THE PRINCIPLES OF

AGRONOMY
A TEXT-BOOK OF CROP PRODUCTION FOR HIGH-
SCHOOLS AND SHORT-COURSES IN
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES-
BY
FRANKLIN S.
HAREIS,
Ph.D.
PROFESSOR OV AGRONOMY AND DIRECTOR OF THE BOHOOL OF AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERINCr,
UTAH AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
GEORGE
STEWART,
B.S.
INSTRUCTOR IN
AGRONOMY,
UTAH AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
Weto
fork
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1915
All
rights reserved
MftMM
SP"C.
COLL-
S
H3
Rl5
Copyright, 1915,
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set
up
and
electrotyped.
Published
December,
iQ^S-
Kortooab
^um
J. S.
Cushin^
Co. "
Berwick " Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass.,
U.S.A.
"^
PREFACE
Agricultural instruction in the
high-school
has
extended
so rapidly
within the last few
years
that the
demand for suitable text-books has
become insistent.
The variation in the
teaching
in different
schools is
so great
that several
texts
are required.
Some
high-
schools
give
but
one
year
in
agriculture,
while others
give
four.
This book is
designed
for schools
giving more
than
one course
in
agriculture
;
its
study
should
probably
precede
instruction in horticulture
or
animal
husbandry.
A
knowledge
of
botany
and
chemistry, although
not
presupposed,
will assist in
a
better
understanding
of
some,
perhaps all,
of the
chapters.
Although
written
primarily
for
a text-book,
the dis- cussion
ought
to be useful to the
practical
farmer who
will find treated in non-technical
language
the
prin- ciples
underlying
many
of his
practices.
Those
wishing more
information will find
help
in the
list of
supplementary readings
at
the end of each
chap- ter.
A
complete
list of references has not been
given
;
only
the
most
accessible
publications are
mentioned.
Constant reference has been made
to
the
Cyclopedia
of
American
Agriculture by
L. H.
Bailey,
to
Farmers'
Bulletins of the United States
Department
of
Agri- culture,
and to
a
number of standard works
on
each
subject,
all of which should be in the
library
of
every
school where
agriculture
is
taught. Very
few refer-
vi
Preface
ences
have been made to state
experiment station
pub- lications,
since
many
of them
are
not available.
The
teaching
of
agriculture
is valuable
only
as
it
is made
practical.
It is
suggested, therefore, that
stu- dents
work in the
laboratory
and field
as
much
as
possible
in order
to become
directly
familiar with
soils,
crops,
and
applications
of
principles
instead of
relying
solely
upon
what the
text
says
about them.
The
authors
are
indebted
to
a
number of their col- leagues
at the Utah
Agricultural College
for
encour- agement
and
friendly
criticism
during
the
preparation
of this book.
They
are
under
special obligation to
President J. A.
Widtsoe,
Director E. D. Ball, Pro- fessor
N. A.
Pederson, and Messrs. A. F.
Bracken,
C. L.
Anderson, and N. I.
Butt,
all of whom have
read the
manuscript
and offered valuable
suggestions.
FRANKLIN S.
HARRIS,
GEORGE STEWART.
Logan, Utah,
May 1,
1916.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
PASK8
Introductory
.........
1-5
What is
agriculture
? 1
;
Agriculture
and the
sciences,
2
;
Agriculture
and the
industries,
2
;
Opportunities
in
agriculture are varied,
.3
;
Divisions of
agriculture,
4
;
Phases of
agronomy,
4
;
Scope
of this
book,
4.
PAKT I. THE PLANT
CHAPTER II
The Plant
and
Its Environment
9-22
Factors of
plant growth,
10
;
Length
of
season,
12
;
Frost,
13
;
Temperature,
14
;
Water,
16
;
Sunlight,
18
;
Wind,
19
;
Soil,
19
;
Pests,
20
;
Adapted
crops,
21.
CHAPTER III
Plant Struotuee
23-38
Cells,
23
;
Tissues,
25
;
Kind of
plant,
26
;
Crop plants,
26
;
Plant
parts,
27
;
The
root,
27
;
The
stem,
30
;
The
leaf, 35;
The
flower, 35;
The
seed, -37;
Buds and
branches,
37
;
Underground stems,
37.
CHAPTER IV
Plant Functions
39-49
Growth,
39
;
Respiration,
41
;
Photosynthesis,
42
;
Osmosis,
44
;
Transpiration,
46
;
Translocation,
48
;
Transportation,
48
;
Response,
49.
viii
Contents
CHAPTER V
PAGES
The Plant as a
Factory
50-63
Interdependence
of
plants
and animals,
51
;
Depend- ence
of man on
plants,
51
;
Domestication,
53
;,
Plant
compounds,
54
;
Flavors,
54
;
Water,
55
;
Carbohydrates,
55
;
Protein,
56
;
Asli,
56
;
Fats and
oils,
56
;
The
plant
factory, 57;
Animal
concentration, 59; Storage, 59;
Harvest,
61
;
Control of the
harvest,
62.
PART II. THE SOIL
.CHAPTER
VI
What
the
Soil Is 67-69
Definition,
67
;
Permanence of
soils,
68
;
Economic
importance
of the
soil,
68
;
Conservation of the
soil,
68
;
Need of better soil
management,
69.
CHAPTER VII
Origik and
Fokmation
op Soils
70-80
Minerals and
rocks,
70
;
Soil-forming minerals, 70;
Quartz,
71
;
The
feldspars,
71
;
Hornblende and
pyrox- ene,
71
;
Mica,
71
;
Chlorite,
72
;
Zeolites,
72
;
Caloite,
72
;
Dolomite,
73
;
Gypsum,
73
;
Apatite,
73
;
Soil-form- ing
rocks,
73
;
Methods of soil
formation,
74
;
Action of
heat and
cold,
74
;
Action of
vfater,
75
;
Ice,
76
;
The
atmosphere,
78
;
Plants and
animals,
78
;
Classification
of
soils,
79.
CHAPTER VIII
Physical Properties
of the
Soil
.....
81-89
Soil
texture,
81
;
Groups according
to
texture,
82
;
Re- lation
of
texture to
water-holding capacity, 83;
Soil
structure,
83
;
Hovr to
modify structure,
84
;
Specific
gravity
of
soils,
86
;
Air in the
soil,
86
;
Heat of the
soil,
87
;
The
organic
matter of the
soil,
88
;
Maintaining
the
organic matter,
88.
Contents ix
CHAPTER IX
PAGES
The Water
of the Soil 90-97
Origin
of soil
water,
90
;
Variations in soil
moisture,
91
;
The condition of soil
moisture,
91
;
Free
water,
91
;
Capillary water,
92
;
Hygroscopic water,
92
;
Other crit- ical
points,
93
;
Quantity
of water in field
soils,
93
;
Methods of
expressing
the
quantity
of
water,
94
;
Loss
of soil
moisture,
94
;
Need for
preventing evaporation,
94;
The
water-table,
95
;
The movements of soil mois- ture,
96
;
Use of soil
water,
96
;
Quantity
of water used
by plants,
96.
CHAPTER X
The Control of Soil Water 98-117
Irngation
: Increasing
the soil
moisture,
98
;
Sources
of water
supply,
100
;
Measurement of
water,
102
;
Meth- ods
of
applying water,
103
;
The amount of water to
use,
104;
When to
irrigate,
105
;
Over
irrigation,
106
;
Need
for
economy,
106.
Drainage : Removing
excessive
water,
107
;
Removing alkali,
108
;
Benefits of
drainage,
108
;
Kinds of
drainage,
109
;
Installing
the
drains,
110.
Dry-farming:
Scope
of
dry-farming.
111;
The
ques- tion
of
rainfall.
111
;
Dry-farm soils,
113
;
Dry-farm
crops,
115
;
Tillagemethods,
116.
CHAPTER XI
Plant-food of the
Soil
118-124
What
plants
use
from the
soil,
118
;
Composition
of
soils,
119
;
The
analysis
of
soils,
120
;
Available and
re- serve
plant-food,
121
;
Making
plant-foodavailable,
121
;
Quantity
of
plant-food
removed
by plants,
121
;
Plant-
foods that
are
scarce,
122
;
Exhaustion of the
soil,
123
;
Losses in
plant-food,
123
;
Plant-food in
organic matter,
124
;
Relation of
plant-food
to
value of
a soil,
124.
Contents
CHAPTER XII
PAGES
Manukes and
Fektilizers 125-137
Types
of
fertilizers,
126
;
How to determine fertilizer
needs, 126; Nitrogen
fertilizers,127; Nitrogen fixation,
128
;
Phosphorus fertilizers,
128
;
Potassiam
fertilizers,
129
;
Lime,
129
;
Indirect
fertilizers,
130
;
Home-mixing
of
fertilizers,
130
;
Value of farm
manure,
131
;
Kinds
of farm
manure,
132
;
Losses in
manure,
133
;
Handling
farm
manure,
134
;
How to fertilize different
crops,
136
;
Green
manures,
136.
CHAPTER XIII
OKeANISMS
OF THE
SoiL
.
138-144
Kinds of soil
organisms,
138
;
Bacteria,
139
;
The
number of bacteria in the
soil,
139
;
Kinds of
bacteria,
139
;
How bacteria
grow,
140
;
Relation to humus for- mation,
141
;
Relation to
nitrogen,
141
;
The fixation of
nitrogen,
142
;
Nitrification and
denitrification,
143
;
Bacteria and the
farmer,
144.
CHAPTER XIV
Tillage
and
Crop Rotations
145-153
Improving
soil
structure,
145
j
Controllingweeds,
147
;
Covering manure
and
plant residues,
148
;
Conserving
moisture,
149
; Tillage
of various
crops,
150
;
Reasons
for rotation of
crops,
151
;
Methods of
crop rotation,
152.
,
CHAPTER XV
Special Soil Problems
154-163
Alkali
: Kinds of
alkali,
155
;
Effect of alkali on
plant
growth,
156
;
Reclamation of alkali
lands,
156.
Acidity :
Indicators of
a soil
acidity,
157
;
Correction of soil
acidity,
157.
Erosion : Methods of
preventing erosion,
158.
Blowing :
Prevention of
blowing,
160. Methods
of judging
soils
: Indicator value of native
vegetation,
161
; Topography
of the
land,
161
;
Depth
and
structure
of
the
soil,
162
;
Chemical
analysis,
162
;
Mechanical
analysis,
163; Productivity,
163.
Contents xi
PART III. FIELD CROPS
CHAPTER XVI
PAGES
Wheat 167-190
Relationships,
168
;
Roots,
168
;
The
plant
above
ground,
170
;
The
kernel,
170
;
Varieties,
171
;
Distri- bution
and
adaptation,
173
; Preparation
of
seed-bed,
175;
Seed and
seeding,
175
;
Harvesting,
178
;
Diseases,
179;
Closed
smut, 179;
Loose
smut, 180; Rust, 180;
Insects,
180
;
Weeds,
181
;
Quality
in
wheat,
182
;
Uses
and
value,
183
;
Storage,
184
;
Elevators,
186
;
Markets
ing,
187
; Prices,
188.
CHAPTER XVII
Corn or Maize 191-207
Relationships,
191
;
Roots,
192
;
The
culms,
193
;
The
leaves,
193
;
The
flower,
194
;
The
ear,
194
;
Types,
195
;
Dent
corn,
195
;
Flint
corn,
198
;
Sweet
corn,
196
;
Pop
corn,
196
;
Soft or flour
corn,
197
;
Pod
corn,
197
;
Va- rieties,
197
;
Distribution,
197
;
Factors in
production,
198
;
Adaptation,
198
;
Preparation
of the
seed-bed,
199
;
Seed and
planting,
200
;
Treatment of the
growing crop,
201
; Harvesting,
203
;
Silage,
203
;
Enemies,
204
;
U.ses
and
value,
204
;
Storage
and
marketing,
205.
CHAPTER XVIII
Other Cereals 208-223
Oats:
Origin
and
relationships,
208
;
Description,
209
;
Distribution,
210
;
Varieties,
212
;
Seeding
and cultiva- tion,
212
;_
Harvesting
and
marketing,
212
;
Uses,
213
;
Enemies,
214.
Barley:
Description,
215
;
Distribution
and
adaptation,
216
; Sowing
and
cultivation,216;
Har- vesting
and
marketing,
217
;
Enemies and
uses,
218.
Rye
: Description
and distribution,
219
;
Handling
the
crop,
220
;
Uses,
220. Bice
: Description
and distribu- tion,
221
;
Uses,
221. Enemies:
Description
and
use,
222. Buckwheat:
Description, distribution,
and
uses,
222.
xii Contents
CHAPTER XIX
PAGES
Potatoes
. . . .
: 224-240
Origin,
224
;
Relationships,
225
;
Description,
225
;
Varieties,
227
;
Distribution and
adaptation,
228
;
Prep- aration
of
land,
2.30
;
Seed,
231
;
Cutting
and
planting,
233';
Treatment
during growth,
234
;
Harvesting
and
marketing,
235
; Storage,
235
;
Weeds and
insects,
236
;
Diseases,
236
;
Use and
value,
239.
CHAPTER XX
Root Crops 241-255
Sugar-beets : History,
241
;
Descriptipn,
243
;
Adap- tation
and
distribution,
243
;
Preparation
of the
land,
seed,
and
seeding,245;
Treatment
during growth,
247
;
Diseases,
248
;
Insects,
249
;
Harvesting,marketing,
and
storage,
249
;
Use and
value,
250
;
Manufacture of
sugar,
251.
Mangel-wurzels : Description,
251
;
Use,
252
;
Culture,
252.
Turnips
and
Butahagas
:
Description,
253
;
Culture,
253
;
Value,
254. Carrots
:
Description,
254
;
Culture and
use,
255.
CHAPTER XXI
Alfalfa
256-270
Name and
origin,
256
;
Relationships,
258
;
Roots,
258
;
Stems and
leaves,
259
;
Flowers and
seed,
260
;
Varieties,
261
;
Distribution and
adaptation,
261
;
Prep- aration
of the land and
seeding,
263
;
Treatment
during
growth,
263
;
Harvesting,
264
; Storage,
265
;
Use and
value,
266
; Mixtures,
267
; Enemies,
268
;
Seed
produc- tion,
269.
CHAPTER XXII
The Clovers
and Other Legumes
. . .
"
. .
271-285
Bed clover
:
Description,
272
;
Distribution and
adap- tation,
272
; Culture,
273
;
Use and
value,
273. Other
clovers
: Alsike
clover,
274
:
White
clover,
274
;
Sweet
clover,274;
Crimson
clover,
275. Field Peas :
Descrip-
Contents xm
tion and
adaptation,
275
;
Sowing,
276
;
Culture and
harvestiug,277; Use,
277. Beans:
Description, 278;
Culture,
278
;
Use,
280.
Cowpeas : Description,
280
;
Culture,
282.
Soybeans
:
Description,
282
;
Cul- ture,
283. Miscellaneous
Legumes : Vetch,
284
;
Other
legumes,
284.
CHAPTEE XXIII
Grasses 286-301
Timothy
: Description,
288
;
Adaptation,
289
;
Cul- ture,
289
;
Use and
value,
291
;
Enemies,
292.
Jtedtop
:
Description,
292
;
Adaptation,
292
;
Culture,
293
;
Value
and
use,
293.
Kentucky
Blue-grass
:
Description,
293
;
Adaptation,"
294; Culture, 294;
Use and
value,
294.
Orchard-grass : Description,
295
; Adaptation, 295;
Cul- ture,
295
;
Value and
use,
296. Smooth
Brome-grass
:
Description,
297
; Adaptation,
297
;
Culture,
297
;
Value
and
use,
298
.
Other
grasses
:
Tall meadow
oat-grass,
299
; Bermuda-grass,
299
; Johnson-grass,
300
;
Miscel- laneous
grasses,
301.
CHAPTER XXIV
Pastures, Meadows, and
Soiling Systems
. . .
302-317
Definition,
302
;
Kinds of
pasture,
302
;
A
good pas- ture,
303
; Importance,
303
;
Native
grass,
304
;
Crop
plants,
304
;
Mixtures,
304
;
For different
animals,
307
;
Condition of
pastures,
308
;
Improving pastures,
308
;
Over-stooldng,
309
; Management,
310
;
Meadows,
311.
Soiling: Use,
312
;
Value, 312; Soilingcrops,
316.
CHAPTER XXV
Sorghums
and
Millets
.......
Sorghum : Origin,
318
;
Relationships,
320
;
Descrip- tion,
320
;
Varieties,
322
;
Distribution and
adaptation,
323
;
Preparation
of seed-bed and
seeding,
325
;
Treat- ment
during growth,
325
;
Harvesting,
326
;
Use,
327
;
Enemies, 328; Storage
and
marketing,
328. Sudan-
grass
: Description,
329
;
Culture,
329. Millets :
Eela^
tionship
and
description,
330
;
Culture and
value,
330
;
Other
types,
331.
318-332
XIV
Contents
PAGES
333-352
CHAPTER XXVI
Fibers and
Misoellaneoos
Crops
.....
" Fibers :
Cotton.
History,
333
;
Relationships,
334
;
Description,
835
;
Adaptation,
335
;
Culture,
336
;
Har- vesting
and
marketing,
337
;
Use,
337. Flax: Descrip- tion,
338
;
Adaptation,
338
;
Culture,
338
;
Use and
value,
340. Other
fibers: Hemp,
340
;
Miscellaneous
fibers,
341. Miscellaneous
crops: Cabbage
and kohl- rabi,
342
;
Rape,
843
;
Kale,
343
;
Enemies,
343. To- bacco
: Distribution,
345
;
Culture,
345
;
Curing
and
marketing,
345
;
Sugar-cane,
346
;
Sweet
potatoes,
347
;
Fruits,
349
;
Truck
crops,
349
;
Timber
crop,
351
;
Other
crops,
351.
CHAPTER XXVII
Improvement op
Crop
.......
What is
improvement
? 354
;
Ideal
sought,
356
;
Cul- tivation,
357
;
Seed-testing,
357
;
Reproduction,
359
;
Variation,
359
;
Natural
selection,
360
;
Artificial selec- tion,
360
;
The best
plants
should be
chosen,
361
;
Va- riety
tests,
362
;
Steps
in
breeding,
362
;
Crossing,
362
;
Mendel's
law,
363
;
Importance
of
large numbers,
364
;
"
Better
seed,
364.
CHAPTER XXVIII
Weeds 366-378
Definition,
366
;
Classification,
367
;
Occurrence,
368
;
Dissemination,
364
;
Losses from
weeds,
370
;
Preven- tion,
372
;
Eradication,
373
;
General
principles,
375
;
Herbicides,
376
;
Summary,
377.
353-365
PART IV. FIELD MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER XXIX
Planning the
Farm 381-386
Plan should be
stable,
381
;
Number of
enterprises,
383
;
The
farmstead,
383
;
Arrangement
and number of
fields,
384
;
Size and
shape
of
fields,
384
;
Fences and
ditches,
385
;
Use of waste
places,
386.
Contents
xv
CHAPTER XXX
PAGES
What Chops
to Grow
387-391
Crop adaptation,
387
; Diversity
of
crops,
388
;
Crop
specialties,
389
;
Conditions for various
crops,
391
;
Work in
producing
various
crops,
391.
CHAPTER XXXI
Equipment of the
Farm
.......
392-399
The farmer as a mechanic,
392
;
Extremes in farm
equipment,
393
;
Machines that
get
out of
date,
394
;
Machines that are seldom
used,
395
;
Size of
machinery,
395
;
The
duty
of
machinery,
395
; Depreciation,
396
;
Caring
for
machinery,
397
;
Suitable farm
buildings,
398.
CHAPTER XXXII
Factors of Success in
Crop Production
. . .
400-406
Size of
farm,
300
;
Capital,
401
;
Proper type
of farm- ing,
402
;
Good
management,
402
;
Keeping records,
403
;
Profits to a farmer
vs. yields
to the
acre,
403
;
Profits from man and horse
labor,
404
;
Understanding
each
crop,
404
;
Markets,
404.
APPENDICES
....
407-430
Appendix A. Addresses of
Agricultural Colleges
and Ex- periment
Stations and of the United States
Department
of
Agriculture . . .
408
Appendix B.
Laboratory
Guides 411
Appendix C.
Fertility
in Farm Produce
....
412
Appendix D. Composition, Amount,
and Value of Manure
Produced
by
Different Kinds of Farm
Animals
. . . . . . .
413
Appendix
E.
Weights
and Measures 414
Appendix F. Quantity
of Seed Planted to the Acre
. .
416
Appendix G.
Most Common
Weights
of Seeds to the
Bushel 417
XVI
Contents
PAGE
Appendix H.
Measuring
Rules
418
Appendix I. Rules for
Measuring Hay
in the Stack
. .
419
Appendix J. Wheat Harvest Calendar
....
420
Appendix K. Prices of Wheat
on a Chicago
Market
(1863-
1910)
421
Appendix L. Crop Statistics for Continental United States 423
Appendix M.
Plowing as
affected
by Shape
of the l?ield
.
424
Appendix N.
Average Depreciation a
Year and Cost to
the Acre for Farm
Machinery
. . .
425
Appendix O. Glossary 426
THE PRINCIPLES OF AGRONOMY
2
'
The
Principlesof Agronomy
may
understand the methods
by
which
hay
is digested
in the stomach of
a
cow,
and how milk is secreted
;
he
may
be familiar with the
composition
of milk and the
processes
it
undergoes
in the
manufacture
of butter
or
cheese;
and stillhe
may
not
know how
even
to
milk
a
cow.
He has
training
in the
underlying
scientific
prin- ciples
of
agriculture,
but not
in the art
or
handicraft.
Agriculture
is
a business,
since it is
practicedprimarily
as a means
of
securinga living.
Usuallya
farmer is not
interested in the art
and science of
agricultureexcept
as
they
contribute to his
making a
better livelihood. Science
helps
him to understand
why
he does certain
things,
and
gives
him
a
foundation for his
practices
;
he
acquires
skill
in the
practices
in order to increase
production
and,
through it,to extend his income.
2.
Agriculture
and the sciences. " The assertion is
sometimes made that if
a
person
were
familiar with all
the
sciences,
he would not need
to
study agriculture.
This is
probably true,
but
no one
person
is able to master
all the sciences
;
even
if he
were
able
to
do
so,
he would
need to learn
some
of the
applications
of science to the
land before
finishing
his studies of
pure
science.
The real
condition,however,
is that those who have
most to do with the land have littletime for extensive
study
of
science,
although they
desire
a
brief
knowledge
of
some
of the
principles underlying
the
industry
in which
they are
engaged.
This
justifies
the
teaching
of
agri- culture
even to those who have had little
training
in the
so-called
pure
sciences. The better
one understands
the
natural and social
sciences,however,
the
better
will
one
be able
to
comprehend
the
principles
and
problems of
agriculture.
3.
Agriculture and the industries.
"
Agricultureis
at
the
very
foundation of all industries.
Manufacturing,
Introductory
3
mining,
and
commerce are dependent on
the
products
of
the soil for their existence
;
indeed,
the
very
life of
man
himself would be
impossible
if the soil did not
directly
or
indirectlyyield
him food. The advance of civiliza- tion
and the
development
of industrial
enterprisesare
limited
by
the
agricultural
conditions of the world.
Agri- culture,
instead of
being a problem merely
for those
en- gaged
directly
in its
practice,
is
a
world
problem affecting
all the activities of
man.
It is
evident, therefore,
that
it merits serious consideration.
The
farm,
in addition to
being a place
where
a
great
industry
is
conducted,
is
a
home for those
engaged
in
this
industry.
It
should, therefore,
be considered not
entirely
from the
point
of view of economic
efficiency,
but of social
efficiencyalso,as
the home of that
part
of the
coming generation
which will
probably
have
most to do with the future welfare of the nation.
Agri- culture,
as a
consequence,
has social and educational
aspects
quite as important as
its scientificand economic
phases.
4.
Opportunities
in
agricultureare
varied. " The most
important opportunitiesare
those connected with the
work
on
the land in its various
phases.
Never in
history
has the land called with
a
louder voice than at
present,
for
young
men
of
intelligence, industry,
and
training.
There
are opportunities on
every
hand for him who knows
how to use
the forces of
nature,
and who
can secure joy
and satisfaction in
being a
direct
producer.
Other
phases
of
agriculture,
such
as teaching
it in the
schools, engaging
in demonstration and
experimental
work for the states
and the
government,
and
working as
an expert
adviser for
corporations, are assuming greater
importance
every year,
and offer
good opportunities
to
young
men
of
ability
and
training.
4 The
Principks of Agronomy
5. Division of
agriculture.
"
Agriculture
may
be
sub- divided
in
many ways.
It
may
be classed
as
intensive
or extensive, specialized or
diversified,exploitive
or
restorative,tropicalor temperate ;
or
it
may
be divided
according
to
the
source
of income. For instructional
purposes
in
agricultural
colleges,
it has often been divided
into three main
parts
:
agronomy,
animal
husbandry,
and horticulture.
The
subject
of
agronomy
has
usually
included
a study
of
soils,
field
crops,
and farm
management.
Under animal
husbandry,
the various
phases
of the live-stock indus- try,
including dairying,
have been studied. The
study
of horticulture has included the
production
of
fruits,
vegetables,
and flowers.
In addition to
these three
applied divisions,
there
are
also
a
number of scientific
divisions,
such
as entomology,
chemistry,
and
plant
and animal
pathology.
Each of
these bears
a
relation to all three of the
applied
divisions.
It is
difficult, therefore,to find
a
subdivision
pf
agriculture
that is
logical
and at the
"ame
time
entirelypractical,
since the different branches
are so closely
interrelated.
6. Phases of
agronomy.
" The
present
volume deals
with that
phase
of
agriculture
sometimes called
agronomy.
The
meaning
of this word is not
widely
known outside
of the
schools,
and
even
there it is used somewhat
loosely.
It
comes
from
two Greek words
meaning
"
the
use
of
fields." At
present,
it is
usually
understood
to
mean
the
management
of the land in the
production
of field
crops.
It is sometimes divided into three distinct
phases
: soils,
crops,
and farm
management.
The term
"
agronomy
"
may
be
applied to
any
one
of these branches.
7.
Scope
of this book. " To
give
the
beginner in
agriculturalstudy a general
idea of the
principles
of
suc- cessful
production
of
crops,
and to furnish him
a basis
for
Introductory 5
study
in the other branches of
agriculture,
is the
object
of the
present
volume.
Part I discusses the
principles
of
plant growth,
and
will be of service
to
students who later take
up
horticulture
as
well
as
to those
studying
agronomy.
In Part II,
a
study
is made of the soil and its
management.
This
part
is likewise fundamental
to
horticulture
as
well
as
to
agronomy.
Part III is devoted
entirely to
the
study
of
field
crops ;
and in Part IV, numbers of
problems relating
to
field
management are
discussed. Some of these also
apply to
other
phases
of
agriculture.
PART I
THE PLANT
10
The
Principlesof Agronomy
8. Factors of
plant growth.
" In
general,
there
are
six factors which must
be favorable in order for
plants
to
make the best
growth.
These
are : (1) a home, or place
in which to find
lodging
and
support,
(2) water, (3) heat,
(4) light,(5)
oxygen,
and
(6) plant-food.
The
general
environment
determines, the character of the
vegetation
(Figs.1-3).
Fine soil is the medium of
growth
for
agricultural
plants,though some species
flourish in water
or on
rock.
The
quantity
of available water
determines the kind of
plant
that
may grow
in
a given spot
and the
degree
of
development
it
may
attain. A
proper
degree
of warmth
is essential to
germination
and to
growth.
Most
plants
requiresunlight,though a
few do better in the shade. All
living
cells must have
oxygen
in order to
carry
on
their
functions. Lack of air in over-wet soilskills
some plants.
Certain soils lack mineral
plant-food
in
a
soluble condi- tion
and, therefore,
produce
poor
yields
if
not
fertilized.
Carbon
dioxide, a
gaseous
plant-food,comes
from the
air.
Of these six
factors,man can
control but two : (1)
the
water
supply
of
soils,
and
(2)
the
plant-food
available.
As
regardsa given
spot,
man can
do littlethat will influ- ence
heat,
light,
oxygen,
and
depth or
texture of soil.
His method of control in
respect
to these
depends on
his
power
to
change
his
place
of abode
and, by so doing,
to
select
a
district
having
desirable climate and soil.
Length
of
season
and
daily
temperature, together
with the kind
of
soil,
determine the
degree
of warmth. Clear
or cloudy
weather
regulates
the sunshine and
light.
Rainfall and
winds
supplemented by irrigation, drainage,
and
tillage
are
the factors
controlling
the water
supply.
The
fineness,
depth,
uniformity,
and
fertility
of the soil
measure
both
the
plant-food
and the
opportunity
for
root
development.
"
The Plant and its
Environment
11
12 The
Principlesof Agronomy
Cropping systems
aid
materially
in
causing plants
to
respond properly,
while the
plant
is the
subject
on
which
these forces interact.
Insects, rodents, weeds,
and
plant
diseases
are pests
to be reckoned with in
crop
production. They are
nuisances,
and
as
such
are
counted
negative
or hindering
factors.
9.
Length
of
season.
" Of the factors
controlling
the
distribution of
crops
in the United
States,length
of
season
is
one
of the most
powerful.
Between the Gulf of Mexico
and Canada
are
several well-marked belts of
production.
Of
course,
no single
factor alone accounts
for this. Al- though
moisture, soil,
and
daily
range
of
temperature
count for
much, they
cannot overcome
the
injurious
effect of
a
short
growing-season
that
causes
crops
from
the South to
fail when moved into the North. That
wheat,
oats,
and
barley
have shorter
periods
of
growth
than
potatoes
and
corn
is well known. Cotton
requires
seven or eight
months without
a frost,
while
barleyor
rye
can
get
on
with
a- season having only
two or
four months
between frosts.
Oranges
and bananas
are
not
grown
save
in
semi-tropical
climates where the
growing-season
lasts almost the whole
year.
Coconuts
are produced
only
in
tropicalregions
;
corn
extends
over a
rather broad
area,
from the
tropics
well into the
temperate
zones.
This
power
of
adaptabilitycomes largely
from the
power
of
corn
to
adjust
itself
to shorter
growing-seasons.By
the selection of
early-maturingplants,
corn-growing
has
gradually
extended well
up
toward the Canadian bound- ary.
All
crops
have
some
power
of
changing
the time
of
growth
to suit the
seasons
of
a new
district into which
they are
carried. A
crop
that thrives under certain condi- tions
will
usually
grow
under others less favorable.
Cot- ton
and
cowpeas
are confined almost
entirely
to the
sec-
The Plant and its'
Enmonment 13
tion of the United States south of the
thirty-seventh degree
of latitude.
Timothy
and red clover
are widely
grown
north of this
parallel,
but not
in the South. Potatoes
are
grown
in
every
state,
but
profitablepotato-growing
is limited to the states in the North
;
corn
does best in
the central
part.
The
question
of seasonal
adaptability
is
one
of
profitableproduction
rather than of successful
growth. Although corn
grows
well north and south of
the
"
corn belt,"
other
crops pay
better at the extremes
and
they replace
it. In the intermediate
regions,corn
is the most
profitable
crop
to
grow.
It is not
so
much
that
one
crop
does not
pay,
as
that another
pays
better.
Economical
problems
enter
into
agriculture
and disturb
our
survey
of
crop response.
An examination of the
areas
in which
a
crop
is
grown
extensively
will show the
general
boundaries of climate and soilthat
cause one
crop
to
supplant
another.
Abbe^ estimates that variations in climate
over areas
of
100
square
miles have
never
caused
more
than
a
50
per
cent fluctuation in
crop
yields,
and not over
5
per
cent
for the whole United States.
Though
in
moving a
crop
from
one
section to another
length
of
season
counts
for
much,
very
little
can
be attributed to
it in
a given sec- tion.
This is
largely
due to the
tendency
of
a
climate
to
vary
little when
long periods are
considered. Oc- casionally,
however,
abnormal
seasons occur
and
crops
that have done well
are
killed
by untimely
frosts.
Tender
plants,
if not killed,are nipped
and retarded in
growth.
10. Frost.
"
Many
succulent
plants,
such
as corn
and
melons, are
frost-bitten when the
temperature drop
is but
slightly
below
freezing.
Hardy
crops
like
rye,
barley,
and wheat
are
not
readilyinjuredeven by
rather
sharp
1
Weather Bureau Bui.
36,
p.
364.
14 The
Principlesof Agronomy
frosts. Alfalfa and
potatoes
droop
after
a slight
frost,
but
grass
and wheat
show
no sign
of
injury. Many
orehardists,maintaining
that it is not the frost but sudden
thawing
that kills fruit
buds,
choose land that
slopes
away
from the
morning sun
in order to avoid immediate
thawing
;
but this is
probably an error. Large
bodies of
water
hold latent heat
;
breezes
prevent
cold air from set- tling
in
one
spot ;
largerunning
streams
seem
to
carry
away
the cold air. At
any
rate,
frosts
are
less
likely
to
occur
in sections with
good
air
drainage.
