining areas must be developed to minimize the
cumulative environmental degradation by this sector. The “time-is-money” reality must be
demonstrated to this cadre of mining who hang to the trade for life but with immense NET
NEGATIVE impacts on themselves, their families and communities/countries in which they
operate. Furthermore, traditional leadership must be given capacity to monitor small scale
mining activities, as most of these activities are in remote areas.

12.6 Enhancing Quantified Environmental Information

There is need to invest in closing the many gaps (Xs and Shades in Table 6.9) in environmental
information. It is difficult to carryout mitigation measures without quantified evidence.

12.7 Value Addition in the Minerals Sector

To minimize environmental burden, Africa must go beyond production of primary mineral

products. Appropriate incentives must be encouraged for value addition in mineral producer
countries.

124
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131
APPENDICES

132
APPENDIX 1: Terms of Reference for the Consultant on Environment and Mining in Africa

Background

In 2007, UNEP established the International Panel for Sustainable Resource Management
(Resource Panel) as a first step towards addressing the need to tackle resource efficiency
challenges for both renewable and non-renewable resources from a life-cycle perspective. The
overall objective of the Resource Panel is to provide independent scientific assessment on
environmental impacts due to the use of natural resources over the full life cycle and provide
advice to governments and international organizations on ways to reduce these identified
impacts. This is with a view to increasing resource efficient economic growth in all regions of
the world and to contribute to stimulating sustainable innovation. The partnership aims at
providing scientific assessments and policy advice on decoupling environmental impact and
contributes to the overall policy goal of decoupling environmental impacts from economic
growth. The panel will initially focus on selected consumption and production induced material
flows using renewable and non-renewable resources. Mining and minerals are one of the product
group identified for initial consideration.

In February 2007, the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) and the African Development
Bank (AfDB) organized the Big Table on “Managing Africa’s Natural Resources for Growth and
Poverty Reduction”. The meeting recognized that, historically, Africa had not gained the best
possible benefits from the exploitation of its natural resources and noted that in the 1990s, many
African countries embarked on a scale of reforms-which did not have any historical precedent-
and formulated generous investment laws and regulations to attract foreign direct investment
(FDI) to their natural resources sector. The meeting also observed that there has been a paradigm
shift in the 2000s with a surge towards a more societal-oriented development. In addition, the
Big Table noted that the natural resources sector is witnessing a commodity price boom, fuelled
by global resource scarcity and the entrance in the commodity market of new global resource-
demanding players such as China and India. In view of the above factors, it appeared most
appropriate and urgent to evaluate past experiences in natural resources development in Africa
and put forward recommendations as to how mineral rich countries of Africa might best ensure
that their natural resources contribute to the economic and social development of their societies
in a sustainable and equitable manner. To achieve this, the Big Table recommended the
establishment of an International Study Group (ISG) to review Africa’s mining regimes.

The inception meeting of the International Study Group to Review Africa’s Mining Regimes that
was convened by UNECA in October 2007 discussed the draft TOR for the ISG indicating the
core areas to be covered by the study, the mechanism for conducting the study and the timeline
for completing the study. Based on the outcome from the inception meeting ECA invited UNEP
to lead the preparation of the report on the environmental sustainability component of mining
regimes in Africa. This has provided the background for the preparation of this TOR.

133
Tasks to be undertaken

The main objective of this task is to prepare a comprehensive review report on Mining and
Environment in Africa that will feed into the general report of the ISG in Mining Regimes in
Africa and the work to be done under the International Resource Panel. The following are the
specific tasks that shall be undertaken by the consultant.

• Review the contribution of mining to socio-economic development and poverty

reduction in Africa including the contribution of Artisanal and small-scale mining.
• Review the major global and regional initiatives and trends in the area of mining and
mineral resource flows that may have some direct and indirect effect on the development
of the mining sector in Africa.
• Identify the major environmental impacts caused by mining operations in the region
with a focus on the major mining sectors and provide figures that show the current state
and future trend of environmental degradation and pollution caused by the sectors.
• Review the existing environmental management regimes for the mining sector in the
region with a particular focus on policy provisions, institutional arrangements and
effective enforcement/implementation.
• Identify existing needs and gaps that need to be addressed at various levels in order to
ensure the development of the sector on a sustainable basis and enhance its
transformational impacts.
• Make specific recommendations that need to be taken up at the regional, national and
sectoral level with a particular focus on the shift from reactive to a more proactive
environmental regime.
• Prepare a consolidated report covering the above points and make presentations to the
regional validation workshop that will be reviewing the reports.
• Finalize the report on the basis of the feedback to be provided by UNEP and UNECA and
the comments to be obtained from the regional meeting.

Duration and deliverables

The duration of assignment for the consultant to undertake the above tasks is 4 p/m spread over
10 months as per the following time frame for the deliverables.

November 2008 Submission of the first draft of the Report to UNEP and
UNECA for initial review

February 2009 Presentation of the final draft report to the meeting of the
International Study Group (ISG)

30 March 2009 Submission of the Final Report

Qualification: The consultant should have an advanced degree in the filed of environmental
and/or mining engineering with extensive experience on environmental
management and policies of mining industries.
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Language: Fluency in written and spoken English is a requirement while working knowledge
of French is desirable.

Essential Core Competencies:

Communication, team work, planning and organizing, creativity and innovation, client
orientation, technological awareness, ability to extract, interpret and analyze data, commitment
to continuous learning, and ability to work effectively in a multicultural environment.

Core Values:

Integrity, Professionalism, and Respect for Diversity.

Other Skills:

Strong research, analytical and drafting skills; ability to effectively evaluate materials, and
determine their significance to the work of the study are desirable. Proficiency in computerized
word processor, spreadsheet, database and statistical software is also desirable.

Duty station: The consultant will be working from his home-base with a travel requirement to
participate in the validation workshop.

