Industrial Training Report

Prasar Bharti
New Delhi









Submitted to Submitted By

Mr. Kumar Vaibhav Mohit Sharma
Practical Training Coordinator B. Tech ECE V Sem
Amity University Rajasthan




ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report is an outcome of the practical training which I have gone through at
Prasar Bharti Doordarshan (Broadcasting Corporation of India) Staff
Training Institute (Technical) Kingsway Camp, Delhi - 110009. I would like
to express deep sense of gratitude towards Director, STI(T) who permitted us to
undergo this trainingand prepared our training schedule and for helping me in
understanding the technical aspects of Broadcasting. It is a great pleasure to
express my heart full thanks to the staff of STI (T) who helped me directly or
indirectly throughout the successful completion of my training.

MOHIT SHARMA
Btech ECE V Sem
Amity University Rajasthan
Table of Contents
S.NO. TOPIC PAGE
NO.
1 Television in India 1
2 TV System 2
3 TV Lighting 5
4 Modulation 7
5 Satellite Communication 10
6 High Power TV Transmitters 13
7 Microphone 18
8 DRM- Digital Radio Mondiale 20
9 Digital Video Broadcating- T2 22
10 Earth Station Technologies 24
11 Activities in TV Studio 26
12 Conclusion 32
ABSTRACT

The objective of the thesis is to study the various sections of ALL INDIA RADIO
broadcasting and appropriate execution and working of the news studios and
Capitive Earth Station. All India Radio, officially known as Akashvani is the
radio broadcaster of India and a division of Prasar Bharati (Broadcasting
Corporation of India), an autonomous corporation of the Ministry of Information
and Broadcasting, Government of India. All India Radio now under Prasar
Bharati has the distinction of being one of the major broadcasting organizations
in the world. The real breakthrough in news broadcasting came after January 1936
when the first news bulletin from the Delhi Station went on the air on January 19,
1936 coinciding with the starting of its transmission. The News Services Division
broadcasts from Delhi 86 daily news bulletins in English, Hindi and 17 Indian
languages for a duration of 12 hours and 20 minutes. The bulk of AIR news comes
from its own Correspondents spread all over the country. It has 90 regular
Correspondents in India and five abroad at Colombo, Dhaka, Dubai, Kathmandu,
and Kabul. English News Service Available in two forms. The core service
covers major developments in diverse fields in a compact form.Good acoustics is
a pre-requisite of high quality broadcasting or recording. Acoustic treatment is
provided in studios, control rooms, and other technical areas in order to achieve
the acoustic conditions which have been found from experience to be suitable for
the various types of programmes. Sound waves emanating from a sound source
are propagated in all directions. These sound waves are subject to reflection,
absorption and refraction on encountering an obstacle. In any enclosed room
when a sound is switched off, it takes a finite length of time to decay to
inaudibility.
The broadcast of a program from source to listener involves use of
studios, microphones, announcer console, switching console, telephone lines /
STL and Transmitter. A broadcast studio is an acoustically treated room. It is






necessary that the place where a programme for broadcast purposes is being
produced should be free of extraneous noise.
Low level mixing system may look economical since it requires one single pre-
amplifier for all low level inputs, but quality of sound suffers in this system as
far as S/N ratio is concerned. Digital communication system falls into 3
categories in their design. They are Bandwidth efficient, Cost efficient and
power efficient. These three criteria are applicable in different environments.
Modulation of digital signal comes at the end of the transmission chain.
Networking can be defined simply as an interconnection of two or more
computers. Purpose of networking is to Sharing of files, Sharing of resources,
Sharing of programs, Users communicate with each other, Video conferencing,
Entertainment, distributed games. Different types of networking are LANs,
WANs, and MANs. The other features are DNS( Domain name system) . The
Captive Earth station consist of a satellite system.In general, a satellite system
has five major components. There are the two satellite links, i.e., the uplink and
the downlink, to and from the satellite. There are also two terrestrial links,
connecting the two earth stations with the user sites. In general, a satellite system
has five major components. There are the two satellite links, i.e., the uplink and
the downlink, to and from the satellite. There are also two terrestrial links,
connecting the two earth stations with the user sites. The transponder is the on-
board relay station for the satellite. Its function is similar to that of a terrestrial
microwave radio relay station. The on-board power supply is typically a series of
solar batteries; power conservation is achieved by turning off equipment when
not in use.The attitude of a satellite refers to its orientation in space. The attitude
control apparatus is one of the most important pieces of equipment on-board. It
prevents the satellite from spinning out of control in space and that the directional
antennas point in the proper direction. The advantage of satellite technology is
based on the potential for reaching wide expanses and serving discontinuous user
bases without the cost of traditional terrestrial services. The training section ends
up with the outside broadcasting section. Outside Broadcasts (abbreviated as
OBs) form a substantial portion of programmes radiated from a Radio Station.
Major events that occur at different parts of a country, such as sports events,
important functions of political, cultural and national important and other such
programmes.
The study carried out for this thesis lead to significant new knowledge,
which has resulted in elaborated concepts for the sections of All India Radio
broadcasting.