When stems or
buds
freeze,water is drawn out of the
cells into the
spaces
between and there frozen. Some- times
a
sudden
drop
in
temperature
will freeze the whole
plant justas
it is. Death from
freezing
is the result of
the withdrawal of water from the
plasma
membrane to
form ice
crystals.
When
extremely
severe,
frosts
may
rupture
the
bark,
exposing
wood. Frozen
plants
have
a
wilted
or blighted
appearance
as
if
injuredby
excessive
drouth
or
heat. A
day or so
after
a frost,
the
injured
leaves look
as
though they
had been scorched
by a
fire
that
was too close.
Records of
a
district for
a
number of
years
show about
how late in the
spring
and how
early
in autumn frosts
may
be
expected.
These will
vary some,
but, as already
pointed out,
not
so widely as
to
prevent
a new
settler
from
anticipating
what
crops
will
mature; provided,
of
course,
that he knows how
long
the
crop
requires
and how
hardy
it is. General farm
practice
in the
locality
will
gradually readjust
itself to meet climatic
demands. Farmers in
established districts do not
go
far
wrong
in
regard
to time of
planting
and choice of
crops.
11.
Temperature.
" After
length
of
season,
daily
range
of
temperature
is the chief consideration
affecting
The Plant and its Environment
15
16
The
Principlesof Agronomy
heat
supply.
Days are practically
as warm
in the Great
Lakes
region
or
in the Great Basin
as they are
at New
Orleans,
but
only
for
a
few hours.
Mornings, evenings,
and
nightsare
much
cooler,
whereas
in the South
nights
as
well
as days keep warm. Many plantsare
sensitive to
a lowering
of
temperature
even though
it remains several
degrees
above
freezing.
On this
account,
daily
fluctua- tions
are
of considerable
importance.
Some evidence
seems
to indicate that total heat found
by multiplying
the
temperature
by
the
length
of the
season
determines the
growth
of
some plants. Duggar
^
cites
one case
in which
yields
of date
palms
increased with the
total heat. Fall and
spring
wheat
seem
to
use
about
the
same quantity
of heat for
ripening. Spring grain
has
a
shorter but
warmer growing period.
As elevation
increases,
temperature
decreases.
Going
from low
to
higher
land is
nearly equivalent
to
moving
northward
or
southward from the
equator.
High moun- tains
in the
tropics
show all
gradations
of
vegetation
found in
passing
from
tropical
to arctic
regions. Many
peaks near
the
equator
are
covered with
perpetual snow.
Aside from the
temperature change produced,
in- creased
elevations
seem
to have little influence
on
plant growth
if soil and moisture relations
are equally
favorable.
12. Water. "
Every
person
at all familiar with
plants
has noticed the effect of abundant
moisture
on
them.
How
green
the foothills
are
in
earlyspring,
and how brown
they
become in
summer
after
extended
periods
of drouth.
When lawns
begin
to lose their uniform
green
color,they
need
water. A hose is essential
to
a good
lawn almost
everywhere. House-plants must be
watered
frequently;
greenhouse plants are usually sprinkled
in order to
keep
^
Duggar, Plant
Physiology,
p.
406.
18
The
Principlesof Agronomy
unending struggleagainstevaporation,
and heavier rain- fall
is
a
theme of constant
prayer.
Not all the effects of low
rainfall
are
harmful. Irri- gation
enables the
farmer to
apply
water to one
crop
and
withhold it from
another, therebyhastening
maturity or
controlling
the size and
quality
of the harvest.
Wheat
long
accustomed to dry,
hot weather loses
part
of its
hardness when
grown
in moist climates. Excessive water
injures
the
cooking quality
of
potatoes,
and
causes
many
other
crops
to be too
succulent.
Lands wet in late
spring
do not warm
up
suflBciently
to
permit sowing
to
early
crops.
Drying
the soil cools
it because of the heat used in
evaporation. Conversely,
soils that
are dry
and
bare, especiallysandy
ones,
heat
to abnormal
temperatures
which
are
harmful
to ordinary
plants.
In
addition,then, to
influencing plants directly,
water affectsthem
by changing
the
temperature
and
length
of the
growing-season.
13.
Sunlight.
"
Nearly
every
lawn with
trees on
it
has weak sod and
pale
green grass
in the
shady
spots.
This is
most marked under trees with dense
foliage,
such
as low-growing
evergreens.
Lack of
sunlightcauses
this
injury.
Plants
vary
as
to their
sunlight requirements,
however, as they
do in
regard
to heat and moisture. The
best
quality
of
celery
and
lettuce,
and the finest tobacco
leaves
grow
in half-shade.
Orchard-grass
is named from
itsfondness for
shady
spots.
Rhubarb stems
can
be made
long
and
tender,
and
asparagus
stems
white,by
"
blanch- ing
"
with boards
or
earth. Forest
trees do
not have low
branches
because lack of
light
kills the shaded limbs.
The
height,
branching,
and
coarseness
in flax and other
crops
are
controlled
by
thickness of
planting.
Crops
that
store
great quantities
of starch
or
sugar,
such
as
sugar-beets
and
potatoes, are
benefited
by
clear
The Plant and its Environment 19
weather.
Sunlight
is essential to starch and
sugar pro- duction.
Therefore,
in
very
rainy regions
where the
sky
is
overcast with clouds much of the
time, sugar-beets,
at
least,
do
not thrive
so
well
as they
do in sunnier sections.
14. Wind. "
One
reason why large
trees must have
strong
trunks isthat
heavy
winds exert
enormous
pressure
on leafy
tree-tops.
Weak
plants
and
even gigantic
forest
trees are
broken down
or
uprooted
in tornadoes. Vines
and
clingingplants
lie close to the
ground or
cling
to the
branches of
trees,
or to walls. This
prevents
air currents
from
getting
under
or
behind them.
Sometimes
strong
wind shifts the surface soil
so badly
that roots of
young
plantsare
uncovered. Tender
leaves,
stems,
or
flowers
may
be
raspedby
the wind-borne sand
grains.
Plants with
tough coverings,
such
as
cacti and
some
grasses,
suffer less. The formation of sod
greatly
aids the farmer in
preventing
this
injury
and in
reducing
that caused
by
contact with blown soil
particles.
Where
hot,dry
winds blow for several
days continuously,
evapora- tion
and
transpirationare
increased to such
an extent
that
plants are
"
burned
"
from sudden
drying. Crops
subjected
to such winds
present
a dry,
blasted
appear- ance
not
far different from frost
or
fire
injury.
Winds
are
temperature regulators,
for
they
mix the
air,preventing
cold
or warm
air from
remaining
in
one
place
long enough
to
do
injury.
15. Soil.
"
Crops
do not thrive in
hard, dry
soils
impervious
to
water,
air,
and roots. Soils
may
be loose
enough
to blow readih',or stickyenough
to
"
bake," or
puddle,
when wet.
Soils that
are
shallow
or
underlaid
with
gravel
are likely
to
dry
out
easily,thereby
diminish- ing
the
supply
of available moisture. The
principal
soil factors that influence
plants
are fertility, depth,
uni- formity,
and water-holding
power.
Sometimes
a plant
20 The
Principlesof Agronomy
cannot
get
enough
mineral food to
enable it to
grow;
abnormal
arrange- ment
or
size of soil
particles
may pre- vent
proper
root
development.
As
alreadypointedout,
^
moderate moisture
^
in the soil is
more
^ favorable than
ex-
"^
treme wetness
or
"
dryness. Decayed
" leaves,stubble,
and
'^
manure render soils
V
capable
of
holding
"S
more
water,
thus
"
insuring a
steady,
"
reliable
supply.
To
S
create these desir-
1
able conditions and
"
to control
weeds,
2
insects,
and
plant
diseases
are
the
chief virtues of
cultivation and
manuring.
16.
Pests."
Great
numbers of
weeds hinder
growth
by
shading, by
steal- ing
moisture
and
plant-food,and
by
The Plant and its Environment 21
usurpingroom
both in the
ground
and above it. Insects
that
eat leaves,flowers,
roots,
and stems
of the
growing
plant or
that
suck
sap
not
only
retard
development,
but
in
some cases
kill the
crop
entirely.
Plant diseases which
do likewise
usually
feed
upon
the
sap
preventing
proper
nourishment. Smut of wheat
or
oats
injures
the
quality
of the
grain or
prevents
its
maturity.
Potato diseases
hinder the
crop
almost
more
than
any
other
single
factor.
Control of these
pests
is at
some
time
a problem
in
every
locality.
In
Texas,
for
example,
the cotton boll-weevil
is
driving
cotton
from
some
lands and
compelling
better
culture methods
everywhere. Fire-blight
of
pears
has
almost ruined the
pear
industry
in much of the West.
Attention to these
negative
factors
may
be
as important
as
to the
positive
ones,
for the farmer loses all the labor
put
on a
crop
which he
cannot
harvest.
17.
Adapted
crops.
"
Only
those
crops
that mature in
the
growing-season
of
any
section
are
grown
there
to
advan- tage.
Some varieties will
prove
more thrifty
than others.
Grimm alfalfa thrives much farther north than
ordinary
varieties
;
alsike clover resists much wetter soils than red
clover
;
and
Turkey
red wheat is
adapted
to
dry
climates.
Finally,a variety
of
any
plantlong
cultivated in
a partic- ular
section
develops
resistance to frost,
water,
heat, or
drouth. Desirable strains
may
be started from
single
plants
that have resisted
some hardshipmore success- fully
than other
plants.
This is
only a
part
of the
con- stant
attempt
of
plants
to
adjust
themselves to their
surroundings.
Environment has modified the
plant
and
will continue to do
so. Meantime,
it
gradually
becomes
better and better
adapted
to the section. This is the
chief
argument
for
home-grown
seed.
By
this
means,
man
lends
a helping
hand to
the
plant struggling
to fit
itselffor its
surrounding.
22
The
Principles of Agronomy
SUPPLEMENTARY
READING
Any
textbook of
botany.
Plant
Physiology,
B. M.
Duggar,
pp.
1-14, 400-436,
and 494-507.
(Ecology
of
Plants,
E.
Warming.
Plant
Geography,
A. F. W.
Schimper.
Plant
Physiology
and
Ecology,
F. E. Clements.
Relation Between Climates and
Crops,
Cleveland
Abbe,
Weather
Bureau Bulletin No. 36.
CHAPTER III
PLANT STRUCTURE
Just
as a
locomotive
engineer
needs to know the
parts
and
arrangement
of his
engine to keep
it
working smoothly,
so
the farmer
must understand the mechanism and func- tion
of
plants
in order to
remove
obstacles in the
way
of
their best
development.
Plant
structure determines
in
a large measure plant functions,
and economic
produc- tion
depends on
the unobstructed
activity
of life
processes.
Therefore,
a
clear
understanding
of the kind and loca- tion
of
activity
that
goes
on
within the
plant
will enable
the farmer
to handle his
crop
more satisfactorily.
This
is
particularly
true
under abnormal conditions such
as
plant
diseases,
the
nature
and location of which must be
understood for effective control.
18. Cells
(Fig. 4)
.
" Roots,
stems,
leaves, bark,
and
flowers
are so
readily distinguished
that
everybody
knows
about them.
Rings
in
wood,
rind of
melons, bran of
wheat,
and
pith
of
corn are
likewise
matters
of
common
observation. Neither
pores
in the skin of animals
nor
openings
in the leaves of
plants
can
be
seen
with the
un- aided
eye,
yet
every
wide-awake
schoolboy
knows of them.
Under the
microscope,
not only
the stomata of the
leaves
can
be
seen,
but
a
vast number of minute
parts
which
seem
to
be
more or
less
independent
of
one
another
in that
they are separated by
walls of
compact
substance.
In the outer
bark of
trees, nothing
remains but the walls
23
24
The Principles
of Agronomy
which
seem
to
be built
of
a
vast
number
of small,
box-like
structures.
When cut
across,
they
resemble to some
extent
the
cells of
a
honey-comb.
Because
of this
resem- blance,
the
name
cell
was
chosen.
Originally,
"cell"
was
used to
designate
only
the
inclosed
space
within the
box-like
walls.
Examination
of
livingplants
showed
that neither
the
open- ing
nor
the
wall
was
so important
in the
make-up
of the
plant
as
the
mass
of
living
substance occupying
the inclosure.
It
was
found that
this liv- ing
substance
instead
of
being
uniform
was
composed
of several
parts
differing chiefly
in
compactness.
Moreover,
it
was
dis- covered
that
each cell
took in food and
oxy- gen
independently
of
other cells
;
that
one
Fig. 4.
" Plant cell
showing cell-wall, cell
might
live
or
die
DuggiT'
'""'''"''
^'"^''^'""''''
^'^"''*
without
materially
affecting
others
;
that
growth
consisted in
an
increase of the size and nimiber
of individual
cells;
and that when,
work is
done,
the
cellsdo it.
Since the cell is the
primary
consideration in the life
processes
of the
plant,
the substance
composing
it
was
named
protoplasm
from
proto,
meaning
the
first,and
26
The
Principlesof Agronomy
20.
Kind of
plant.
"
Only higher plants
have well-
developed
tissues. The structure
in
one
class of
plants,
the
bacteria,
consists of
one
cell
or
at most a
few which
are
not
grouped
into tissues. Each cell
performs
all func- tions
for itself. As the scale of
plant
life
ascends,
cells
group
themselves into
more
and
more complex
tissues
until in seed
plants
each tissue
or
organ
is
highlyspecialized
and
performsonly one
function.
Plants alike in all essential
pointsare
said
to
belong
to
the
same species
;
closely
related
speciesbelong
in the
same
genus.
Genera
(plural
of
genus)
that resemble
each other
comprise a family.
Families in turn form
orders,
and
these,
sub-classes
or
classes. A final
group- ing
of classes
gives
rise to four
great
groups
which make
up
the
plantkingdom. Among
the seed
plants
known
as
spermatophytes,
all the
crop
plants
occur. Thallophytes,
bryophytes,
and
pteridophytes
which
are
representedby
seaweeds,
mosses,
and
ferns,respectively,are
the other
great
groups.
Beginning
with
thallophytes
and
ending
with
spermatophytes,
these
plants
show
a
gradually
increasingcomplexity.
There is
no
exact
place
where
a
speciesor
genus,
or even a
group,
ends with absolute
cer- tainty.
It is hard
to tell whether certain
organisms
belong
to the
plantor
to the animal
kingdom.
Though even
botantists sometimes
disagree
in
regard
to the
species
to which
some plants belong,
these classes
are sufficiently
definite and the
names are
sufficiently
well
chosen
to enable students of
plants
to
identify
them rather
accurately by
the
names
of the
genus
and
the
species.
These Latin
names are
necessary
because the
same
plant
is
popularly
known
by
different
names
in
different
coun- tries,
and
even
in different
parts
of the
same
country.
21.
Crop plants.
" Plants in the
same
group
or
species
are
much like each other. The tissues of
all seed
plants
Plant Structure
27
(spermatophytes)
resemble each other
enough
to be de- scribed
as a
group.
In method of
growth,
there
are two
kinds,
monocotyledonous
and
dicotyledonous.
Grasses
are
monocotyledonous,
that
is,they
have undivided seeds.
They
grow
largelyby
increase in size of cells
;
dicotyledon- ous
plants
have
split
seeds and
grow
by laying
down
rings
of
new tissue.
Practically
all
crops,
save only
the
grasses
and
grains,
grow
by adding
tissue in
rings. Though
dif- fering
in
growth
habits and in
appear- ance,
they
do work
by
similar
means.
22. Plant
parts.
"
Crop plants
have
roots, stems, leaves,flowers,
seeds,
and buds which
are simply
leaves
or
flowers in
protectivecover- ings.
The roots anchor the
plant
in the soil and take
up
water
and
mineral
plant-food
in solution. Stems
hold the leaves and flower
up
into
the
sunlight,transport
to
the leaves
the water and mineral
salts,
and
carry,
elaborated food from the leaves
to the
roots. Some
plantsuse
them
as a place
in which to store food.
This elaborated
plant-food
is
manu- factured
by
the leaves in the
pres- ence
of
sunlight,
when
moisture,
carbon
dioxide,
and mineral salts
are
available. The flowers
are
fore- runners
of the seed
by
which the
plant
transmits life and
reproduces
its kind. Each
crop
plant
is
composed
of
a
number of
tissues which enable it to
perform
its functions.
23. The root
(Figs.5-7).
" A careful examination
with
a microscope
of
a longitudinal
section of
a living
Fig. 5.
"
Root-hairs
on
radish.
(After
Duggar.)
28
The
Principlesof Agronomy
root
shows the
growing
section to
be
a
short distance
behind the
tip.
The
very
tip
is the
root-cap
composed
of
a
group
of firm cells which
push
aside the soil
particles
as
the root
lengthens.
The tender
growing
cells could
not
make their
way
through
the hard,
compact
soil.
Just behind the
growing
area
and still
on
the thread- like
rootlets are
the
root-hairs. These
are extremely
Fig. 6. " Root-hair in the soil.
small
projections
that radiate outward from the root to
take in water and dissolved
plant-food.
The root-hairs
are
cells
extending
out from the small roots into the soil.
They
contain within
a
thin
cell-wall,plasma
membrane,
cytoplasm, nucleus, plastids,
and vacuoles. A
concen- trated
solution of
numerous
salts known
as cell-sap
fills
the vaculoes.
Considerable
adjustability as
to
shape permits
root-
hairs
to force themselves into close contact with soil
particles
and to fitinto
every space
and around
every
angle.
Plant Structure
29
Wherever
contact with
a
solid
body
is
made, a mucilag- inous
substance
develops on
the outside of the cell-wall
causing
itto
clingtightly. Very
close
contact between the
root-hairs
and soil
particles
makes
possiblea rapid
ab- sorption
of film moisture and
plant-food.
Root-hairs
may
be half
an
inch
long,though they are
usually
much less.
They are short-lived,old
ones dying
Fig. 7. "
Root-tip
of
corn. (AfterCurtis.)
and
new ones
formingcontinually.
As the root
gets
older,
root-hairs
cease
to form and the
epidermis
takes
on a
nearly water-proof
coat. Beneath this
protective epi- dermis,
various tissues form in
layers.
One of
these,
the
xylem,
takes
up
water and carries it toward the stem in
small tubes known
as
tracheal tubes
or
in
elongated
cells
known
as
tracheids. Between this
water-transporting
tissue and the
epidermis
lies the
endodermis, a layer
of
cells rich in
starch,
and the
cortex,
a layer
of
corky
cells.
30
The
Principlesof Agronomy
Water
passes
between these cells
reaching
the
xylem,
which
lies
partly
inside and
partly
outside of the
phloem
in
roots,
though
in
stems
the
phloem
is
always
outside. This
alternatingarrangement
permits
water to enter
the tra- cheal
tubes without
passing
through
the
phloem,
which
carries the
true
sap
downward from the leaves.
Water,
after
ascending
the
roots,
passes
into the
stem,
still
going
upward
in the tubes of the
xylem.
All the roots
and root-branches of
a plant
form
a
root-
system.
If the central root
grows
faster than the
others,
subordinating
the side
roots,
the
plant
has
a
tap
root-
system,
of which
alfalfa,
carrots,
and red-root
pigweeds
are examples.
In other
plants,
the side roots
keep
pace
with, or
outgrow
the central roots
giving
rise to
a
fibrous
root-system,
such
as
those of
grasses
and cereals.
24. The stem
(Figs.
8-9).
" The
xylem
of the
stem,
into which water
passes
from the
root,
connects
with
the
xylem
of roots
affordinga
somewhat continuous
passage
to the leaves. The tracheal
tubes,
by means
of
which this transfer from roots to leaves is
effected,are
minute tubes with thickened walls. In formation the
end walls of cells
directly
above each other
gradually
dissolve out
leaving a
continuous
opening
sometimes
an
inch
or more
in
length.
The walls
are
thickened
spirallyor
have
pits
in
woody
walls. This
thickening
strengthens
the
stem,
while the thin
placespermit a more
ready
passage
of
liquid
into and
out of the tubes. At
the
end, one
tube does
not connect
directly
with the
next,
but is
slightly
to
one
side
making a
lateral
movement
of
water
necessary.
In this
way,
a
straight
liftis avoided.
Examination of
a
xylem
cross-section under
a
micro- scope
shows the
enlarged
tracheal
openings
arranged
in
a
row
alternating
with
a row
of
more fine-grainedwood tissue
which
supports
the weaker tube
area. These wood
cells
Plant Structure 31
CAoas
seer/o/f
r*ind
(cr*eDftex}
Fig.
LONC/T
UDI NAl.
CCCT/OM
8. " Section of oak branch
showing longitudinal
and cross-section
tissues.
(After
Osterhout.)
32 The
Principlesof Agronomy
die
leaving only heavy
cell-walls.
Just at
the outer
edge
of the
xylem
is
a layer
of thin- walled cells that
grow
and
divide
leavingnew
tubes and
new
wood fiber
on
the
inner,
or xylem
side;
while
on
the outer
side it
lays
down
a
smaller
quantity
of less
compact
tissue known
as
the
phloem.
Xylem, phloem,
and the
growing layer,cambium,
form
what is known
as
the fibro-vascular bundles of the
plant.
These
are
small at
first,
but if the
plant
is
perennial
and
completes
a ring
of
new growth
each
year,
they
increase
in size until
they
form
a
series of
wedge-shaped
bundles
radiating
from the central
pith. Medullary
rays pass
radially
between these bundles
dividing
them from each
other.
Along
these
medullary
rays,
food, air,
and water
move
to
deeper
tissues. When bark is
stripped
from
a
willow,
for
example,
it
parts
from the wood at the
cam- bium
exposing a smooth,
moist surface. The
rings
of the
woody part
mark
a
division between the tubes and the
finer,more
compact
wood cells
;
the radial
markings are
medullary
rays ;
and the
pith
is
a region
of broken-down
cellsthat
originallycomposed
the firststem of the
plant.
Several distinct
layerscome
off in the bark. On the
outside is
a
membranous
tissue,
the
epidermis,
which is
composed
of flattened cellswith
tough
walls and which is
covered with
a
substance that renders them
water-proof.
Beneath this is
a region
of thickened
walls,
and stillfarther
beneath is
an area
of
corky
cells known
as
the cortex.
Stone cells
are
scattered
throughout
this tissue.
A
layer
of cells rich in
starch,
called the endodermis
(ehdo,inner,
and
dermis, skin),
divides the
cortex from
the
pericycle.
This last
ring
is
composed
of thin-walled
cellsand
more or
less
regularareas
of
strong-walled,
fibrous
cells known
as
bast.
Finally comes
the
phloem,
which
lies
next the
cambium and
just
in from the
xylem.
34
The
Principlesof Agronomy
this
account,
members of this
group
"
grasses
and
palms
"
are usually
slender for
their
height.
In
some,
such
as
corn,
the internodes
are
filledwith
pith
interspersed
with
the strands of the
fibro-vascular bundles. The stem
is
much harder at the nodes than at
the internodes,
and it is
smaller
in each successive internode that is farther from
the
ground.
25. The leaf
(Figs.
10-11).
"
Water-conducting
tissue
of the
xylem joins
the leaf-veins which distribute the
Fig. 10. " Section of leaf
showing
cellular structure.
water
throughout
the
leaf,finallyleaving
it in the
spaces
between the cells. The cells absorb the
water and also
cpbon
dioxide taken in
through
the
stomata,
as
the small
openings
in the
epidermis
of the leaf
are
called.
The cross-section of
a
leaf shows
a layer
of flattened
cellswith stomata at intervals
on
both the
upper
and the
lower
epidermis.
With
most ordinaryplants,
the number
is
greater
on
the under side. On each side of the
opening
is
a
small cell
so placed
that when the leaf
wilts,
it falls
across
the
opening partlyclosingit,
and thus reduces the
loss of
water. Beneath the
upper epidermis
is
a
group
of
cells
containing
many green
plastids.
If the
chlorophyll
cells
are elongated
vertically
and lie side
by side,as
they
often
do, they are
known
as palisade
cells. Below
these
cells lie others called
sponge
cells which
are
less
closely
knit
together, thereby allowing more
space
between.
Plant Structure 35
Just above
an
opening,
the
sponge
cells
spread apart
leaving
a
larger
chamber
(Fig.11).
Leaf-veins
may
branch at the base
as
in
grapes,
or
from
a
midrib
as
in alfalfa. In this
case
the veins form
a sort
of net-work called netted venation. This is
typical
of all
dicotyledons.
Grasses and
grains are parallel-veined,
that
is,
have the veins side
by
side either with
or
without
a large
central
one
known
as
the midrib. This kind of
venation is
typical
of
monocotyledons.
Fig. 11. " Stomata of carnation leaf.
(After
Duggar.)
Leaves
may
be borne
on a leaf-stem,or petiole,or at- tached
directly
to the
plant. They
may
be
compound as
with
clover,alfalfa,
and the
potato,
or simpleas
in the
case
of beans.
They
may
be two-ranked
as
in the
case
of
grasses
and the
grains.
A leaf
grows
from
a node,
wraps
closely
about the stem
for
a distance,
and
spreads
out- ward.
The
part
that
clasps
about the stem is the leaf
sheath,
and the
part
that
grows
outward the leaf blade.
26. The flower.
"
Seed
production seems
to be the
prime
purpose
of all functions of the
plant,
which dies
or
36 The
Principlesof Agronomy
discontinues
growth
as soon as
mature.
The flower is
the fore-runner of the
seed,
in that the seed is
a product
of
a
union of the floral
parts.
These
floral
parts
are
the
corolla, calyx, stamens,
and
pistil.
The
corolla,
the
showy part
of the
flower,
consists of
petals,singleor
united, regular
or irregular
in
shape
and
size,
and
usually
of delicate tex- ture.
The
calyx
is
composed
of
firmer
tissues,singleor united, usu- ally
regular
in size and
shape,
and
nearly always
green.
The
calyx
is
an envelope
for the remainder of the
flower and the
petals
attract insects
useful in
cross-pollination.
Each stamen consists of
a
slender
stalk and
a
hollow
receptaclebearing
powdery pollen.
There
are
from
three to
twenty
or more
stamens
on
a
flower and
they are
situated inside
the
corolla,usually surrounding
the
pistil.
The
pistil
consists of
a rough- ened
or
divided
stigma supported on
a style
that reaches
upward
from the
ovule
or
ovary
at the base
(Fig.12).
When
pollengrains
reach the
stigma
they germinate
and send
long,
slender
tubes down the
style
to the ovule.
Dissolving
its
way
to the
ovule,
this
tube
comes
in
contact with the
egg
cell,
which itfertilizes
causinga
seed to
begin development.
Flowers
are
borne
singlyor
in clusters. If the
cluster
is
a close,
compact
one,
such
as
red
or
white
clover,
it is
called
a
head. A cluster
arranged
like oats with
long,
Fig. 12. "
Pistil of
legume showing
fer- tilization.
Plant Structure 37
slender branches
connecting
the
separate
flowers is called
a panicle
;
while
one
with the branches shortened to the
extent that the flowers
are
in
a
compact, elongatedmass
is called
a spike.
Wheat, barley,
and
timothy are spikes.
27. The seed. " As
maturity approaches,
the seed
graduallyassumes a
characteristic
shape, size,
and
ap- pearance.
Some
are
smooth and
nearly
bare
as
alfalfa
seed
;
others,
such
as some
grasses
and
barley,are
covered
with
a
hull
;
stillothers
are large
and
protected only by
a
membranous
coveringas
with
corn, peas,
and beans.
Within the seed is
(1) an embryo, or
germ,
which is
a
miniature
plant;
and
(2) a
food
supply
to nourish the
plantlet
until it
can gather
nourishment. Some kind of
covering or
hull surrounds the seed
protecting
it from
injury
until
germination time,
when water is absorbed
through
the hull to start
growth.
28. Buds and branches. "
Budding
leaves and flowers
must
have
some protection
until
they are
strong
enough
to
expose
themselves to
the
weather,
and until conditions
favor
growth.
A series of scales coated with
a
resinous
or
gummy
substance makes
up
this
protectivecovering
called
a
bud. Some buds
are
lined with
soft,fluffy
material to
protect
the tender leaves
or
flowers from cold
wind,
and to
prevent
excessive
drying.
Branches
begingrowth
from
a
bud in the axil of
a
leaf.
At first the union extends
only
to the
cambium,
but
as
rings
of
growth are
added the branch is embedded in
deeper
tissue.
Thus,
knots
are
formed in timber. Just
at the base of
a
branch the stem
is
usuallyenlarged.
29.
Underground
stems. " Potatoes and onions
are
modifications of
enlarged
stems.
They
show the various
tissues
described,
but lack much tissue that is
composed
of
strong-walledstone,
wood, or
bast cells.
Many
grasses
and weeds send rootstocks
horizontally
beneath the surface
38 The
Principles of Agronomy
soil. These contain buds which will
start
both
stems
and
roots
of
new
plants. By
this
means,
sod is formed and
plants spread underground.
Many plants,
such
as
beets, carrots,
alfalfa,
and dande- lions,
form
root-crowns,
which
are
closely
united
stem
and
root.
Buds
necessary
to sending
up
new
plants
can
develop only
in
stem
parts.
Root-crowns
and rootstocks
are
simply
modifications
adapted to perform
this function.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Any
textbook of
botany.
Plant
Anatomy,
W. C. Stevens.
Plant
Physiology,
B. M.
Duggar,
pp.
15-63.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
II,
pp.
11-22.
Methods of Plant
Histology,
C. J. Chamberlain.
CHAPTER IV
PLANT FUNCTIONS
Specialization in
higher plants
has
given
rise to
a great
number and
variety
of structural tissues. This difference
presupposes
different
functions,
that
is,
each tissue
performs
a
definite kind of work.
Moreover,
it is
highly probable
that tissues
slowly developed on
account of the
necessity
of the work. In the
struggle
for
existence,
the individual
plant
with
best-adapted means
of
doing
essential work
thrived best.
Gradually plants
with structures
best
fitted to
carry
on
the activities have crowded out others.
Since
specialized
work is
more
effective, plants more
and
more
differentiated,
have
gradually
been evolved.
This
seems
to
have been much
more
true
on
land,
where condi- tions
varied
more
than
they
did in the
ocean.
The
greater
number of
forces,
such
as light,
soil
texture, varying
mois- ture,
and
temperature
differences, naturally
demanded
greater
complexity
in
response.
This,
in
turn,
required
expression
in
a
way
conducive to the best
good
of the
plant.
30. Growth. " Though higher plants are complex
at
maturity, they
have but few tissues
just
after
germination.
As
growth proceeds,
the
original sprout
develops
into
leaves,
stem,
and roots. Buds, branches, flowers, seed,
and rootstocks
or
tubers
come
later. A
rapid
differentia- tion
of tissues
accompanies
increase in
size,
and in
some
cases runs
ahead of it.
Many plants develop
tracheal
39
40
The
Principlesof Agronomy
tubes,
sieve tubes, cambium, cortex,
and
epidermis
while
the
plant
is stillsmall.
Growth,
whether
measured
by
the increase in size or
by
the development
of
new
tissues,can come only
from
enlargement,
or
increase
in the number
of cells.
Each
process
is
partly
responsible.
At
first,
the
original
cells
increase in.
size,
but
soon they
reach a point
where
little
more growth
results unless the cell divides. In all
crop
plants,
both
processes go
on
at
the
same
time.
Thin-walled cellsin
growing parts
of
a plant constantly
divide and redivide
forming new
cellS. The first
sign
of
cell-divisionis in the
nucleus,
which
begins
to
change
from
a granular
to a
fibrous mass. Shortly
it
seems
to be
composed entirely
of strands. These
splitlengthwise
and then crosswise
forming pairs
of small bodies which
arrange
themselves in two
parallelrows across
the middle
of the cell. Fine thread-like strands
graduallypull
these,
half to
one end,
and half to the other end. Here
they
partly
unite. The
two move
farther
apart
and become
distinct.
Following
this,
the
cytoplasm begins
to show
signs
of
separationby developinga
concentrated
layer
near
the middle and between the two nuclei. When this has
hardened into
a cell-wall,
cell-division is
complete
and two
cells have
come
from
the
originalone.
In
a
few
hours,
or a
few
days,
the two
new
cells
may
divide
giving
rise
to more new cells,each
behaving as
the first
so long
as
growth
continues in that
region
of the
plant.
Young plants
at first
grow
throughout,
but
soon dicoty- ledonous
plantsdevelop a
cambium and
growth
discon- tinues
in other
parts except
at the
tip
of
elongating
branches. All later
thickening
results from
cambial
growth.