Commencing date: 25 June 2008

Appendix 2: Figures and Tables

Table A2.1 Major ore deposits of Africa

COUNTRY MAJOR ORE DEPOSITS
Algeria Iron, lead, zinc, petroleum
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Angola Diamond, gold, nickel, chromium, platinum group metals, iron, manganese, copper, lead
Benin Gold, petroleum
Botswana Diamond, copper, nickel, coal, gold, platinum group metals
Burkina Faso Gold, lead
Burundi Gold, tin
Cameroon Bauxite, petroleum, gemstones
Chad Petroleum, coltan, gold
Congo DR Copper, cobalt, zinc, coltan (columbite-tantalite), diamonds, tin, manganese
Congo Brazzaville Petroleum, copper, lead, zinc, iron, phosphate
Cote d’Ivoire Gold, diamond, iron
Egypt Petroleum, lead
Equatorial Guinea Petroleum
Eritrea Gold
Ethiopia Gold
Gabon Petroleum, manganese, uranium
Ghana Gold, diamond, bauxite
Guinea Bauxite, gold, diamond, iron, nickel, uranium
Kenya Trona (sodium-rich mineral), gemstones
Lesotho Diamond, uranium
Liberia Iron, diamond
Libya Petroleum
Madagascar Chromium, gas, gemstones
Malawi Coal, gemstones
Mali Gold
Mauritania Iron, copper, phosphate
Morocco Phosphate, lead, zinc, copper
Mozambique Bauxite, beryllium, tantalum, gold, coal, gemstones,
Namibia Diamond, gold, silver, uranium, copper, lead, zinc, gemstones
Niger Uranium, gold, coal
Nigeria Petroleum, gold, tin, coal
Rwanda Tin, coltan, gold, gemstones
Senegal Gold, phosphate, iron
Sierra Leone Bauxite, diamond, gold
Gold, PGMs, coal, diamonds, iron, manganese, chromium, uranium, vanadium, lead, zinc,
South Africa
phosphate, gemstones
Sudan Petroleum, gas
Swaziland Iron, gold, diamond, coal
Tanzania Gold, diamonds, gemstones, coal, gas, phosphate
Togo Phosphate
Tunisia Phosphate, gas
Uganda Gold, copper, cobalt, tin
Zambia Copper, cobalt, zinc, gemstones
Zimbabwe Chromium, gold, diamonds, coal, PGMs, Nickel
SOURCE: Geoscience magazine. http://www.miningreview.com/mineralmap.php

136
 Table A2.2 Summary of mining contributions to economies of African countries [World Bank, 2007].
CORRUPTION
PERCEPTION INDEX
COUNTRY MINERALS IN TOP 3 EXPORT COMMODITIES (2005) (CPI)
2007/2008
SOUTHERN AFRICA
Angola 2.2 / 1.9
Diamonds excluding industrial (1st, 88.2% STE)
Botswana Nickel mattes, sinters, and the like (2nd, 8.1% STE)
5.4 / 5.8
Comoros 2.7 / 2.5
Diamonds excluding industrial (1st, 42.6% STE)
Congo D.R. Other nonferrous ore, concentrated (2nd, 17.2%)
1.9 / 1.7
Lesotho Diamonds excluding industrial (3rd, 15.0% STE) 3.3 / 3.2
Madagascar 3.2 / 3.4
Malawi 2.7 / 2.8
Mauritius 4.7 / 5.5
Mozambique Aluminium, aluminium alloy, unwrought (1st, 73.4% STE) 2.8 / 2.6
Diamonds excluding industrial (1st, 39.1%);
Namibia Radioactive chemicals (2nd, 11.4% STE); 4.5 / 4.5
Zinc, zinc alloy, unwrought (3rd, 9.7% STE)
Platinum (1st, 12.5% STE);
South Africa Other coal, not agglomerated (2nd, 8.0% STE); 5.1 / 4.9
Gold, nonmonetary excluding ores (3rd, 7.9% STE)
Swaziland 3.3 / 3.6
Gold, nonmonetary excluding ores (1st, 10.9% STE);
Tanzania Copper ores, concentrates (3rd, 8.6% STE)
3.2 / 3.0
Copper, anodes, alloys (1st, 55.8% STE);
Zambia Cobalt, cadmium, and the like, unwrought (2nd, 7.0% STE)
2.6 / 2.8
Nickel, nickel alloy, unwrought (2nd, 12.6% STE);
Zimbabwe Nickel ores, concentrates (3rd, 12.3% STE)
2.1 / 1.8
Total = 9 countries
CENTRAL AFRICA
Cameroon 2.4 / 2.3
Central African Republic Diamonds excluding industrial (1st, 40.0% STE) 2.0 / 2.0
Chad 1.8 / 1.6
Congo Republic 2.1 / 1.9
Equatorial Guinea 1.9 / 1.7
Gabon Manganese ores, concentrates (3rd, 6.9%) 3.3 / 3.1
Total = 2 countries
EAST AFRICA
Burundi 2.5 / 1.9
Djibouti Other ferrous waste, scrap (3rd, 7.0% STE) 2.9 / 3.0
Eritrea 2.8 / 2.6
Ethiopia 2.4 / 2.6
Kenya 2.1 / 2.1
Ores and concentrates of molybdenum, niobium, and the like (2nd, 19.0% STE);
Rwanda Tin ores, concentrates (3rd, 9.8% STE)
2.8 / 3.0
Seychelles 4.5 / 4.8
Somalia 1.4 / 1.0
Sudan 1.8 / 1.6
Uganda 2.8 / 2.6
Total = 2 countries
NORTH AFRICA
Algeria 3.0 / 3.2
Egypt Portland cement, and the like (3rd, 4.7% STE) 2.9 / 2.8
Libya 2.5 / 2.6
Inorganic acid, oxide, and the like (1st, 7.2% STE);
Morocco
Insulated wire, and the like, conductor (2nd, 6.8% STE); 3.5 / 3.5
(+Western Sahara) Natural calcium phosph. (3rd, 5.6% STE)
Tunisia Insulated wire, and the like, conductor (3rd, 6.7% STE) 4.2 / 4.4
Total = 3 countries

137
 Table A2.2 (continued)
CORRUPTION
PERCEPTION INDEX
COUNTRY MINERALS IN TOP 3 EXPORT COMMODITIES (2005) (CPI)
2007/2008
WEST AFRICA
Benin Other nonferrous metal waste (3rd , 6.4% STE) 2.7 / 3.1
Burkina Faso 2.9 /3.5
Cape Verde 4.9 / 5.1
Gambia 2.3 / 1.9
Ghana Manganese ores, concentr. (2nd, 7.2% STE) 3.7 / 3.9
Aluminium ore, concentrate (1st, 50.9% STE)
Guinea Alumina (aluminium oxide) (2nd, 17.2% STE) Copper ores, concentr. (3rd, 7.8% STE)
1.9 / 1.6
Guinea-Bissau 2.2 / 1.9
Ivory Coast 2.1 / 2.0
Liberia 2.1 / 2.4
Mali 2.7 / 3.1
Mauritania Iron ore, concentrates not agglomerated (1st, 51.3% STE) 2.6 / 2.8
Niger Radioactive chemicals (1st, 79.5% STE) 2.6 / 2.8
Nigeria 2.2 / 2.7
Sao Tome and Principe 2.7 / 2.7
Senegal Inorganic acid, oxide, and the like (1st, 38.8% STE) 3.6 / 3.4
Sierra Leone Diamonds excluding industrial (1st, 62.7% STE); 2.1 / 1.9
Togo Natural calcium phosphates (2nd, 19.8% STE) 2.3 / 2.7
Total = 8 countries
SOURCES:
(i) CIA World Fact Book, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/za.html,
(ii) US Geological Survey, http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/africa.html,
(iii)Transparency International, http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi, and
(iv) SADC Trade, Industry and Investment Review 2007/8, http://www.sadcreview.com/country_profiles/frprofiles.htm