1

1.Television in India
Television in India is a huge industry which has thousands of programmes in many
languages. The small screen has produced numerous celebrities, some even attaining
national fame. More than half of all Indian households own a television. As of 2012,
the country has a collection of free and subscription services over a variety of
distribution media, like the CHERIAN channel, through which there are over 823
channels of which 184 are pay channels.
History

Terrestrial television in India started with the experimental telecast starting in Delhi
on 15 September 1959 (official launch date) with a small transmitter and a makeshift
studio. The regular daily transmission started in 1965 as a part of All India Radio.
The television service was extended to Bombay and Amritsar in 1972. Up until 1975,
only seven Indian cities had a television service. Television services were separated
from radio in 1976. National telecasts were introduced in 1982. In the same year,
colour TV was introduced in the Indian market. Indian small screen programming
started off in the early 1980s. At that time there was only one national channel
Doordarshan, which was government owned. The Ramayana and Mahabharata (both
Indian spiritual & mythological stories) were the first major television series
produced. This serial notched up the world record in viewership numbers for a single
program. By the late 1980s more and more people started to own television sets.
Though there was a single channel, television programming had reached saturation.
Hence the government opened up another channel which had part national
programming and part regional. This channel was known as DD 2 later DD Metro.
Both channels were broadcast terrestrially.

Analog switchover
The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting issued a notification on 11 November
2011, setting 31 March 2015 as the deadline for complete shift from analogue to
digital systems. In December 2011, Parliament passed The Cable Television
Networks (Regulation) Amendment Act to digitise the cable television sector by
2014.[4][5] Digitization, on cable and terrestrial, will be carried out in four phases, in
a 3-year transition starting from 31 October 2012, and finishing on 31 March 2015.
The four metros of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai have to shift to digital
addressability by 31 October 2012. The second phase will include 38 cities in 15
states, such as Patna, Chandigarh, Nagpur, Pune and Bangalore by 31 March 2013.
All urban areas are expected to digitise by 30 November 2014 and the remaining
areas by 31 March 2015.



2

2. TV SYSTEM

Picture formation:-
A picture can be considered to contain a number of small elementary areas of light or
shade which are called PICTURE ELEMENTS. The elements thus contain the visual
image of the scene.
In the case of a TV camera the scene is focused on the photosensitive surface
of pick up device and a optical image is formed. The photoelectric properties of the
pick up device convert the optical image to a electric charge image depending on the
light and shade of the scene (picture elements). Now it is necessary to pick up this
information and transmit it. For this purpose scanning is employed. Electron beam
scans the charge image and produces optical image. The electron beam scans the
image line by line and field by field to provide signal variations in a successive order.

The scanning is both in horizontal and vertical direction simultaneously.
The horizontal scanning frequency is 15,625 Hertz.
The vertical scanning frequency is 50 Hz.

The frame is divided in two fields. Odd lines are scanned first and then the even lines.
The odd and even lines are interlaced. Since the frame is divided into 2 fields the
flicker reduces. The field rate is 50 Hertz. The frame rate is 25 Hertz (Field rate is the
same as power supply frequency).

Number of TV Lines per Frame:-

If the number of TV lines is high larger bandwidth of video and hence larger R.F.
channel width is required. If we go for larger RF channel width the number of channels
in the R.F. spectrum will be reduced. However, with more no. of TV lines on the screen
the clarity of the picture i.e. resolution improves. With lesser number of TV lines per
frame the clarity (quality) is poor.
The capability of the system to resolve maximum number of picture elements along
scanning lines determines the horizontal resolution. It means how many alternate black
and white elements can be there in a line. Let us also take another factor. It is realistic
to aim at equal vertical and horizontal resolution. Therefore, the number of alternate
black and white dots on line can be 575 x 0.69 x 4/3 which is equal to 528.
It means there are 528 divided by 2 cyclic changes i.e. 264 cycles. These 264 cycles
are there during 52 micro seconds. Hence the highest frequency is 5 MHz.


Therefore the horizontal resolution of the system is 5 MHz.A similar calculation for
525 lines system limits the highest frequency to 4 MHz and hence the horizontal
3

resolution of same value.
In view of the above the horizontal bandwidth of signal in 625 lines system is 5 MHz.
The PAL Colour Television System:-

The Colour Television:-
It is possible to obtain any desired colour by mixing three primary colours i.e. Red,
Blue and green in a suitable proportion.
Additive Colour Mixing

The figure 10 shows the effect of projecting red, green, blue beams of light so that they
overlap on screen.

Y= 0.3 Red + 0.59 Green + 0.11 Blue

Fig. 10 Additive Colour Mixing

The Colour Television

It is possible to obtain any desired colour by mixing three primary colours i.e., red,
blue and green in suitable proportion. Thus it is only required to convert optical
information of these three colours to electrical signals and transmit it on different
carriers to be decoded by the receiver. This can then be converted back to the optical
image at the picture tube. The phosphors for all the three colours i.e. R, G and B are
easily available to the manufacturers of the picture tube. So the pick up from the
cameras and output for the picture tube should consists of three signals i.e. R, G and B.
It is only in between the camera and the picture tube of the receiver we need a system
to transmit this information.
4


Colour television has the constraint of compatibility and reverse compatibility with the
monochrome television system which makes it slightly complicated. Compatibility
means that when colour TV signal is radiated the monochrome TV sets should also
display Black & White pictures. This is achieved by sending Y as monochrome
information along with the chroma signal. Y is obtained by mixing R,G & B as per the
well known equation :

Y = 0.3 R + 0.59 G + 0.11 B

Reverse compatibility means that when Black & White TV signal is radiated the colour
TV sets should display the Black & White pictures.