This
ring
of cells remains thin-walled
and
active,building
first
one
side to the
xylem
and then
on
the
other to the
phloem. Just what determines which
cell
42
The
Principlesof Agronomy
will
cease
to
grow
when the air is used
up.
A coat
of oil
over
water
containing
seed
greatly
delays germination,
because
oxygen
is unable to
penetrate
the oil. On the
other hand,
seeds
germinate
freely
in water not
so
treated.
Actual
respiration
takes
place
inside the cell which
partlydecomposes
in
doing
work.
Oxygen
is
necessary
to the
proper
breaking
down of cellular
compounds.
Food and water are
also
necessary
to
repair
the
wear.
Cells
are constantlylosingweight
as protoplasmic
sub- stances
become
gas
and
pass
off; they are
likewise
gainingweight
as
food is made into
protoplasm.
This
exchange
of worn-out
protoplasm
for food which becomes
new body
tissue is
respiration.
Carbon dioxide isexcreted
along
with
water
and other
products
of slow combustion.
Potatoes and
apples soon
wilt if
kept
in
a light,fairly
warm place,
because of the loss of water and carbon
dioxide due to
respiration
which increases much in
rapidity
as
temperature
and
light
increase.
Again,
if
a
plant
be
made to
grow
in distilled
water
in the
dark,
it also loses
weight.
In this
case,
the water
suppliesno food,
and
darkness
prevents
the
plant
from
manufacturing
any.
Only respiration
is
active;
it has used substance which
through
lack of food it is
prevented
from
replacing.
32.
Photosynthesis.
"
Ordinaryplantsgrowing
in dark
places
do
not
gain
in
weight
;
their leaves lack the char- acteristic
green
color of normal
crop
plants
;
and the build- ing
of tissue
can
go
on only
for
a
short time. Both
sun- light
and the
green
substance known
as
chlorophyllare
essential
to increase of
dry weight.
Young
seedlings
grow
in darkness if
other conditions
are
favorable,
yet
no
increase takes
place,
for
they move
food from
the
seed
storehouse
to
growing
tissue. The
quantity
of food
avail- able
must last
until the roots
can
supply
water and
mineral
salts,and until leaves have reached into
light
and
air
Plant
Functions
43
and become
green.
Under favorable
conditions the
plant
can
then feed itself.
Water,
dissolved
salts,
and
gases
are
taken in
by
the
plant.
From these
raw
food
products
it is able
to make
grain,straw, leaves,fruit,
and
roots
composed
of
sugar,
starch, cellulose,
protein,fats,
ash,
and
various other
substances. Carbon
dioxide,
present
in
a
very
small
percentage
in the
air, enters the leaves
through
the
stomata.
Diffusing
in the
spaces
between the
sponge
and
palisadecells,
it
comes
in
contact with
water that is
making
its
way
in the
opposite
direction.
Chlorophyll
with the
help
of
sunlight
unites
water and
carbon dioxide into
sugar.
Considerable
oxygen
isliberated in this
process
"
infinitely
greater quantities
than the
plant uses
in
respira- tion.
In
consequence
of
this,
oxygen
is
given
off
by
the
plant.
This
oxygen
comes
not from
the
breathing
of
the
plant,
but from the manufacture of food in the leaves
which is called
photosynthesis(from
photo,light,
and from
synthesis,
to
put together)
.
Chlorophyll,
in
an
unknown
way,
accomplishes
this manufacture of
plant-food
after
which the
plant
nourishes itself. The
following
chemical
reaction shows the different
beginning
and end
products:
6 CO2 +
6 H2O
=
C6H12O6 +
6 O2.
Sugar,
under the action of certain chemical
ferments,
called
enzymes,
changes
to starch and this
to oil
or
cellu- lose,
and in
some plants,
to wood. But
nitrogen,calcium,
potassium,phosphorus,sulfur,iron,
and
magnesium are
brought
from the soil.
Nitrogen
and sulfur
together
with
a
little
phosphorus
are
united into another class of
com- pounds
called
proteins,a general
term
for
any
organic
product containingnitrogen.
Such is the
way
in which
plants
manufacture the
raw
inorganic
elements into
productsthey can use.
All these
44 The
Principlesof Agronomy
compounds
find
use
in various
parts
of the
plant.
This
union of
raw
elements into usable
compounds
is essential
to
the existence of all life.
33. Osmosis.
" For
a long
time it
was
known that
water
and nourishment
are
taken
from the soil
by plants,
yet
no
clear
understanding
existed
as
to
how
they
enter
or
what
part
they
take
in
plant
growth.
Some
thought
the
plant
feeds
entirelyon water,
and
others that soil
particles,as such,
enter
the
plant.
Jethro
Tull,
about
1674,
advocated that
intertillage
be
practiced
to fine the soil in order that
it
might
enter the
plant.
Just how
he
expected
this entrance to
be made
is not clear. Soon
came
discoveries
showing
that neither
water nor
soil
alone is
plant-food,
but that certain soil
elements,water,
and carbon dioxide
are
united
by photosynthesis
to form the
materials out
of which
plants
build
their tissues. The intake of carbon
by
leaves
was
established
;
the entrance
of water with mineral salts in solution
by
osmosis
was proved. Knowledge
of these basic
principles
enabled the
science of
plant production
to advance with hitherto
unknown
rapidity.
Kernels of
grain,germinated on wet
cloth
or
paper
over
a
box of wet sand
or sawdust,
develop
root-hairs for the
absorption
of
water and mineral
food. The
seedlings
will
grow
and
use
water, as
will
a
geranium
cuttingpassed
through a
stopper
with the cut end
under
water. Roots
will
develop,
the
plant
will continue
to
grow,
and
the
quantity
of
water in the bottle will diminish
though
open-
FiG. 13. " Apparatus
used to demonstrate
osmosis.
(From
Bailey.)
Plant Functicms
45
ings
around the
stopper
and
plant
be sealed to
prevent
evaporation.
Since there
was no
other
way
of
escape
for the
water,
it must have been taken into the
plant
and
passedupward through
the
stem. The
process
by
which
the
plant accomplishes
osmosis is
complex. Liquids
and
gases
"
even
solids in
some cases
"
are
driven
through
membranes
or
caused
to diffuse into
one
another
by a gigantic
force
spoken
of
as
osmotic
pressure.
When
copper
sulfate
(bluevitriol)crystalsare
covered
with
water,
solution
begins
and
a
blue color
gradually
creeps
throughout
the water until
a
uniform color exists.
Samples
taken from
any
part
of the vessel would show
nearly equal
concentrations of
copper
sulfate,which,
at
the
beginning
of the
experiment, was
confined
to the
immediate
vicinity
of the immersed
crystals.
This
diffusion,or mixing
of the salt
throughout
the
water,
was impelledby
the
power
of diffusion
or
osmotic
pressure.
If the vessel
containing
water be divided
by a partition
of
parchment or piece
of animal
bladder,a change
in the
final result is
apparent.
After awhile the water on one
side of the membrane rises and lowers
on
the other.
Since the membrane admits the free
passage
of water
but
not
of
salt,
fresh water isdriven
through
in
an
attempt
to make the
liquid
of uniform concentration. Some salt
passes
through
into the fresh
water,
but the chief
move- ment
is made
by
the water.
To demonstrate
osmosis,a
strong
solution of
common
salt
may
be
placed
in
a
thistle
tube, over
the
large
end of
which
a piece
of
parchment
paper
or
bladder istied
tightly
to shut out
air
(Fig.
13).
If the solution stands
high
enough
to reach into the small tube above the
bulb,a piece
of
stringor an
elastic band
can
be used to
mark the
height.
After immersion in fresh
water
from
a
few minutes to a
few
hours,
the solution risesin the tube
showing
the
intake
46
The
Principlesof Agronomy
of water. Osmosis; agriculturally,
is
the
process
by
which water
from the
dilute
solution flows
through
a
semi-permeable
membrane
into the more
concentrated,
in
an attempt
to
equalize
the
strength
of the solution.
It is
by
osmosis and due to osmotic
pressure
that roots
take in
water.
Root-hairs
contain concentrated
solutions
in the
cell-sap
which set
up
a
difference
in osmotic
pressure
between the cell and the water
outside. Students of
physicalchemistry
have found that this
pressure
is
enor- mous,
amounting
in
many
cases
to
tons,
and that it in- creases
as
the difference
in
.
solution-concentrations
in- creases,
and
as
the
temperature
rises. So
long as
the
cell-sap
is
more
concentrated than the soil solution,
water
passes
inward. If
strong
solutions
are brought
in contact
with the
root-hairs,
osmosis
ceases or
goes
in the
opposite
direction and the cells become
flabby
and wilt. This
is
one injury
caused
by
strong
alkali.
Plants
seem
able to exercise
a
power
of selective
absorp- tion
;
that
is,
if salts
are
not used
by
the
plant,they
enter
only
in small
quantities
;
while the useful elements
go
in
rather
freely.
This careful
adjustment helps
to
keep
out
harmful substances and to take in the
raw
mineral
plant-
foods. Plant cells full of water are
rigid
and hold their
shape.
As
one
loses
water,
osmotic
pressure
causes more
to enter.
Throughout
the
plant
there is
some move- ment
of water due to osmosis.
34.
Transpiration.
"
Not
only
do roots take in
water
enough
to maintain the
plant
in
a rigidcondition,
but
they must,
in
addition,
maintain
a
stream that
passes
entirelythrough
the
plant.
Because the water
evaporated
from the leaves is in the form of
vapor,
it cannot be
seen
under
ordinary
conditions. On cool
mornings,however,
droplets
of moisture
are
often visible
on
the surface
of
leaves. Water
vapor,
escapingby means
of the
stomata.
Plant
Functions
47
partly
condenses
when cooler air is
reached. Even
on
hot
days,
in
livingor
school
rooms,
transpiration
" "
as
this
giving
off of
water is called "
can
be
demonstrated
by
coveringa
leafyhouse-plant
such
as a
geranium
with
a
clean
glassjaror
open-
mouthed bottle. In
two
or
three hours the
transpired
water will
collect
on
the
glass
in
drops,
and under favor- able
conditions with
a
healthyplant
will
drip
down the sides.
Plants
transpireenor- mous
quantities.
For
each
pound
of
dry
sub- stance
they
add to their
weight by growth, over
200
pounds
of
water
have
passed through
the
plant.
Measure- ments
of
transpiration
show that about 300
pounds
of water
are
required
for
one pound
of
growth
in
corn
and
about 500
pounds
for
Fig. 14. "
Comparison
of water used with
, p . ,
.
wheat
produced. (AfterWidtsoe.)
one pound or
growth
in
wheat
(Fig.14)
.
A
pint
of wheat
weighsa pound,
but 60
gallons
of water are
necessary
to
produce
it. If the straw
weighsas
much
as
the
grain,
three
40-gallon
barrels full of
water
are transpired
in
growing
the
pint
of wheat. This
quantity
of
water used in
growing a pound
of
dry
substance
iscalled the
water-cost
of
dry
matter for the
particularplant.
48
The
Principlesof Agronomy
Crops growing
in
hot, sunshiny regions
transpire
more
water
than in humid
regions. Dry
air,winds,
poor
soil,
weak
plants,
and
an
abundance of water
in the soil
cause
more
water to
be used for
dry
matter
produced.
Desert
plants
and
drouth-resistant
crops
have the
power
to
hold
so
much water
in their tissues
against
the forces of tran- spiration
that
they
do not die from
wilting.
Some
plants
also have the
power
of
developing
few
or
many
stomata
according
to whether
they
have small
or largequantities
of
water
at their
disposal.
Some
plants transpire
much
more
water than others
;
most
plantsseem
to be wasteful
during
the
period
of bloom
;
and
quick-growing
crops
use
more
water than
steady-growingones.
Darkness also
diminishes
transpirationconsiderably.
35. Translocation. " Since all the starch and other
plant-food
is elaborated in the
leaves,
this must be moved
or
the leaves would be the
largestpart
of the
plant.
En- zymes
change
sugar
into starch for
storage,
and then
to
sugar
again
when
moving
is
begun.
The
solubility
of
sugar
allows the
sap
stream to
carry
it
to the
fruit,
stem,
or
root for
use or
for
storage.
For
example,great
quan- tities
of
sugar
or
starch
are
stored in
roots
of
carrots to
be moved to the flowers and seed when the
plant
matures
and seed is set. Fruit trees
move
food from wood
to the
fruit. Seed and fruit often
grow
so rapidly
that
storage
in
earlysummer
is
necessary.
This movement of elabo- rated
food from
one
part
of the
plant
to another is called
translocation. Most
crop
plants
become
more or
less
porous
in
stem
or
roots,or
in
both,during
the
seed-setting
period
owing
to the transfer of food
material.
36.
Transportation.
" Water
is
transported upward
through
the
tracheal tubes and
sap,
downward
through
the sieve
tubes,or radiallyalong
medullary
rays. Sap
can flow down
largelyby gravity
and
radiallyby
capil-
CHAPTER
V
THE
PLANT AS A
FACTORY
Notwithstanding
their
complexity, plants are simple
in their
purpose
if
they can
be said to have such. All their
energies are
bent toward seed
production or
toward
some
other
means
of
continuing
the
species,
that
is,
of transmit- ting
life and characteristics to another
generation.
Sin- gleness
of aim
seems
to show the
organization
of the
plant
and the
variety
of
ways
in which it
attempts
to
preserve
itself in the
struggle
for existence. Power to
gather
raw
foods and elaborate them into
tissue-building com- pounds,
storage
of these
products
in
some part
of the
plant against
the time of
greater
needs,
and
adjustment
to surroundings
are nothing more
than manifestations
of the
struggle
to
perpetuate
the
species.
In the
products
of the
plant, man
is
vitally
interested.
Sometimes it is the
roots,
sometimes the
stem,
the
seed,
or
the fruit
containing
stored
starch,
sugar,
oil, or
pro- tein
that draws his
energy
in
producing
and
harvesting.
Often it is
just
the dead
cell-walls,
such
as wood, cork,
or
straw;
but other times he takes the
plant
in the midst
of life to
get
immature
stems
for
forage,
sap
for rubber
or
turpentine, or
cell-contents for
sugar.
Every
part
of the
plant
has been
put
to
use;
roots, stems,
leaves, flowers,
seeds,
and
sap,
all furnish useful
products.
For
example,
beets and
carrots
are roots,
hay
is both
stem
and
leaf,
grain
and beans
are seeds, some perfumery
is made of
blossoms,
and
cane-sugar
is
a
sap
product. Drugs and
50
The Plant
as a
Factory
51
stimulants,such
as opium, tobacco,
and
quinine,come
from
substances known
as
alkaloids that
may
be found in
any
part.
38.
Interdependence
of
plants
and animals. " If
only
plants were
upon
the
earth,
then the
provision
of
nature
for
plants
to
give
up oxygen
and
use
carbon dioxide and
for animals
to
reverse
these
processes,
would be useless.
Animals feed
upon
plants,directly
and
indirectly
;
directly
when
they are plant-eaters,
and
indirectly
when
they are
flesh-eaters;
for
the
prey
of carnivorous animals either
ate
plants, or
animals that ate
plants.
On the other
hand,
decayed bones, flesh,
and
manure
restore to the
soil and air substances
upon
which the
plants
feed either
directlyor indirectly
;
directly
when
plant-food
is at
once
taken from the broken-down
tissues,
and
indirectly
when
these
decaying
substances
promote
the
growth
of soil bac- teria
which take
atmosphericnitrogen
and make
compounds
that the
plant
absorbs. Soil devoid of
organic
matter
"
decaying plant
and animal substance " is almost useless
on
account
of its
being compact.
It
can
hold water
for
only a
short time
;
air and heat cannot
pass
through
it
readily.
Many plants require
limestone soils for
development.
Part of the limestone
ledgessupplying
lime is
composed
largely
of shells of small animals that extracted lime from
the water
in which
they
lived. These animals
probably
fed
on water
plants,
and breathed
oxygen
released
as
by plant
processes.
In the
economy
of
nature, plants
and animals need each other.
39.
Dependence
of
man on
plants.
" Since animals
depend on plants
for their
food,
man,
who in turn
depends
on
plants
and
animals,
may
be
regarded as being
ulti- mately
dependent on plants.
It is not difficult to see
that almost all human
food, save only a
few minerals
52
The
Principlesof Agronomy
such
as
salt,comes
entirelyas a
result of life
processes.
Milk, cheese,
butter, flesh,
and
eggs
are body products
of animals; bread, fruit, vegetables,
and
"greens"
are plant
contributions. Furthermore, they
are produced
almost entirelyby
domesticated
plants
and
animals.
Clothing,
likewise,comes largely
from the same sources.
Cloth made from
wool,
hair, cotton, or
flax fiber is
just.
as truly
the
product
of animals and
plants
as are
the skin
garments
of the Eskimo
or
the
leaf and bark raiment of
the
tropical
savage;
furs,gloves,
shoes,
and straw
hats
are
made
directly
from
products
of the life
processes.
Formerly,
most
dwellingplaces
were
built of wood and
leaves
or
of skins. Modern
buildings
consist
largely
of
brick,stone, concrete,
and metal,
but wood is used in
lathing,
for
floors,
door and window
frames,
for
roofing,
and
for walls in
many
cases.
^
Furniture and useful tools will
for
years
to
come,
if not
always,
be
composed largely
of
wood. Attention to
forestry
indicates that
man
realizes
this and is
making an
effort to
preserve
his timber
re- sources.
Moreover,
far back in the
history
of
cement,
brick-clay,some rock,
and
some metals,
life has
played
a
part. Especially
is this true wherever carbonate
com- pounds
exist,
since others
as
well
as
limestone have
re- sulted
from
an organic
process
somewhere in the chain of
interaction of the elements.
The carbon dioxide used iii
photosynthesiswas
the
originalsource
not only
of all carbonate
products,
but of
all substances such
as wood, coal,
petroleum,
and natural
gas.
Combustion of these materials
yields
heat
energy
used to
warm dwelling
and
office,
to furnish
power
for
driving
the
engines
of
factory
and
transportation,
and to
generate electricity
for both
power
and
light.
Animals
themselves
are
direct bearers of burdens and
drawers of loads. Horses
pull tillageimplements and
The Plant
as a Factory
53
haul farm
products
to market
;
camels, llamas,
and
burros
carry
man
and
goods
in
regions
inaccessible
to
wagon
and locomotive. Horses and
dogs
assist in tend- ing
herds; cats
and birds in the control of mice and in- sects;
bees and other
flying
folk
pollinate
flowers. Not
only are
the labors of
man
lessened
by
dumb beasts that
live
on plants,
but his
pleasure
is also increased
by
them.
Riding
and
driving are
healthful recreations
;
ponies,
dogs,
and birds
gladden
the hearts of children who have
them for
pets ;
zoologicalgardens
and
aquariums are
places
of
beauty;
and
caring
for and
breeding fancy
animals
are
avocations of
many.
Flower
gardens
and
house
plants
also
beautify
the home.
Vegetablegardens
and ornamental
plants
satisfysome men
in the
same
way
that
good
animals do others.
Many raw products
that
are
transformed
by
factories
into
new forms,
whether
food, clothing,
tools,or books,
are
of
plantor
animal
origin.
Books,
pictures,
and
news- papers,
so
essential in education and in national and
artistic
well-being,are
made of
paper
or cloth,
both
plant
products.
Medicines, dyes,
and chemicals
are supplied
in
part
by plants.
Finally,more people
earn
their
living
by
the culture of
plants
and the
rearing
of animals than
by
any
other
pursuit.
Plainly,
man
cannot
live in and
of hunself
;
he must
be
fed,clothed,
warmed,
and
sheltered
from the weather.
Since he cannot dispense
with
plants,
let him not
scorn
them.
40. Domestication.
"
When the
people
who
are now
civilized
were
savages,
they
lived much
as present-day
savages
do. Wild fruits,nuts,
roots,
and tender
shoots
fed, clothed,
and sheltered them.
In the wild,
enemies
were frequent
and
they
often
prevented
man's obtaining
food.
Rigorous
winters and
dry
summers
also caused
suffering
to
some,
while those
in better provided
areas
54
The Principlesof Agronomy
were
less
disturbed. Stern necessity
drove
man
to
do- mesticate
plants
for food and shelter,
and animals
as
assistants
in
hunting
and in moving
about.
Originally,
all tame
creatures came
from
native haunts.
If
they
were
useful,
the most
savage
brutes
were gradually
brought
under
subjectionby
man
who alone could
use
fire
and
make machines to throw arrows or stones.
Weaker
than
many
animals
and
plants,
he studied their
ways
and found
ways
of
subjecting
the useful
ones.
Seed
was
planted
in
protectedplaces
and
other
plants
were kept
out.
Then
tillagebegan
and
man
took
up
a
fixed habi- tation.
Some
plants
and animals have been
so long
cultivated
that wild relatives have
disappeared.
The earliest
records tell
us
that
wheat, barley,
and alfalfa
were
culti- vated
at the dawn of civilization.
Constantly new plants
are being
used for
crops.
In the
cases
of
plantsrecently
domesticated,
the wild relatives
are
still in the fields.
Wild
plums
and
roses,
native
grasses,
and vetches
may
stillbe
found,
but the
plants
from which wheat and
corn
came
have
disappeared.
Plants not
yet
known could
doubtless be found that would
serve
man,
and
as new
varieties
appear, many
useful
plants
will be
developed.
41. Plant
compounds.
" Hundreds of kinds of sub- stances
are
found in
plants.
Some of these
man
finds
use- ful
and
appropriates
for his
own use.
So
closely
related
are
these
compounds
that
they
may
be included in
eight
groups:
(1) water, (2) carbohydrates, (3) proteins,(4)
ash, (5)
fats and
oils,(6)
aromatic
substances, (7)
medic- inal
properties,
and
(8)
acids. In
importance
the last
three rank far below the first
five,
yet
even
these
are not
to be
neglected.
42.
Flavors, perfumes,
and other characteristic
odors,
such
as lemon, mint,
and
rose-water,
have various
uses.
The Plant
as a Factory
55
Flavors of fruit and
nuts serve
to
distinguish
them.
'
Carbon,
hydrogen,
and
oxygen
in various
quantities
and
arrangement
compose
these substances. The
drugs
and
stimulants,
such
as
morphine,strychnine,
and
quinine,
usually
contain
nitrogen
in
addition;
while the acids of
fruits,
such
as
malic acid in
apples
and
tomatoes,
citric
acid in citrus-fruitsand
currants,
and tartaric acid in
grapes,
consist of
carbon,
hydrogen,
and
oxygen.
These
three classes of
compounds
promote palatability, give
variety,
increase
healthfulness,or
stimulate the
nervous
system
rather than
serve as
constructive foods.
43. Water
composes
from 60 to 90
per
cent
of the
weight
of
green
plants. (1)
It forms
a
part
of the cell
content
keeping
the cells full and
rigid
;
(2)
it
acts
as a
solvent which carries mineral salts and distributes elab- orated
plant-foods
;
(3)
it
regulates
the
temperature
of
plantsby maintaining
a constant stream
from root to
leaf where
evaporation,
which
uses
much
heat,
reduces
the
temperature
to
normal. In the animal
body,
water
performs
similar functions. The
extra
succulence caused
by
water
in
plant
tissues increases
palatability.Dry
feed and water
seem
to
lack
something
that
green
feeds
possess,
particularly
for the
use
of milch
cows.
r
44.
Carbohydrates
consist of
carbon, hydrogen,
and
oxygen
usually
in the ratio
Ci(H20)". They comprise
from 80 to 95
per
cent
of the
dry weight
of
plants
and
are
made from water
and carbon dioxide. Starch,
sugar,
and
cellulose
occur
in the
plant,
scattered
widelythroughout
the tissues. Cellulose makes
up
all
woody
tissue and the
strong
cell-walls.
Starch is the usual form of
storage,
while
sugar
is
ordinarily
the
temporary
form, though
in
sugar-cane
and
sugar-beets
it is
one
of the
storage
com- pounds.
When
carbohydrates are digestedby man
and
.beast,
they supply
work and heat
energy
and
may
be
56
The
Principlesof Agronomy
made into fat.
Never, however,
do
they
become a
part
of the muscle, ligaments,
and
connective tissue.
Slow
combustion in the cells
uses
these foods.
Starch and
sugars
are easilydigested,
but cellulose,
often
designated
as
crude
fiber,
is but
partlydigested.
However,
it fur- nishes
bulk,
which is
necessary.
45. Protein
compounds
contain
nitrogen
and sulfur
and sometimes
phosphorus.
Out of these
foods,muscu- lar,
connective,
and vital tissues of the
body are
formed.
Flesh, stomach, intestines,lungs,
nerves,
and brain
use
these in direct
composition.
Man eats meat to
supply
these needs because
plants
are
not
usually
rich in
nitrog- enous
substance. Animal bodies must
first
get
them
from
plants
which contain them in
storage.
Leaves,
embryo
of
seeds,
and
a layer
of cells
just
beneath the seed-
coat
are
rich in
nitrogen. Leguminous plantsare
much
richer in
protein
than
grasses
or
cereals
;
and
legume seed,
such
as
peas
and
beans, are composed largely
of
protein
compounds. Proteins,then, are
both
scarce
and
vital;
they
cost about three times
as
much
as carbohydrates
if
ordinarypricesare
considered.
46. Ash
comprises
from
a
fraction of
one to
several,
but
usually
less than 2
per
cent,
of the
dry
matter. It
is scattered
through
the
plant as stone cells of the stem
and
leaf,
in the
cell-sap
to
promote osmosis,
and in the
protoplasm
itself. A small
quantity
enters into the
composition
of
protein.
It is called ash because it
re- mains
so
after
burning.
Animals
concentrate this min- eral,
in the bones and
teeth,
and
use
it in smaller
propor- tions
in blood and flesh.
47. Fats and oils
are
simply carbohydrates
rich in
carbon and
poor
in
hydrogen
and
oxygen.
Seed
embryos
and the flesh of nuts
are
the
storage
tissues. All
grains
contain
some : corn
about 5
per
cent
;
seed of
flax,sun-
58
The
Principles
of Agronomy
caused
the most important
reaction
knoAvn.
This is
the
beginning
of the
food
which
feeds all.
The
whole
problem
of
feeding
the
world must ultimately
be
solved
by
chlorophyll
and
sunshine.
Figure
15
represents appa- ratus
showing
aeration
of the leaf.
Fig. 15.
"
Apparatus showing
aeration of the leaf.
(After Detmer.)
Without
green
plants,
it would be
simply a matter
of time until life'could not exist
on
earth. First
plants
would die and animals would feed
upon
them. Grad- ually
these would
use
up
the food and then die.
Equally
essential is
sunshine,
which not
only
enables
plants
to
grow,
but
vaporizeswater, lifting
it into clouds which return
The
Plant
as a
Factory 59
the
water
as rain,
letting
it
run
down hillsideand hollow.
In this
journey,
it
washes soil and
grinds rock,
it
floods
meadows and
turns
water-wheels,
it
grinds
grain
and
saws
lumber,
it dissolves
mineral for
plants
and
generates
electricity. Sunshine,then,
is the
source
of
water
power
as
well
as
the
original
power
of
warmth and food. In this
whole
world, only
chlorophyll
is able to make
use
of it
for food manufacture.
Just what this
strange
substance
is,
has
not
yet
been
found
out. Plants
growing
in the shade
continuously
have
none,
but
as soon as they are exposed
to
sunshine,
it
develops.
Simshine and the
living
cell
can bring
this
vital substance into action and
perhaps
into
being. Truly
the
plant
is
a factory:
sunshine furnishes the
power
to do
work
;
chlorophyllseems to be the
machinery
;
and
water,
dissolved
salts,
and carbon dioxide
are
the
raw products.
49. Animal concentration. "
Proteins
occur only
in
small
percentages
in
plant
tissue. ^Vhen the
plant
is
eaten and
digested,carbohydrates
and oils
are
"
burned
"
in
doing
work and the refuse excreted. Water is the
same
in
plant,animal,
and
stream. Some ash is
used,
but
save
in
young
animals,
it is
mostly
discarded in the
ma,nure.
Protein is also
partly
excreted when fed in
abundance,
but
part
of it is retained and made into
flesh,
blood,
and sinew. The animal has
gradually
accumulated
a body composed largely
of the vital tissue. When it is
butchered,man
gets
a
concentrated food which
began
in
the
plantcell,
but which
was
refined in the
plant
and in
the
animal,
and when cooked is
adapted
to his
use.
Brain
and
brawn,
which have
so changed
the
world,
must
look
far back to
find the
beginning
of their
working
power
and
of their tissues.
50.
Storage.
"
Man and other animals must
do
some- thing
besides
eat;
hence
they
eat
a quantity
and
gain
60
The
Principlesof Agronomy
*
reserve
energy
to
carry
them
tillthe next
meal.
Should
the
following
meal
and stillothers be omitted, they
live
on
stored food.
Finally,
fat and
muscle waste
away
and
starvation
results.
Something quite
similar to
this
occurs
in the
plant
when
storage
is made.
During
the
fruitingperiod,plantsuse
food
more rapidly
than
they
manufacture it.
Perhaps
it would be
more
accurate
to
say
that the
plant moves
the food, or
part
of
it,
to the seed from the
stem, root,
or
leaf. In annuals and biennials,
the seed
gets
most
of the
food,
while in
perennials,
it
gets
only part.
The
method of
storage
is almost identical whether in the
seed, root,
or
stem.
When
sugar
is first made it
changes
into starch. At
night,
starch
can. usually
be found in
healthyleaves,
but
usually
not
early
next
morning. Enzymes
have
changed
it to
sugar
and the
plant
has
transported
it to the
place
of
storage.
Here it is
again changed by
enzymes
into
starch which
now
fillsthe white
plastids
of the cell
just
as chlorphyll
did the
green.
A
microscope
shows this
starch to be in
rings
with the center of formation
on one
side in the
potato,
and in the middle in beans. Plastid
after
plastid
may
be laden until the whole cell
seems
to be
composed
of starch. Here it remains until transloca- tion
to the seed
begins,
when
enzymes
turn it to
sugar
and
the
plant
carries it
upward through
the tracheal tubes.
Proteins
are deposited
in the
cytoplasm as crystalsor
globules,or as
both. Less
storing
is done than in the
case
of
starch,
but it is handled in
nearly
the
same
way.
Fats and oils
usually
enmesh themselves in the
cytoplasm.
Much seed
storage
is in the form of oil since
most
energy
can
be
so
stored in
a
given
space.
Embryos are
rich in
oil,supposedly on
this
account.
Plants that
store
sugar
deposit
it
as
false
crystals
in the
The Plant
as a Factory 61
vacuoles when
the
cell-sapdries,
leaving
the
sugar
too
concentrated
to remain
dissolved.
Less soluble
sugars
are
found in
storage
than in the
sap
of the
same plant.
This is
natural,
since insoluble starch and
cellulose, and
slightly
soluble saccharose
(cane
sugar) are much less
easily
disturbed
than the
highly-soluble glucose
(grape
sugar)
of the
sap.
51. Harvest. "
Plants
vary
in
composition as
age
advances because
nitrogen
and ash
are
taken
up
early
and
carbohydratesare manufactured later. The
place
of
storage changes,leavinga plant
part
rich in food at
one
time and almost devoid of it
at another. Man must
know for what he wishes the
plant.
He must also know
what
part
he wishes
to harvest and when he will find what
he wants in that
part.
Wheat
makes the best
hay
at
bloom
or
in the soft
dough,
but is useless for
grain
until
nearly
mature. Beets and carrots
yieldroots at the end
of the first
year,
but seed
only
at the end of the second.
It israther
general
for
stems, roots,
and leaves to lose food
material
rapidlyas
the seed forms.
If
hay
is the
crop,
let the
grass
or legume
be cut when
the leaves and stems are
rich in
delicious,digestible
food.
They
must be cured in such
a
way
as
not to lose value
by
leaching
with rain
or. by shattering.
When seed is
desired,
the
plants
advance to
maturity.
Care that seed does
not shell out isall that is
necessary.
If roots
are required,
biennials
are
harvested the first
autumn;
if
seed,
then
the
tops
are
cut the second. Fruit is
picked
when full
grown
and mature
enough
to be
delicious,
yet
when firm
enough
to
withstand
handling.
Cotton is
picked
after
the bolls
break,
but before the lintweathers from the seed.
Man
cuts
short the life of the
plant
when it is in the
condition that will best fit his
purpose.
Curing begins
at
once
and
goes
on
in sunshine
or shade, hastilyor
gradu-
62
The
Principlesof Agronomy
ally,by
air
or by
heat according
to the
product expected.
Considerable knowledge
of
plants
and effects of
treat- ment
are required.
He who does
this work
must
know
his
ground
and work with
precision.
52. Control of the harvest.
" As civilization has ad- vanced,
man
has
gained
more
and
more
control
over na- ture.