(x)
STE = Share of Total Export

138
Appendix 3: General Conversion Factors for Energy

139
Appendix 4 Profile of a sample of social and environmental regimes in mining industry in Africa
DESIRED DESIGN EXISTING DESIGN
BRIDGE FOR AN
EFFECTIVE
SOCIAL AND ELEMENTS JUSTIFICATION / DESCRIPTION BOTSWANA CONGO D.R. ETHIOPIA
ENVIRONMENTAL
REGIME
NIL To improve and enhance the health
and quality of life of all Ethiopians and
to promote sustainable social and
(a) economic development through the
Development that meets the Humanity will continue to exist beyond a To foster the pursuit of sustainable development by sound management and use of natural,
needs of the present without mine project. Continuity of human coordinating the protection of the country’s human-made and cultural resources
1 existence will be threatened if a mine environment and the conservation of its natural and the environment as a whole so as
compromising the ability of
project is wasteful of natural resources. resources. to meet the needs of the present
future generations to meet
Mission / generation without compromising the
their own needs. ability of future generations to meet
Objective(s) of the
their own needs
environmental law [www.epa.gov.et/AboutEPA.htm].
(b)
A mining project must socially,
A NET GAIN socially, economically and environmentally NET NIL NIL NIL
economically and add value to the host community.
environmentally.
(a) Environmental regime sets the
Presence of a social and framework for implementing Mining Proc. No 52/1993, Article
Mines and Minerals Act 1999, sec. 14(1)(b). Mining Code, Art. 39&42.
environmental regime for environmental protection activities in 26(3).
mining industry mining operations.
The Environmental Protection
(b) The Department of Environmental Affairs Act 6, Department in charge of the Protection of Authority (EPA) and Regional
An environmental regime will be “lame”
Autonomous body with in the absence of an autonomous body
2005 [Ch6507s2]2. the Mining Environment, Ministry of Environmental Agencies (EIA Proc.
capacity to enforce the Mines (Art. 15). No 299/2002 & Environmental
with capacity to enforce it. AUTONOMOUS? AUTONOMOUS? Pollution Control Proc. 300/2002).
environmental laws.
AUTONOMOUS?
A reflection of environmental
(c) Provisions for environmental
requirements in mining legislation is a
2 Integration of environmental strong recognition, at policy level, of the
Provisions for environmental requirements in the Provisions for environmental requirements requirements in the Mining
requirements into mining Mines and Minerals Act 1999, sec. 14(1)(b). in the Mining Code, Art. 39&42. Proclamation No 52/1993, Article
need to address environmental issues in 26(3).
Ingredients of an legislation. mining industry.
enabling bridge to (d) Need to carry out mining operations in (i) Requirement to develop an (i) No environmental preconditions for
desired results an environmentally friendly manner (i). Exploration rights [Sec. 14(1)(b)] environmental management plan to obtain exploration rights.
Mandatory environmental (ii) Mining rights [Sec. 65]. mining rights (Art.42). (ii) Yes for mining rights [Mining
prerequisites / preconditions to should be non-negotiable, and must be (iii) Quarry rights (Art. 154(b)) (ii) Existence of rehabilitation plan for Proc. No 52/1993, Article 46(2)(h)&
exploration / mining rights. mandatory. mine closure (Art. 80(c)) Mining Regulation, Article 5(2)(d)].
(e)
Sufficient technical and financial Department should be efficiently managed and
Sufficient resources for resources are necessary to effectively provided with the necessary resources NIL NIL
implementation of the enforce environmental regime. [www.saiea.com/dbsa_book/Botswana.pdf]
environmental regime.
(f) Inadequate negotiation capacity
Capacity to negotiate for disadvantages the mineral host
NIL NIL NIL
benefits and environmental community to bargain for environmental
protection. protection and mineral wealth benefits.

140
(Table Continued)
(i) NO PROACTIVE promotion of environ studies, (i) NO PROACTIVE promotion of environ (i) NO PROACTIVE promotion of
Absence of a well informed and research, surveys and analyses; formal and non- studies, research, surveys and analyses; environ studies, research, surveys and
(g) formal environ education programmes for public formal and non-formal environ education analyses; formal and non-formal
adequately vigilant public to bring to
A well informed and fore any environmental awareness; environ database for the public; and programmes for public awareness; environ environ education programmes for
adequately vigilant public environ seminars, training, reports and information. database for the public; and environ public awareness; environ database for
mismanagement may result in many seminars, training, reports and information. the public; and environ seminars,
against environmental vices being “swept under carpet” or (ii) Public hearing/comments on EIA Sec. 12(2)(a). training, reports and information.
mismanagement. simply ignored. (ii) NO Public hearing/comments (ii) Public hearing/comments on EIA
(Article15).
(h) Participation of host community in
Adequate public participation environmental management strategically
NIL NIL NIL
in environmental cardinal during active mine period and
management. for post mining period.
(i) Jobs and on-job training. (Art. 273(c)).
(i) Jobs & on-job training (Mining
(ii) Priority to Congolese firms for any
(i) Jobs and on-job training Proc. No 52/1993, Article 46(2)(h)&
mining contracts with conditions in terms
(ii) No displacement without consent Min. Reg., Article 5(2)(d)).
of quantity, quality, price and delivery and
(iii) Compensation (Mines and Minerals (ii) Domestic goods and services
payment dates (Art. 273(f)).
(i) A mine project must be socially and Act 1999, Sec. 63). (Mining Proc. No 52/1993, Art. 27(3))
(iii) Consent to operate near occupied land
(ii) No displacement without consent
Socially responsible mine economically responsible to host (iv) Preference for domestic goods and (Art. 279).
(iii) Compensation where necessary
project. community. services owned by Botswana citizens (iv) Compensation for damages even after
(Mining Proc. No 52/1993, Article
(Mines and Minerals Act 1999, Sec. 12). rights granted (Article 280 & 281).
24).
(v) Plan for social responsibility (Art.
Management of postmine social impacts? 69(g)).
Management of postmine social
impacts?
Management of postmine social impacts?
(j) All benefits (environmental, monetary,
Quantified expectations etc) should be quantified and known in
NET GAIN/LOSS quantified? NET GAIN/LOSS quantified? NET GAIN/LOSS quantified?
known, traceable and advance and traceable during and after
accessible by all players. mine project.
The NET result (environmental,
monetary, etc) of the measures of the
(a) environmental regime must be (i) Taxes, royalties, etc. (i) Taxes, royalties, etc. (i) Taxes, royalties, etc.
Quantified NET benefits dynamically assessed against planned
(envisaged to be POSITIVE). targets, and to terminate the mine project NET quantified gain/loss? NET quantified gain/loss? NET quantified gain/loss?
if results become significantly
3 unacceptable.
(i) Biennial environmental audits to ensure (i) Suspend/terminate license if mine
Quantifi compliance (Sec. 21), suspend/terminate licence if project fails to comply with
able / mine project fails to comply with environmental environmental commitments (EIA
measura commitments. (i) 0.5% of turnover rehabilitation fund proc. 299/2002, Article 12).
The liabilities of a mine project must be
ble NET (b) (ii) Mine project must rehabilitate mine area on (Art. 204, Art. 258). (ii) Mine project must rehabilitate
dynamically assessed against projections, closure (Mines and Minerals Act 1999, Sec. 65). (ii) Mine project must rehabilitate after mine area on closure (Mining Proc.
results Quantified environmental and and to terminate a mine project if (iii) Security fund for environmental liabilities sampling / mining closure (Art. 147, Art. 52/1993, Art. 52(3)& Mining
social liabilities (envisaged to liabilities begin to indicate unfavourable (Mines and Minerals Act 1999, Sec. 65(9)). 294). Regulation, Art. 29).
be ZERO) state. (iii) Mine project MAY require to
No security fund for environmental liabilities. ZERO LIABILITY? deposit security for environmental
ZERO LIABILITY? liabilities (Mining Proc. 52/1993,
Article 45).
ZERO LIABILITY?