If we transmit R, G, B, the reverse compatibility cannot be achieved. Let us see how :

If we transmit Y, R & B and derive G then :
Since Y = 0.3R + 0.59G + 0.11 B
G = 1.7Y - 0.51 R - 0.19 B

In such a case what happens with a colour TV set when we transmit black and white
signal. R and B are zero, but G gun gets 1.7 Y. The net result is black & white pictures
on a colour TV screen appear as Green pictures. So reverse compatibility is not
achieved.

















5

3. TV LIGHTING

GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Lighting for television is very exciting and needs creative talent. There is always a
tremendous scope for doing experiments to achieve the required effect. Light is a kind
of electromagnetic radiation with a visible spectrum from red to violet i.e. wave length
from 700 nm to 380 nm respectively. However to effectively use the hardware and
software connected with lighting it is important to know more about this energy.

Light Source
Any light source has a Luminance intensity (I) which is measured in Candelas. Candela
is equivalent to an intensity released by standard one candle source of light.

Basic Three Point Lighting
Key light : This is the principal light source of illumination. It gives shape and
modeling by casting shadows. It is treated like "sun" in the sky and it should cast
only one shadow. Normally it is a hard source.
Fill Light : Controls the lighting contrast by filling in shadows. It can also provide
catch lights in the eyes. Normally it is a soft source.
Back light : Separates the body from the background, gives roundness to the subject
and reveals texture. Normally it is hard source.
Background Light : Separates the person from the background, reveals background
interest and shape. Normally it is a hard source.In three point lighting the ratio of
3/2/1 (Back/Key/Fill) for mono and 3/2/2 for colour provides good portrait lighting.

TV CAMERA:-
Introduction
A TV Camera consists of three sections :
a) A Camera lens and optics : To form optical image on the face
plate of a pick up device.
b) A transducer or pick up device : To convert optical image into an
electrical signal.
c) Electronics : To process output of a transducer to
get a CCVS signal.
CCD CAMERAS
Introduction
Any camera will need a device to convert optical image into an electrical signal. Now
let us consider a picture frame made of small picture element. For more sharpness or
better resolution we have to increase these elements. This picture frame can now be
focused on to a structure of so many CCD elements. Each CCD element will now
convert the light information on it to a charge signal. All we need now is to have an
6

arrangement to collect this charge and convert it to voltage. This is the basic principle
on which CCD cameras are based.


Latest CCD Cameras
CCD were launched in 1983 for broadcasting with pixel count from a mere 2,50,000
which increased to 20,00,000 in 1994 for HDTV application. Noise and aliasing has
been reduced to negligible level. CCD cameras now offers fully modulated video
output at light level as low as 6.0 lumens. A typical specification for a studio camera
now available in market are some thing like 2/3 inch, FIT, lens on chip CCD with
6,00,000 pixel, 850 lines H resolution, S/N more than 60 dB, sensitivity F-8 (2000 lux)
etc.











7

4. Modulation

Modulation is a technique in which message signal is transmitted to the receiver with
the help of carrier signal. Here in modulation, we combine both carrier signal and
message signal.

Advantages of Modulation:

With the help of modulation, we can increase the quality of reception.
We can also decrease the height of the antenna.
Avoid mixing of different frequency signals and increase the range of
communication i.e. without modulation, we can transmit the message up to 100
meters and with modulation, we can transmit the message up to 150 meters.
Allow the flexibility for adjusting the bandwidth.

Angle Modulation:
In the angle modulation, again there are two different types of modulations.
1. Frequency modulation
2. Phase modulation.

1. Frequency Modulation:
The process of carrier signal frequency is varied according to the message signal or
modulation signal frequency by keeping the amplitude constant is called frequency
modulation.

Advantages of frequency modulation

Resilient to noise
Resilient to signal strength variations
Does not require linear amplifiers in the transmitter

Disadvantages of frequency modulation
8

Requires more complicated demodulator
Some other modes have higher data spectral efficiency
Sidebands extend to infinity either side
Applications of Frequency Modulation (FM):
Frequency modulation is used in radios which is very common in our daily
life.
Frequency modulation is used in audio frequencies to synthesize sound.
For recording the video signals by VCR systems, frequency modulation is used
for intermediate frequencies.
Used in applications of magnetic tape storage

2. Phase Modulation:
In the phase modulation, we vary the carrier signal in accordance with the phase of
the modulating signal or message signal by keeping the frequency constant. If the
amplitude of message or modulating signal is huge then the phase shift will also be
greater.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Phase Modulation:
It has less interference from static, which is why we use this type of modulation
in finding out the speed or velocity of a moving object.
The main disadvantage is phase ambiguity comes if we increase the phase
modulation index, and data loss is more and we need special equipment like
frequency multiplier for increasing the phase modulation index

Applications of Phase Modulation:
Phase modulation application is not different from frequency modulation.
Phase modulation is also used in communication systems.
It may be used in binary phase shift keying.

Amplitude Modulation:
In the amplitude modulation, amplitude of carrier signal wave is varied in accordance
with the modulating or message signal by keeping the phase and frequency of the
signals constant.

Applications of Amplitude Modulation:
Used to carry message signals in early telephone lines.
Used to transmit Morse code using radio and other communication systems.
Used in Navy and Aviation for communications as AM signals can travel
longer distances.
Widely used in amateur radio.
9



ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
It is simple to implement
It can be demodulated using a
circuit consisting of very few
components
AM receivers are very cheap as
no specialised components are needed.
An amplitude modulation signal is not
efficient in terms of its power usage
It is not efficient in terms of its use of
bandwidth, requiring a bandwidth equal to
twice that of the highest audio frequency
An amplitude modulation signal is
prone to high levels of noise because
most noise is amplitude based and
obviously AM detectors are sensitive
to it.