More and better machines, propelled
more
effec- tively,
have
given
him
an
enormous
power
to harvest
large
fields within
a
short time.
Orchard-grass
must be
cut within
a
few
days
of bloom
;
timothy
may
be
mown
any
time within two or
three weeks. American farmers
have chosen to
grow
timothy.
This enables them to tend
much
larger hayfields.
Some wheats shell
more easily
than
others; some
potato
varieties
ripen
earlier than
others;
and alfalfa is richer in
protein
than
grass.
All
these factors enable man to control the harvest
by choosing
his
crop
wisely.
Better
cultivation,more thorough manuring,
and wiser
irrigationproduce
greater
yields.
The Utah Station
found that the time of
application
and the
quantities
of
irrigation
water affected the
proportion
of
stem,
leaves,
and
grain,
and also the chemical
composition
of these
parts.
It
was found
that moderate
irrigationproduced
better
qualities
of
grain,
potatoes,
and fruit than did excessive
water which
promoted
woodiness and
stem
development.
Thick
plantingyieldsslender,straight
flax stems bear- ing
long
fiber but littleseed
;
thin
planting,
which allows
branching,begets
short fiber but much seed.
Pruning
may
direct food from small useless
growth
to fruit,
and
thinninggives
fewer but
larger
fruits.
If
man
will but learn the
ways
of his
crop,
he
may
have
largely
within his
grasp
the
power
to
get
what he desires
from the
plant world. He
may
set certain forces in
action
;
and
then,
at the
rightmoment, gathera harvest
The Plant
as a
Factory 63
superior
in
yield
and
quality to
that of his less
diligent
neighbors.
The Bible
says:
"
And God blessed them and God said
unto them, Be
fruitful, and
multiply,
and
replenish
the
earth,
and sub- due
it
;
aod have dominion
over
the fish of the
sea,
and
over
the fowl of the
air,
and
over
every
living thing
that
moveth
upon
the earth.
"
And God
said, Behold,
I have
given
you every
herb
bearing seed, which is
upon
the face of the earth, and
every
tree,
in which is the fruit of
a
tree yielding
seed
;
to
you
it shall be for meat" (Genesis
i.
28, 29).
REFERENCES ON PART I
Any
textbook of
botany.
Plant Physiology,
B. M.
Duggar,
pp.
250-279.
Chemistry
of
Agriculture,
C. W. Stoddart,
pp.
50-106.
Plant
Physiology,
L. Jost,
pp.
102-190.
Chemistry
of Plant and Animal Life, Harry Snyder,
pp.
175-234.
Principles
of
Irrigation Practice,
J. A. Widtsoe,
pp.
216-230.
CHAPTER VI
WHAT THE SOIL
IS
The soil is
not only
the foundation
of
agriculture,
but it is also the basis of all human
prosperity.
It is
the
most
common,
and
yet
the
most
precious, thing
in
the world. The fact that this
productive
blanket
covers
practically
the entire land
area
of the
globe
makes it
possible
for
man
to
get a living
almost
anywhere;
but
in
places
where the soil is
scanty
the
dwellings
of
man are
few.
53. Definition.
"
The soil is the loose material of the
earth's crust
in which
plants
find
a
home for their roots
and from which
they
are
able to
secure
certain foods
neces- sary
for their
growth.
Almost the entire land surface
of the earth is covered with
a layer
of
soil,
which varies
in thickness from
a
few inches
to
hundreds of
feet,
and
in nature
from
fragments
of rock
on
which
weathering
has
scarcely begun,
to
muck soil
composed
almost
en- tirely
of
organic
matter.
Some soils
are
rich in all the foods
required by plants
;
some are
rich in certain elements but deficient
in others
;
some are
low in
practically
all of the
necessary
foods
;
while
some
soils in arid
regions
contain excessive
quantities
of soluble salts. This
great
variation makes clear the
fact that what is called
"
soil
"
is
by no means a
definite
thing,
but
may
have almost
any
composition or
structure.
The soil
may
be considered
as
the waste heap
of
na-
67
68
The
Principlesof Agronomy
ture,
since almost
everything
eventually
finds its
way
into the soil where it is mixed and remixed with all
sorts
of substances to make
a blanket-covering
for the earth.
Fragments
of all kinds of minerals and rocks and the
remains of all the
plants
and animals
are brought together
in the soilto
make of it
a
home in which
plants
may
thrive.
54. Permanence of soils. " The soil cannot be abso- lutely
destroyed or
removed from the earth. It will
always
remain
as a heritage
to
mankind and furnish him
a means
of
making a living.
Floods
may rage,
fires
may
sweep
over
the
land, man
may
be at
war,
dynasties
may
rise and
fall,
but the soil will remain
an
ever-present
means
of
producing
food. It
may
be abused and have
its
fertility lessened,
but it cannot be
entirelydestroyed
;
and,
ifleft
to the
reviving
action of
nature,
it will in time
have
part
of its lost
fertility
restored.
55. Economic
importance
of the soil.
" The soil is at
the
very
foundation, not
only
of
agriculture,
but of all
human welfare. The industries of
man
would
cease,
and
he would be left without food and
clothing
if the soil
should fail
to
produce
its bounties. Mines
would
close,
railroads would
cease
to
operate,
factories would
stop
their
wheels,
in
fact,
every
human
activity
would in time
be discontinued if the soil should lose its
producing
power.
The
growth
of all cultivated
plants
is
dependent on
the
soil,and the
yield
of
crops
is
a
direct reflection of its
condition. Since livestock
are
maintained
by
crops,
the
livestock
industry
also
depends
for its existence
on
the
productivity
of the soil.
56. Conservation of the soil." Of all the national
resources,
the
one
most
in need of
conservation is the soil.
Forests
may grow
in the lifetime of
man,
and
waterfalls
will continue after he is
gone ;
but the soil"
the
product
of
ages
of nature's work "
when
depleted, can
be
re-
What the Soil Is 69
newed
only at
great
expense.
The
most important
con- servation
movement,
therefore, for
any
nation
to
under- take
is the
preservation
of the
fertility
of its soils.
57. Weed
of better soil
management. "
As
a
rule, soils
are
tilled
by
methods handed down from
previous
genera- tions.
These
may,
or
may
not,
be the best methods.
Most of them
were
devised
at
a
time when but little
was
known of the real
nature
of soils
or
the food of
plants,
and
as a
result, they
do
not
take into
account
the factors
of
crop
production
which
are
to-day
known
to exist.
Many
of the
present
methods of
handling
soils
are
out
of date and
are
not
well founded
;
while other methods
are
known which,
if
adopted,
would add
greatly to
the
profits
of
farming.
Since the welfare of the nations is
based
on
the
productivity
of the soil, nothing
could be
of
greater
importance to
a country
than the
discovery
of
better
ways
of
handling
its soils and the
prompt
dis- semination
of this information to
tillers of the land.
CHAPTER VII
ORIGIN AND
FORMATION OF SOILS
Thk material of which the soil is made has been derived
largely
from the rocks and minerals
composing
the crust
of the earth
;
but in
some
soils
a
considerable
part
is made
up
of
vegetable
matter from the bodies of dead
plants.
All
agricultural
soils contain
a
certain
quantity
of
organic
matter which is
intimately
mixed with the mineral
matter.
It is difficult to tell in all
cases just
the kind of rock from
which
a given
soil is
derived,
since the
great
amount
of
weathering
and
mixing
often
causes
it almost to lose its
originalidentity.
58. Minerals and rocks. " A mineral
may
be defined
as
any
solid substance of
inorganic origin, occurring
in
nature,
and
having a practically
definite chemical
com- position
and
usually a
definite
crystalline
form. A rock
may
be
composed
of
a single
mineral;
but it is
usually
made
up
of
an aggregate
of minerals associated with
some impurities.
Granite is
a
rock which contains the
minerals
quartz, feldspar,
and mica. Different kinds
of
granites
vary
considerably
in their mineral content.
Elements unite to form
compounds; compounds are
united to form minerals
;
aggregates
of minerals
compose
rocks
;
and rocks
disintegrate
to form soils.
59.
Soil-forming
minerals. " It is
probable
that
every
known mineral
occurs
somewhere in the
soil,
since weather- ing
has been
going on
for
ages,
and since
every
mineral
that has been
exposed
to
weathering
action has been
car-
70
Origin
and Formation
of
Soils
71
ried into the soil in
great or
small
quantities.
The main
soil-forming
minerals
are
the
following:
quartz,
the feld- spars,
hornblende and
pyroxene,
mica, chlorite,
talc and
serpentine,
the
zeolites,calcite,dolomite,
gypsum, apa- tite,
and the iron minerals.
60.
Quartz
is
composed
of silicon
dioxide,or silica,
which makes
up
about 60
per
cent of the
crust of the earth.
Both
silicon and
oxygen
are
found in
a
great
many
other
minerals,
and
are
present
in
most rocks.
Quartzite is
composed
of fine
grains
of
quartz firmly
held
together.
Hornstone
and
flint,
sandstone,
jasper,
and
opal are
composed mainly
of silica. Some soilscontain
more
than
90
per
cent of
quartz,
which is almost
entirely
insoluble.
61. The
feldsparsare
compounds
of silicatesof
potash,
soda, or lime,one or all,
in
combination with the silicate
of alumina.
They are prominent ingredients
of
most
crystalline
rocks. Potash
feldspar (orthoclase)
with
quartz
and mica forms
granite gneiss.
Soda and lime
feldspars
form
many
rocks such
as basalt,diabase,diorite,
and most lavas. The
feldsparsare decomposed
with
comparative ease by weathering agencies,
and
are
the
chief
sources
of
clay
and
potash
in the soil. Orthoclase
contains
nearly
17
per
cent of
potash,
while leucite from
lava contains
over
21
per
cent.
62.
Hornblende and
pyroxene
are
of
nearly
the
same
composition,being
silicates of
lime, magnesia, alumina,
and iron.
They
appear
to be
black,
but
are
in
reality
of
a
dark
green
color.
They are easilydecomposed
because
of two
properties : (1)
their
cleavage,
and
(2)
the fact
that their iron is
readily
oxidized. These minerals
are
usually
deficient in
potash
and hence
go
well with ortho- clase
feldspar.
63. Mica is similar in
composition
to hornblende and
pyroxene,
but its relative
insolubility
makes its
plant-
72
The
Principlesof Agronomy
food elements
unavailable.
It
occurs
most abundantly
with
quartz
in mica schist
which
usually
forms soil of
a
poor
quality.
The soilsderived from
granites
and
gneisses,
however, even
when rich in
mica, are usually
excellent
on
account
of their
feldspar
and associated
minerals.
64. Chlorite
is
a
silicate
of alumina and iron. It
forms
part
of chlorite schist
which is similar,
but inferior,
to
hornblende
schist. Talc and
serpentineare hydrous
silicatesof
magnesia. They
form
an important part
of the
soils of
some regions,
but
are
very
insoluble and
are
usually
poor
in
plant
food.
65. Zeolites
are hydro-silicatescontaining as
bases
chiefly
lime and
alumina, usually
with small
quantities
of
potash
and
soda,
and sometimes
magnesia
and
baryta.
Water is combined
in the basic form and not
merely as
water of
crystallization.
The zeolites
proper
are
not
original
rock
ingredients,
but
are
formed in the
course
of
rock
decomposition by
the
atmosphere,
heated
water,
and other
agents.
Although
zeolites
rarely
form
a
large proportion
of the
rock-forming
minerals, they are
of interest because of the continuation within the soil
of
some
of the
processes
that
bring
about their formation
in rocks.
They are common cementing
materials for
holdingtogether
sand
grains.
66.
Calcite, or lime,
is
an important soil-forming
min- eral,
which is but
slightly
soluble in
pure
water, although
much
more so
in the
presence
of carbon dioxide. It is
dissolved
readily by
acids. Limestone
comes partly
from the shells and framework of marine and fresh water
animals and
partly by
concretions of lime
directly
from
water;
hence much of it has been dissolved and
precip- itated
many
times. The old
saying
that
''
A limestone
country
is
a
rich
country," has, on
the
whole, but few
exceptions.
74
The
Principlesof Agronomy
leached
form
some
of the
very
richest
soils. The
Ken- tucky
blue-grass
region
is
an example
of soil
formed in
this
way.
Sandstone
soils
are
often
poor,
but this de- pends
on
the
material
cementing
the
grains
together.
Claystone
soils
are usually
rich in
plant-food
material,
but
are
too
heavy
for the best
growth
of
crops.
Hard-
pans
are
formed where
an
excess
of alkali
accompanies
the
clay.
71. Methods
of soil formation.
" Soils
are
formed
from the minerals and rocks, already
discussed, by
the
various
chemical and
physicalagencies
of rock
decay
known
as
weathering.
The most
important
of these
agencies
are: (1)
heat and
cold, (2) water, (3)
ice, (4)
the
atmosphere,
and
(5) plants
and animals. Their
ac- tion
is both
mechanical and chemical,
the mechanical
causing a breaking
up
of the rock into finer
fragments,
and the chemical
causing a change
in the actual
composi- tion
of the
materials.
72. Action of heat and cold. " All of the
weathering
agents may
be
ultimately
traced back to the heat of the
sun,
the
source
of
energy
for the earth.
Wind, rain,
and
organisms
are
all
directlydependent on
this
source
of heat. In addition to this
general
work,
heat and cold
are strong
factors
working directly
in
breaking
down rock
masses.
This is
very
apparent
in the
granites,gneisses,
and mica-schists,
each
composed
of
a
number of minerals
which
expand unevenly
when
heated,
causing a
break
in the rock. This allows
water to enter. When cold
weather
comes
the
water
freezes,and,
in
freezing, expands
about 9
per
cent of its volume. This widens the crevice
and shatters the rock.
Thus, nature
uses
heat and cold
as charges
of
powder
which
are
constantly being
dis- charged
to assist in the constant effort to crumble the
rock-masses into soil.
Origin
and Formation
of
Soils
75
73. Action of water. " Water
through
its
physical
and chemical action is
perhaps
the most
important
of
Fig. 16. " Streams wear
gorges,
grinding
rocks into fine
particles.
the
weathering agents.
In mountain
torrents,
bowlders
are
rolled
along,
knocking
and
rasping
in their ceaseless
76
The
Principlesof Agronomy
effort to
loosen the banks and
gouge
out
the bottom of
the stream.
In the meantime,
the
rolling
bowlder is
ground
into countless
particles,
which in the
course
of
time
are
scattered
over as
many
acres
of land. The
gorges
of the Columbia and Colorado
rivers,which,
in
places,are
thousands of feet
deep, are good examples
of abrasive action. All this
earthy
material is carried
downstream. The
Mississippi
River
annually
carries
into the Gulf of Mexico
enough
earth to
cover a
640
acre
field 286 feet
deep.
In addition to this,
it
deposits
im- mense
quantities
of silt
along
the lowlands above its
mouth. Effects of
water
action
are
shown in
Figs.
16
and 17.
The
ability
of
water to
carry
suspended
material varies
as
the sixth
power
of its
velocity
;
hence, as
the
grade
of
a
stream
changes
and the
quantity
of water
varies,
there
is
a
constant
unloading
and
reloading
of
transported
materials.
Rains, by
their constant
pounding,
also
exert
considerable action
on rocks,especially
in
loosening
and
shifting
small
fragments.
Water is called nature's universal solvent. Its
power
to dissolve is
greatly
increased
by
the
presence
of carbon
dioxide which it takes from
decayingorganic
matter while
percolatingthrough
the soil. Waves and tides
" along
the sea-shore
move
sand and other materials in and
out,
up
and
down,
and
by
their continuous
pounding
often
wash
out
great
caverns.
74. Ice. " In mountainous
countries,
where there is
considerable'
snowfall,
snowslides
are
of
common occur- rence.
One of these slides often contains thousands of
tons of
sliding
and
rollingsnow
and
moves
everything
in its
way.
Trees, rocks,
and all kinds of debris
are
jammed
into the
canons
below
to be taken
out
by
swollen
streams.
Origin
and
Formation
of
Soils 77
Ice in the form of
glaciers
is in
certain
regionsa
power- ful
agent
in the
making
of soils. Glaciers
are
both dis- integrators
and
transporters
;
lateral,medial,
and termi- nal
moraines
are
formed from the
transportedmaterial,
Fig. 17. " Soils
are
often
deposited
and moved
many
times before being
used for
crop
production.
and the rock
over
which the
glaciermoves
is
ground
into
a
very
fine
powder,
which is often carried
away
by
the
streams
resulting
from the
melting
ice. The river from
the Aar
glacier
carries
away
280 tons of solid matter
in
suspension
daily.
The
Justedal,
which
covers an area
78 '
The
Principlesof Agronomy
of 820
square
miles,discharges
on a
summer's
day
1968
tons of sediment besides the material in solution. The
Vatnajokullglacier
in Iceland
dischargesannually
about
14,763,000
tons of earth.
These
glaciers
of
to-day
are mere
babies when
compared
with those that existed
during
the
great
ice
age,
when
the ice sheet covered
2,500,000
square
miles. The effects
of this ice sheet
are apparent
all
over
the northern
part
of
America, Europe,
and Asia. The soilsof these
regions
are
of
glacialorigin,
and
are
very
fertilein
potentialplant-
food,
but often lack in oxidation and tilth. Glacial soils
are
very
different in structure from those formed
by
the
slower
process
of
disintegration.They are usually
uni- form
to considerable
depth.
In the northern
part
of the
United States and
over a largepart
of
Canada,
there is
'a
layer
of this well-mixed soil
resulting
from the North
American ice sheet.
75. The
atmosphere.
" The
atmosphere
exerts
both
physical
and chemical action. Its
physical
work is done
mainly through winds,
which
are
most effective in
regions
of little
vegetation.
In
parts
of
China,
the wind-formed
soils,or loess,are
from 1500 to 2000 feet
deep.
The
chemical action of the
atmosphere
is due almost
entirely
to
oxygen
and carbon dioxide. The action of the latter
in
increasing
the solvent
power
of water has
already
been
explained. Oxygen, working as an
oxidizingagent,
affects
most of the minerals
composing
the soil. The minerals
containing
iron
are
oxidized when
brought
in
contact
with
air,with the result that their rocks
are
softened.
Feldspar,
in the
presence
of
air,oxidizes
to kaolin
;
and certain rocks
containinglargequantities
of
feldspar
often crumble
to a
depth
of
fortyor fifty
feet
by
the action of the
atmosphere.
76. Plants
and animals
join
with other
agencies
in
breaking
up
rocks and
mellowing
soils. Some of the
Origin
and Formation
of
Soils
79
lower
forms of
plants are
able
to
begin
their
growth on
almost
smooth rock
surfaceg,and
by
the
dissolvingac- tion
of their
juices,soon
make sufficient
impression
to
enable other
plantsto start and
to
permit
the
entrance of
water.
This,
by
its
dissolving
and
freezingaction,
has- tens
decay.
Roots of
higher plants
readily
penetrate
any
small crevice
and
by
their
giganticstrengthare
able
to break
even
large
bowlders.
The smaller
roots of
plants
penetrate
every
particle
of
earthy
material and
by
their
physical
and chemical activities
promote
the formation
of
a good agricultural
soil.
Burrowing
animals and earthworms
are constantly
at
work
mixing
the various
soils,
incorporatingorganic
mat- ter,
and
assisting
in the free
movement of air. Plants
and animals
are constantlydying,
and their bodies
con- tribute,
to the
organicmatter of the
soil,
which
ceases
to
be
justa mass
of dead matter. The
decay
of these
organic
bodies
assists,not
only
in
mellowing
the soil and
placing
it in
a
better
physicalcondition,
but also in the
making
available various
plant-foods.
77. Classification of soils.
"
Soils
may
be classified
according
to their
originas
either
sedentaryor transported.
Sedentary
soils
are
of two kinds
:
those which over-lie
the rock from which
they were formed,
and those formed
in
placelargelyby
the accumulation of
organic matter,
as
in
swamps.
Transported
soils
vary
with the
agent
used in
carrying
the materials of which
they are composed.
Those
transportedby running
water
are
called
alluvial;
by ice,
glacial
;
by
wind,
seolian
;
and
by
the
ocean,
marine. Each of these kinds of soilshas its
own peculiar
properties, although
the
composition
is
dependent
largely
on
the kind of rock from which it
was
formed.
In addition to
classification
according
to
origin,
soils
are
sometimes classified
by
their chemical
composition.
80
The
Principles of Agronomy
the native vegetation growing
on
them, ithe
crops
to
which
they
are
suited, the size of
particles composing
them,
and
a
number of other
properties. Any adequate
method of
classifying soils, however, should take
account
of all the factors which affect their value.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Soils, Lyon, Pippin,
and
Buckman,
pp.
1-82.
Soils,
E. W.
Hilgard,
pp.
1-62.
Any textbook of
physiography
or geology.
Agricultural Analysis,
H. W.
Wiley,
pp.
1-60.
The
Soil,
P. H.
King,
pp.
1-69.
The
Soil.'A. D.
Hall,
pp.
6-31.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol. I,
pp.
324-342.
Physics
of
Agriculture,
F. H.
King,
pp.
49-68.
82 The
Principlesof Agronomy
the
water-holdingcapacity,
the circulation of
air,
and
the
availability
of
plant-food.
These all
help
in determin- ing
the kind of
crop
that should be
grown.
For
example,
peaches
and cherries do best
on
soils
having a coarse
texture
;
the small
grainsprefer
a
"
heavier
"
soil. Soils
having an
intermediate
texture,
such
as
the
loams, are
fairly
well
adapted
to the
raising
of
any
ordinary
crop.
Hence,
in
selecting
land,
the farmer who knows what
crops
he wishes to
grow
should
give
considerable
atten- tion
to soil texture.
79.
Groups according
to texture.
" The soil
may,
by
mechanical
analysis,
have its
particlesseparated
in such
a
way
that all
grains
of
approximately
the
same
size
are
gatheredtogether.
Where this is
done, arbitrary
groups
are arranged
for convenience in
expressing
the sizes. A
number of different methods of
grouping
have been
em- ployed,
but
probably
the
one finding
widest
use
in this
country
is that of the Bureau of Soils of the United States
Department
of
Agriculture.
In this
grouping
the various
sizes
are given
the
followingnames :
It is
impossible
to
get
a
soil
composed entirely
of
particles
of
any
one size; hence,
the
name
given
to
a
PhysicalPropertiesof
the Soil
83
soil
type
must
depend on
the
relative
mixture of these
various sizes. The
terms most
commonly
used for these
mixtures
are : (1) coarse sand, (2) medium
sand, (3)
fine
sand,
(4) sandy loam, (5) loam, (6)
silt
loam, (7)
clay
loam,
and
(8) clay. Farmers,
speakmg
in
a
general,
way,
usually
call their soil
sand, loam, or
clay.
80. Relation of texture to
water-holding capacity.
"
Of the
properties
of soils affected
by
texture, probably
none
is of
greater practical
importance
than the
water-
holding
capacity.
Moisture is held in thin films around
the soil
particles
and the
quanity
that
can
be retained
depends largelyon
the
surface,
which in turn is
dependent
on
the size of
particles.
King gives
the surface of soils
of different sizes
as
follows
:
With such
a
great
variation in
surface,
it is
easy
to
see
why a
clay
soil
may
hold 45
per
cent of
water when
a
coarse
sand will
scarcely
hold 15
per
cent. The under- standing
of this fact is
important
in such branches of
agriculture as dry-farming,
where
success depends on
the
storage
in the soil of
largequantities
of
water.
81. Soil structxire. " Structure refers
to the
arrange- ments
of soil
particles.
Just
as
sticks
may
be
piled
in
a
box in various
ways,
so
the soil
grains
may
be
grouped
in
numerous
different
arrangements.
Sticks
may
be
piled
84
The
Principlesof Agronomy
evenly
all
one
way
and fitted
together
in such
a manner
that there is littleair
space
between; they
may
be
ar- ranged
with
one layer
crosswise,
the next
lengthwise,
or
in other
designs,
each
arrangement
having a
different
volume
of air
space
between the sticks. The
same
soil
particles
may,
in
a
similar
manner,
have
many
different
groupings.
The numerous
sizes of
particlespresent
in
every
soil make
an even more complex arrangement
possible.
The
grains
may
be
wedged tightlytogether
so
that air is almost
excluded, or they
may
be flocculated
into
loose-fitting
groups
with considerable air
space
between.
The tilth of
a soil,
known
by
farmers
to be of such
great
practicalimportance,
is determined
by
its
structure,
or
the
grouping
of its
particles.
Soil
grainspacked tightly
together
form
a
soil of
poor
tilth. When
plowed,
such
a
soilbreaks
up
into clods instead of
falling apart
in
granules
or
floccules. A loose structure
gives
lines of weakness
extending
in
every
direction
through
the soil. Where
such
a
condition
exists,
it cannot be made to hold
together
;
but where the
opposite
condition
exists,
the soil crumbles
only
when considerable force is
applied.
A
hardpan
structure
in arid soil is shown in
Fig.
18.
82. How to
modify
structure.
" The
structure of
a
coarse-grained
soil cannot be
greatlyaffected,
since it is
always fairlygood;
but with
a
clay, constant
care
is
necessary
to
prevent
its
becoming puddled. Many a
farmer has learned
through
sad
experience
that he
can,
by cultivating
a
clay
soil when too
wet, so injure
the tilth
that several
years
are
required
to
get
the soil back into
good
condition.
The
structure
of
a
soil is affected
by
almost
everything
that
causes a movement of soil
particles.
Among
the
most common factors
are
the
following:(1)
tillage, (2)
Physical
Propertiesof
the Soil 85
Fig. 18. "
Hardpan
in arid soil three feet below surface.
86
The
Principlesof Agronomy
the
growth
of
roots,
(3) freezing
and
thawing, (4)
alter- nate
wetting
and
drying,
(5) organicmatter,
(6)
soluble
salts,(7)
animal
life,
and
(8)
storms. The tilth is the
result of the combined action of
a
number of these
factors,
all of which
improve
it
except
certain kinds of
storms
like
hail,
and certain soluble salts like sodium carbonate.
83.
Specificgravity
of soils.
" The
weight
of
a
soil
may
be
expressed
as
the real
or
the
apparent
specific
gravity.
The real
specific gravity,
referring
to the
weight
of the
individual
particles
in
comparison
with
water,
is
not affected
by
the
pore-space.
The
apparent specific
gravity,on
the other
hand,
refers to the relative
weight
of
a
given
volume of soil and the
weight
of the
same
volume of water. This is
greatly
affected
by
pore-
spaces.
Clay
is often
spoken
of
as a
"
heavy
"
soil
;
sand is said
to be
"
light."
This does not refer to
weight,
but
means
that
clay
is
difficult,
and sand
easy,
to till. An
average
sand
weighs
about 110
pounds
to the cubic
foot,
but
clay
weighsonly
about 80
pounds.
84. Air in the soil.
" Since air is
necessary
to
.
the
growth
of all
plants,
it is
impossible
to have
a
fertile soil
without
spaces
through
which air
can
circulate. Seeds
in
germinating,
and
plant
roots
in
growing,require
oxygen
which is absorbed while carbon dioxide is
given
off.
The
decay
of
organic
matter
requires
oxygen
and forms
carbon
dioxide,
which acctunulates in the soil-air with
the
depletion
of
oxygen.
If the condition of the soil
does not favor the free movement of
air,
the
oxygen
supply
soon
becomes reduced to the
point
where
plant growth
is
retarded. The aeration of the soil is
dependent on
its
texture, structure, drainage,
and
a
number of other
factors. In
a coarse
sand air
moves
readily,
but in
a clay,
especially
if
compact,
the movement is slow.
Puddling
Physical
Properties
of
the Soil
87
a
soil
greatly
reduces
its
aeration,
while
flocculating
its
particlesinto
groups promotes
the
ready movement of
air.
The
size of
particlescannot be
changed,
but their
arrangement
is affected
by
plowing
and
harrowing,
which
thereby
indirectly
influence
aeration.
A
water-logged
soil
usually
has its
producing
power
reduced
by
lack of
oxygen;
and the free circulation of
air,
resulting
from
placing
tile drains under such
a soil,
is in
part responsible
for the increased
yields
following
drainage.
The
beneficial
nitrifying
and
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria of the soil
requirean
abundant
supply
of
oxygen
for their best
growth,
and. their action is
practically
discontinued when the air
supply
is reduced below
a
certain
point.
In
sotae soils the aeration
may
be
so
great
as
to result in the loss of excessive
quantities
of
water. This
condition,however,
is
rarelymet,
and
may
be remedied in
most
cases by packing.
85. Heat of the soil. " The
temperature
of the soil
is
important
because of its influence
on
the
germination
of seeds and
on
the
growth
of
plants
;
also because of its
effect
on
chemical
changes
and bacterial action in the
soil. When the soil is
cold,
its life is dormant and all
chemical action is reduced. The earlier
a
soil is warmed
in the
spring
and the later it is kept warm
in the
fall,
the
longer
is its
growing-season.
This
may
have
con- siderable
practicalimportance
in
regions
where
early
crops
bring
the best
prices
and where the
season
is
so
short
that
crops
do not
fully
mature.
Soil heat
comes largely
from the
sun,
the
rays
of which
are most effective when
strikingperpendicularly.
A
south
slope,therefore,
is
considerablywarmer
than
one
facing
the
north,
and
a sandy
soil is much
warmer
than
clay.
The
high specific
heat of
water makes it slow to
warm,
and
as a
consequence,
a
wet
soil is
usually
late in
88
The
Principlesof Agronomy
starting
the
growth
of
plants
in the
spring.
The
exces- sive
evaporation
from
a
wet soil also reduces its
tempera- ture.
Such factors
as color,specific
heat, tillage,
and
a
number of others
play
a
very
important
r61e in
regulating
the
temperature
of
a
soil.
86. The
organic
matter of the soil is without doubt
one
of its most
important parts
since it influences
so greatly
the
physical,
chemical,
and
biologicalchanges
that take
place.
The tilth of
a soil,
its
water-holdingcapacity,
its
temperature,
and
a
number of other
physicalproperties
are improved by
the
presence
of
organic matter,
which,
on decaying,
increases the
availability
of mineral matter
in the soil and hastens desirable chemical
changes.
Bacteria,
which
are so important
to the
soil,
could
not do
their work without
organicmatter,
since
they secure their
energy
by
its
decomposition.
The
fertility
of
a soil,
therefore,depends as
much
on
the
presence
of
organic
matter
as on
any
other
factor;
and the maintenance of
fertility must include the
keeping
up
of this
important
constituent.
87.
Maintaining
the
organic
matter.
" The
organic
matter
of soils is derived
largely
from
the
decay
of
roots,
leaves,
and
stems, although a
part
of it
comes
from the
remains of animals. For
ages,
accimiulation has been
goingon
until
some
soilshave
a
largepercentage
of
organic
material. In arid
soils,however,
where the
growth
of
vegetation
has been
light,
the
organic
content is
low; hence, one
of the chief
problems
in the
manage- ment
of arid soils is to increase the
proportion
of
organic
matter.
Organic matter
in the soil is maintained
by
the addition
of farm
manure
and other
organic refuse,
and
by
the
raising
of
crops
to be
plowed
under. The wise farmer
will,
if
possible,apply largequantities
of
manure
in order
CHAPTER IX
THE WATER OF
THE SOIL
All
plants
and
animals
require
water
for life and
growth.
Plants
may
live for considerable time without
receiving
any
outside
supply
of mineral
food,
but if water is with- held,
they
very
soon
wilt and
cease
to
function. The
yield
of
crops
during
any
particular
year
is
usually a
reflection of the moisture conditions
during
the
growing-
season.
Even in humid
regions,
the lack of available
moisture often reduces
crop-yields.
Over
more
than
half of the earth's tillable
surface,
the
shortage
of moisture
is the chief
limiting
factor concerned in
crop
growth;
while in
parts
of the humid
regions,
the
excess
of
water in
the soil
prevents
the cultivation of vast
areas
of otherwise
fertile soil. On the
whole, therefore,
no
factor connected
with
agriculture
needs to be
more
carefully
studied and
more thoroughly
understood than the water of the soil.
88.
Origin
of soil
water. " The water
of the soil has
at
some
time been
precipitated
from the
atmosphere.
That contained in the soil of
any
given
field
may
have
come
in
by percolation,
or by flooding
the
surface;
but
it has at
some
time been
vapor.
The
quantity
of mois- ture
in the soil of
any
large
area,
therefore,
will be de- pendent
on
the
precipitation
of that
region.
The rain- fall
cannot be influenced
by
man,
but he
can
do
much to
save
water after it falls. In
dry regions
he
may
increase
the
amount of soil water by irrigation,
or
he
may
reduce
90
The Water
of
the Soil
91
it
by drainage
when there is
too much for the best
growth
of the
crops.