141

BRIDGE FOR AN
EFFECTIVE SOCIAL
AND ENVIRONMENTAL
REGIME
1 the present without compromising
Mission / Objective(s) of the
environmental law
2
Ingredients of an enabling
bridge to desired results
DESIRED DESIGN
ELEMENTS
(a)
Development that meets the needs of
the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.
(b)
A NET GAIN socially,
economically and environmentally.
(a)
Presence of a social and
environmental regime for mining
industry
(b)
Autonomous body with capacity to
enforce the environmental laws.
(c)
Integration of environmental
requirements into mining legislation.
(d)
Mandatory environmental
prerequisites / preconditions to
exploration / mining rights.
(e)
Sufficient resources for
implementation of the environmental
regime.
(f)
Capacity to negotiate for benefits
and environmental protection.
JUSTIFICATION /
DESCRIPTION
Humanity will continue to exist beyond a
mine project. Continuity of human
existence will be threatened if a mine
project is wasteful of natural resources.
A mining project must socially,
economically and environmentally NET
add value to the host community.
Environmental regime sets the framework
for implementing environmental protection
activities in mining operations.
An environmental regime will be “lame” in
the absence of an autonomous body with
capacity to enforce it.
A reflection of environmental requirements
in mining legislation is a strong
recognition, at policy level, of the need to
address environmental issues in mining
industry.
Need to carry out mining operations in an
environmentally friendly manner should be
non-negotiable, and must be mandatory.
Sufficient technical and financial resources
are necessary to effectively enforce
environmental regime.
Inadequate negotiation capacity
disadvantages the mineral host community
to bargain for environmental protection
and mineral wealth benefits.
GABON [Tarik,
2008]
NIL
NET GAIN/LOSS?
Environmental Management Act
[Chapter 20:27].
The Minister of Environment and
Tourism or any other Minister to
whom the President may assign?
Environmental Management Board?
National Environmental Council?
Environmental Management Agency?
Environmental Management Act
[Chapter 20:27], sec. 5, 7, 10, 37
& 56. AUTONOMOUS?
Provisions for environmental
requirements in the Mining code
(Mining Law No. 005/2000, Arts. 10,
35, 54, 73, 77, 84, 94).
(i) Exploration requires approval
permits.
(ii) Mining rights requires EIA and
EMP
(iii) Maintaining mining rights requires
adherence to Environmental
Management Plan (Mining Law No.
005/2000, Art. 94).
NIL
NIL
EXISTING DESIGN
GHANA GUINEA
To ensure that mining activities do not
cause adverse effects on the natural
resources, environment or public
health unless ((Environmental NIL
Assessment Regulation, 1999, Part I,
Sec. 1(2); Minerals and Mining Act
2006, sec. 18). (NOT EXPLICIT)
NET GAIN/LOSS? NET GAIN/LOSS?
The Environmental Protection
Agency Act, 1994 and the
Environmental Assessment
Mining code, Article 16
Regulations 1999. (Environmental
Protection Agency Act, 1994, Sec. 12
subsection 1&2).
Ministerial decree of Environmental
The Environmental Protection
and Natural Resource 1990?
Agency (Environmental Protection
Agency Act, 1994, Sec. 2(i)).
National Director of Mines?
Provisions for environmental
Provisions for environmental
requirements in the Mining code
(Minerals and Mining Act 2006, sec.
requirements in the Mining code,
Article 16
18).
(i) Exploration requires approval
permits (Minerals and Mining Act
2006, sec. 18).
(ii) Mining rights requires EIA and
EMP (EIA Regulations, 1999, sec. 1,
3 and schedule 1(5) & 2(11))
(iii) Maintaining mining rights
No mandatories.
requires adherence to Environmental
Management Plan (Environmental
Assessment Regulation, 1999, sec.
24).
(iv) Reclamation plan part of EIS for
permit holders (EIA Regulation 1999,
Sec. 14).
Parliament shall annually provide to
the Agency such sums of money as
may be necessary for the efficient
NIL
discharge of its functions (The
Environmental Protection Agency Act
No. 490, Sec. 24)
NIL NIL
142
 (Table continued)
(g)
A well informed and adequately
vigilant public against
environmental mismanagement.
(h)
Adequate public participation in
environmental management.
(i)
Socially responsible mine
project.
(j)
Quantified expectations known,
traceable and accessible by all
players.
(a)
Quantified NET POSITIVE
benefits.
3
Quantifiable /
measurable results
(b)
ZERO (environmental and
social) liabilities
Absence of a well informed and adequately
vigilant public to bring to fore any
environmental mismanagement may result in
many vices being “swept under carpet” or
simply ignored.
Participation of host community in
environmental management strategically
cardinal during active mine period and for
post mining period.
A mine project must be socially and
economically responsible to host community.
All benefits (environmental, monetary, etc)
should be quantified and known in advance
and traceable during and after mine project.
The NET results (environmental, monetary,
etc) of the measures of the environmental
regime must be dynamically assessed against
planned targets, and to terminate the mine
project if results become significantly
unacceptable.
The liabilities of a mine project must be
dynamically assessed against projections, and
to terminate a mine project if liabilities begin
to indicate unfavourable state.
(i) NO PROACTIVE promotion of
environ studies, research, surveys and
analyses; formal and non-formal environ
education programmes for public
awareness; environ database for the
public; and environ seminars, training,
reports and information.
(ii) NO public hearings.
NIL
(i) Jobs and on-job training.
(ii) Compensation for damages (Mines
and Minerals Act, sec. 80, 133, 141).
(iii) Compensation for displacement
(iv) Land occupier can lodge complaint
(Sec. 123).
Management of postmine social
impacts?
NIL
(i) Taxes and royalties ((Mining Law No.
005/2000, Art. 99; and Titrate X).
NET quantified gain/loss?
(i) Periodical assessment of the
mine projects to ensure compliance
(Sec. 106).
(ii) Rehabilitation requirement is
imposed on the holder of a decision