10

5. Satellite communication

What is satellite:
A satellite is an object which has been placed into orbit by human endeavor. Such
objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural
satellites such as the Moon.

Purpose of satellite communication:
To cover Wide Area in one go.
To provide signal for distribution over AIR, Doordarshan Networks & cable.
To have interlink between different AIR&TV centres for contribution of programmes
like News & Current Affairs.

Basics of satellite communication:



Satellite basically a spacecraft placed in orbit around earth carrying microwave
receive & transmit equipment on Board


Essentially a Microwave Link Repeater


Frequencies capable of passing through Ionosphere (Microwave frequencies) use


Microwave frequencies permit transmission of data at high rate.

Reason of satellite revolution:

A single satellite can provide coverage to over 30% of Earths surface.
It is often the only solution for developing areas
It is ideal for broadcast applications
It can be rapidly deployed.

It is scalable.

Depending on application, there is no need for the local loop
11



Receving and transmitting device:

LNA (Low Noise Amplifier) or LNB (Low Noise Block)

LNA - amplifies RF signal from the antenna and feeds it into frequency converter
(typically IF of 70/140 MHz)

LNB - amplifies RF signal from the antenna and converts it to an L-band signal
(950-2100 MHz)

LNA is more precise and stable but more expensive than LNB (LO stability).



Transmit power amplifiers provide amplification of signals to be transmitted to the
satellite


Transceiver takes 70/140 MHz signal and amplifies it to either C or Ku-band final
frequency.



Block Up-Converter takes L-band signal and amplifies it to either C or Ku-band final
frequency.


12

India and Satellite Communication Systems
India first experimented with geosynchronous telecommunications relays in 1981 and
now has three active spacecraft in GEO. Moreover, the launch of INSAT 2A in July,
1992, marked the debut of India's first domestically built operational GEO space-
craft. In a departure from most nations, India's GEO platforms combine a
communications mission with that of Earth observation.

APPLE
INSAT 1
INSAT 2
INSAT 3
ASC Network
India undertook the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) in 1975-76
to telecast a series of educational programs on health, family planning, agriculture
and the like to over 2,500 Indian villages via the US satellite, ATS-6. It was the
largest sociological experiment ever carried out in the world. The Satellite
Telecommunication Experimental Project (STEP), conducted using Franco-German
Symphonie satellite during 1977-79, was another major demonstration of
communication applications of space.
India has registered an impressive growth in the telecom sector. Over the years the
country has developed a vast telecom network comprising over 25000 telephone
exchanges and 21.5 million working connections. There is a large network of optical
fibre cables, digital microwave and satellite communication systems. A very strong
industrial base has been built in the telecom sector with a large number of national
and multinational telecom companies.

A number of policy changes have been made in the recent past which, if
implemented, are bound to have a significant impact on the telecom scenario. The
most significant among the changes is the announcement of a New Telecom Policy
(NTP) 1999. The policy envisages development of telecom facilities in remote, rural
and tribal areas of the country and their availability to the masses at affordable costs.
The NTP 1999, which has come into effect from April 1, 1999, aims at making
telephones available on demand by the year 2002 and to achieve teledensity of seven
per hundred persons by the year 2005. In case of rural areas, the current teledensity is
proposed to be raised from 0.4 to 4 by the year 2010. The policy document of NTP
outlines rapid growth in the telecom sector in India with a projected teledensity of 15
by the year 2010. This will require a massive investment of over 23 billion dollars in
the next five years.


13


6. High POWER TV TRANSMITTERS

Design:-
All the TV transmitters have the same basic design. They consist of an exciter followed
by power amplifiers which boost the exciter power to the required level.

Exciter:-
The exciter stage determines the quality of a transmitter. It contains pre-corrector units
both at base band as well as at IF stage, so that after passing through all subsequent
transmitter stages, an acceptable signal is available. Since the number and type of
amplifier stages, may differ according to the required output power, the characteristics
of the pre-correction circuits can be varied over a wide range.

Vision and Sound Signal Amplification:-
In HPTs the vision and sound carriers can be generated, modulated and amplified
separately and then combined in the diplexer at the transmitter output.
In LPTs, on the other hand, sound and vision are modulated separately but amplified
jointly. This is common vision and aural amplification.
A special group delay equalization circuit is needed in the first case because of errors
caused by TV diplexer. In the second case the intermodulation products are more
prominent and special filters for suppressing them is required.
As it is difficult to meet the intermodulation requirements particularly at higher
power ratings, separate amplification is used in HPTs though combined amplification
requires fewer amplifier stages.
Power Amplifier Stages
In BEL mark I & II transmitters three valve stages (BEL 450 CX, BEL 4500 CX and
BEL 15000 CX) are used in vision transmitter chain and two valves (BEL 450 CX and
BEL 4500 CX) in aural transmitter chain. In BEL mark III transmitter only two valve
stages (BEL 4500 CX and BEL 15000 CX) are used in vision transmitter chain. Aural
transmitter chain is fully solid state in Mark III transmitter.
BEL 10 kW TV TRANSMITTER
A block diagram of BEL 10 kW TV Transmitter is shown in Fig. 10. It consists of :
a) Input Equipment Rack
b) Monitoring Equipment Rack
c) Control Console
d) Indoor Co-axial Equipment comprising of :
U-link Rack with U-link panel A and B, T-Transformer and 10 kW
Dummy Load.
Aural Harmonic Filter.
CIN Diplexer
Aural Notch Filter and Band Pass Filter.
e) Antenna system with junction box, feeder cables etc.
14