He
may
also increase the
efficiency
of the
moisture in
the soil
by
certain
tillage operations.
89.
Variations in soil moistvire. " The
quantity
of
moisture in the soil is
not
so stable
as
the
phosphorus,
lime, or silica;
but it varies from
season to
season and
from
day to
day.
It seldom remains the
same even
for
a
short
period.
More is
being
added from
tune to
time,
and losses
occur
through a number of channels. Even
if for
a
short
periodno water is added
or lost,
there is
a
constant movement from
place
to
place
with
a
tendency
to establish
an
eqailibrium
which is
seldom, or
never,
reached.
Many
forces
are
at work
making
it difficult
to determine all the laws
by
which soil moisture is in- fluenced.
90. The condition of the soil moisture
depends largely
on
the
quantity present
and the
nature
of the soil. If
the soil is
saturated,
the action is
not the
same as
if
only a
small
quantity
of
water
is
present.
The soilisable to hold
only
about
a
certain
amount
of moisture and when
more
is added it
percolatesrapidly.
As the
quantitydecreases,
the
tenacity
with which it is held increases. A
sandy
soil reaches the
point
of saturation with much less water
than does
a clay
soil. The condition of the
moisture,
therefore,
will
not always
be the
same
with
a given
per- centage,
but will
vary
according
to the nature
of the soil.
The
water
of the soil is
usually
divided into three
classes,
determined
by
the
percentage present.
These
are : (1) free,or gravitational, (2) capillary, or iilm,
and
(3) hygroscopic
water.
91. Free water.
" When the soil becomes saturated
with
water, a
part
of itdrains
away,
due to
the action of
gravity.
This
drainage
water is known
as free,or
grav- itational,
water. The attraction of the soil for it is not
92
The
Principlesof Agronomy
so great
as
that of
gravity.
This water
is found between
the
grains
of
soil,taking
the
place
of air. Gravitational
water,
held
in surface soil for
any
great
length
of
time,
excludes
the air needed
by
roots. Normally,
after
a
heavy
rain,
the
top
soil has its air
spaces
filled with
water,
but this
rapidly
sinks to
moisten the drier soil
below,
in which
case
it
ceases
to be free water.
Drainage
is
practiced
to remove
the free water
that cannot
drain
away
unaided.
92.
Capillary
water.
" After all the free water
has
drained out
of the soil,
there is still
remaining a great
deal of moisture that is held in
a
thin film around each
soil
particle.
Most of the water
in
ordinary
cultivated
soils under field conditions is of this
nature,
and it is
this form that
supplies
water to
plants.
The
quantity
of
capillary
water that
can
be held
by a
soil
depends on
the surface
area
of its
particles.
Since
many
fine
particles
have
more
surface than
a large one occupying
the
same
volume, a fine-grained
soil,
such
as clay,
will hold much
more
film water
than
a coarse-grained
soil like sand.
Capillary
water
moves by going
from the wetter to
the
drier
particles
in the soil. The films
on
different soil
grains
tend to become of the
same thickness,
thus exert- ing
a pullon
the thicker films.
93.
Hygroscopic
water. " A
part
of the moisture is
retained
by
the soil
even
when it
seems
to be
dry.
Road-
dust, on being heated,
will
give
off water
vapor
which
may
be condensed
on a
cold
body.
This last moisture
which
a
soil retains is called
hygroscopic
water.
If
a
soil is dried
completely
with heat and then allowed to
stand in the
open,
it will absorb moisture from the air.
This water is held in
a
thin film around the
particle
in
a
way
similar
to that in which
capillary
water is
held,
only
much
more firmly.
It does not
move
from
particle
to
The Water
of
the Soil
93
particleas
does the
capillary
water.
Hygroscopic
water
is of
no
direct
use
to
plants,
since the soil has
a
greater
attraction for it than have the
plants.
94. Other critical
points.
" It has been shown in late
years
that there
are a
number of critical
points
in the
percentage
of soil moisture besides those
already men- tioned.
For
example,
there is
a point
at which
plants
wilt. This
occurs
when there is
a
small
quantity
of
capillary
water
in addition to the
hygroscopic
water.
There is another
point
in the
capillary
water below which
the movements
are
very
slow. Above this
point
the
capillary
movement
is much
more rapid.
95.
Quantity
of water in field soils. " The
quantity
of moisture found in field soils
depends on a
number of
conditions. Of
these,
the amount and
frequency
of
rainfall is
perhaps
most irnportant.
In arid
regions,
the soil is seldom
near
the
point
of saturation,
while
in
regions
of
great
rainfall,
it is
kept
constantly
wet.
Every gradation
between these extremes
is found. The
amount of moisture that
a
soil will hold
depends
almost
entirelyon
the size of
particles
and the amount
of
organic
matter which it contains.
The finer the soil the
greater
its water
capacity.
A
clay
that
seems fairlydry really
contains
more
water than
a
moist sand. In
one experiT
ment
the maximum
water-holding capacity
of different
classes of soils
was as
follows :
Sand
8
per
cent
Silt loam
25
per
cent
Clay
40
per
cent
The
clay was
able to retain five times
as
much
as
the
sand.
Organic matter,
or
humus,
greatly
increases the
power
of soils to
retain water.
This is
one reason why
much humus is
desirable.
94
The
Principles of Agronomy
96.
Methods of
expressing
the
quantity
of water.
"
Soil moisture
is
usually expressed
in
percentage
of the
soil
by weight.
This
may
be based either
on
the total
weight
of the soil and
water, or on
the
dry
soil alone. For
example,
if
on heating
100
pounds
of soil there
was a
loss of
ten pounds,
there would be 10
per
cent of water
on
the wet
basis,
there
being ninety pounds
of soil and
ten
pounds
of water.
On the other
hand,
since ten
pounds
is 11.1
per
cent
of
ninety pounds,
there would be 11.1
per
cent
of water
in the soil
on
the
dry
basis. The
quantity
of water
may
also be
expressed
in
percentage
of the soil
by
volume. The
depth
of water
over
the surface of
a
given area
of land is
a common
method of
expressing
quantity
in
an irrigated
district.
97. Loss of soil moisture.
"
The water that falls
on
the soil
can
be lost in three
ways
: (1)
run-off from the
surface,(2)percolationthrough
the
soil,
and
(3)
evapora- tion
from the surface.
In arid
regions,
it is desirable
to reduce run-off to
a minimum,
but it
may
be
necessary
to increase it in
sections of excessive rainfall. Too much run-off under
any
condition is
undesirable,as
it is
likely
to
cause
de- structive
erosion. This loss is diminished
by keeping
the soil
open
and
receptive
in order that it
may
absorb
the rain
as
fast
as
it falls. Percolation
can
be reduced
only by increasing
the
water-holdingcapacity
of the soil.
This is done
by keeping
the soil loose and
increasing
its
organic
matter.
The loss
by evaporation is,
in
part,
under the control
of
man.
When moisture is
once
in the
soil,
it should be
held there until needed
by plants.
This is
accomplished
by some
protectingcover
such
as a
mulch.
98. Need for
preventing evaporation.
"
The
plant
gets
its moisture from that
stored in the
soil;
hence,
if
The Water
of
the Soil
95
the
supply runs short,
the
plant
suffers. Even in humid
climates,
rain is
so
uncertain that it is not safe to let the
soil become
dry by evaporation.
In arid
regions,
it is
absolutely
necessary
to store all the water that
falls,or
there will
not be sufficient to
produce
crops
(see
Fig. 19).
Almost
the whole
practice
of
dry-farming
is founded
on
the
prevention
of this loss.
Evaporation
from the
soil is affected
by
the
same
factors
as
evaporation
from
a water surface.
Heat, wind,
sunshine,
air
humidity,
and
Fig. 19. " Reservoir for the
storage
of
irrigation
water.
altitude all
play
their
part.
With
soil,an important
consideration is the wetness of the surface.
Drying
the
surface
quickly
is
one
method of
preventing
loss'
99. The water-table is the level in the soil at which
free water is encountered. In
digging a well,
the
place
where water is found is known
as
the water-table. The
depth
of the water-table below the surface varies " from
a
few inches in
swamps
to
many
hundreds of feet in
some
arid sections. It is undesirable to have
water too
near
the
surface,as
roots cannot
penetrate
below water level.
A
changing
water-table
near
the surface is
especially
bad,
96
The
Principlesof Agronomy
since roots no sooner get
established than water rises and
kills them, thereby weakening
the entire
plant.
The
chief reason
for
draining
soils is to
lower the
permanent
level of the
water-table
or
to
prevent
its
rising
to
injurious
heights
during
wet
seasons.
100. The movements of soil-moisture
are
due to a
number of distinct forces.
Gravity
is
constantlypulling
the moisture down wherever there is free water. After
this has been
removed, however, gravity
does not have
much effect. The
capillary
water is moved
by
force of
surface tension which works to make the films
on
soil
particles
of
equal
thickness. When water is removed
from
part
of the
soil,
the film thickness is reduced and
there is
a gradual
movement in that direction. If there
is
evaporation
at
the surface
or
if roots
remove
moisture
from
below,
this force of
capillarity, or
surface
tension,
draws water from other
parts.
When there is much
film water
present,
the movement
is
comparatively rapid
;
but
as
the soil
approaches dryness,
it
greatlydiminishes,
and
finallyceases.
A little
water is moved from
place
to
place
in the soil
by
what is known
as
thermal action.
There is
an evaporation
of water from
one place
in the
soil and
a condensing
of it in another. Movements
by
this method
are
slow and of little
importance.
101. Uses of soil water. " The
principaluse
of the
soil water is to
supply
the needs of
plants
"
crops
cannot
be
produced
without it. Soil water also acts
as a
carrier
of
plant
food. The
plant can
take
up
only
food that is
in
solution;
consequently,
without
a
proper
amount of
water
no
other food
can
be obtained. Water also in- creases
the chemical action that
goes
on
in the
soil,
making
soluble the substances used
by
crops.
102.
Quantity
of water used
by plants.
"
A
plant
may
use two
or
three times
as
much
water each
day as
CHAPTER X
"
THE CONTROL OF SOIL WATER
In
agriculture
it is often desirable
to change
the amount
of
water
present
in the soil. Where it is
necessary
to
remove
the
excess
of
water,
this is done
by drainage,
while if the land is
dry,
its
water content
may
be increased
by irrigation.
Under arid
conditions,
where
irrigation
water
is
not available,
it becomes
necessary
to adopt
methods of
conserving
a
scant
precipitation
in the soil
for the
use
of
crops.
This is
accomplished by
the methods
of
dry-farming.
'
IRRIGATION
103.
Increasing
the soil moisture.
"
In all
arid,
and
even
in
some
humid, regions
there
are
times when the soil
moisture is
not
sufBcient for the best
growth
of
crops.
Where this condition exists
during
any
great part
of the
time,
it is often advisable
to
add
water to the soil
by
irrigation.
Methods of
conducting
this
water
are
shown
in
figures
20 to 24.
This method has
many
advantages as
well
as some
dis- advantages.
A
person
would think himself
very
fortu- nate
if he could
cause
it
to
begin
and
cease raining at will,
yet
with
irrigation water at
his
disposal,
a
farmer
can
do
even more.
He
can
not only
have
water when
needed,
but
he
can apply
it
to
one
crop
and
at the
same
time
The Control
of
Soil Water
99
Fig. 20. " Water
being
taken to the land.
Fig. 21. " Cement lining prevents seepage.
100
The
Principlesof Agronomy
withhold it from another such
as newly-cut hay
that
might
be
injured
at
the time
by
water. The
rain, even
supposing
it to be under the farmer's
control,
would fall
on
the entire farm if it
came
at
all.
Among
the
disadvantages
of
irrigation are
the cost of
installing
the
system
and the
expense
of
applying
water.
Fig. 22. " Water diverted from reservoir
through
tunnel in rook.
In arid
regions,however, these
expenses
are justified by
increased
profits
when the
water is used with wisdom.
104. Sources of water
supply.
" The
most
common
and least
expensivesource
of
water
for
irrigation
is found
in
running
streams.
A suitable dam is
placed across
the
bed of
a
stream to turn water into the
canal,
which
carries
it
to the land that is to be served. The head of
such
The Control
of
Soil Water
101
canals is sometimes
many
miles from the
farm,
and at
other
times the land to be
irrigated
is
along
the banks of
the
stream.
Where
irrigation
water is secured
directly
from
a
river,only
part
of the
water
can
be
used,
since the
season
Fig. 23. " A
good type
of weir for
measuring irrigation
water.
of
irrigation
is but three
or
four months out
of the
year,
while the stream
usually
flows
continuously,
often
having
its
greatest
flow while the water is not
being
used. In
order to
make
more
water available,
storage
reservoirs
are
built. These receive the water at times when it is
102 The
Principlesof Agronomy
not
being
used and hold it for the
cropping
season.
As
more
land is taken
up
and water
becomes less
plentiful,
storage
usually
increases and methods for
accomplishing
it become
complex
and
thorough.
The
pumping
of
underground
water
from wells for
irrigation
is
rapidly
increasing
in
many
sections.
105. Measurement of water. "
Irrigationwater,
as
well
as
land and
crops,
should be measured. In the
past
ithas been the custom to
guess
instead of
taking
accurate
Fig. 24. " Artesian water is often used for
irrigation.
measurements. This has led
to endless
disputes
and
trouble. " In the future it will be
necessary
for those
con- cerned
with the
use
of water to be familiar with methods
of
making
measurements and
expressingquantities.
"
The two
principal
devices for
measuring flowing
water
are
the weir and the current meter. With the former
a
measuring
gate
of
a
known size is
placed
in the stream and
the
height
of
water
flowing over
it determined.
From
standard tables the
discharge
is found. When
the
cur- rent
meter is
used,
the
velocity
of the
stream flow is ob-
The Control
of
Soil Water
103
tained,
together
with its
cross-section,
and from these
the
amount of
water is calculated.
Of
the
many ways
of
expressingquantities
of
water,
the
ones
in
most
common use are
the
second-foot and the
acre-foot. A
second-foot
represents
one cubic foot of
water
flowing
each
second
;
an acre-foot is the amount of
water
required
to
cover an acre
of land
one
foot
deep,
that
is,
"
43,560
cubic feet. A
second-foot
flowing
for
twelve hours will flow
almost
exactlyan acre-foot.
106. Methods of
applying
water.
"
The four
principal
methods of
applying
water to land
are : (1)furrow, (2)
Fig. 25.
"
Irrigation
water
being
distributed
by
furrow method.
flooding,(3) overhead,
and
(4) sub-irrigation.
The
firsttwo are
by
far the most
important,
but the last two
are extremely
valuable sometimes. The furrow method
of distribution is shown in
Fig.
25.
In the first
method, water
is
run
in furrows and allowed
to soak the
ground
between the
rows.
It
can
well be
used
on
crops
that
are
intertilled and has the
advantage
of not
wetting
the entire surface. This reduces
evapora-
104
The
Principlesof Agronomy
tion
greatly
as compared
with
flooding.
A small stream
of water can irrigate a
greater
area
of land
by
this than
by
other methods,
but
more
labor is
required.
The
flooding
method isused most
on
pastures,
meadows,
and the small
grains.
This method leaves
a
soil that
bakes in
a
crusted condition,
and
can
be used
only on
land with
an even slope. Overhead-irrigation
is used
for lawns and
gardens,
but is
never practicedon a large
scale. Its
disadvantages are
the
high
cost
of
installing
and the
large evaporation.
It has the
advantage
of
supplying
water
evenly
over
the surface in
a
condition
similar to rain that leaves the air
as
well
as
the soil
damp.
Sub-irrigation
is
practicedby filling deep
ditches
on
the sides of the field with
water
and
allowing
it to
soak
through
the soiland saturate the sub-soil without
wetting
the surface. It
may
also be distributed
through
under- ground
pipes.
The latter method is
probably
the most
economical
way
of
usingwater,
since it reduces
evapora- tion
to
a
minimum.
.
107. The amount of water to
use
will
depend,
to
a
considerable
extent,
on
the
amount available. As
a
generalrule,however,
ifthere is
an
abundant
supply,
most
farmers will
apply more
than is
good
for either the
crop
or
the soil.
They
try
to make
up
for lack of
tillage
and
manure by
the
application
of water.
Crops
vary
in their
water
requirements,
and
even
the
same
crop
does
not
require
the
same
quantity
of
water
in all
climates and
on
all soils. These factors
must
be
taken into
account in
determining
how much to
use.
It is
probable
that
two feet of
water
applied
during
the
year
is
enough
for
most
crops
if the rainfall is
as
niuch
as
twelve inches. The
yield
may
be
slightly
increased if
more
than this
amount is
used,
but the cost of
applying
the
extra water is
probably more than the increased
106 The
Principlesof Agronomy
should be
kept fairly
moist all the time. If
a
soil is
deep
and retentive,a
few
heavy irrigations
are
usually
better
than
many
light
ones;
but, on a shallow, sandy soil,
it is
necessary
to
apply
water
often.
Deep-rooted
crops
can
go
without water
much
longer
than those
keeping
their roots
near
the surface.
Under
irrigation,
it is
a good thing
for
a
farmer
to have
a
number of
crops
in order that the water
may
be used
on one
when the other does not need it. When but
one
crop
is
grown,
it
may
require
the
irrigation
stream
for
only a
small
part
of the
season,
leaving
the water to waste
at other
times; hence, a
larger
area can
be served
by
a
given
stream of water if it is used
on a
number of
crops..
109.
Over-irrigation.
" The farmer who
irrigates
every
time he
gets
a
chance whether his land needs it
or
not is
as
bad
as
the
boy
who
went to the theater
every
night
and
sleptduring
the
performance.
On
being
asked
why
he
attended,
if he
was not
sufficiently
interested to
stay
awake,
he
replied
that he had to
go
because he had
a
season
ticket.
To
irrigate
when not
necessary
is
a
waste of time and
water,
both of which
are precious.
Too much water
reduces actual
yieldsand,
in
addition,
ruins the land
by
washing
out
fertility.
It would not be
so
bad if the
offender alone had
to
suffer,
but his
follycauses injury
to his
neighbor
located
on
lower land
by water-logging
the soil and
causing
alkali
to rise. There should be laws
to
prevent
the excessive
use
of
irrigation water.
110. Need for
economy.
" There is
very
much
more
land in arid
regions
than
can
be served
by
the available
water; hence,
the factor
limiting
crop
production
is not
land,
but water. It is
important, therefore,
from the
standpoint
of the
community,
that all water be used to
the best
advantage.
Six acre-feet of water will
produce
The Control
of
Soil Water 107
many
times
as
much if
applied
to five
or
six
acres
of land
as
it will if
applied
to
one.
As the available water be- comes
less
plentiful,
methods of
greater
economy
will be
introduced. These will be of benefit to the individual
farmer,as
well
as
to the
generalcommunity. Economy
in
water distribution
(note
Fig. 26)
becomes
a prime
requisite.
DRAINAGE
111.
Removing
excessive water.
" There
are
many
million
acres
of land in the United States
containing so
Fig. 27. " " Machine for
digging drainage
ditches.
much water that
crops
cannot
be
successfully
raised there.
Part of this land is in
permanent
swamps,
while
some
of it
is
dry during a portion
of the
year,
being water-logged
only
at certain
seasons.
There is also much land
having
a fairlydry
surface
appearance,
but with
ground
water
so
near
that roots cannot
penetrate
to
any
great
depth.
108
The
Principlesof Agronomy
The chief
difficulty
in the
way
of successful
agriculture
on
all such fields is the
surplus
water.
The
only
way
to
make them suitable for
crops
is to
drain them.
Drainage
practices
are
shown
in
Figs.
27 to 29.
112.
Removing
alkali. " In most
arid
regions,
much
of
the land contains
a high percentage
of soluble salts. This
often accumulates in such
largequantities
that the
growth
of
plants
is
prevented. Drainage
is the
only
method of
permanently
removing
the
alkali,
which is
gradually
Fig. 28. "
Draining an
orchard.
carried
away
by
percolating
waters.
Much of the land
that is at
present
valueless,on account of its
high
alkali
content,
would be of excellent
quality
if its
excess
salts
were removed.
113. Benefits of
drainage.
"
The
drainage
of
wet
land
improves it,
in
many
indirect,as
well
as direct,
ways.
Lowering
the
water-table
givesplants a largerzone
from
which their roots
can
draw
plant-food
and moisture.
This lessens the need of fertilizersand the
susceptibility
to drouth.
The increased aeration of
the soil
resulting
The Control
of
Soil
Water
109
from
dramage
promotes
the
growth
of desirable
organisms,
increases
favorable chemical
action,
and makes the soil
a
much
more desirable home for
plants.
It
warms
the
soil earlier in the
spring,thereby
increasing
the
growing-
season of
crops.
Drainage improves
the
sanitary
conditions of
a
region
by drying
the
breeding places
of
disease
germs
and
disease-carrying
insects.
It lessens the
winter-killing
of
Fig. 29. "
Drainage
outlet that is
likely to clog.
crops
by reducingheaving
of the
soil;
and it
very
de- cidedly
improves
structure
and tilth. All of these
benefits
working together
result in
a good
net
profit
in
almost
every
case
where
drainage
is
properly
done. It is
a common
experience
that when twelve
or
fifteen dollars
an acre are
spent
in
drainage,
the value of the land is
increased from
twenty-five
to
fifty
dollars.
"
114.
Kinds of
drainage.
"
Any one
method of
drainage
is not suited to
all
conditions,nor
is it
always practicable
to employ
the method that
might seem
best. The entire
110
The
Principlesof Agronomy
set
of conditions must
be taken into consideration
before
decidingjust
how to
drain
a piece
of land.
Open
ditches
are probably
the
cheapest
method of
carrying
away
the water.
They
are
used to
advantage
in
drainingponds
and other surface accumulations. The
chief
advantages
of the
open
drain
are,
(1)
the
cheapness
with which it
can
be
constructed,
and
(2)
the
ease
with which it
can
be cleaned. Some
disadvantages are
that it renders waste
the land
occupied,
and cuts the
land
area
into small fields that
are
difficult to
get
at.
The
open
ditches become filled with
falling
earth and
weeds and
are a source
of constant
danger
to
farm animals.
Some form of covered drain is
usually preferable
for
ordinary
purposes.
With the covered
drain, a
trench
is
dug
and
some
material
placed
in the bottom that will
allow water to
pass
through.
This is later covered with
earth. Some of the materials used for such drains
are
rock, brush, liunber,clay tile,
and cement tile. The
last
two
are,
by far,
the most
common.
Where tile
can
be
had,
it is recommended under almost all circum- stances.
115.
Installing
the drains.
" The first
step
in
draining
land is to
lay
out the
system.
Some kind of instrument
for
getting
levels must be used in
determining
the
con- tours
and
deciding
where to
place
the drain lines. A
level is also
necessary
to find the
proper
depth
for the
trenches. After the
system
is laid
out,
the ditches
are
dug
either
by
hand
or by machinery.
In
earlydays, they
were
practicallyalways dug by hand,
but modern machin- ery,
where it
can
be
had, now
does the work much
more
cheaply. Tile should
probably
not be
placed nearer
the
surface than
two
feet,or
farther than five
or
six feet
except
in
unusual
cases. Usually
about four feet is
a
good depth.
The Control
of
Soil Water
111
The bottom
of the ditch should have
an even
grade,
otherwise the flow of
drainage
water will be
uneven
and
siltwill be
deposited
in low
places.
In
certain
sections,
where there is
a
tendency
for
roots to
clog
the
drains,
they
must be
placed
deeper
than would otherwise be
necessary.
Care should be taken
to have the
joints
of
the tile fit well
together
to avoid
filling
with dirt. The
work of
coveringcan
usually
be done with
a
team. The
outlet should be screened to
keep
out small
water-loving
animals,
and should be
so
constructed that it will not be
easilyclogged.
DRY-FARMING
116.
Scope
of
dry-fanning.
" More than half of the
land surface of the earth receives less than
twenty
inches
of annual
precipitation.Consequently,
this vast
area
is
handicapped
in its
crop
productionby a
shortage
of
moisture. A
relatively
small
pai^t
of this total
area can
be reclaimed
by
the
use
of
irrigationwater;
but the
greater part
of
it,
if tilled at
all,
must have
applied
to it
every
possible
method of water conservation. The
raising
of
crops
without
irrigation
where there is less than about
twenty
inches of annual
rainfall,
has
come
to be called
dry-farming.
It does not difPer
essentially
from
any
other
farming, except
that
every process
is directed
toward
utilizingeconomically
all of the available
moisture.
117. The
question
of rainfall. " The total amount of
rainfall is not the
only
consideration. Its distribution
throughout
the
year,
the
quantity falling
at
one time,
and the
evaporation
all
modify
its effectiveness. In
some regions
with
a comparatively high
total
precipita- tion,
most
of the water fallsin the autumn after the
crops
are
harvested.
A
largepercentage
of this is lost before
112
The
Principlesof Agronomy
the next summer
when it is needed. In other
places
the
rain comes
in
great
torrents at
a
few times
during
the
year.
In such
cases comparatively
littleof the moisture
sinks into the soil
;
most
of it
runs
off. The
intensity
of
evaporation
is also
important,
since it
so greatly
modifies
the soilmoisture. Hot
regions,
with
many
clear,windy days,
chal- lenge
man's best effort.
It is difficult to store
water in the soil from
which several times
the total rainfall would
evaporate.
If,
how- ever,
there is but little
wind
and, at
the
same
time, a high humidity
of the
air,
the loss
by evaporation
is rela- tively
low.
Twelve inches of
pre- cipitation,
well distrib- uted
in
a
region
of
low
evaporation,
would
doubtless make
dry-
farming more success- ful
than
twenty
inches
falling
in such
a
way
that
most of it is lost.
The
dry-farmingareas
of the United States
are some- times
divided into the
following
five
areas according
to
the seasonal distribution of rainfall
:
(1)
Pacific
type,
which extends west of the Sierra
Nevada
and Cascade
ranges
receivingmost of its
rainfall
from October
to March with but little
during
the
summer;
Fig. 30. " A
deep,
uniform
soil,
well
adapted
to
dry-farming.
114 The
Principlesof Agronomy
hence,
it cannot
be used in
dry-farming.
The ideal
dry-
farm soilis at least
eightor
ten feet
deep
and
loamy.
It
Fig.
32, "
Plowing
stubble
on a dry-farm.
should be
easily
tilledand
readily
mulched. A
good
type
of soil for
dry-farming
is shown in
Fig.
30.
Fig. 33. " A
large mulching implement used in
dry-farming
The Control
of
Soil Water 115
119.
Dry-farm
crops.
"
No
set rule
can
be
given
for
the best
crops
to be
grown
on
the
dry-farm.
The
problem
must be worked out for each climatic and soil condition.
Up
to the
present,
however,
the
cereals have been most
widely as
well
as most
successfully
grown.
Of
these.
EFFECT OF JRRICATION ON PERCENTACE OF
DIFFERENT PLANT PARTS
SI
i
40
JO.
it
m
I-
:
" S(..ll,i
SLeo-ve
!Wo.t".
Fig. 34. - The amount of moisture which the
plant
has affects the
proportion
of different
parts.
wheat is
king.
In
regions
where the
major part
of the
precipitation
comes during
the
winter,
fallwheat has done
best;
but
where the rain falls
during
the
summer or
where
winter-killing
is
severe,
the
spring-planted
varieties
116
The
Principlesof Agronomy
have been most successful.
Barley, oats, emmer,
and
rye
have been raised with
varying
success depending
on
conditions.
In hot
climates,
the
grain-sorghums
have
become important
dry-farm
crops.
Corn has been
successful
over a
wide
range
of
conditions,
and has the
advantage
of
being planted
in
rows,
which
permits
it to
be cultivated
during growth.
It has been difficult,
up
to the
present,
to
find
forage
crops
that
grow
well under extreme drouth.
Alfalfa,
Fig. 35. -
Experiments
to determine the amount of water used
by
crops. (Utah Experiment Station.)
field
peas,
and smooth
brome-grass
have been used to
some
extent. Potatoes and
a
number of
vegetables
have
done well. Trees for shade and fruit
are
grown
in
some
sections,
but
usually
it is difficult to
get
them started.
120.
Tillage
methods. "
Though
the
same tillage
methods
are not successful in all
dry-farm
areas,
most of
the fundamental
principles
hold for all conditions. The
objects
of
tillageare
to make the land
receptive
to rain
and to
prevent
loss after the moisture is
once
in the soil.
Deep plowing, usually
in the
fall,
and considerable
The Control
of
Soil Water 117
subsequent tillage
have been found best to
accomplish
this end. Thin
seeding
is almost
always practicedon
such farms.
Every precaution
must be taken to
prevent
the
growth
of
weeds, as they consume
the moisture needed
by
crops,
in addition to
being
in the
way
at
harvest and
reducing
the value of the
crops.
Over the
greater part
of the
dry-farm region,summer fallowing
is
a
successful
practice.
It makes
possible
the
use
of two
years'
pre- cipitation
in the
production
of
a single
crop
and aids
greatly
in the control of weeds. The
great
amount
of
tillagerequired
in
dry-farming
has made
necessary
the
development
of
specialmachinery
which
can
utilize
a
relativelylarge
amount
of
power.
Clearing
and
village
operations
on dry-farms are
shown in
Figs.
31 to 3.3.
The effects
of
irrigation
are graphically
shown in
Figs.
34
and 35.
SUPPLEMENTARY
READING
Principles
of
Irrigation
Practice,
J. A. Widtsoe.
Irrigation
and
Drainage,
F. H.
King.
Irrigation,
F. H. Newell.
Irrigation
Institutions,
Elwood Mead.
Working
Data for
Irrigation Engiiieers,
E. A.
Moritz.
Use of Water in
Irrigation,
Samuel Fortier.
Practical
Irrigation
and
Pumping,
B. P.
Fleming.
Practical Farm
Drainage,
C. G. Elliott.
Dry-Farming,
J. A. Widtsoe.
Dry-Farming,
Thomas Shaw.
Soil Culture
Manual,
H. W.
Campbell.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
I,
pp.
412-440.
Physics
of
Agriculture,
F. H.
King,
pp.
286-328.
U. S. D. A. Farmers'
Bulletins
:
No. 138.
Irrigation
in Field and Garden.
263.
Practical
Information for
Beginners
in
Irrigation.
266.
Management
of Soils to
Conserve
Moisture.
371. Drainage
of
Irrigated
Lands.
399. Irrigation
of Grain.
524. Tile
Drainage
on
the Farm.
CHAPTER XI
PLANT-FOOD OF THE SOIL
The method
by
which
plants secure
their food from the
soil
was
not
discovered until
comparatively a
few
years
ago.
From the time of the ancient Greeks and Romans
down
to
the
beginning
of the nineteenth
century,
investi- gators
sought
to find
some one
substance in the soil that
was
the real food of
plants.
At different times it
was
thought to
be
fire,
water,
nitre, oil,
and
many
other
materials;
and the idea
was
rather
generally
held that
plants
fed
on a single
substance.
During
this
period
all
plant-food was supposed
to
come
from the soil
;
it
was
not known that the
greater part comes
from the air. One
theory
that
was
held for
a long
time
was
that
humus,
or
organic matter,
furnished the material from which
growing
plants
secured their food. After it became known that
the carbon of
plants
is derived from the carbon dioxide
gas
in the air and that
only
ash
comes
from the
soil,
it
was
easy
to find the real function of the soil and how to
control its
plant-food.
121. What
plants use
from the soil.
" Of the ten ele- ments
required by plants
seven,
in addition
to
those
obtained from
water, come
from the soil. These
are
potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, iron, sulfur,
and
nitrogen.
A number of
non-essential
elements,
including sodium, chlorine,
and'
silicon,
are
also taken
up
by most plants.
Elements
are
not
used
by plants
in
118
Plant-foodof
the Soil 119
their
elementary
condition,
but
they are
taken from the
soil
minerals,each of which is made
up
of
a
number of
elements. All
crops
require
the
same elements for their
growth,
although they
do not all
use
them in the
same
proportion. Potatoes and
sugar-beets use relatively
large quantities
of
potassium,
the
grain
crops
require
considerable
phosphorus,while alfalfaand clover
use more
calcium
than do most other
crops.
This is
one,
but
only
one,
of the
reasons for
practicing
rotation.
Water,
which furnishes the elements
oxygen
and
hydrogen,
is also- taken from the soil.
Only a
small
quantity
of
water would be
required
if its sole function
were
to furnish these
elements,
but it is used
as a
carrier
of foods in the
plant
and is also
transpired
in
largequanti- ties
;
hence,
the
quantity
used
by
crops
is much
greater
than that of all the other foods combined. The method
of
supplying
and
conserving
the soil moisture has been
discussed in
Chapter
X.
122.
Composition
of soils. " Soils
are
made
up
largely
of insoluble material of
no
food value for
plants.