letter (Mining Law No. 005/2000,
Art. 84).
ZERO LIABILITY?
(i) [a] To promote studies,
research, surveys and analyses for
the improvement and protection of
the environment and the
maintenance of sound ecological
systems in Ghana; EPA Act 1994,
Part I, 2(l).
[b] Formal and non-formal
environmental education
programmes for public awareness
(EPA Act 1994, Part I, 2(m)).
[c] Comprehensive environmental
database for the public (EPA Act
1994, Part I, 2(o)).
[d] Environmental seminars,
training, reports and information
(EPA Act 1994, Part I, 2(p)).
(ii) Public hearing (EIA
Regulation, 1999, sec. 17).
NIL
(i) Priority for jobs and training.
Minerals and Mining Act 2006, Sec.
11(d) & 50.
(ii) Compensation for damage /
displacement /loss of income (Mines
and Minerals Act, Sec. 73 & 74).
Management of postmine social
impacts?
NIL
(i) Taxes, royalties, etc.
NET quantified gain/loss?
(i) Updating of environmental
assessment report only if fundamental
change in the environment occurs
(Section 26(2)).
(i) Rehabilitation fund (EPA Act 1994,
Part III).
ZERO LIABILITY?
(i) NO PROACTIVE promotion of
environ studies, research, surveys and
analyses; formal and non-formal
environ education programmes for
public awareness; environ database for
the public; and environ seminars,
training, reports and information.
(ii) NO public hearings.
NIL
(i) Priority for jobs, training and
contracts. (Art. 18 &19).
(ii) Consent (Art. 64)
(iii) Compensation (Art. 71)
Management of postmine social
impacts?
NIL
(i) Taxes, royalties, etc.
NET quantified gain/loss?
(i) Holders of mining titles liable for
rehabilitation of the developed sites,
even after the surrender of titles takes
effect (Art. 57).
(ii) NOT mandatory to update
environmental assessment report during
the course of the development of the
project?
ZERO LIABILITY?
143
 DESIRED DESIGN EXISTING DESIGN
BRIDGE FOR AN
EFFECTIVE SOCIAL AND JUSTIFICATION /
ENVIRONMENTAL ELEMENTS MOZAMBIQUE [Tarik, 2008] NIGERIA SOUTH AFRICA
DESCRIPTION
REGIME
The Constitution (Art. 135.1) confers on
every citizen both the right to live in a To provide for cooperative environmental
(a) balanced environment as well all the duty governance by establishing principles for
Development that meets to defend this right. Therefore, need for decision-making on matters affecting the
Humanity will continue to exist beyond a mine correct management of the environment environment, institutions that will promote
the needs of the present project. Continuity of human existence will be as well as the creation of conditions cooperative governance and procedures for
1 without compromising the threatened if a mine project is wasteful of favourable to the health and well being of
NIL coordinating environmental functions
ability of future natural resources. people, to the socio-economic and cultural exercised by organs of state; and to
Mission / Objective(s) generations to meet their development of communities and to the provide for matters connected therewith.
of the environmental own needs. preservation of the natural resources (National Environmental Management Act,
which sustain them. (LAW Nº / 97 of 1998 (Act No. 107 of 1998).
law July 30, (AR-IV/044/30/07/97))
(b)
A mining project must socially, economically and
A NET GAIN socially, environmentally NET add value to the host NIL NIL NIL
economically and community.
environmentally.
(a)
Environmental regime sets the framework for Minerals and Mining Act, 2007 National Environmental
Presence of a social and Environmental Law of September
implementing environmental protection activities and Environmental Impact Management Act, 1998 and its
environmental regime for 1997.
in mining operations. Assessment Decree, 1992 Amendment Act, 2006
mining industry
(i). The Council of Ministers (Art. 6(2))
/ National Council for Sustainable
Development.
Policy maker also the enforcement
(b) agency?
2 An environmental regime will be “lame” in the
(ii). Public participation in the The Environmental Protection
The Minister of Mineral and Energy
Autonomous body with absence of an autonomous body with capacity to (Sec. 39(4) & 45), NEMA/EIA Reg.
capacity to enforce the preparation of environmental policies Agency (EIA Decree, 1992).
Ingredients of an enforce it. 2006, Art. 4(4))
environmental laws. and legislation (Art. 8).
enabling bridge to (iii). Public participation in the
desired results development of activities that
implement the National Programme for
Environ Management (Art. 8).
Reconnaissance permit, prospecting
(c) right or mining permit requires an
A reflection of environmental requirements in Environmental requirements
Integration of Environmental requirements integrated environmental management plan.
mining legislation is a strong recognition, at integrated into the mining
environmental into the mining legislation (Mining EIA/EMP for operations also
policy level, of the need to address environmental legislation (Chapter 4 of Minerals
requirements into mining Law, 2002, Chapter V) required. (Mineral and Petroleum
issues in mining industry. and Mining Act, 2007).
legislation. Resources Development Act, 2002,
sec. 39 (2)(3))
(i) Mandatory environmental pre-
(i) Mandatory environmental pre-
(i) NO mandatories to obtain conditions to obtain exploration
conditions to obtain exploration
(d) exploration rights. rights (Minerals and Mining Act,
rights (Sec. 80(1)(c)).
Mandatory environmental (ii) NO mandatories to obtain mining 2007, sec. 61).
Need to carry out mining operations in an (ii) Mandatory environmental pre-
prerequisites / rights. (ii) Mandatory environmental
environmentally friendly manner should be non- conditions to obtain mining rights
preconditions to (iii) Mandatory to obtain environmental pre-conditions to obtain mining
negotiable, and must be mandatory. (Sec. 22 & 39(1)).
exploration / mining permit within a specified period and to rights (Sec. 71& 119).
(iii) Mandatory environmental
rights. comply with environmental protection (iii) Mandatory environmental
prerequisites to maintain mining
obligations (Art. 15, 18, 22 & 35) prerequisites to maintain mining
rights (Sec. 47).
rights (Sec. 111 & 118).