Block Diagram of 10kW TV Transmitter
SOLID STATE POWER AMPLIFIERS
1) Has got two identical sections. Each capable of delivering 10 W.
2) Gets 28 V power supply through relay in 80 W AMP.
3) Sample of output is available at front panel for RF monitoring.
4) Provides A DC output corresponding to sync peak out put for vision monitoring
unit.
5) Thermostat on heat sink is connected in series with thermostat or 80 W AMP
and provides thermal protection. (Operating temp. 70
o
C.)

TX. Block Diagram
15



Vision Chain of Exciter

TRANSMITTER CONTROL SYSTEM:-
The transmitter control unit performs the task of transmitter interlocking and control.
Also it supports operation from control console. The XTR control unit (TCU) has two
independent system viz.
1. Main control system. (MCS)
2. Back-up Control System (BCS)

System Description of Exciter :

Video Chain:-The input video signal is fed to a video processor. In VHF transmitters
LPF, Delay equalizer and receiver pre-corrector precede the video processor.
Low Pass Filter : Limits incoming video signal to 5 MHz.

Delay Equalizer : Group delay introduced by LPF is corrected. It also pre-distorts
the video for compensating group delay errors introduced in the subsequent stages and
diplexer.

Receiver pre-corrector : Pre-distorts the signal providing partial compensation of GD
which occurs in domestic receivers.Both the delay equaliser and receiver precorrector
are combined in the delay equaliser module in Mark III version.
DP/DG Corrector
This is also used in the exciter preceding LPF (mark III) for pre-correcting the
differential gain and differential phase errors occurring in the transmitter.

Video Processor
The block diagram of video processor is given in fig. 3.
Functions
Amplification of Video signal
Clamping at back porch of video signal.
Clamping gives constant peak power. Zero volt reference line is steady irrespective of
16

video signal pattern when clamping takes place otherwise the base line starts an
excursion about the zero reference depending on the video signal.


Block Diagram of Video Processor
Vision Modulator
The block diagram of Vision modulator is given in fig. 4 and schematic diagram is
shown in fig. 5
Functions
Amplification of Vision IF at 38.9 MHz.
Linear amplitude modulation of Vision IF by video from the video processor in
a balanced modulator.

IF Amplifier
IF is amplified to provide sufficient level to the modulator. It operates as an amplitude
limiter for maintaining constant output.

Modulator
A balanced modulator using two IS-1993 diodes is used in the modulator.

Band pass amplifier
Modulated signal is amplified to 10 mW in double tuned amplifier which provides a
flat response within 0.5 dB in 7 MHz band.

VSBF and Mixer :

The block diagram of VSBF and Mixer is given in fig. 6. It consists of following
stages :
VSB filter
ALC amplifier
Mixer
Helical Filter
Mixer Amplfier
17



Block Diagram of VSBF Mixer



VSB Filter
Surface Acoustic wave (SAW) filter provide a very steep side band response with high
attenuation outside designated channel. It has a linear phase characteristic with a low
amplitude and group delay ripple. (Fig. 7.)



Block Diagram of V.S.B.Filter
.

Local Oscillator
It supplies three equal outputs of + 8 dBm each at a frequency of fv + fvif. This unit
has 3 sub units.
(1) fc/4 oscillator : Generates frequency which is 1/4 of desired channel frequency.
Fine freq. control is done by VC1.
(2) LO Mixer/Power divider : Here the above fc/4 frequency is multiplied by four
to obtain channel frequency of fc and then mixed with fvif. Power divider is
also incorporated to provide three isolated outputs of equal level.


Block Diagram of Local Oscillator





18

7. Microphones
I. How They Work.
A microphone is an example of a transducer, a device that changes information from
one form to another. Sound information exists as patterns of air pressure; the
microphone changes this information into patterns of electric current.

A variety of mechanical techniques can be used in building microphones. The two
most commonly encountered in recording studios are the magneto-dynamic and the
variable condenser designs.
THE DYNAMIC MICROPHONE.



In the magneto-dynamic, commonly called dynamic, microphone, sound waves cause
movement of a thin metallic diaphragm and an attached coil of wire. A magnet
produces a magnetic field which surrounds the coil, and motion of the coil within this
field causes current to flow. The principles are the same as those that produce
electricity at the utility company, realized in a pocket-sized scale. It is important to
remember that current is produced by the motion of the diaphragm, and that the
amount of current is determined by the speed of that motion. This kind of microphone
19

is known as velocity sensitive.
THE CONDENSER MICROPHONE.