The
amount of actual
plant-food
in the soil is
comparatively
small,
but since
plants
do
not
use largequantities
of this
food, the
supply
is sufficient for
crop
production.
Hil-
gard
has
compiled
in the
following
table
a
great
number
of
analyses
of
typical
soils.
These
analyses
show that less than 5
per
cent
of humid
soils is
composed
of
plant-food
and that the remainder is
largely
made
up
of material insoluble
even
in
strong
acid. In arid
soils,the.proportion
of
plant-food
is
some- what
higher,
but
even there,
it
comprises
less than 10
per
cent.
of the total soil.
The
organic
matter in humid soilsis
usually
much
higher
than that in soils of arid
regions
;
but the low
organic
matter
of the arid soils is
relativelyhigh
in
nitrogen.
120 The
Principlesof Agronomy
Table 1
.
" Chemical Composition op Humid and
Abid
Soils. Strong Hydrochloeic Acid Analysis
123. The
analysis
of soils. " In order to determine
the
plant-food
in
a soil,
the chemist takes
a sample
to
a
laboratory,
where he
analyzes
it. He does the
sampling
very
carefully,
since the
accuracy
of the
analysisdepends
on
the
accuracy
of the
samples. If,
for
example,
he
should
analyze
just
the surface
inch,
his results would not
apply
to the lower
depths
of the soil where roots often
feed;
frequently
the soil varies much in
composition
at
these different
depths. Again,
if the
sample
should be
taken from
a
low
place containing
considerable
organic
matter,
it
would not
represent
the entire field. In
sam- pling,
therefore,
the chemist takes soil from
a
number of
places
in the
field and at various
depths
and mixes all
together
in order
to
get
an
average
sample
for
analysis.
After the
sample
has been
prepared,
the
method of
analysisdepends on
the information
desired. If the total
122
The
Principlesof Agronomy
crops
is
expressedby Warington
in the
following
table,
which
includes the material found in the entire harvested
crop.
Table 2. Mineral Foods ee'moved prom the
Soil by
Crops
Total
Crop
Wheat
. .
Barley . .
Oats
. .
Maize
.
Meadow hay
Red clover
Potatoes
.
Turnips
Phosphoric
Acid
21.1 lb.
20.7 lb.
19.4 lb.
18.0 lb.
12.3 lb.
24.9 lb.
21.5 1b.
33.1 lb.
The table shows the variation in the relative
quantities
of
nitrogen,potash, lime,
and
phosphoric
acid used
by
different
crops.
127. Plant-foods that are scarce.
" Of the ten ele- ments
required by plants,only
three
may
be considered
as scarce.
These
are nitrogen,phosphorus,
and
potas- sium.
In
a
few soilscalcium and sulfur
may
be
deficient,
but
they are usually
present
in sufficient
quantities
to
supply
the needs of
crops
for centuries.
Nitrogen
is,
without
doubt,
the element
most
likely
to
be
lacking
in
soils,
and it is the most
expensive
element
when
purchased;
but the fact that it
can
be added to
the soil
by
the
growth
of
leguminous plants
makes its
maintenance
possible
in
every
soil.
Phosphorus,
which
is used in
largequantitiesby
the
grain
crops,
is
present
in
exceedingly
small
quantities
in
many
soils. On this
account,
it becomes
necessary
to
use
phosphorus
fertilizers
Plant-foodof
the Soil
123
in
order
to maintain
the
fertility
of these soils. Potas- sium
is
usually
present
in
fairly
largequantities,
but
since it
is,
in the
main, not available
to
plants,
soils
usually
respond
to
potassium fertilizers.It is
probable,however,
that
proper
methods of
increasing
the
availability
of
reserve
potassium
will do much
toward
making unneces- sary
the
heavy use
of this fertilizer.
128.
Exhaustion of the soil." The
possible
exhaus- tion
of the soil has been discussed for
many years;
numerous
different
opinions
have been held. Some have
contended that the
plant-food
supply
is
rapidly being
used
up
and that it will
not be
long
before the soil is
so
impoverished
that
crops
will
not
grow.
Others have
maintained that the soil is
beingconstantly
renewed and
as a
result will
never
be exhausted.
Experience
has
demonstrated, however, that,
if the
productivity
of the
soil is
to be maintained at
a high standard,
part
of the
plant-food
removed
by
crops
must be returned either
as
farm
manure or as
commercial fertilizers. Since
plant-
food is rendered available but
slowly,
it is
probable
that
crops
never can entirely
exhaust the soil. A lessened
supply
of available
food, however, greatly
reduces
yields
of all
crops.
129. Losses in
plant-food
result
primarily
from the
removal of
crops
from the
land,
but in
regions
of
heavy
rainfall
largequantitiesare
also removed
by leaching
and
by
surface
washing.
In
some
of the limestone
areas
of
the eastern
part
of the United
States,
the rock and soil
have been leached
so
much that the
greater part
of the
original
material has been
removed, leavingonly
the
more
insoluble minerals.
Naturally, during
this
process
the
more
available
compounds
have been carried
away.
In
many
sections,
surface erosion is
responsible
for the
destruction of much valuable land. The soil
is,
in
some
124 The
Principlesof Agronomy
cases,
washed
entirely
away,
while in
others,
the main
part
is
retained,
but the soluble material is leached from
the surface.
130. Plant-food in
.
organic
matter.
" The
organic
matter of the soil is
composed
almost
entirely
of dead
plants
in various
stages
of
decomposition.
These dead
tissues contain
a quantity
of mineral matter that has
been
once
in
solution,
and
is,therefore,more likely
to
be available to
growing plants
than the minerals. Nitro- gen
is
particularlyimportant
in this
connection,
since
practically
all of the
nitrogen
of the soil is found in the
organic
matter. Besides
furnishingdirectlya
part
of the
plant-food,organic
matter assists,by
its
decay,
in render- ing
available the mineral matter of the soil.
,
131. Relation of
plant-food
to value of
a
soil.
" In
order that
a
soil
may
be
valuable,
it must have
an ample
supply
of
plant-food
;
but this is
by no means
the
only
consideration. Farmers sometimes submit
a
small
sample
of soil
to
a
chemist with the
request
that he
analyze
it
and tell what the land is worth. Those who
are
familiar
with soil
study
understand that it is
impossibleby merely
knowing
the total
quantity
of
plant-food
to tellthe exact
value of
any
land. Such
questionsas
drainage,
aeration,
mositure
supply,texture,
and
many
other
things help
to determine what
a
soil
can produce.
All these factors
must be taken into consideration in
estimating
the value
of land and in
outlining
methods of
management.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Soils,Lyon, Pippin,
and
Buckman,
pp.
327-374.
Fertilizers and
Crops,
L. L. Van
Slyke,
pp.
105-116.
The
Soil,
P. H.
King,
pp.
107-134.
Soils,
E. W.
Hilgard,
pp.
313-421.
Physics
of
Agriculture,
P. H.
King,
pp.
69-106.
Pirst
Principles
of Soil
Pertility,
A.
Vivian,
pp.
3-46.
CHAPTER XII
MANURES
AND FERTILIZERS
Plants
require
for
their
growth an
available
supply
of various mineral foods.
These should be
present
in
the soil in
a
balanced
condition in order that the
plants
may
find the
most
congenial
environment.
Crop yields
are
decreased if
any
one
of these
necessary
elements is
present
in
exceptionally
small
quantities.
Even if all
other conditions
are favorable,
the
producing
power
of
most soils could be
materially
increased
by simply chang- ing
the available
supply
of
one or
two elements. The
addition of
a
fertilizer
may
effect this
readjustment.
Where
crops
are
raised
continuouslyon
land and
re- moved
each
year,
a
certain amount of
plant-food
is carried
away.
An
unreplenisheddeposit
of
money
in the
bank,
no
matter how
large,
will in time be exhausted
if contin- ually
drawn
out. The
plant-foods
in the soil
may
be
considered in much the
same
way,
and while this
analogy
is not
entirely
true, yet
the
same principle
holds.
Some soils contain
a
very
great
store
of
plant-food,
but
even
such will not continue to endure abuse without
protestingby giving
reduced
yields.
If
a permanent
system
of
agriculture
is to be maintained
on
any
soil,
no
matter
how
rich,at least
a
part
of the mineral matter
that is removed must be returned either in the form of
farm
manure or
commercial fertilizers.
125
126
The
Principlesof Agronomy
Materials
are
often
applied
to the soil for their indirect
action
as
well
as
for the
plant-food
which
they
add.
Farm manure improves
the
physical
condition of the soil
;
lime corrects
acidity
and flocculates the
particles
of fine
clay;
other fertilizers
help
to
render available the
reserve
store
of
plant-food
in the soil.
132.
Types
of fertilizers. " The materials added to
the soil either
as
direct
or
indirect fertilizersare numer- ous.
By
far the most important
of these is farm
manure,
which is
composed largely
of animal
excreta
mixed with
litter. Of the fertilizers
purchased
from the
outside,
the
most
common are
those
applied
for the
nitrogen,phos- phorus,
and
potassiumthey
contain. These
are usually,
but not
always,
in the form of mineral salts. Other
materials called amendments
are
used for their indirect
action
on
the soil rather than for the direct
plant-food
they
furnish. In addition to these
substances,
which
must be hauled to the
soil,
it is
a common
practice
to
grow
certain
crops
which
serve a
similar
purpose.
These
are usually
the
legumes.
In order for them
to
be of
use
as a fertilizer, they
are plowed
under.
133. How to determine fertilizer needs. " In the
United
States,more
than
one
hundred million dollars
are
spent
each
year
for commercial fertilizers in addition
to
the billions of dollars worth of farm
manure
that is
used. It is
probable
that
nearly
half of this commercial
fertilizeris wasted
on account
of lack of
judgment
in
applying
it. One of the most
important problems
con- nected
with the
use
of fertilizersis to know the needs of
the soil and
to be able to
supply
these needs in
an
intelli- gent
and economical
manner.
This is
no
simple
matter. It is
impossibleby
any
singlemeans
to
say
just
what is the best
treatment
for
a
soil,
but
by combining
the
knowledge
of science and the
Manures and Fertilizers 127
wisdom of the
practicalfarmer,a partial
solution of this
problem can
be
reached. A chemical
analysis
of the soil
is
very
useful in
determining
the needs of
soil,
but it is
not sufficient.
Such
analysismust be
compared
with
field
tests of
fertilizers, and with
practical
tests of
crops
in
order to determine soil needs. Where all this in- formation
is
brought together
and
carefully
studied
a
fairlyaccurate
judgment
of the soil
requirements can
be
made. The
practice
of
simply
applying
any
kind of
fertilizerthe dealer
may
have for
sale,without
making
a
thorough investigation, cannot be
too
strongly con- demned.
134.
Nitrogen
fertilizers."
Nitrogen
is the most
ex- pensive
of all the fertilizer
elements,
and the world's
supply
of this
compound
is limited.
Formerly,
it
was
obtained from
guano,
which is
manure
and
decayed
bodies
of
birds,
but this
source
of
supply
is
now
practically
exhausted. At
present
the chief
source
is the beds of
sodiimi
nitrate,or
Chile
saltpeter,
found in Chile. It lies
near
the surface of the
ground
in
great
beds,
but is
so
mixed with rock and earth that
leaching
out of the salt
is
necessary
before it is
ready
for market.
Nitrogen
in
the form of sodium nitrate is
directly
available to
plants.
Ammonium sulfate is another
important source
of
nitrogen.
In the
making
of
coal-gasby
the distillation
of
coal, a quantity
of ammonia is
given
off. The
gas
is
passed through
sulfuric
acid,
where the ammonia is
re- moved
and ammonium sulfate formed. This salt is about
20
per
cent
nitrogen.
It is
possible, by
means
of
electricity
and in other
ways,
to
combine the
nitrogen
of the air in such
a manner
that
it
can
be used
as a
fertilizer. The chief
products
of these
processes
are
calcium nitrate and calcium
cyanamid.
The
main
difficulty
in the
way
of
using
these fertilizers
128
The
Principlesof Agronomy
more widely
is the
lack of
cheap
power
which is
required
in the manufacture of them.
A
great many
animal
products
are used, chiefly
for
their
nitrogen.
Dried
blood,
dried
flesh,
ground fish,
tankage,
hoof and horn
meal,
leather
meal,
and wool and
hair waste
are
all used. The
availability
of the
nitrogen
in these
compounds
diminishes about in the order
given.
In dried blood the
nitrogen
is available at
once,
while in
leather and hair it
can
be used but
slowly.
135.
Nitrogen-fixation.
" While the
use
of
some com- mercial
nitrogen
may
always
be
necessary,
it is
probable
that the best
husbandry
will direct the farmer to add the
necessary
quantity
of
nitrogen
to his soil
by
the
growth
of
legume
crops
which
are
capable,through
the nodule-
forming
bacteria
on
their
roots,
of
fixing
the
nitrogen
of
the air.
Thus,
when these
crops
are
plowed
under
they
enrich the soil
on
which
they were
grown.
The details
of this
operationare
described at
greater length
in
Chap- ter
XIII.
136.
Phosphorus
fertilizers
are
obtained from both
organic
and mineral
sources.
Bones in various forms
are
extensively
used.
Formerly, they were
used
chiefly
in the
raw condition,
both
ground
and
unground;
but
now
most of the bone is firststeamed
or
burned to
remove
fat and
nitrogenous
materials which
are
used for other
purposes.
Fine
grinding
of bone makes its
phosphorus
more easily
available.
Tankage
that is
relativelyhigh
in bone is used
largely
for its
phosphorus,
and if
high
in flesh
scraps,
it is valuable for its
nitrogen.
Bone is
sometimes treated with sulfuric acid to render its
phos- phorus
more
available.
Mineral
phosphorus
is found in several kinds of rock
which
usually
have the
phosphoric
acid in
combination
with
lime, iron,
and aluminum.
The
presence
of the
130 The
Principlesof Agronomy
tralize this
acidity
before such
crops
as
alfalfa and clover
will thrive. This is best done
by
the
use.
of
some
form
of lime. Burned lime has been used
very
extensively,
but it is
graduallygiving
way
to
finely-ground
limestone
which is much easier to handle. The effectiveness of
limestone
depends
to
a
great
extent on
the fineness of
grinding.
"
139. Indirect fertilizers.
"
Many
substances
are
added
to the soil because of their indirect
or stimulating
action.
Among
the most
common are
gypsum,
common salt,
iron
sulfate,
soot,
and
manganese
salts. While it
may
be ad- visable
to
use some
of these materials for
special
cases,
their
generaluse
is
not recommended,
since
they
add
no
real
plant-food
and their
temporary
benefit
may
have
a
reaction.
140.
Home-mixing
of fertilizers. "
Many
farmers
would rather
pay
more
for fertilizers that
are already
mixed than to take the trouble of
mixing
them. This is
largely
because
they
do
not realize how much
more they
have to
pay
for the various elements when
purchased
in
the commercial brands of fertilizersthan if obtained
as
the
simplefertilizing
materials such
as
sodium
nitrate,
acid-phosphate,
and
potassium
chloride.
Fertilizer manufacturers
possess
no special
secrets
that
cannot be learned
by
any
farmer who will
give
the
subjecta
little
study.
It is
a
poor
policyto
pay
hundreds
of dollars
every year
for fertilizersabout which
nothing
is known
save
what is told
by
the salesman. Better
economy
would lead the farmer
to
spend a
few dollars
buying
books
on
the
subject,as
the information obtained
from
one
book
may
make
possible
the
saving
of from 25
to 50
per
cent
on
the fertilizerbill.
Any
farmer
can at
very
little
expense prepare
a place
in
which to mix ferti- lizers
;
then, by purchasing
the materials best suited
to
Manures and
Fertilizers
131
his
conditions,
he
can
mix them himself
and
thereby
obtain
a
much
more
effective fertilizer
at the
same
expense.
Self-reliance in this and other
respects
is often
a
great
advantage.
141. Value of farm
manure.
" The
use
of farm
manure
isthe surest
means
of
preserving
soil
fertility.
Practically
EFFECT OF MANURE ON PERCENTAGtOr DIFFERENT PLANT
PARTS
M.
ST
1ST
Per ft
m
^^
lUCr^.nICb ^Hu.k. 9^"-"" B^-*'
Fig. 36. " Effect of
manure on proportion
of different
parts
of
corn plant.
every
farm
produces a quantity
of this
by-product
of
animal
husbandry;
and
a
wise
use
of it is
at the founda- tion
of
permanent
agriculture.
Since the
very
dawn of
history,
the excreta
of animals have been used
as
fertilizer.
For
a long
time,
little
was
known of the
way
in which it
improved
the
soil,
but the increase which it made in the
132
The
Principlesof Agronomy
yield
of
crops
was
very
evident. Manure is
now
known
to
benefit the soil
by adding directlya quantity
of
plant-
food, by
increasing
the
organicmatter,
and
by aiding
the
work of desirable soil
organisms.
It
may
not
in all
cases
be
a complete
and well-balanced fertilizerfor
every
soil,
but its
use can always
be recommended with
safety.
Manures have
an
effect
on
the
porportion
of different
parts
Fig. 37.
"
Fields used in famous fertilizer
experiments. (Penn. Experi- ment
Station.)
of the
plant(Fig.36). Fig.
37 shows. the
way
in which
a
field is laid out to test the value of different fertilizers.
142. Kinds of farm
manure.
" The
manure
from each
kind of farm animal is different. That
produced by
poultry
and
sheep
is concentrated and
dry,
while that
produced by
cattle and horses contains
more
water and
coarse
material. The
manure
of
any
animal is influenced
by
the kind of food it
eats,
its
age,
work,
and several
other factors. Old
animals,
that do but littlework and
eat much rich
food, produce
the best
manure.
Manures and Fertilizers
133
Liquid manure
is richer in
plant-food
elements than
the
solid,but it lacks the
organic
matter which is
so
bene- ficial
to most soils. Good
husbandry requires
the
saving
of both the
liquid
and the solid
manure,
which
can easily
be
kept together
if sufficient
bedding
material is used to
absorb the
liquid.
143. Losses in
manure.
" Losses
occur
in
manure by
leaching
and
by
fermentation
(Figs.38, 39). Experi-
Fig. 38.
" Manure piled
where its
plant
food will be leached.
ments
have shown that,
when left
carelessly
exposed
to
the weather
for six
months, manure
loses about half its
value.
This loss
can
be
overcome
in
large
measure by
proper
methods of
storage
even
without
expensive eqitip-
ment.
The
plant-foods
contained in
manure are readily
soluble
and
but
little rain is
required
to
dissolve and
carry
them
away.
If
manure
is left scattered in
an
open
yard,
it is wet through by
every
rain and the
greater part
of
its
plant-food
is washed out before the
season
is
over.
If
manure
has to be stored for
any
length
of
134
The
Principlesof Agronomy
time it should be
so piled
that it cannot
be leached.
This
may
be done
by putting
it under
cover or by making
the
pile
of
proper
shape.
Manure is filled with bacteria and
fungi
which
are
constantly
at work. Some of these tend to make the
manure heat, causing a
loss of considerable
nitrogen.
Since these destructive
organisms
work best in
manure
that is loose and
fairlydry,
their action
can
most
easily
be
Fig. 39. "
Manure
pile
in
an unsightly
and inconvenient
place.
prevented by
compacting
the
manure to exclude air and
by keeping
it moist.
144.
Handling
farm
manure.
"
Experience
has demon- strated
that the best
way
to handle farm
manure
is
to
haul it
out and
spread
it
on
the land when fresh. This
prevents
any
serious loss from either
leachingor
fermen- tation.
Many
farmers haul
manure on to the field and
leave it
standing
for months in small
piles.
This is not
a good practice,
since its loose condition allows destructive
fermentation to
go
on
readily. Moreover, the
leaching
Manures and
Fertilizers 135
of the
pilescauses an irregular
distribution of
plant-food
over the field.
Fig.
40 shows
a common manure
carrier.
During
parts
of the
year
there is
no vacant land
on
which
manure can
be
spread,
and
hence it
must be stored.
This
can
be done in
specialmanure pits,
under
sheds, or
in the
open
yard.
Expensive pitsprobably
do
not
pay,
but
simple
devices to assist in
handlingmanure are
with-
FiG. 40.
" Manure carriers are becoming
almost a
farm
necessity.
out
doubt
a good
thing.
It has
already
been stated that
by
proper
piling,
the loss due to
leaching
and fermenta- tion
can
be
practically
overcome.
Where
an
open
yard
is used the neatest
and most
sanitary
kind of
pile,as
well
as
the one allowing
least
loss,
is
a
square
pile
with verti- cal
sides
and
with
edges slightlyhigher
than the middle.
The manure
that is
produced
each
day
should be
put
on
the
pile
and should be
kept
compact
and moist.
136 The
Principlesof Agronomy
A manure spreader
is
a
great
time-saver,
and makes
possible
a more even
distribution than
can
be made
by
hand. The amount of
manure
that is
applied
is
usually
limited
by
the
quantity
that
can
be obtained. Few
farmers
are
in
danger
of
over-manuring
their land. Most
soils will
use fortyor fifty
tons to the
acre
every
few
years
without
suffering
any
injury.
145. How to fertilize different
crops.
" While each
crop
uses exactly
the
same plant-food
elements,
the rela- tive
quantities
used
by
different
crops vary.
Potatoes
and
sugar-beetsuse relativelylarge quantities
of
potas- sium
;
the
grain
crops
require
considerable
phosphorus
;
while the
legumes use relativelymore
lime and
nitrogen.
Each
crop
also has different
rooting
habits. These facts
must all be taken into consideration when
applying
ferti- lizers.
In
pastures
an earlygrowth
of succulent
forage
is
desired. This calls for the
application
of
some
form of
available
nitrogen.
The needs of each
crop
and the
quality
of
product
desired should be
carefully
studied
before
deciding just
how to fertilize. It
is,"
of
course,
necessary
to have the fertilizerconform to
the needs of
the soil.
146. Green
manures.
" The
plowing
under of
grow- ing
plants
to increase the
organic
content of the soil has
been
practiced
for centuries. The
decay
of these
plants
helps
to make available the mineral foods of the
soil,
and
helps to correct defects that exist in its
physical
nature.
Legumes
make the best
green-manure crops,
since
they
increase the
nitrogensupply
of the soil
by taking
this ele- ment
from the air and
combining
it in such
a
way
that it
can
be used
by
other
plants.
The
clovers,vetches, cow-
peas,
soybeans,
field
peas,
and alfalfa
are
all
plowed
under
as
green
manures.
The
small-grainsare
also much used
CHAPTER XIII
ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL
The soil is not
a mass
of dead
matter,
but is filled with
living organisms
which
are constantly transforming
its
compounds
and
renewing
its
productiveness.
These
organisms
work
on
the dead bodies of
plants
and animals
and make the materials
composing
them useful to
growing
plants.
All life
on
the earth is
dependent
for its continu- ance
on
the
unseen organisms
which
swarm
in the soil.
If it
were
not
for their
renewing action,
the available
plant-food
would in time be consumed and
plant growth
would
cease.
A soil
composed merely
of dead mineral
matter unable to
support
life would be valueless. For- tunately,
the soil is not
in this
condition,
but teems with
myriads
of
microscopic organisms
of
many
forms,
each
contributing
its share toward
making
the soil
productive.
147. Kinds of soil
organisms.
" A
great
diversity
of
life exists in the soil.
Animals,
such
as squirrels
and
gophers,
burrow in the
ground
and
are important
in
mixing
the soil. Earth-worms
are continually making
the soil
more
mellow
by mixing
mineral and
organic
matter and
by increasing
the
availability
of
many
of the
plant-foods.
Their work is
particularly important
in
heavy, wet soils,
where
they improve
aeration. The
higher plants
increase the circulation of air and add
or- ganic
matter
by sending
their roots into
every
part
of the
soil;
certain of the
higher fungi
assist in
the
decay
of
138
Organisms of
the Soil 139
organic
matter
;
and
last,
but
not
least,come
the
bacteria,
which
are
the most
important
of all the soil
organisms
in the influence
they
exert.
148. Bacteria. "
The existence of bacteria
was
dis- covered
by
Leeuwenhoek
in
1695,
but little
was
known
of their real
nature until
a
few
years ago.
They belong
to the
plant kingdom,
and
are
composed
of
single
cells
about
25000
^^
^^
iiichin
diameter, although they
vary
considerably
in size
as
well
as shape.
Increase is
rapid,
since under favorable conditions
one
may
divide in about
a
half hour. At this
rate,
the number that
might
be
produced
from
a
single
individual in
a
week is almost
beyond computation.
Bacteria
cause
many
of the
com- mon
diseases of animals and
plants.
The
discovery
of
this fact made
possiblea new era
in the treatment
of
disease. All bacteria
are by no means
harmful
;
some
seem
to be neutral in their
action;
others
are decidedly
beneficial. Most soil
organisms are helpful
in
one
way
or
another.
149. The number of bacteria in the soil
is
probably
about
as largeas can
be
supported
under
existing
condi- tions.
Desert soils low in
organicmatter,
water-logged
soils,
and
sandy
soils have
comparatively
few bacteria;
while
loamy
soils,especially
if manured,
have
many.
Cultivated soils of the
ordinary type
usually
have from
1,000,000
to 10,000,000
bacteria in each
gram
of soil.
Where conditions are exceptionally
favorable the num- ber
often runs as high as 100,000,000
to
the
gram ;
how- ever,
this
varies
greatly during
the different seasons
of
the
year,
and is affected
by
soil
moisture,
crops,
tempera- ture,
organicmatter,
and
a
number of other factors.
150.
Kinds of bacteria. " The size and
shape
of bac- teria
vary
greatly. They are
classified
as spherical,
cylindrical,
and
spiral
and
are
often
compared
in form
140
The
Principlesof Agronomj/
with billiard balls,
lead
pencils,
and corkscrews.
They
may
occur singlyor
in
aggregates
of two
or more.
The
spherical
forms differ from the others in
being
able to
multiply
in
a
number of
planes;
hence
they
may
make
chains,
flat
layers,or
cubical
masses.
The
rod-shaped
and
spiral-shaped
forms increase in but
one direction;
they elongate
and
separate
into two
parts.
The three
main
types
are
not
always
distinct,
and
some
forms
are
intermediate. Hair-like
flagella
borne
by some
bacteria
aid in locomotion.
151. How bacteria
grow.
" The fact that bacteria
are
colorless makes them unable to
use
the
energy
of
sun- light
;
but
they,
like
animals,
must
depend on
the decom- position
of
organic
foods for
a source
of
energy.
Organic
material,therefore,
is
commonly
needed for food.
Sapro- phytic
forms obtain their foods from dead
plant
and
animal
bodies,
while
parasitic
forms
get
their food from
livingplants
and animals. A few forms
can
live without
organic
matter but subsist
entirelyon
mineral matter.
Oxygen
is needed
by
most bacteria for their
growth;
others
can
grow
either in the
presence
or
in the absence
of
oxygen;
stillothers
grow
only
in the absence of free
oxygen.
None of the
higher plants or
animals have the
ability
to live without free
oxygen.
Bacteria
respond
to
temperature changes
in much the
same
way
as
do other
livingthings.
At
very
low
tempera- tures
their activities
cease,
while at
very
high tempera- tures
they are
killed. The
temperature
of best
growth
varies
greatly
with the
species.
Some
grpw
best at about
70"
F.,
while
many
prefer
95"
F.,
and
a
few
speciesre- quire
as high as
140" F. for their
most
rapid growth.
At
a
temperature
of 160" F. most bacteria
are quickly killed,
although
spores
of bacteria will often live after
being
heated for
a
short time at
212" F.
Organisms
of
the Soil 141
The
proper
amount and balance
of food is
one
of the
most
important
considerations.
Soluble
carbohydrates
are
used
by
many
for food.
Their
own products are
usually
detrimental and
must be removed
or growth
ceases
and death
may
result.
152. Relation to humus formation. "
Tillage
ventilates
the
soil,
thus
removing
these excretions.
Practically
all
plant
residues
eventually
find their
way
into the
soil,
where
they undergo changes
of
some
kind.
They
may
decay entirelyand,
with the
exception
of
a
small
quantity
of mineral
matter,
become
gas
which
passes
into the
air; they
may
undergo
transformations
resulting
in
the formation of humus in the soil
;
or they
may
remain
preserved
in almost their
original
form. The
greater
part
of the
organic
matter that
gets
into the soil
under- goes
some
process
of
humification,
and
as a result,
it is
of
great
benefit. *"
The
changes occurring
in the
organic
matter of the
soil
are largely
the result of bacterial action. Some
fungi
begin
the
decay
of
woody matter,
but the
decomposition
is
completed by
bacteria. The carbon of the
organic
matter, by
its
decay
and union with
oxygen
in the forma- tion
of carbon
dioxide,
furnishes food
energy
to
the micro- organisms.
In addition to carbon
dioxide,
many
other
compounds are formed, some
of them
being
rather
com- plex.
Many
of the
compounds resulting
from
organic
decay
act as
solvents in
making
mineral
matter
more
available to
growing plants.
The humus
remaining
in
the soil
as a
result of
decay
is
usually
lower in carbon and
higher
in
nitrogen
than the
plant
residues from which it
was
formed.
This is
particularly
the
case
in arid climates
where
decay
has
gone
on
with but small
quantities
of
moisture.
153. Relation to
nitrogen.
" Of all the
plant-food
142
Tlw
Principlesof Agronomy
elements
of the
soil,nitrogen
is
probably
the
one needing
most
attention. It must constantly
be worked
over
and
changed
from
one
form to another.
A
part
is lost from
the soil
as
free
nitrogen
and ammonia,
which
escape
into
the
air,or as
soluble
nitrogen
salts which
are
leached out.
To
prevent
these losses and maintain in the soil
a supply
sufficient for the needs of
crops,
is
one
of the
greatest
problems
of
agriculture.
The
atmosphere
contains
a
vast store
of
nitrogen,
but
this is in
an
uncombined form and
is,therefore,not
in
a
condition to be used
by plants.
The
supply
of combined
nitrogen
in the
soil,on
the other
hand,
islimited. It
was
thought
for
some
time
that, on
account of losses which
occurred,
this
supply
would in time be
entirely
exhausted
and that it would
eventually
be
impossible
to raise
crops.
This
was
before the action of bacteria
was
understood.
We
now
know
that,
under
proper
conditions,
these
or- ganisms
are
able to combine the
nitrogen
of the air with
other elements in such
a
way
that it
can
be used
by plants.
The
discovery
of this
process
known
as nitrogen-fixation
is
responsible
for
a change
of ideas
regarding
soil fer- tility.
Other kinds of bacteria
are
able to
change
the
nitrogen
contained in dead animal and
plant
bodies into
a
form
that
can
be used
by livingplants.
This
general
process
which takes
place
in
a
number of distinct
stages
is known
as
nitrification. When available forms of
nitrogen,
like the nitrates, are
transformed into non-available
ammonia
or
free
nitrogen
the
process
is known
as
denitri-
fication.
154. The fixation of
nitrogen was
first found to
occur
in connection with little nodules which
are
found
on
the
roots of
legumes
such
as
peas,
beans, alfalfa,
and clover.
It
was
observed that where these
plants
grew,
the
nitrogen
Organisms
of
the Soil 143
content of the soil
was
increased.
Investigation
showed
that the
nodules
were
caused
by
bacteria
working on
the
roots. The bacteria
living
in these nodules
are
able
to
use
free
nitrogen
of the air and combine it into the
organiccompounds
of their bodies from which it
may
later
become
available
to the
higher plants.
The fixation of
nitrogen
in connection with the
growth
of
legumes
makes
these
plants
desirable in all
crop
rotations.
They
make
it
possibleto maintain the soil
nitrogen.
It
was
later
found that certain bacteria and
fungi working independ- ently
of
plantsare
also able to fix
nitrogen
from the
supply
in the air. The
quantity
of
nitrogenthey
fix in the soil
is
large
in
some
cases,
though
fixation
by means
of
legumes
proceeds more rapidly.
155. Nitrification and denitrification. " Most of the
soil
nitrogen
has
once
been held in
plants
where it
was
one
of the
important
constituents of
protoplasm.
When
plants
die,
their
nitrogen
returns to the soil
as complex
protein compounds
and, as such,
it cannot
again
be used
until the
compounds are
broken down. Some bacteria
and
fungi
attack dead
plants
and
cause decay, during
which at
least
a
part
of the
nitrogen
is converted into
ammonia
compounds.
Ammonia is then attacked
by a
group
of nitrous bacteria which
change
the
nitrogen
into
nitrites,
which
are
in
turn converted into nitrates
by
the
nitric bacteria. In the form of
nitrates,
the
nitrogen
is
again
available to
crops.
Thus the
nitrogen cycle
is
carried
on by a
number of different forms of
organisms.
In this
cycle,
nitrogen
is taken
up
as
nitrates
by
the
higherplants.