144
(Table continued)
(e)
Sufficient resources for
implementation of the
environmental regime.
(f)
Capacity to negotiate for
benefits and environmental
protection.
(g)
A well informed and adequately
vigilant public against
environmental mismanagement.
(h)
Adequate public participation in
environmental management.
(i)
Socially responsible mine
project.
(j)
Quantified expectations known,
traceable and accessible by all
players.
Sufficient technical and financial resources are
necessary to effectively enforce environmental
regime.
Inadequate negotiation capacity disadvantages
the mineral host community to bargain for
environmental protection and mineral wealth
benefits.
Absence of a well informed and adequately
vigilant public to bring to fore any
environmental mismanagement may result in
many vices being “swept under carpet” or simply
ignored.
Participation of host community in
environmental management strategically
cardinal during active mine period and for post
mining period.
A mine project must be socially and economically
responsible to host community.
All benefits (environmental, monetary, etc)
should be quantified and known in advance and
traceable during and after mine project.
NIL
NIL
(i) NO PROACTIVE promotion of environ
studies, research, surveys and analyses;
formal and non-formal environ education
programmes for public awareness; environ
database for the public; and environ seminars,
training, reports and information.
(ii) NO public hearings.
NIL
(i) Compensation to land users for
damage caused (Mining Law 2002,
Art. 9(2)(c), 15(6)(k), 18(2)(g), Art
39(6)).
(ii) Potentially affected persons
CANNOT PREVENT the grant of a
mineral right or an environmental
permit.
(iii) NO requirement for informed
consent.
Management of postmine social impacts?
NIL
NIL
NIL
(i) NO PROACTIVE promotion of
environ studies, research, surveys and
analyses; formal and non-formal
environ education programmes for
public awareness; environ database for
the public; and environ seminars,
training, reports and information.
(ii) Public hearing (EIA Decree,
1992, sec. 25).
NIL
(i) Training of Nigerians (Mining
Decree 2002, Art. 22(3)(c))
(ii) Compensation to land users
for damage caused (Minerals and
Mining Act, 2007, sec. 56(e),
70(1)(j)).
(iii) Potentially affected persons
CANNOT PREVENT the grant
of mineral right / environ permit.
(iv) NO need for inform consent.
Management of postmine social
impacts?
(i) Developer to state in writing
the rate of annual surface rent to
be paid by the lessee for the land
used for mining operations (Sec.
102(2)).
Adequate resources (National
Environmental Management Act,
1998 ((ACT NO 107 OF 1998,
Section 3.2).
NIL
Promote the environmental literacy,
education and empowerment of
South Africa's people. Develop and
maintain information management
systems to provide accessible
information (National
Environmental Management Act,
1998 ((ACT NO 107 OF 1998,
Section 3.2).
(ii) Public hearing (Sec. 10)
Adequate public participation
(National Environmental
Management Act, 1998 ((ACT NO
107 OF 1998, Section 3.2).
(i) Jobs, skills (Sec. 4.1).
(ii) Compensation to land users for
damage caused (Minerals and Pet
Devt Act, 2007, sec. 56(e), 70(1)(j)).
(iii) Potentially affected persons can
prevent the grant of a mineral right
or an environmental permit. (Sec.
10(2))
(iv) Black empowerment ((Minerals
and Pet Devt Act, 2002, 100(2)(a)).
Management of postmine social
impacts?
NIL
145
(Table Continued)
The NET result of the measures of the
(a) environmental regime must be dynamically (i) Taxes, royalties, etc. (i) Taxes, royalties, etc. (i) Taxes, royalties, etc.
Quantified NET POSITIVE assessed against planned targets, and to
benefits. terminate the mine project if results become NET quantified gain/loss? NET quantified gain/loss? NET quantified gain/loss?
significantly unacceptable.
(i) Rehabilitation to its natural or
(i) Responsibility of polluter to (i) A tax deductible reserve for predetermined state or to acceptable
rehabilitate during mining and after mine rehabilitation and closure land use (Min. & Petr. Resources
3
mine closure. (Art. 15(6)(h), 18(2)(d) costs. (Sec. 30 & 121). Devt Act 28, 2002, Sec. 42; Chapt.
& 22(1)(c)). (ii) Mine project must rehabilitate 2, Part IV, Art. 73).
Quantifiable /
The liabilities of a mine project must be (ii) No requirement for periodic update after sampling (Sec. 61(1)(d), 90, (ii) Annual environ audits during
measurable
(b) of the environmental impact study 118(b) & 120). mine project. (Sec. 41(3)).
results dynamically assessed against projections, and to
ZERO (environmental and terminate a mine project if liabilities begin to during mine project. (iii) NO requirement for periodic (iii) Rehab. fund (Chapt. 2, Part III,
social) liabilities (iii) Not mandatory to prepare closure update of the environmental Art. 53(1); Min. & Petr. Resources
indicate unfavourable state.
plan. impact study during mine project. Devt Act 28, 2002, Sec. 41)).
(iv) No requirement to post a security (iv) NOT mandatory to prepare (iv) Assess annual liability and
bond. closure plan. adjust environ fund (Min. & Petr.
Resources Devt Act 28, 2002, Sec
ZERO LIABILITY? ZERO LIABILITY? 41(3)).
ZERO LIABILITY?