In a condenser microphone, the diaphragm is mounted close to, but not touching, a
rigid backplate. (The plate may or may not have holes in it.) A battery is connected to
both pieces of metal, which produces an electrical potential, or charge, between them.
The amount of charge is determined by the voltage of the battery, the area of the
diaphragm and backplate, and the distance between the two. This distance changes as
the diaphragm moves in response to sound. When the distance changes, current flows
in the wire as the battery maintains the correct charge. The amount of current is
essentially proportioinal to the displacement of the diaphragm, and is so small that it
must be electrically amplified before it leaves the microphone.
OTHER TYPES







20


8. DRM- Digital Radio Mondiale

What is DRM?
The DRM Broadcasting system has been designed by broadcasters, for broadcasters,
but with the active assistance and participation of both transmitter and receiver
manufacturers and other interested parties (such as regulatory bodies). It has been
designed specifically as a high quality digital replacement for current analogue radio
broadcasting in the AM and FM/VHF bands; as such it can be operated with the same
channelling and spectrum allocations as currently employed.


The DRM standard describes a number of different operating modes, which may be
broadly split into two groups as follows:

DRM30 modes, which are specifically designed to utilise the AM broadcast bands
below 30 MHz, and
DRM+ modes, which utilise the spectrum from 30 MHz to VHF Band III, centred
on the FM broadcast Band II

Digital Migration
The DRM system was specifically designed to align with and make use of current
analogue spectrum allocations to co-exist with current analogue broadcasts2. This
allows broadcasters to make the required investment on a timescale that meets their
budgetary needs. It will ensure that expensively acquired and perfectly satisfactory
transmission equipment and infrastructure is not suddenly made obsolete. Suitable
analogue transmitters can be modified to switch between digital and analogue
broadcasts, further reducing the initial investment required for a broadcaster wishing
to migrate to DRM. This in turn allows broadcasters to focus their capital resources on
new content and services. Additionally, the reduction of the transmitting energy costs
allows additional revenue savings, which can be ploughed back into programming.

Apart from the ability to fit in with existing spectrum requirements, the DRM system
also benefits from being an open system, allowing any manufacturer to design and
manufacture equipment on an equitable basis. This has proved, in the recent past, to be
an important mechanism for ensuring the timely introduction to market of new systems
and for accelerating the rate at which equipment prices reduce. This is a significant
consideration for broadcasters but even more so for the millions of listeners who will
21

need to invest in new, DRM-capable receivers.

BENEFI TS of DRM
So what can digital radio offer that is not available already in the analogue world?

From a listeners perspective digital means a wider choice of stations, languages and
content, (while not losing the analogue offer). The sound is also better as you can enjoy
hiss and crackle-free digital quality sound not only in FM but also in short wave and
medium wave. In effect digital sound becomes high quality in all bands,no
matter if you listen to a faraway broadcaster or your local station. Also there is no more
fiddling with buttons and trying to remember frequencies .You simply have to push a
button and your chosen station follows you like a faithful pet, not the other way round.
You get to your favourite station just by choosing its name, simple!

Digital radio also give you access to digital features like information on what you are
listening to, whether ge nerated by the radio station or from the internet, pictures,
video, content in several languages simultaneously, emergency warning in case of
disaster and so much more.
DRM+ system is also capable of transmitting 5.1 surround sound signals to enable
radio listeners to enjoy the same quality as listening in a cinema theatre.

DRM is a cost efficient solution all along the value chain. It uses spectrum more
efficiently, offers extra opportunities for revenue generation and uses less power (by
at least a third) so it is a genuinely greenoption.

Digital radio is about making exciting, multi- lingual content available and so
compelling that the listener will want to acquire a new digital receiver, whether it will
be a new funky standalone, a car one or a di gital enabler in mobiles , PDAs or tablets.

And broadcasters, manufacturers, regulators and all supporters of digital radio
have to be ready with a credible and affordable offer. Having chosen DRM 30 for
the medium wave and short wave transmissions the natural step for India is to
opt for DRM+ in FM. There is no either or between FM and DRM+. A careful
and wise rollout plan will help with the introduction of digital VHF in a planned
and economical way.





22

9.Digital Video Broadcasting-T2

DVB-T2 is the next development of the Digital Video Broadcasting - Terrestrial
standards. It builds on the technology and on the success of DVB-T to provide
additional facilities and features in line with the developing DTT or Digital
Terrestrial television market.
Although some may see DVB-T2 as a competitor to the existing DVB-T standard,
this is not the case,. It is planned that the two standards will co-exist for many
years, with DVB-T2 allowing additional features and services.










DVB-T2 basics












23



The Reception mode of dvb t2 transmission. Note that it is multi device
transmibility as many devices of different types like mobiles, tv , laptops, in cars
and buses we can see the tv transmission.
The DVB-T2 standard uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex as the basic
radio transmission medium. This form of transmission is particularly robust and allows
for the reception of data signals (in this case television data) in the presence of some
interference or missing channels as a result of effects like multipath.






















24

10. EARTH STATION TECHNOLOGIES

The advantage of satellite technology is based on the potential for reaching wide
expanses and serving discontinuous user bases without the cost of traditional terrestrial
services (i.e., multiple central offices, microwave hops, repeaters, etc). Therefore, the
earth station becomes a critical factor in the design of satellite systems. Technological
advances in the area of earth station equipment improvement has been a continuing
focus for satellite system manufacturers. The more technology can be improved and
costs reduced, the greater the potential for the future of satellite communications.