In their bodies it becomes
a
part
of the
complex protein
compounds.
When the
plant dies,
these
compounds
are
broken down into
ammonia,
which
by
the
process
of nitrification,
is converted into nitrites
and
finally
into
nitrates,
when it is
again ready
to be
144
The
Principlesof Agronomy
used. Nitrification
requiresa good supply
of
oxygen,
a
proper
amount
of soil
moisture, a
favorable
temperature,
and
a
number of other conditions.
In the soil there
are denitrifyingorganisms
which
change
the nitrates back into nitrites and ammonia.
These work in conditions
just
the
opposite
to those favor- able
for the
nitrifying
bacteria. Poor
drainage
and
a
lack of soil air
are
among
the conditions
favoring
their
action. In
ordinary
well-tilled soils these nitrate de- stroying
organisms
have but little effect.
Only
where
largequantities
of nitrate fertilizers
are applied
to
poorly
aerated soils do
they
have
great
economic
importance.
156. Bacteria and the farmer. " Soil bacteria will
go
on doing
their work in
spite
of
anything
the farmer does
;
but he
may,
by
proper
methods,
increase their usefulness
to
him.
By
the introduction of
leguminous
crops
into
his
rotations,
he is able to
keep
up
the
nitrogen supply,
and
by
the
plowing
under of
organic matter,
he furnishes
carbon for the formation of humus which assists in mak- ing
available the various mineral
plant-foods. By
drain- ing
wet
lands, by adding
limestone to soils that
are acid,
by
the liberal
use
of
barnyard
manure,
and
by
proper
tillagemethods,
the farmer is able to
get
the
greatest
good
out of these
invisible,but
powerful,
workers in his
behalf.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Any
textbook of
bacteriology.
AgriculturalBacteriology,
H. W. Conn.
Bacteria in Relation to
Country Life,
J. G.
Lipman.
Soils,Lyon, Pippin,
and
Buckman,
pp.
421-474.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
I,
pp.
441-453.
Agricultural Analysis,
Vol. I
(Soils),
H. W.
Wiley,
pp.
519-572.
146 The
Principlesof Agronomy
tilth,
attention must be
given
to the amount' of moisture
present.
When
a
very
wet soil is
stirred,
its
particles
are wedged together
and the result is
puddling,
which is
much
more
unfavorable to
plants
than is the
merely com- pact
condition of
virgin
land.
Plowing
should
mean more
than the
mere turning over
of the soil. If well
done,
every
clod will be shattered
and
every
particle
have its relation to
every
other
particle
Fig. 41. " Field in
good
condition for
crops.
changed through
the
shearingactioq which should take
place
when the
plowed
slice is turned
over.
As the soil
fallsinto the
furrow,
it should be
a granular,
mellow
mass
of loose
particles.
The kind of
implement
that will best
produce
this condition varies with each soil. Sand
or
loam
may
be made mellow with almost
any
kind of
plow,
but
a heavy clay
without
organic
matter
can
be
given a
good
tilth
only
when
everything
is
favorable. Soil in
good
condition is shown in
Figs.
41 to 43.
Tillage
and
Crop
Rotations 147
158.
Controlling
weeds. " Weeds
are a menace
to
every
farm.
They
thrive under all conditions that
pro- duce
crops,
and it is
impossible
for
ordinary
crops
to
com- pete
with
them without the farmer's aid. Weeds
are
injurious,
since
they consume
available
plant-food
and
moisture
needed
by
crops ;
they
shade and crowd out
Fig. 42. " A
good
seed-bed.
the
more
desirable
plants;
and
they
often reduce the
market value of
crops.
In arid
regions
where
crop pro- duction
is limited
by
lack of
moisture, successful farm- ing
cannot
be
practiced
unless weeds
are kept
in
check;
indeed,
the
quality
of
farming
in
any
region
may
be
judged
by
the
thoroughness
with which weeds
are
controlled.
Some
one
has said that weeds
are a good thing
for the
148
The
Principlesof Agronomy
farm since
they keep
the farmer
cultivating.
Be this
as
it
may,
it is
probable
that
a largepart
of the
tillage
operations
are performed
in order to kill weeds
;
but the
soil receives other benefits at
the
same
time. Much
energy
is wasted in
trying
to control weeds which
are
allowed to
grow
and
begin
seed
production
before the
cultivator is used. It takes
a
great
deal of work to kill
big
weeds,
and if their seeds have been scattered
a new
crop
of trouble
may
be
expected.
The best time
to kill
weeds is
just
after
they
have
germinated
and before
they,
have become well established in the soil. A
mere stirring
of the soil at this time is all that is
necessary,
but if
they
are
allowed to
get
well
established,a
number of
hoeings
or
cultivations
are
often
required.
The
implement
used to
kill weeds
depends on
the
crop
grown,
the kind of
land,
and the kind of weeds. On
fallow
land, an implement covering
considerable
area can
be used to
advantage.
The
spike-tooth,disk,
and
spring-
tooth
harrows, and
implements
with blades
running just
beneath the surface of the soil
are
effective. For tilled
crops
such
as corn
and
potatoes,
some
sort of cultivator
isused to
advantage
;
while in
crops
like
alfalfa,
the
spring-
tooth harrow is
a good implement
to eradicate weeds
.
Th
e
great
secret
of weed control with
any
tool lies in
doing
the work at the
right
time.
159.
Covering manure
and
plant
residues. "
Organic
matter accumulates on
the surface of
any
soil that is
cropped.
In the
orchard,
leaves fall to the
ground
;
in
the
grainfield,
stubble is left after harvest
;
and in mead- ows
that
are
to be followed
by
another
crop,
a
sod must
be
disposed
of. These
plant
residues
cannot
decompose
readily
if left at the surface.
They
need to be turned
under and mixed with the soil in order to
decay
and
give
up
their
plant-foodsas
well
as
to assist in
making
available
Tillage
and
Crop
Rotations 149
the mineral
matter of the soil. Farm
manure
is
constantly
beingapplied
to the
land,
and
must be covered and mixed
with the soil if it is to do the
most
good. Practically
all
of this
covering
must be done with
some
kind of
plow,
although
the disk harrow finds occasional
use
where the
land has
recently
been
plowed.
160.
Conserving
moisture.
"
One of the most
im- portant
reasons
for
cultivating
the soil is the
conserva- tion
of moisture. Even in
regions
of abundant
rainfall,
there
are
times when it is
necessarv to save
soil mois-
FiG. 43. " Orchard soil in
good
tilth,
ture;
and in arid
regions,
the
very
life of
agriculture
depends
on conserving
the scant
supply
of water (see
Fig.
44).
If
the
soil is
compact
and
hard,
rain water
will
nm
off
the surface rather than
penetrate
the soil where it
can
be
used
by plants.
The soil
must,
therefore,
be loosened in
order that it
may
absorb moisture. The
water that is
in the soil
moves by capillarity
from
particle
to
particle,
and if the
surface
particlesare pressedtightlytogether,
the water
will riseto
the surface where itislost
by
evapora- tion.
This loss
can
be
prevented
by stirring
the surface
and
forming
a loose,dry
mulch of earth which does
not
150
The
Prirwiplesof Agronomy
allow moisture to
escape
readily.
This mulch
may
be
preservedby
many
implements,
such, as
harrows and
cultivators of various kinds.
Rolling
the land is often
practiced
to
make the surface
smooth and to break clods.
Compacting
the surface
soil
by
the roller increases
capillary
movement toward
the
surface and
thereby
the loss of moisture. The fact
!FiG. 44. " Cultivation while the
crop
is
young
greatly
influences
the yield. Delaware.
that the soil
seems more
moist after
a
roller is used often
misleads farmers who think
they are actuallysaving
water.
161.
Tillage
of various
crops.
" The
implements
of
tillage
may
be divided into three main classes
"
(1)
plows, (2) cultivators,
and
(3)
crushers and
packers.
The
primary
purpose
of the
plow
is to
loosen and
pulver- ize
the soil and make it
more
fit for the
growth
of
plants.
Plows
are
of
nimierous designs; no one
kind is suitable
for all conditions. The disk
plow
has
given good
results
in
many
places,
but the moldboard
plow
is doubtless
Tillage
and
Crop
Rotations 151
suited
to
a
much wider
range.
The old
walking plow
is
rapidly
giving
way
to
some
form of
ridingplow.
Many
different
kinds of cultivators
are
used in
pre- paring
the
seed-bed,
in
eradicatingweeds,
and in
tilling
crops
during growth. Every
farm
should be
equipped
with several kinds of
cultivatingimplements.
A
very
useful and
simple
device
used to smooth the land and to
break clods without
compacting
the soil is made
by
at- taching
a
number of
planks
together
with their
edges
overlapping.
This
planker, or float,
is
especially
useful
to
precede
the
grain drill,
since it
scrapes
off little eleva- tions
and fills
depressions,
thus
insuringa more
uniform
depth
of
planting.
162. Reasons for
rotation of
crops.
"
Some sort of
crop
rotation has been
practiced
for
many
centuries.
The
reasons
for this
practicewere probably
not at first
understood, even to-day
all the effects of alternate
crop- ping
are not
known
;
but
so
many
reasons are now
known
that there
seems no good excuse
for
not
practicingsome
kind of rotation
on
almost
every
farm. All
crops
do not
require
the various foods in
exactly
the
same proportions
;
some use more potash or nitrogen,
while others need rela- tively
more phosphorus or
lime. If
one
crop
is
grown
continuouslyon
the
same land,
the available
supply
of
certain elements is reduced and the
yield
will
finally
decrease;
but if
crops
with different
requirements are
alternated,
the food
supply
of the soil is
kept
in
a more
balanced condition.
Each kind of
plant
has
a
different
rootingsystem
and
manner
of
growth.
If shallow-rooted
crops
are
grown
continuously,onlypart
of the soil is
used,
while an
alternation
of
deep-
and shallow-rooted
crops
overcomes
this
difficulty.
One
of the chief
reasons
for
crop
rotations is the im- provement
of the soil. This is made
possibleby
the
use
152
The
Principlesof Agronomy
of
legume
crops,
which fix
nitrogen
from the air
(Fig.45).
The
nitrogen
fixed
by
these
crops
can
be used
by
others
which follow in the rotation,
but it would be
practically
lost ifthe
legumes
were
raised
continuously.
The control
of
plant
diseases,
insect
pests,
and weeds is made
possible
by
the rotation of
crops;
indeed,
such considerations
often
cause
the farmer to change
his
crops
when he would
not otherwise do
so. Economy
in the
Use
of
man-labor,
horse-labor, machinery,
and
irrigation
water results
Fig. 45. " Every rotation should include
a nitrogen-gathering
crop.
from the
raising
of
a
number of
crops
on a
farm. These
considerations
alone,
without
any
of the other
benefits,
would be sufficient
reason
for
practicing
rotations.
163. Methods of
crop
rotation. " Careful
planning
is
required
in
making a good
rotation. The first essential
is
to decide
on
what
crops
can
best be
grown
under the
conditions. When this is done the
quantity
of each
crop
to raise and the
placing
of it
can
be determined.
The
followingprinciples
should be
kept
in mind in
CHAPTER XV
SPECIAL SOIL PROBLEMS
Every
region
has certain
special
soil
problems
not
found
in other
places.
Some of these
are
merely local;
others
apply
to
a
comparatively large area.
On each
farm,
soil
conditions
are
found that
are
not identical with those
found
on
other farms of the
same neighborhood.
These
special
conditions make it
necessary
for each farmer
to
study
his
own
soil in order to solve the
problems
which
it
presents.
It is not possible to discuss, or even
to
under- stand,
all the
special
soil
problems.
ALKALI
In arid
regions,
there
are
millions of
acres
of land
con- taining
excessively high quantities
of soluble salts which
are usually spoken
of
as
alkalies. The soil is rendered
valueless
by
these salts if
they are present
in
quantities
that
prohibit
crop
growth. Many soils, however,
con- taining
considerable alkali will raise
good
crops
until
strong
concentrations of salt
are brought near
the surface
by
the
evaporation
of
large quantities
of
water.
In
judging
arid
soils,
it is
necessary
to know the
amount
of
soluble salts
present
and their relation to the
quantity
causing injury to
crops.
In the
management
of such
soils,
the farmer should know how to
prevent
the accumula- tion
of salts in the strata
of the soil that is used
;
and in
154
Special
Soil Problems 155
regionswhere
largequantities
of alkali
are already
pres- ent,
he
should know how to reclaim the land. Effects of
alkali
on
vegetation are
shown in
Figs.
46 and 47.
164. Kinds of alkali.
"
Any
soluble salt
present
in
the soil in
injuriousquantities
may
be considered
an
alkali.
The salts that most
often
cause injuryare :
sodium
chloride,or common
salt
;
sodium
sulfate,or
Glauber's salt
;
sodium
carbonate, or
sal-soda
;
and
magnesium sulfate,or
Fig. 46. " Alkali
spot
with
vegetation
killed.
epsom
salt. In addition
to these,
sodium nitrate and
a
number of other salts do
damage
in
some
districts.
Sodium chloride is
injurious
to
vegetation
when
present
in lower concentrations than
any
of the other salts
men- tioned
;
sodium
carbonate, or
black
alkali,injures
the
soil when
present
in low concentrations
by dissolving
the
organic
matter
and
causing a
hard crust to form. Plants
will
grow
in the
presence
of
relativelylargequantities
of
the sulfates.
156 The
Principlesof Agronomy
165. Effect of alkali
on
plant growth.
" The
injury
done to
vegetationby
alkali salts results
largely
from the
shutting
off of water from the
plant on
account of the soil
solution
having
a
greater
concentration than the
plant
cells.
By
the law of osmosis water
passes
from the dilute
to the
more
concentrated solution. In
a
normal
soil,
the
root has
a
cell-sap
with
a higher
concentration than the
soil
solution; hence,
water
passes
from the soil into the
Fig. 47. " An orchard
being
killed
by
the rise of alkali.
plant.
When the soil solution is made too
concentrated,
on
the other
hand, water
passes
out of the roots into the
soil and the
plant
dies.
166. Reclamation of alkali lands.
" The
permanent
reclamation of alkali lands rests
on a
removal of excessive
salts
by drainage.
Other
means
may
give temporary
relief,
but
drainage
is the
only
certain
cure.
In
draining,
the
principles
discussed in
Chapter
X
are
to be followed.
Where the accumulation of alkali results from
over-
irrigating higher
lands,
the
remedy
is
obviously
the
prie-
vention of
percolating
water which carries soluble salts
Special
Soil Problems 157
from above
and
concentrates them in the lower lands.
Any
practice
which reduces
evaporation,
such
as
cultiva- tion,
cropping,or
the
use
of
manure,
tends to reduce the
accumulation
of these salts.
ACIDITY
Most
crops
require
for their best
growth an alkaline,
or basic,reaction,
although some
grow
better if the soil
is
slightly
acid. Such
important
crops
as
the
legumes can
hardly
be made to
grow
on an
acid
soil,
since the bacteria
which fix
nitrogen
in connection with
growth on
the roots
of these
crops
require a
basic reaction. Acid soils
are
most often found in humid
regions
where the basic ele- ments
of the soil-minerals have been leached
out, leaving
the acid
part
behind,
and in
swamp
lands where the
decay
of
largequantities
of
vegetable
matter
results in the
ac- cumulation
of
organic
acids. The continuous
applica- tion
of ammoniun sulfate
as a
fertilizer
to cultivated soils
also
finally
results in
an
acid condition.
167. Indicators of soil
acidity.
" An acid soil is indi- cated
by
the
growth
of
a
number of
plants,
among
which
are common sorrel,sour dock, horsetail,
and
corn
spurry ;
also
by
the failure of alfalfa and other
legumes
to do well.
Blue litmus
paper
and
a
number of
laboratory
tests
may
be resorted to in
determining acidity
and the
amount
of
lime
necessary
to correct
the condition.
168. Correction of soil acidity.
"
Acidity
is best
corrected
by
the
use
of
some
form of lime
;
and acid soils
usually
pay
handsomely
for the
expense
of
applying
lime.
Swamp
lands
high
in
organic
matter often contain
so
much
acid that
it does not
pay
to correct the
sour condition,
especially
since these soils
usually
contain
an
abundance
of
nitrogen.
The
kind of lime to
use
depends on
condi-
158
The
Principlesof Agronomy
tions;
burned lime and
ground
limestone both
accom- plish
the result. Ground
limestone, however,
is
usually
cheaper
and if fine
enough,
it is
very
effective. Ground
limestone also has
an
additional
advantage
of
destroying
less
organic
matter
than the burned, or
caustic lime.
EROSION
One of the chief difficultieswith which farmers of certain
sections have to
contend is the erosion of the
soil,
during
which
fertility
is washed out
and
at
times the entire soil
carried
away.
Some erosion
goes
on normally
in all
parts
of the world
;
indeed,
it is
by
erosion that caiions and
ravines have been formed. It is much
more intense,
however, on
land that isunder cultivation.
Many
factors
influence the amount of erosion that will take
place.
Among
these
are
the
quantity
and
season
of
rainfall,
the
slope
of the
land,
the texture
of the
soil,
the
organic
matter in the
soil,
and the
crops
raised.
Where the
precipitation
is
light,
erosion does not
take
place
to
any
great
extent
unless the
water
falls in
a
few
heavy
storms
and then
only
local
damage
is done.
Erosion is
more
serious where the land has considerable
slope
and
damaging
streams
are
formed. A
loose,
coarse-textured soil is in
more danger
of erosion than
a
fine
one
that is
compact. Organic matter
in the soil
reduces erosion
by increasing
its
water-holding capacity
and its
absorptive
power.
169. Methods of
preventing
erosion.
" Erosion cannot
be avoided
by
the
same
methods under all conditions. One
way
of
preventing
it in
hillyregions
where the
precipi- tation
is excessive is to
keep
the land
continually
in
crops.
As
soon as one
crop
is harvested
something
else is
planted.
This
may
later be
plowed
under
as a
green
manure
before
Special
Soil Problems 159
the
regular
crop
is seeded. Parts of the land most
likely
to wash
are kept constantlyplanted
to
grass.
Erosion
usually begins by
the formation of small
furrows
across
the field. These
rapidly
increase until in
time
they
become
great
washes. This condition
may
be
avoided in the
beginningby making regular
channels with
less
slopeto take
care
of allthe run-off. The construction
of
terraces and
plowing
at
rightangles
to the
slope are
useful
devices for
counteracting
this
tendency
to wash.
Large quantities
of stable
manure are
also beneficial in
reducing
erosion. On
some
soils
one or
two of the
methods
given
will
successfullyprevent
washing,
but in
some
sections
every
practice
in soil
management
has to
be directed toward
reducing
erosion.
BLOWING
In
many
sections,
considerable
difficulty
is
experienced
with soils
being
blown
away,
leaving
fields bare to the
bottom of the
plowed zone.
After the land is
plowed
and
a
crop
planted a
wind-storm
may carry
the
plowed
soil and seed to
a neighboring
field. This
condition,
particularly
serious in certain
parts
of the Great Plains,
is also found to
a
lesser
degree
in
many
other
regions
having an
arid
_
or a
semi-arid climate. In
places
where
the soil drifts
readily,
farms have been abandoned
over
largeareas. Houses, barns,
and
trees
have been almost
completely
covered
with soil and the entire surface of the
land transformed
by
dust storms.
In
regions
where the soil blows in this
way, every opera- tion
has to
be directed toward
holding
the soil in
place.
The
greatest
care
must
be taken in
plowing
and harrow- ing.
If the
soilis leftloose and
fine,
itis
sure to
be carried
away.
A
fine,dry
mulch such
as
is most effectual in
160 The
Principlesof Agronomy
preventingevaporation
of moisture cannot be used
at
all,
but it is
necessary
to leave
a
surface of small clods
which cannot
be
readily
moved
by
wind.
Plowing
is
usually
done at
rightangles
to
the direction of wind. In
this
way
the
ridges
break the force of the wind
next to
the
ground,
and the soil does not
easilyget
into motion.
170. Prevention of
blowing.
" It is
on
the
long
stretches of barren soil that the
greatest
injury
is done.
Where
a large
tract
is left
summer
fallowed in
dry-farming
districts,blowing
may
begin
and the whole district be
affected. When the soil
begins
to
move,
it
rapidly
cuts
the
ground over
which it
passes.
The
great
problem,
therefore,
is to
prevent
the first
blowing.
One effective
means
is the alternate
cropping
and
fallowing
of
long
strips
of land. A
crop, say corn,
is
planted
in
a longstrip
a
few rods wide at
right angles
to
the wind. Next to
this
comes a strip
of fallow
land,
and then another of
crop.
In this
way
there is
no largearea
of fallow land in
one body
and the soil does not start to blow.
Seeding
to
grass
or
to
some
other
permanent
crop
is sometimes
necessary
in
places
where
drifting
is worst. The methods
to be used
vary
with conditions
;
sometimes
one measure
will be
sufficient,
while
at
other times
every
known
means
must be used to
prevent
the soil's
being
carried
away
by
the wind.
METHODS OF JUDGING SOILS
Since there
are so
many
factors
entering
into the value
of
land,
it is
very
difficultto tell
just
what it is worth.
The amount of
money
involved in land transactions is
so
great
that considerable
care
should be exercised to deter- mine
as nearly as possible
its true value. Often in
one
transaction there is sufficient
money
wasted to
pay
a
man's
expenses
through an
entire
course
at
an
agricul-
162
The
Principlesof Agronomy
probably
less
on
land of this kind than where the surface
is flat. Under
some
conditions
a rolling
surface
may
be
desirable,
while under others smoother land
may
be
pre- ferred.
Under
practically
all
conditions, however,
the
topography
of the land must
be
given
consideration in
judging
of its value.
173.
Depth
and structure of the soil. " The
depth
of
the soil and its
generalmake-up are
very
important
ele- ments
entering
into its value. A soil
may
be
nearly
perfect
at
the
surface,
but if it is
only a
few inches
deep,
it is of littlevalue for
some
classes of
farming.
A shallow
soil has
a
low
water-holdingcapacity
and its root-zone is
not
sufficient to
give
the best results for certain
crops.
The
presence
of
a hardpan or
of
a
streak of
coarse
gravel
near
the surface
greatly
reduces the value of
any
piece
of land. Too often land is
purchased on a
surface
ex- amination
merely.
This is
a dangerous practice,
since
it is
impossibleby looking
at the surface to tellwhat lies
below. The condition of the sub-soil
can
best be studied
by examining washes,
railroad
cuts,
and
wells,or by
using a
soil
auger.
It is
impossible
to make
a
sound
judgment regarding
land without
knowing
its nature to
a depth
of
at
least
eightor
ten
feet.
174. A chemical
analysis
of the soil tells the amount
of
plant-foodcontained,
and
givessome
index
to the best
methods of
handling
the land. It shows
which elements
are likely
to be deficient and which
are
abundant. It
may
also tellthe reaction of the soil
as
well
as
the
presence
of
excessive
quantities
of soluble salts.
Special
skill and
considerable time
are required
to
make
a
chemical anal- ysis;
hence,
this item is often overlooked
by practical
farmers in
judging
land. If the chemical
composition
of
a
soil is not
known, however,
any
judgment
made of
it must be somewhat
superficial.
Special
Soil Problems 163
1*75.
The
mechanical
analysis
of
a
soil shows its tex- ture,
or the size of
particlescomposing
it. After
a
little
experiencethe
texture
can
be
judged
with fair
accuracy
without
an analysis
simply by feeling
it. There is
no
difficulty,
for
example,
in
distinguishing
between
a
coarse
sand and
a
fine
clay
;
but in
determining
the tex- ture
of
an intermediate
soil,a
mechanical
analysis
is
useful. Since the texture of
a
soil
helps
to determine
what
crops
to
grow,
it should be? known.
176.
Productivity.
" The real value of land is deter- mined
by
what it will
produce.
Its chemical
composi- tion
and texture
may
seem favorable,
but
they
count for
littleif
crops
do not thrive. For this
reason
it is not wise
to
judge hastily
the value of land in
a new project
before
crops
are tried,even though
chemical
analyses
and other
indicators
are
available. So
many
factors enter into
crop
production
that it is
easy
to overlook
some
of
them,
but all must be
right
if
yields are
to be
satisfactory.
Natural
vegetation,topography, depth
of
soil,
and
chemical and mechanical
composition are
all
good
indica- tors
of the value of land
;
but the real
"
proof
of the
pudding
is in the
eating,"
and the best indicator of the
value of land is its
productivity.
SUPPLEMENTARY
READING
How to
Choose
a Farm,
T. F. Hunt.
Soils,
E. W.
Hilgard,
pp.
313-370,
422-526.
Soils,Lyon,
Fippin,
and
Buckman,
pp.
375-403,
718-740.
The
Soil,
A. D. Hall,
pp.
233-370,
289-297.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
I,
pp.
480-483,
513-531.
Physics
of
Agricultiu-e,
F. H.
King,
pp.
92-107.
Fertility
of the
Land,
I. P.
Roberts,
pp.
303-341.
Reports
of Soil
Siu-veys
of U. S. D. A. Bureau of Soils and of State
Experiment
Stations.
PART III
FIELD CROPS
CHAPTER XVI
WHEAT
{Triticum sativum)
The word
"
wheat
"
comes
to
us,
Dondlinger
^
says,
from the Middle
EngHsh
"
whete,"
which in turn
came
from old
English
"
hwaete." To this
day
the Germans
call it
"
weizen."
Strange though
it
may seem,
both
these words
are
related to
others which
mean
white.
Dondlinger
further
suggests
that
perhaps
wheat
was
called white
on
account of
rye
and other
grains being
darker in color.
Wheat is
one
of the oldest cultivated
plants.
Far
back
beyond
the time when the first histories
were
written,
this
plant was
nurtured. It
seems
to have been
cultivated about
thirty
centuries before
Christ,
in
China. It has also been found in the Lake
dwellings
of
the
Swiss,
which
discovery
throws its
history
back into
the
prehistoric
Stone
Age.
The Bible
speaks
of wheat
harvest in
very
early
times
(Genesis xx. 14).
With- out
intermission this
plant
has served
men
down
to the
present
day.
Geographically,
its
origin
is
equally
uncertain. The
supposition
that the
Tigris-Euphrates valley
is its birth- place
is favored
by
de
Candolle, Dondlinger,
and Hunt.
At
any
rate,
when recorded
history began,
it
was
cultivated widely over
the earth from China to
Egypt.
Perhaps
the search for
a
center of
spread suggested
the
Euphrates
region.
^
Booh
of Wheat,
p.
1.
167
168
The
Principlesof Agronomy
"
177.
Relationships.
" The Graminese is the botanical
family
to
which wheat
belongs. Many species
of this
family
have become valuable for the
production
of seed
which
supplies
food to both
man
and animal. These
plants are designated as cereals,or grains.
Into this
category
fall
wheat, oats, barley,
rye,
rice,
corn,
the
sorghums,
and the millets. The Graminese include
not
only
allof the cereals but also the
common
tame and wild
grasses.
The
general
field conditions for
good
wheat
are
well indicated in
Figs.
48-53.
178. Roots.
"
When wheat kernels
germinate, they
send out three roots
which
gather
food from the soil to
supplement
that stored in the kernel. From these two
sources,
comes
sufficient nourishment to
keep
the
young
plant growing
until it
can
establish itself.
Once the
green
leaflets
push
into the
sunlight,
food
manufacture
begins.
In the meantime roots
grow
out
in all directions from
a node, or joint,
about
an
inch be- neath
the
surface,leaving
the first
ones
to die because
they are
of
no
further
use.
These
new roots
grow
out- ward
from
eight
to
twenty
inches and then turn down- ward,
rapidlyreaching
into
deeper
soil which is both
a
reservoir for water and
a
storehouse for
plant-food.
The
depth to
which
they
penetrate
and the number of branches
they
send out
depend on
the
looseness,
the
dampness,
and the warmth of the
soil; on
the time of the
year;
and
on
the kind of wheat. The limits of variation
are
wide,
yet
under the
most
unfavorable
conditions,
the
ex- tent
of the
root-system
far exceeds what the
ordinary
person
thinks it to be.
One
plant,showing
roots
seven
feet
two inches
long
profusely
branched, was dug
up
at the Utah
Experiment
Farm at
Nephi.
The Minnesota Station
reports finding
a
branch root
every
eighth
of
an
inch for
eighteenor
170
The
Principlesof Agronomy
if all of these thread-like branches
were
placed
end
to end.
179. The
plant
above
ground.
" Like allother members
of the
grass
family,
the wheat
stem,
known
as a culm,
has
four
or
five distinct
joints,or nodes,
from
two to ten inches
apart
in the mature
plant.
These nodes
are
solid,
while
the
straw between,
in most
cases,
is hollow and sometimes
partly
filledwith
pith.
In the
young
plant,
nodes
are
close
together.
Growth consists in
a
lengthening
and thicken- ing
of the internodes at
a point just
above the nodes. If
the
plantsare so
few that
they
do not fillthe
ground
in
which
they are planted,underground
nodes send out
more culms,
that
is,
the
plant
stools.
Leaves
grow
upward
from the nodes
along
the
stem,
clasping
it
closely
half
or
two thirds of the
way
to the next
joint.
This
part
of the leaf is called the
sheath;
that
which
springs
away
from the stem is called the blade.
The leaves have
parallelveins, a prominent one
in the
middle
forming a
midrib. Leaf blades
may
be
largeor
sniall,
smooth
or rough
;
some
have
edges so sharp as
to cut the skin when
brought
in
.contact
by a sliding
movement.
The
head, or spike,
consists of smaller sections borne
alternately
upon
the
rachis,a
zig-zagstem,
which
may
be
studied in
a pictureor by carefullypulling
off the
spike-
lets,as
the sections
are
called. On each side of the
spikelet
is
a coarse chaff,or
glume.
Between
are two to
five flowers
so
completely
inclosed
by
other chaff,
that
pollen
seldom
escapes.
This
causes
the flowers to be
self-fertilized.
Generally
two of these
flowers,
but
some- times
only one or even three,
bear
a kernel,or berry.
180. The
kernel, dry
and
fairlysmooth,
has
a deep
groove
running lengthwise,a
number of fine hairs at
one
end,
and
a
crumpled irregularityat the other. This
Wheat
171
wrinklingbetrays
the location of the
embryo,
or
germ,
which
is
not
more
than
one
fourteenth of the entire
berry.
The
embryo
is
oily
and
can easily
be removed
with
a pin or
the
point
of
a
knife blade. The remainder
of the
berry
is
endosperna.
Cut in two
across
the
groove,
the
grain
shows
plainly.
under
a
hand lens three
distinct
layers;
the bran
outermost
and the
starchy part
inside,
with
a layer
of dark
aleurone cells between.
When wheat is
milled,
flour
comes
from the white
interior,
the outer two
layers making
bran. In
big
Fig. 49. " A
good yield
of wheat, Pennsylvania.
mills the
germ
is
separated
from the
endosperm
and made
into
flour,though
this weakens the
flour and also lessens
its
keepingqualities
to
a slight
extent.
181. Varieties.
"
Like
all
livingthings,
wheat varies
under diiferent climatic and soil conditions.
This is
but natural,
for included within the vast
range
of the
crop
are
many
distinct environments,
to
which nature
and
man attempt
to
fit
plasticplant organisms,
particularly
if
they
are
useful. East of the
Mississippi,
where the
winters are
mild and the rainfall
abundant,
soft winter
wheats are
grown.
Between this river and the Rockies,
172
The
Principlesof Agronomy
north of
Nebraska,
where the
summers are dry
and
hot,
and the winters
severe,
having
Uttle
snow,
alternate
freezing
and
thawing injure fall-planted grain; hence,
the farmers
grow
hard
spring
varieties. Because the
winters
are
less
rigorous
and because
snow
protects
the
young
plants
from
freezing,
winter wheats do best
on
the
Great Plains
squth
of Dakota. The
hot, dry ripening
period
favors hard
grain.
On the Pacific
coast hard
wheat tends to
soften and amber wheat to whiten in
re- sponse
to mild winters and wet
springs.
Both the winter
and the
spring
varieties
are
soft and
starchy.
The
types
of wheat in these districtsneither
begin nor
end
sharply,
but blend into
one
another.
All told there
are upwards
of 1000 so-called varieties.
In
1895,
the United States
Department
of
Agriculture
selected about 200
as being
best fitted
to
various
regions.
As
already indicated,no single
choice could be made for
the Great Plains alone.
Clearly,
then, no one variety
is best for all localities. There
are now existingeight
distinct
types.
Once
merely variations,
their characteris- tics
have become
fairly
fixed
on
account of continuous
selection for
one
part
of
the earth.
Certain definite
qualities
are,
however,
desired with
reference
to which varieties
may
be
improved.