146

BRIDGE FOR AN EFFECTIVE
SOCIAL AND
ENVIRONMENTAL REGIME
1 compromising the ability of
Mission / Objective(s) of the
environmental law
2 requirements into mining
Ingredients of an enabling bridge
to desired results
DESIRED DESIGN
ELEMENTS
(a)
Development that meets the
needs of the present without
future generations to meet
their own needs.
(b)
A NET GAIN socially,
economically and
environmentally.
(a)
Presence of a social and
environmental regime for
mining industry
(b)
Autonomous body with
capacity to enforce the
environmental laws.
(c)
Integration of environmental
legislation.
(d)
Mandatory environmental
prerequisites / preconditions to
exploration / mining rights.
JUSTIFICATION /
DESCRIPTION
Humanity will continue to exist beyond a
mine project. Continuity of human
existence will be threatened if a mine
project is wasteful of natural resources.
A mining project must socially,
economically and environmentally NET
add value to the host community.
Environmental regime sets the framework
for implementing environmental
protection activities in mining operations.
An environmental regime will be “lame”
in the absence of an autonomous body
with capacity to enforce it.
A reflection of environmental
requirements in mining legislation is a
strong recognition, at policy level, of the
need to address environmental issues in
mining industry.
Need to carry out mining operations in an
environmentally friendly manner should
be non-negotiable, and must be
mandatory.
TANZANIA
NIL
NIL
Environmental provisions in the
Mining Act (Mining Act 1998,
sec. 34(2)(b); Sec. 35(3) ; Sec.
38(4)(d); Sec. 38(5)).
The National Environment
Management Council and the
Minister responsible for
environmental issues.
(Environmental Impact
Assessment and Audit
Regulation, 2005).
AUTONOMOUS?
Provisions for environ
requirements in the Mining Act
(Mining Act 1998, sec. 34(2)(b);
Sec. 35(3); Sec. 38(4)(d); Sec.
38(5)).
(i) NO exploration rights granted
under the Mining Act.
(ii) Mandatory environmental pre-
conditions to obtain mining rights
(Mining Act 1998, sec. 39(1)(d)).
(iii) Mandatory to submit an
environmental management plan
(Mining Act of 1998, sec. 39(1)
(d)).
(iv) NO mandatory environmental
prerequisites to maintain mining
rights.
EXISTING DESIGN
UGANDA
To assure all people living in the
country the fundamental right to an
environment adequate for their health
and well-being; and to use and
conserve the environment and natural
resources of Uganda equitably and for
the benefit of both present and future
generations.(National Environment Act
1995 (Ch 153), Part II(2)) .
NIL
Environmental provisions in the
Mining Act 2003, sec. 35(2)(a),
43(3)& 47(2)(c) & Part XI
The National Environment
Management Authority under the
general supervision of the
Minister (The National
Environmental Act, Cap 153 Part
III Sec.4; and the EIA Regulation
13/1998).
AUTONOMOUS?
Provisions for environmental
requirements in the Mining Act
2003, sec. 35(2)(a), 43(3)& 47(2)
(c).
(i) NO mandatory environmental
preconditions for exploration
rights.
(ii) Mandatory environmental
impact assessment,
environmental impact research,
environmental statement and
safety factors to obtain mining
rights. (Mining Act 2003, Sec.
43(3)(b)).
(iii) Mandatory to have and
adhere to environmental
management plan in order to
maintain mining rights (Mining
Act 2003,Sec. 109(3)).
ZAMBIA
To ensure that mining projects take
into account the need to (M & M Devt
Act of 2008, Part IX, Art. 115):
(a) conserve and protect the (i) air,
water, flora, fauna, soil, fish, fisheries
and scenic attractions; and (ii) features
of cultural, architectural,
archaeological, historical or geological
interest; and
(b) prevent any adverse socio-
economic impact or harm to human
health.
NIL
Environmental provisions in the
Mines and Minerals Act of 2008,
Part IX.
Environmental Council of
Zambia (Environmental
Protection and Pollution Control
Act, Sec. 2 & EIA Regulation,
Part II-V).
AUTONOMOUS?
Environmental requirements
integrated into the mining
legislation (Mines and Minerals
Act of 2008, Part IX).
(i) Mandatory [a] environ studies
and assessments for prospecting
licence (Mines and Minerals Act
of 2008, Part III, Art. 19, Sec.
1(h&i)).
[b] to develop an environ mgt
plan to obtain mining rights (M
& M Act 2008,Part II, Art. 12,
Sec. 4(b); EIA Reg., Sec. 11(i)).
(iii) Public awareness program a
precond. for application of large
scale mining license (M & M Act
of 2008, Part III, Art. 25).
(iv) Mandatory to have/adhere to
environ mgt plan to maintain
mining rights (M & M. Act 2008,
Part IX, Art. 116).
147
(Table continued)
(e)
Sufficient resources for
implementation of the
environmental regime.
(f)
Capacity to negotiate for
benefits and environmental
protection.
(g)
A well informed and adequately
vigilant public against
environmental mismanagement.
(h)
Adequate public participation
in environmental management.
(i)
Socially responsible mine
project.
(j)
Quantified expectations known,
traceable and accessible by all
players.
Sufficient technical and financial resources
are necessary to effectively enforce
environmental regime.
Inadequate negotiation capacity disadvantages
the mineral host community to bargain for
environmental protection and mineral wealth
benefits.
Absence of a well informed and adequately
vigilant public to bring to fore any
environmental mismanagement may result in
many vices being “swept under carpet” or
simply ignored.
Participation of host community in
environmental management strategically
cardinal during active mine period and for
post mining period.
A mine project must be socially and
economically responsible to host community.
All benefits (environmental, monetary, etc)
should be quantified and known in advance
and traceable during and after mine project.
NIL
NIL
(i) NO PROACTIVE promotion of
environ studies, research, surveys and
analyses; formal and non-formal environ
education programmes for public
awareness; environ database for the
public; and environ seminars, training,
reports and information.
(ii) Public hearing (Sec. 26 & 27).
NIL
(i) Employment and training of
Tanzanians as PER PLAN (Sec.
38(f); Sec. 44(b)).
(ii) Compensation (Sec. 95(1)(b) ;
Sec. 96(3)).
(iii) NO free and informed consent.
(iv) NO social policy document.
Management of postmine social
impacts?
NIL
NIL
NIL
(i) NO PROACTIVE promotion of
environ studies, research, surveys and
analyses; formal and non-formal
environ education programmes for
public awareness; environ database for
the public; and environ seminars,
training, reports and information.
(ii) Public hearing (Sec.
19,20&22).
NIL
(i) Preference to (a) train and
employ Ugandans, (b) buy
Ugandan goods and services, (c)
procure from Ugandans (Mining
Act, sec 26(h) & 45(1)(e), Sec.
113).
(ii) Written consent of affected
people (Mining Act, sec 26(h) &
45(1)(e), Sec. 113).
(iii) Compensation (Mining Sec.
79, 80& 82).
Management of postmine social
impacts?
NIL
NIL
NIL
(i) Proactive programs on
environmental education to create
an enlightened public opinion
(EPPC Act No. 12 of 1990, Sec.
6(i) & 76(f)).
(ii) Public hearing (EPPC Act,
Sec. 2 & EIA Regulation, Part II-
V Sec. 17 & 18).
NIL
(i) Preference to (a) train and
employ Zambians, (b) buy
Zambian goods and services, (c)
procure from Zambians (Mines
&Minerals Act of 2008, Part II, Art.
13).
(ii) License holder to get written
consent of affected people (Mines
and Minerals Act of 2008, Part II,
Art. 127, Sec. 1(b)).
(iii) Compensation (Mines and
Minerals Act of 2008, Part II, Art.
132, Sec. 1).
Management of postmine social
impacts?
NIL
148
(Table continued)
The NET result of the measures of the
(a) environmental regime must be dynamically (i) Taxes, royalties, etc. (i) Taxes, royalties, etc. (i) Taxes, royalties, etc.
Quantified NET POSITIVE assessed against planned targets, and to
benefits. terminate the mine project if results become NET quantified gain/loss? NET quantified gain/loss? NET quantified gain/loss?
significantly unacceptable.
(i) Mine closure pre-conditions (Mines
and Minerals Act of 2008, Part IX, Art.
116, Sec.1(c)).
3 (ii) Requirement to post a security bond
(i) Exploration / mining license
by the mine project. (Mines and
(i) No requirement for periodic update of require annual environmental
Minerals Act of 2008, Part IX, Art. 116,
Quantifiable / the environmental impact study during audit and related to EIA. (Mining
The liabilities of a mine project must be Sec.2(b); and Art 122).
mine project. Act, Sec. 108(3))
measurable results (b) (iii) Post assessment environmental
dynamically assessed against projections, and (ii) Not mandatory to prepare closure (ii) Mine closure pre-conditions
ZERO (environmental and audit between 12-36 months of the
to terminate a mine project if liabilities begin plan. (iv) Environmental fund (Mining (Mining Act, Sec. 110)
social) liabilities commencement of the project.
to indicate unfavourable state. Act 1998, Sec. 109) (ii) Environmental performance bond
(iv) Protection against wasteful mining
(Mining Act, Sec. 112).
(Mines and Minerals Act of 2008, Part
ZERO LIABILITY?
IX, Art.121)
ZERO LIABILITY?
(v) Mine closure DOES NOT cover
environmental and social aspects.