There are currently three classes of earth stations:

Mass capacity station--Designed for large users or inter-exchange carrier applications.
This type of earth station serves a user community with communications needs great
enough to require feeder line access to the earth station. The cost for earth stations in
this class runs into millions of dollars.
Middle range earth station--Designed for large corporate applications. This type of
earth station serves a single large user (e.g. newspaper publisher, financial institution,
etc). The cost for earth stations in this class run into the hundreds of thousands of
dollars.
Low-end earth station--Designed for smaller corporate applications. This type of
earth station serves a single user (e.g., retailers, general business, etc) and is typically
designed to handle data traffic (e.g., point-of-sale information, inventory control, credit
authorization, and other types of remote processing). These types of earth stations are
established with a minimal amount of equipment and a very small aperture terminal
(VSAT).

Each VSAT site is equipped with a terminal consisting of an antenna (varying in
size from 1.2 to 1.8 meters in diameter), outdoor electronics mounted on or near the
25

antenna (for signal reception and transmission), and indoor electronics for connection
to the customer's local area network, CPU, telephone equipment or video equipment.
The cost for earth stations in this class runs approximately $10,000 or less. Because of
the low cost, the users of VSAT technology can take advantage of the basic nature of
satellite communications (i.e., broadcast), and have the flexibility of moving or adding
sites without tremendous added expense. The savings achieved using VSAT networks
have been quoted as high as 50 percent over the cost of traditional leased lines from a
carrier.


1.6 Problems in sattelite communication
Transmission problems :
HEAVY RAINFALL
Signal attenuation
Attenuation higher at high frequency
Alters the polrasition


RN CHANNELS AT DELHI STATION
8 channels on cs (analog transponder)
14 channels on cc (digital transponder)
Carry 33 different services
Carry 19 different national/regional programmes








26

11. ACTIVITIES in TV STUDIO

DI VI DED I NTO TWO MAJ OR AREAS SUCH AS :

Action Area
Production Control Room


ACTI ON AREA:

This place requires large space and ceiling as compared to any other technical
area. Action in this area includes staging, lighting performance by artists and
arrangement to pick up picture and sound. This place requires large space and coiling
as compared to any other technical data. Very efficient air conditioning because of
lot of heat dissipation bay studio light and presence of large number of persons
including invited audience performing artists and operational crew.
Uniform and even flooring for smooth operation of camera trollies and
microphone etc. Acoustic treatment keeping in mind that a TV studio is a
multipurpose studio with lot of moving person and equipment during production.
Supporting facilities like properties, makeup and wardrobe etc.
(i) Digital clock display.
(ii) Audio and video monitoring facilities.
(iii) Pick up wall sockets for audio operations.
(iv) Luminaries and suspension system having grids or battens.
(v) Tie lines box for video and audio from control room.
Cyclorama and curtain tracks for blue and black curtain for chrome keying and limbo
lighting respectively.

Camera Chain:

A typical three tube camera chain is described in the block diagram. Tube
power supply section provides all the voltages required grids of electron gun.
Horizontal and vertical deflection section supplies the saw tooth current to the
deflection coils of scanning the positive image formed on the target. The built in
synchronous pulse generator provides all the pulses required for the encoder and
colours bar generator of the camera. The signal system in most of the camera consists
of processing of the signal form red, blue and green tube. Some of the camera us-e
white, blue and red tubes instead of R,G, B system. the processing of red and blue
channel is exactly similar. Green Channel, which also called a reference channel, has
slightly different electronics concerning aperture correction. So if we understand a
particular channel, the other channels can be followed easily. In each camera signal
are given to generate synchronous pulse and black burst pulse for a good picture in
television.

Camera control unit:

27

The TV camera which includes camera head with its optical focusing lens. pan
and tilt head, video. Single pre- amplifier view finder and other associated
electronic circuiting and mounted on cameras trolley and operate inside the studio.
he output of camera of cameras in preamplifier in the head and then connected to
the camera control unit through long multi-core cable. In this room shot can be
decided to which camera can be taken. Camera position can also be control in this
room. CCU can control three colour
RGR= .10+.59+.11=100%
In CCU monitoring sources, monitoring facilities and pulse disribution
amplifies are available. Vectroscope provides on overview of control and
connection function. Monitor can detect any fault in the camera.

The color camera chain comprises the following basic assembly:
color camera
Camera control unit
Connection unit
Multiwire cable
Camera view finder

The color camera chain meets the ultimate requirement in the field of studio. It
features easy handling, operational safety and good serviceability. It can be operated
either with multiwire or with coax/triax camera cable. The color camera head, the
camera control unit and remote control unit associated with the setup control console
or remote control console are each equipped with a microcomputer.
The color camera uses a 3-tube RGB system with high grade beam splitter. It
is equipped with 1-inch plumbicon pickup tubes with dioxide gun system, bias light
and ABC facilities.
Various high grade lenses of different brands are available for camera. The
camera control unit is of compact design. The connection between camera head and
camera control unit can be established either via a multiwire camera cable or via a
coax/triax camera cable.

28

DI MMER ROOM
Dimmer Room consists of light control system which give the various
lightening effects in the studio.

General Description Of Light Control System :

The light control system designed for television studio comprises of
i. A light control desk.
ii. Electronic dimmer rack.
iii. Power distribution and control panel.
iv. Studio lights.
v. Talk back system.
* The function of Light Control Desk is to enable the operator to remotely select
the studio lamps, that need to be turned on for a particular scene & also enable control
of intensity of some of the lamp, required for color matching.

* Using Electronic Dimmer, the operator is able to control the intensity of lamp
remotely. The intensity of a group of the lamps can be adjusted individually or in one
of the two scenes.

*The system has been designed for large number of the loads, distributed on 415V,3
phase, 50Hz, 4 wire mains. The phase distribution both on the rack as well as on the
light control desk are marked with dots. This helps to distribute high loads on the three
phase more or less equally.

*Any individual intensity control fader can be connected by the means of 3 position
lever switch to any one of the three control in each present.

Scene A
OFF
Scene B

* Two electronic dimmer are wired as one plug in module, each rated
at 2.5 KW where as one dimmer is wired in one plug in module of 5.0
KW.

* The dimmer rack is interconnected with light control desk by means of multi core 0.2
qmrs. Flexible copper PVC unarmored control cable.

Talk Back System:

It is a in house communication system. This type of system is very useful for TV
Studios, Theaters etc. this system is based on duplex communication system & has
4 stations one master and three slaves.
Special advantages of this :-
29

1. Any one can talk to any one.
2. Master can talk to all stations at a time.
3. It can hand off loud speaking type.
Power Distribution and Control System (panel is helpful in distribution of power to
different racks).

Light Control:
The scene to be television must be well illuminated to produce a clear and
noise free picture. The lighting should also give the depth, the correct contrast and
artistic display of various shades without multiple shadows.
The lighting arrangements in a TV studio have to be very elaborate. A large
number of lights are used to meet the need of "key" "fell" and "back" lights etc. Lights
are classified as spot and soft lights. These are suspended from motorized hoists and
telescopes. The up and down movement is remote controlled. The switching ON and
OFF is lights at the required time and their dimming is controlled from the light control
room using SCR dimmer controls. These remotely control various lights inside the
studios.

V. T .R. (Video tape recording):

It is the most complex piece of studio equipment with analog and digital
processor servo system, micro-processor, memory, logic circuits and mechanical
devices etc.V.T.R

room is provided at each studio center. It houses at least two console type 'A video tape
recorders' (V.T.R.) and a few broadcast standard video cassette recorder (V.C.R.).Here
recording is done on playback format CAM. Quality of recorded programme is tested
immediately after recording is completed so that if there is any technical or any other
problem the same could be rectified and the final recording is of good quality.
During the original transmission the programme tapes are played back from the
V.T.R The audio and video labels can also be adjusted from here. The format of
programme from mini D.V.C to J3 is transferred in the V.T.R room, DD news, OTR(off
telecast recording) is also recorded for the use in original news programme.

Specifications:
Video Cassette Recorders

Operational Environment
Operating temperature 5deg C to 40deg C.

Storage temperature -20deg C to 60 deg C.


Location to avoid :
*areas whose BVW-70P will be exposed to direct sunlight or any other strong
light.
30


* industry areas or areas where it is subject to vibration.

*areas with strong electric or magnetic fields

*areas near heat sources

Technical I nformation:
General Specifications
Power requirements AC 90 to 265V, 48 to 68 Hz
Power consumption 240W
Operating temperature 5deg C to 40deg C
Storage temperature -20deg C to 60deg C
Humidity Less than 80%
Weight 30 Kg.
Dimensions 427*237*520 mm/w/h/o
Tape speed 101.51 mm/s
Record & playback time 100 minutes max.
Fast forward/rewind time less than 180 seconds


PCR (PRODUCTI ON CONTROL ROOM):

The video and audio outputs are routed through a production control room. This is
necessary for a smooth flow and effective control. of the programme material. This
room is
called the production Control Room' (PCR) It is manned by the programme director,
his assistant a camera control unit engineer a video mixer expert a sound engineer
and a lighting engineer. The programme directors with the help of this staff effects
overall control of the programme whole it is telecast live or recorded on a VTR.
The video and audio outputs from different studios and other sources are terminated
on separate panels in the control room. One panel contains the camera control unit
and video mixer. In front of this panel are located a number of monitors for editing
and previewing a incoming and outgoing programmes. Similarly another panel
houses microphone controls. This panel is under control of the sound engineer who
is consultation with the programme director selects and controls the available sound
output.
The producer and the programme assistant have in front of them a talk back control
panel for giving instruction to the camera man, audio engineer and floor manager.
The producer can also talk over the intercom system to the VTR. The lighting is
controlled by switches and faders from a dimmer console which in also located in
the control room.



PCR includes following two sections:
31


Vision Mixer
Audio distribution amplifier-ADA

ENG-CAMERA:

Eng means Electronic News Gathering. This camera is used for news coverage. It does
not contain vacuum tube, rather contain charged couple device CCD. CCD is compact
and small in size. This camera is portable and movable.

The features of camera are as follows:

The camera contain three CCD.

The camera is battery operated and battery used is 12V,SA and
chargeable.

The camera can be operated by AC supply and for that AC adapter is
used.

The camera has audio monitor.

The camera has video recorder which is also compact. The video tape
is of 30 minutes.

The camera make use of lens assembly for focusing purposes.


The different types of mikes used are as follows:
Gun mike
Lapel mike
RF mike

The gun mike has high gain. The lapel mike is used by news readers












32

12. Conclusion

In this sector of training I studied about the overall procedure and objective of the
Broadcasting process in elaborate form. All India Radio had provided us all the
equipments and apparatus for understanding us the each and every section up to its
depth. I visited the various sections like server and networking room, lines room,
control booth, captive earth station etc. After studying these sections I get
understood their execution and importance for the transmission and reception of the
data in All India radio.
Prasar Bharti is a public broadcaaster of India and is developing in terms of
technology and aspirations and truly public broadcaster