ZERO LIABILITY?

149

BRIDGE FOR AN EFFECTIVE
SOCIAL AND
ENVIRONMENTAL REGIME
1 compromising the ability of
Mission / Objective(s) of the
environmental law
2 (b)
Ingredients of an enabling bridge
to desired results
DESIRED DESIGN
ELEMENTS
(a)
Development that meets the
needs of the present without
future generations to meet their
own needs.
(b)
A NET GAIN socially,
economically and
environmentally.
(a)
Presence of a social and
environmental regime for
mining industry
Autonomous body with
capacity to enforce the
environmental laws.
(c)
Integration of environmental
requirements into mining
legislation.
EXISTING DESIGN
ZIMBABWE
JUSTIFICATION /
DESCRIPTION
To provide for the sustainable
management natural resources
Humanity will continue to exist beyond a mine and protection of the
project. Continuity of human existence will environment; the prevention of
NIL NIL
be threatened if a mine project is wasteful of pollution and environmental
natural resources. degradation. (Environmental
Management Act [Chapter
20:27])
A mining project must socially, economically
and environmentally NET add value to the NIL NIL NIL
host community.
Environmental regime sets the framework for
Environmental Management Act
implementing environmental protection NIL NIL
Chapt. 20:27
activities in mining operations.
Environmental Management Board,
the National Environmental
Council, the Environmental
An environmental regime will be “lame” in
Management Agency, all under a
the absence of an autonomous body with
Minister designated by the
capacity to enforce it.
President ([Environmental
Management Act Chapt. 20:27],
Sec. 5, 7, 10, 37 & 56).
A reflection of environmental requirements in
mining legislation is a strong recognition, at Environmental provisions in the
NIL NIL
policy level, of the need to address Mines and Minerals Act (Part IX)
environmental issues in mining industry.
150
(Table continued)
(d)
Mandatory environmental
prerequisites / preconditions to
exploration / mining rights.
(e)
Sufficient resources for
implementation of the
environmental regime.
(f)
Capacity to negotiate for
benefits and environmental
protection.
(g)
A well informed and
adequately vigilant public
against environmental
mismanagement.
(h)
Adequate public participation
in environmental management.
(i)
Socially responsible mine
project.
Need to carry out mining operations in an
environmentally friendly manner should be
non-negotiable, and must be mandatory.
Sufficient technical and financial resources
are necessary to effectively enforce
environmental regime.
Inadequate negotiation capacity disadvantages
the mineral host community to bargain for
environmental protection and mineral wealth
benefits.
Absence of a well informed and adequately
vigilant public to bring to fore any
environmental mismanagement may result in
many vices being “swept under carpet” or
simply ignored.
Participation of host community in
environmental management strategically
cardinal during active mine period and for
post mining period.
A mine project must be socially and
economically responsible to host community.
(i) NO mandatory environmental
preconditions for exploration rights.
(ii) Mandatory environmental
statement and safety factors to
obtain mining rights. (Mines and
Minerals Act, Sec. 160(2)(c)). NIL NIL
(iii) Mandatory to have and adhere
to environmental management plan
to maintain mining rights (Mines
and Minerals Act, Sec. 159(3)(3)
(vii)).
NIL NIL NIL
NIL NIL NIL
(i) NO PROACTIVE promotion of
environ studies, research, surveys and
analyses; formal and non-formal environ
education programmes for public
awareness; environ database for the NIL NIL
public; and environ seminars, training,
reports and information.
(i) NO Public hearing, but one can
appeal. (Sec. 123).
NIL NIL NIL
(i) Jobs and training
(ii) Consent (Mines and Minerals
Act Sec. 31)
(iii) Compensation (Mines and
Minerals Act Sec. 80 &133).
NIL NIL
(ii) Right to graze stock (Mines and
Minerals Act, sec. 179).

Management of postmine social

impacts?
(j)
All benefits (environmental, monetary, etc)
Quantified expectations known, should be quantified and known in advance NIL NIL NIL
traceable and accessible by all and traceable during and after mine project.
players.

151
 (Table continued)
The NET result of the measures of the
(a) environmental regime must be dynamically (i) Taxes, royalties, etc.
Quantified NET POSITIVE assessed against planned targets, and to NIL NIL
benefits. terminate the mine project if results become NET quantified gain/loss?
significantly unacceptable.
3 (i) NO requirement for periodic update of
the environmental impact study during
Quantifiable / measurable results The liabilities of a mine project must be mine project.
(b) (ii) NOT mandatory to prepare closure
dynamically assessed against projections, and
ZERO (environmental and plan. NIL NIL
to terminate a mine project if liabilities begin (iii) NO requirement to post a security
social) liabilities to indicate unfavourable state. bond by the mine project.

ZERO LIABILITY?

152