Chief
among
these
are : (1)high yieldto the
acre,
(2)high weight
for
a bushel,(3)
hardness
accompanied by high nitrogen
content,
and
(4)
resistance to
drouth, insects,or plant
diseases. Better varieties
may
be secured
by
three
methods
: (1) by
selection of the most desirable
plants
from
ones now
grown ;
(2) by cross-breeding ;
and
(3)by
the
bringing
of
superiorspecies
from
some
other
part
of
the world that has climate and soil
reasonably
like the
one
in
question.
Better cultural methods will also
improve
the health and
consequently
the
yield
of the
crop.
Wheat 173
182. Distribution and
adaptation.
"
Although
wheat is
primarilyadapted
to
growth
in the
temperate
zone,
it is
by no means
coniined there. It has followed the Cauca- sian
race
into
every
continent and
clime,
and has also
been cultivated
by
other
races,
for
example, by
the
Chinese and other Asiatics. It is the bread-stuff of
civilized
man, having accompanied
the
spread
of
learning
and
implements.
It
was
first
cultivated,as we
have
seen,
by
the
Egyptians;
all
peoples
have
grown
it
except
some
in the Far
East,
where
a
similar
grain,rice,
supplants
it.
Wheat has matured from the
equator
to within two
hundred miles of the Arctic circle at Dawson and
on
the
Mackenzie
River,
both.fully a
thousand miles north of the
United States. It is
a common
crop
in
Brazil,Peru,
Egypt, India, Australia,
United
States, Russia,
and
Canada.
Being
best
adapted
to low
plateau regions,
it
has
spread
round the world from east to
west,
wherever
suitable conditions and
opportunities
have
presented
themselves. Nor is
production closely
limited
by
eleva- tion.
In Russia and
Palestine,regionsfifty
to
one
hun- dred
feet below sea-level
produce abundantly,
while
Ecuador and Peru show
profitable
crops
at
10,000 feet,
and in the
Himalaya
mountains wheat is
produced
at
an
elevation of
11,000
feet. About three-fourths of the
crop,
however,
grows
between 500 and 1500 feet above
sea-level.
At the
equator
the
areas
of
production are high,
with
but
little
growing
near
sea-level. Near the extremes
of
height
and latitude,no profit
is made from
the
crop,
production
being
entirelyexperimental.
The elevation
and
latitude of the best
regions
indicate the
desirability
of moderate climates
as regards
both
temperature
and
rainfall.
With the
perfection
of
dry-farmingmethods,
174
The
Principlesof Agronomy
wheat has
spread rapidly
into drier districts until it is
the
principal
crop
on
the
dry-farm.
It is
only
of late
years
that
crops
of
higher
acre
returns
have driven it
from
irrigated
farms.
Whether
a
crop
yielding
at best
only a
few dollars to
the
acre can
be
profitably
grown
on high-priced
land is
Fig. 50.
" Wheat farms should be large
to be most economical.
questionable.
The
opinion
of the best informed'
men
seems
to be that wheat should
gradually
pass
to the
less valuable
areas everywhere, making
room
for the
higher producing
crops
on
land that bears
high
rent.
About all it
requiresas
to soil is fair
fertility
and
tilth.
It
grows
on sands, loams, clays,
and
silts,avoiding
the
muck
soils,
which
are
too rich in
organic
matter.
Deep,
uniform
loams, however, generallygive
the best
yields
where there is about
twenty-five
inches of rainfall. Good
fields of wheat
are
shown in
Figs.48, 49,
and 50.
Hard and soft
spring,
hard and soft
winter,
and white
Wheat
175
wheats have
adapted
themselves to
dimatic conditions.
These variations illustrate
only
a
few of the
attempts
of
the
crop
to suit
more rigorous
climates. Strains
are
continuallybecoming adapted
to
drier
or to colder dis- tricts,
where
they were
not
successfully
grown
before. It
is because of this
widely increasing
variation
coupled
with
its manifold
uses,
that wheat has become such
a general
crop.
183.
Preparation
of seed-bed.
" The
preparation
of
land for
planting
differs with the
region.
The chief
difference is in
amount
of seed and time of
sowing;
the
methods of cultivation
are primarily
the
same.
In
general,
the methods include
plowing
in the autumn
or
late
summer as soon
after the
crop
is taken off
as
pos- sible
;
leaving
the land
rough over
winter
so as
to
prevent
run-off of rain
or meltingsnow
and to
permit
frost to break
clods
or
sod into finer
particles;
and
harrowing
in the
earlyspring
to
prevent
loss of moisture
by evaporation
and to
keep
down weeds.
Fall-plowingought
to be
as
deep as
the
machinery
and the horses
or
other
power
at
the farmer's command
will
permit.
Increased
depth
of
plowing
makes
a
better home for the
plant
and stores
a
greater
quantity
of moisture. In
regions
where
spring
planting
is
practiced,deep fall-plowing
is stillvaluable,
but in most cases
the
grain
is not
sown
until it becomes
warm
the next spring.
184. Seed and
seeding.
" Farmers had better
use
seed that is
adapted
to
their
system
of
farming.
The
stubble
ought
to
be turned under
as early as possible
after harvest.
Sometimes
the land should lie
through
the winter
without harrowing.
If farmers disk
it,and
harrow
after
every
rain that crusts the land
or starts
weeds, they
have
a
loose,
moist seed-bed free from weeds
when planting
time
comes.
176 The
Principlesof Agronomy
The
grain ought
to be
screened to
remove
weed
seed, rubbish,
and
shrunken kernels.
Large,
plump
kernels
give
bet- ter
yields
than small
or
shrunken
ones,
because
of the better
start
they
give
the
young
plants.
But
more
than
screening
is
necessary.
For
smut,
the
grain
should be
treated with formalde- hyde,
one pint to
fifty
gallons
of
water, or
with
blue vitriol
(copper
sul- fate),
one pound
to five
gallons
of
water. A
good
way
is
to
dip a bag
of
wheat into
a
solution
contained in
a
half barrel.
About ten minutes is
re- quired
to wet all the
grain.
In the
meantime,
another sackful
might
be
screened and filled to
economize time.
From
three to six
pecks
of seed have
given
the best
crops
where
no
irrigation
is
practiced,
while under
irrigation
four
to
eight
pecks are
used. For
spring-plant-
178
The
Principlesof Agronomy
ing,
earliness is essential.
Fall-plowing
makes
possible
earlier
seeding,
since
disking
is then all that is
necessary
before
planting.
During growth
about all that
can
be
done is to harrow.
185.
Harvesting.
" There is
no
month in the
year
that is not a
harvest
season
in
some part
of the earth.
The
season
varies
in the United States from
May
in
Texas,
to
September
in
parts
of the Northwest. Fall-
planted grainripens early
and
spring-plantedgrain
late
where the weather is cool
or
moist.
Methods differ
as widely as seasons.
In
many
parts
of the
world,
peasants
still
use
the sickle
or
old-fashioned
Fig. 53. " Thresher at work.
cradle,
but modern harvesters
are rapidlywinning
in all
progressive
countries. In
parts
of western United States
the binder has
given
way
to the
header,
which
removes
the heads and elevates them into
tightwagon-beds
to
be
hauled off and stacked until
ready
for
threshing.
The
header has been
supplanted on some large
farms
by
the
combined-harvester, a
machine that
cuts, threshes,
and
sacks the
grain
in
one operation.
Wheat 179
Binder-cut
grain
is shocked in the field where the
straw
dries
sufficiently
to
permit
easy
separation
of the
grain
from
chaff. In
some
locaHties the wheat cut
green
is
ripened
by
the translocation of starch from the
straw,
for
which
a long
time in the shock is
necessary.
When
threshing
time
approaches
the farmer hauls and stacks
the
bundles,or
he hauls
directly
to the thresher. When
grain
is
stacked,
the bundles
are usuallyplaced
with heads
in, so as to shed rain and resist the attack of fowls
or
rodents.
186. Diseases. " Wheat is attacked
by glume
spot,
wheat
scab,
rust,
leaf
blight,powdery mildew,
and loose
and closed
smut. Of all
these, however, rust
and closed
smut
are
most serious.
187. Closed smut is
a black,
thread-like
fungus
which
is
spread by tiny,
black
spores
that
flythrough
the air
and attach themselves to the wheat kernel.
Sprouting
about the
same
time
as wheat,
the
long,
slender tube of
the smut enters the
young
plant
and
grows
inside. It
follows
up
the
green,
growing plant,dying
in the lower
part
of the
stem,
as
the straw hardens. At the time the
heads
form,
the smut enters the kernel and
grows
inside.
Infected kernels
are
like sound
ones
except
they are
dull
in
color,light
in
weight,
and hollow.
They
break
easily
during threshing
and when handled
later,they
scatter
spores
which
cling
to the sound kernels. On account
of
the resemblance in
appearance
to clean
grain,
the farmer
may
not
notice this
smut, though
he finds when
threshing
a
loss of from 10 to 40
per
cent of the
crop.
This loss
can
be
prevented
by
treatment described
(Par.
184).
Care
should be taken that the formalin is
40
per
cent for- maldehyde.
After the
grain
is
treated,
it is
hung
up
in
bags
or spread
out
on
the barn floor
to
dry
before
planting.
180
The
Principlesof Agronomy
188. Loose smut enters the
plant
at
floweringtime,
and
lives inside of the kernel. The disease is less
prevalent
than is that caused
by
closed
smut. Treatment, however,
is
more difficult,
since the
spores
are
inside the kernels
and cannot
be reached
by poisons.
The
only
method is
one
known
as
the hot-water
treatment,
which is
extremely
hard to
use successfully
since,
ifthe water be
a
few
degrees
too
warm,
the
germination quality
of the wheat is
injured
or destroyed.
The
grain
is soaked for four hours in cold
water,
since heat
more readily penetrates
wet
grain.
To kill the
smut,
the wheat is immersed for ten minutes
in
water
maintained at
133" F. The addition of the
cold wheat makes constant
heating
necessary.
Because
of the
difficulties, only
small
quantities
of seed
can
be
treated. This is then soAved
on a
seed
plat
which will
yield
clean seed for
next season.
189. Rust is
a fungous
disease which attacks the
stem
and
leaf;
that
on
the stem is the
more
serious. The
spores
live
over
winter in the
standing
straw
or even
in
some
other
plant.
In the
spring,
after
germination,
the
fungi
attack the wheat at
any
time. The
injury
consists
in
a
failure of the
grain
to fill.
Although
considerable loss
results,
about all that
can
be done is to choose rust-re- sistant
varieties,
to rotate
crops,
to drain the
land,
and
to avoid
over-irrigation.
190. Insects.
" Hessian fliesand
chinch-bugsare
the
worst of the insect enemies of wheat. The
chinch-bug
attacks other
crops,
while the Hessian
fly
confines its work
mostly
to wheat. The latter is
a fly
which
lays
its
eggs
in the
young
plant.
When the
maggots
hatch
they
rasp
the
young
tissue and drink the
sap.
The
chinch-bug
is
a
beetle that eats the tender
plants. They
pass
through
no true larval
stage,
but hatch
continuouslythroughout
the
early summer. Altogether
these insects
cause a
loss
Wheat 181
of 10
per
cent of the wheat
crop.
Spraying
and
catching
in
plow
furrows
are advocated,
but
perhaps
clean
farming
and rotation
are
the better methods of control.
In
some districts,
wheat suffers considerable loss from
the wheat
straw
worm,
which
lays
its
eggs
in the head and
stem of the
plant.
The wheat
jointworm
works in the
jointscausing
the
grain
to
grow
in bent
positions,
and
therefore
to b^ missed
by
the header.
191. Weeds. " There
are a
few
plants
that have
become such nuisances to wheat that
they
have
gained
reputationsas
pests.
They
steal
plant-food
and
moisture,
shade and crowd out the
crop,
hinder
harvest,
and lower
the value of the
grainby adding impurities.
The weeds
most
common
in wheat-fields of the Mountain
states
are
the
mustards,
Russian
thistle,sweet clover,
and
June
grass
(Bromus tectormn).
Chess
or
cheat is
com- mon
in
some
parts
of the East and middle West.
The mustards
cause
considerable trouble in
some
dis- tricts.
Since the seed lies for
years
in the
ground,
it
accumulates
strength
under
single-cropping.
Rotation
with intertilled
crops
is,therefore,an
effective method of
combating
it.
Russian
thistle,a tumbleweed, and,
for
a long time,
almost master of the Nebraska wheat
farms,
is
now spread
widely throughout
the
country.
It
scatters
great
num- bers
of seeds
by rolling
them before the wind. Rail- roads
introduce it into
new localities;
irrigation
water
carries it to
the fields
;
sheep
carry
it in their wool
;
and
soon
the whole
region
is
sown.
It is
especially
trouble- some
on
the
dry-farm,
but
no
matter where it exists itis
a
pest
to be reckoned with. For
protection,
it is covered
with
sharp, spiny
leaves.
Sweet clover and June
grass
are easily
controlled
by
thorough tillage,
but
they
bother in
haphazard farming,
182 The
Principlesof Agronomy
often
increasing
the labor and
unpleasantness
of harvest.
Careful seed selection and
proper
tillage
will lessen in- jury
from chess.
192.
Quality
in wheat consists of the
ability
its flour
has to absorb
largequantities
of
water
therebyproducing
larger
leaves. This is because of the
presence
of
a nitrog- enous
substance called
gluten
which,
when
wet,
becomes
sticky. Generally,
the
more gluten
present
and the
more nearly
it consists of 65
per
cent
gliadin
and 35
per
cent
glutenin,
the
lighter
is the bread made from
a
flour.
Manifestly, however,
stickiness cannot of itself
cause
bread to rise. Hard wheats
produce angular
flour
particles
rather than
sphericalor
flat
ones as
does soft wheat.
The
edges permit
the
stickygluten
to take hold of the
flour
grains
and to hold them
more firmly together.
When the
yeast
added to the
dough
"
works,"
it
produces
carbon dioxide.
Any
substance in
changing
from
a
solid
or a liquid
to a
gas
expands.
As carbon dioxide is liber- ated
it needs
more
room;
hence,
it
pushes
the
dough
aside,making
it
porous.
Thus bread
"
rises,"
that
is,
the
loaf increases in size but not in
weight.
The size and the
lightness
of the loaf
depend largelyon
the
quality
of the
wheat
furnishing
the flour.
Considerable skill is
requiredto pick
out the best wheat
from
a
number of
samples.
A
clear,
semi-transparent
amber color and
a horny,
brittle interior indicate
high
percentage
of
protein. High nitrogen
content
gives
any.
cereal
a
greater
food
value,
and it
gives
wheat flour
more
desirable
bread-making qualities.
Shrunken kernels
con- tain
much
protein,
but the
gluten
is
poor.
Maturity,
then,
is also
an
essential characteristic of best
quality
in wheat.
High nitrogen
and low moisture
content
in
a
soiltends to
produce
wheat that is rich in
nitrogen.
Millers and bakers know that
some
varieties of wheat
Wheat 183
are much
more
valuable than others for
flour-making.
Hard
varieties often
bring
increased
priceson
the market.
The
most
important
factor in
determining quality
in
wheat
is climate.
Regions having
cold winters followed
by hot,
dry summers
which
cause
wheat
to
ripen rapidly
grow
hard
grain.
Excessive rainfall
as
well
as
mildness
causes
wheat to
soften,thereby lowering
its
gluten con- tent.
Starchy grain
taken
to a
hard-wheat district
hardens in
a
few
years,
just as
hard
ones
moved to soft
districts
gradually
lose their
horny texture.
Accom- panying
changes
in chemical
composition
likewise result.
193. Uses and value. "
The
principaluse
of wheat is
for human
consumption
in the form of bread.
Flour,
carefullygraded
in the
largemills,
is handled
by
whole- sale
dealers who distribute itto homes
or
bakeries. Bread
is the chief diet of all
highly
civilized nations.
Besides
being
used for
bread-making,
flour is made
into
pies,cakes, crackers,
doughnuts, pancakes,
and
a
number of other
common
foods. In
addition,
many
cereal
breakfast foods
are
made from wheat.
Formerly, only
flour
was
saved at the mill. A
waste-spout
carried the
bran, shorts,
and other
by-products
into the stream that
turned the water-wheel. Now these
comprise a
valuable
part
of the
output.
Bran and shorts
are
among
the most
valuable of stock-feeds. Even the dust brushed from the
wheat kernels before
grinding
is collected and mixed with
the bran.
Cracked, or
broken wheat is
better, especially
for
swine,
than whole
wheat,
which in
some cases
escapes
mastication and does not
digest.
The
price
of
wheat,
however, generallycompels
the
use
of
cheaper grains,
such
as corn
and
barley.
The
dependence on
wheat
for such a variety
of food
products gives
it
a
value
higher
than dollars and cents.
Nearly
twice
as
much
184 The
Principlesof Agronomy
wheat is
ground
for dietetic
purposes,
as
of all other
grains
combined.
In cash value
as
well
as
in total
yield,
it is second
to
rice which alone feeds
over
half of the inhabitants of the
earth. In the United States
corn
is the
largest
crop,
with
wheat second. For the world, however,
corn, oats,
and
wheat each
produce
about four billion
bushels,
while
rice totals five billion.
Potatoes, other root
crops,
and fruits all feed
a
greater
number of
persons
for
a given area
than
wheat,
but main- tain
them at a
lower standard of
living.
Wherever the
standard of
living
is
increasing,as
it is in
Germany,
Russia,
and
parts
of
India,
the
use
of wheat is
spreading.
Dondlinger
^
says
:
"
The
great
intrinsic food value of
wheat;
its
ease
of cultivation and
preparation
for
use;
its wide
adaptation
to different climates and
soils;
its
quick
and bountiful
return;
and the fact of its
being
paniferous
and
yielding
such
a
vast number and
variety
of
products are
all factors that enhance the value of the
wheat
grain.
Its combined
qualitative
and
quantitative
importance gives
to wheat
a
great superiorityover
any
other
cereal,
and
causes
it to
be dealt in
more extensively
upon
the
speculative
markets than
any
other
agricultural
product.
As
an
essential
part
of the food of civilized
man
it
assumes an importance so
vital
as
to be domi- nating."
194.
Storage.
" The easiest
way
to store wheat, or
any
other
grain
for that
matter,
is to
put
it in sacks
as
it
comes
from the
thresher,
and to
pile
them
on
the
ground.
The
owner uses
this method
as a
makeshift
until he
can
do
something
else with the
grain:
either sell
it
or
store
it
permanently
in
a place
where it will be
pro- tected
from the weather. Sometimes the sacks
are
left
1
Book
of Wheat,
p.
8.
186
The
Principlesof Agronomy
blocks
long by a
hundred feet
high,
where it waits
ship- ment,
or
else
being
stored in
warehouses, some
of which
cover
several
acres.
Stillanother
part
of
our
local
export
stops
in the
neighboring
towns to be
ground
into flour.
These mills have
large
bins
holding
from
one
thousand
to
fifty
thousand bushels,
storehouses which
are
really
miniature elevators.
195. Elevators.
"
Particularly
in the
region
of the
Great Lakes,
elevators
are becoming more common.
Here sacks
are
not used,
and
men
handle the loose
grain
almost
entirelyby machinery.
It
pours
directly
from
the thresher into
dump
wagons.
The loose
grain
finds its
way
.into
cars
which
carry
it to the elevator
platforms. Trap-doors
open
chutes,
down which it
pours
into vast cellars. Endless carriers elevate the
grain
and
distribute it to bins from which it
runs
like water down
chutes into
cars,
boats, or
mills. Not
once
is it moved
by
hand. Terminal elevators
are
immense
affairs, occa- sionally
holding
three million bushels of
grain.
Scattered
far and wide
over
the
country
are
smaller structures
sometimes
tributary
to the
large concerns
and
some- times
independent.
One of the
great
elevators used in
the
handling
of the
grain
crop
is shown in
Fig.
55.
Any grain containing
excessive moisture molds and
ferments in
storage
thus
losing
much of its value. For- merly,
a
considerable amount of
grainwas
lost in this
way
in the close holds of
ships
that carried it from the United
States to
Europe.
Grain
must
be well-dried before
being
stored
anywhere.
In arid
regions,
it is
so dry
at harvest
time that it
can
be stored at
once
without
danger.
Indeed,
it
gains
in
weight by
the
absorption
of
moisture,
elimi- nating
shrinkage.
Wheat
shipped
from California
gains
enough
in
weight
before it reaches London
to
pay
the
cost of
hauling.
Wheat
" 187
Wheat is
often
bought
and stored to
await
a
rise in
price.
Small
storage charges are
made for rented
space
in
elevators,
about
two cents
a
bushel for the first
thirty
days
and
a
half
cent
for each additional thirty days.
Sometimes farmers store
grain independently;
occasion- ally
a number
cooperate
and
run an
elevator.
By
far
the
greatest
number sell at
threshing
time. Much
Fig. 55.
"
Large
terminal elevators
help
to handle the world's
grain
crop.
grain,
however,
is contracted in the
spring
before it is
even
planted.
196.
Marketing.
" It is difficult for the
ordinary
farmer to
know whether to sell at harvest
or during
the
following
winter. Often he needs the
money
and must
dispose
of
part
or
all of the
grain
at
once.
To sell the
entire
crop
at
the
same
time
saves
him labor and
storage
expenses,
but he loses
any
advantage
from
subsequent
rise
188 The
Principlesof Agronomy
in
price.
This rise sometimes does not
pay
the
expense ;
indeed,
there
may
be
a drop
instead of
a
rise. The intel- ligent
farmer studies the markets.
"
Will it
pay
to
store ?
"
is the
question
he
must answer
in consideration
of the time to
sell.
Local merchants and mills
buy
from
growers
and sell
to
shippers. Large companies
also
keep
agents
in the
field who contract
for
grain
with the individual farmers.
In
well-developed
districts most of the
grain
is handled
in this
way.
A few
cooperative
farmers'
companies ship
their
own products.
When
successful,
these
net
large
returns,
but the
undertaking
is attended with much risk
as a
business venture.
A
great
avenue
for advance in
marketing
is
a more
systematicgrading.
In the
grain
trade of
Chicago
wheat
is
graded as
follows
:
White Winter
Wheat,
Nos.
1, 2, 3,
and 4.
Long
Red Winter
Wheat,
Nos. 1 and 2.
Red Winter
Wheat,
Nos.
1, 2, 3,
and 4.
Hard Winter
Wheat,
Nos.
1, 2, 3,
and 4.
Colorado
Wheat,
Nos.
1, 2,
and 3.
Northern
SpringWheat,
Nos. 1 and 2.
Spring Wheat,
Nos.
1, 2, 3,
and 4.
White
Spring Wheat,
Nos.
1, 2, 3,
and 4.
The
grades are
based
on soundness, cleanliness,weight,
color,
and
uniformity,
No. 1
being
best. Poor wheat is
called
"
no grade."
These
grades
have become
so nearly
standard that
a buyer
accepts
a
certificate from the in- spector
without
looking
at the
grainor seeing a sample
of it.
197. Prices
vary
a
few cents
according
to
grade.
In
some sections,
littlereliable
grading
is done. The
grain
buyer, making a
shrewd estimate of the
grade,
knows
Wheat 189
what he
can
get
for
it,
while the farmer
sellingsimply
"
wheat," must take the
price
of
grade
No.
3,
though
his
grain
may
be No. 2
or even
No. 1.
Generally,
the
agent
will
pay
less
than he should.
Therefore,a
standardiza- tion
of wheat and other
grain
would
save
money
for
growers.
To assist in
handling
the
grain,enormous exchanges
are
maintained at
Chicago
and smaller
ones
in other
cities. The
Exchange
is
a large room
in which
buyers
and sellers meet to transact business. Much of the
time,
confusion
prevents
ordinary conversation,
hence
a
finger sign-language
is used.
Only large quantities
of
wheat
(about
5000 bushels) are
considered.
Speculators,
who have entered these
exchanges,buy simply
to sellfor
gain
" not to assist in the
legitimategrainhandling. They
buy
up
certificates and hold
them, expectingprices
to
go up.
If
a man buys a
million bushels and holds it for
a time,
he is
making a
"
bull
"
speculation.
On the other
hand,
owning no grain
at
all,
he
may
sellwheat at
a givenprice,
agreeing
to deliver at a
future date. He
expects
the
price
to fallwhen he
can purchase
wheat to
fillhis contract at
a
lower
price
than he receives from his customer. Such
sales
are
known
as
"
futures." When
a man plunges
in
this
way
he is
a
"
bear
"
speculator.
SUPPLEMENTARY
READING
The Book of
Wheat,
P. T.
Dondlinger.
Wheat
Growing
in
Canada,
the United
States,
and
Argentina,
W. P.
Rutter.
Story
of
a
Grain of
Wheat,
W. C.
Edgar.
Cereals in America,
T. F.
Hunt,
pp.
26-136.
Field
Crops,
Wilson and
Warburton,
pp.
135-174.
Field
Crop
Production,
G.
Livingston,
pp.
99-144.
190 The
Principles of Agronomy
Wheat Fields and Markets of the
World,
RoUin E. Smith.
Story
of
a
Loaf of
Bread,
T. B. Wood.
Wheat and Flour
Investigations, Harry Snyder,
Minnesota Bui.
No. 85.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol. II,
pp.
660-670.
Wheat,
M. W. Ten
Eyck.
Principles
of
Irrigation
Practice,
J. A.
Widtsoe,
pp.
240-253.
Southern Field
Crops,
J. F.
Duggar,
pp.
32-67.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins
:
No. 132. Insect Enemies of
Growing
Wheat.
219. Lessons from the Grain Rust
Epidemic
of 1904.
250. The Prevention of Wheat Smut and Loose Smut of
Oats.
267. Buckwheat.
507. The Smuts of
Wheat, Oats, Barley,
and Com.
534. Durum Wheat.
596. The Culture of Winter Wheat in the Eastern Half of
the United States.
616. Winter Wheat Varieties for the Eastern United States.
.
CHAPTER XVII
CORN OR MAIZE
{Zea Mays)
Because
"
corn
"
was a common
term in
Europe
for
all
grains,
"
Indian
corn
"
was
the
name applied to field
corn,
or
maize.
Early European
visitors found the natives
growing
it in
Peru, Mexico,
and New Mexico. Indians
taught
the
English
settlers at Plymouth
how
to
grow
the
crop,
fertilizing
each hill with
a
fish.
Captain
John
Smith of the Jamestown settlement saved the settlers
from starvation
by forcing
the Indian Chief Powhatan
to sell him
corn.
It must have seemed
strange
to these
pioneers
to
find in America
a plant
of such
vast
impor- tance
to them. Some of the American field conditions of
corn
culture
are
shown in
Figs.
56 and 57.
198.
Relationships. "
Maize
belongs
to the
grass
family,
but is not closely
related to
the
common
grasses
or
to the other cereals. So far
as we
know,
it has
no
close relatives in existence
to-day.
199. Roots. "
The first
roots sent out by
a
young
corn
plant
to start growth remain,
but the
larger part
of the
root-system,
like that of
wheat,
develops
from
a
node about
an
inch below the surface of the
ground.
As
corn
is
generally
grown
in
hills, the fibrous
roots,
in order
to
occupy
all the soil,
grow
outward for
eighteen or twenty
inches and then turn
downward. Other roots reach down- ward
at
once,
thus
leaving
little unused soil. While the
plant
is
young
the roots
grow
rapidly,
never,
however,
191
192 The
Principlesof Agronomy
Fig. 56. " Good
corn
culture.
Fig. 57.
" Corn
on an irrigated farm, Utah.
194
The
Principlesof Agronomy
quantities
of water
are transpired
to
maintain
growth.
Wilting
often takes
place,
but the
rolling
of the leaves
reduces loss of water and
turgidity
is restored automati- cally.
202. The flower. " Each
ear develops
in the axil of
a
leaf from
a
bud in the
groove,
part
way up
the
plant.
Kernels
develop
from the
ovary
part
of the flower
on
the
cob. Each is fertilized
by pollen
borne
on
the tassels.
This
alightson
the
exposed
end of the silk which connects
with the
ovary.
The wind blows the
pollen
about
so freely
that much
is lost. To insure itself
against
this loss each
plant
pro- duces
from 9000 to
45,000 pollen grains
for each
silk,
or
about 2000 ovules and from
eighteen
to
seventy
mil- lion
grains
of
pollen. Many
of the silks
are
fertilized
by pollen
from another
plant.
In
fact,
the
plant seems
to invite cross-fertilization
by ripening
and
letting
its
pollen
go
before the silk of the
same plant
is
ready
to
receive it.
203. The
ear.
" Since the cob is several united
spike-
lets,
each of which bears two
rows
of
kernels,
the number
of
rows
is
even.
An
ear having an
odd number is
a
great
curiosity.
Often
an ear
has
more rows
at the butt than
at the
tip,
but these
rows drop
out two at
a
time. Because
the
tip
of the
ear
fills
last,
this
part
of the cob is
frequently
bare and the kernels
are nearly always
smaller and
more
nearly
round here than in the middle of the
ear.
At the
butt
they are larger
but
irregularlyshaped. Fig.
58
shows
good
and uniform
ears
of
corn.
All kernels
are
covered with
a
membranous hull that
loosens when the
grain
is soaked in
warm water. The
embryo
is
near
the cob
on
the side toward the
tip
of the
ear.
The
remaining
part,
about
seven-eighths
of the
whole,
is
endosperm
"
corneous
if
hard,
starchy
if white.
Corn
or
Maize 195
The
corneous endosperm
contains
more nitrogen
than the
white and is
more
valuable for feed.
Abnormahties of structure
occasionally
manifest them- selves
as grain on
the
tassel,as
divided
cobs, as one ear
borne
at the
tip
of
another,
and
as
tassels borne
on or
between cobs.
204.
Types.
" The
corn
that
Europeans
firstfound the
Indians
growing
in America
was
much inferior to
the
better kinds
now
used.
Although
there is but
one species.
Fig. 58.
"
Good ears
of dent
corn.
this varies
so widely
that little
difficulty
is
experienced
in
changing
a variety or
in
improving
it. It is
only
about
sixty
years
since
corn improvement
was begun
; yet
within
this short
period
has
come
most of the advance made
since white
people
first
grew
the
crop.
Widely
different
uses
of
corn
and
varying
conditions of
growth
have
given
rise to six
very
distinct
groups
of varieties better known
as
types.
These
are : (1)
dent, (2)
flint,(3) sweet,
(4)
pop,
(5) soft,
and
(6) pod.
205. Dent com
is
by
far the most
important,
as
it in- cluded
over
four-fifthsof the total
corn
crop.
It is
so
called
because
the
corneous endosperm,
which
partially
incloses
the soft,starchy endosperm
at
the
crown
without
cover-
196
The
Principlesof Agronomy
ing
it,
allows the kernel
to
shrink
or
dent in
ripening.
The dent
may
be
very
shallow
or so deep as
to
give con- siderable
roughness
to the
ear.
The kernels
are not too
hard for animals to chew.
Desirable
ears are
six to
eight
inches in circimiference
and
eight
to ten
inches in
length,
with
deep,wedge-shaped
kernels
extending
well
over
both
tip
and butt.
Cylindri- cal
ears
with small butts and
no
bare cob at the
tip are
most desirable,
because the
shelling
percentage
is
high.
206. Flint
com
is
so
called
on
account of the
hard,
glossy
kernels,
the
crowns
of which
are
round and smooth.
The dent failsto
develop
because hard
endosperm covers
the
crown as
well
as
the sides of the
kernel,entirely
inclos- ing
the
starchy
part.
The kernels
are more nearlyround,
wider,
and
more
shallow than dent kernels. Less
corn
in
proportion
to
cob
grows
on
the flint
ear.
Flint
corn
differsfrom dent in
having a longer,
slimmer
ear,
a larger
shank- which increases the
difficulty
of
husking,
and
fewer
rows
of kernels.
Dent varieties
usuallyrequirea longer
time
to mature
than
flint,
but this is not
always
the
case.
Although
next to dent in
importance,
flint
corn
produces
somewhat
less than one-twelfth of the total
crop.
207. Sweet
com
has
sugar
instead of starch in the
endosperm.
The
glucose
sugar
shrinks
evenly
while
ripening,giving
the kernels
a distinctly
wrinkled
appear- ance.
In
shape,
the
ears
resemble dent. Its
ripening
period
is medium. Sweet
corn
does not
represent
more
than 2
or
3
per
cent
of the total
crop,
most of this
being
used in the
canning industry,
and for table
use.
208.
Pop com is either smooth like flint
or sharp on
the
top
of the
kernels,
which
are so
very
hard that animals
cannot chew them
easily. This,
the dwarfishness of the
plant,
and the small size of the
ears,
which
are
generally
Corn
or
Maize 197
an inch
thick and four to six inches
long,prevent
its
being used
as
stock-feed.
Pop
corn
yields
less than 1
per
cent of the
corn produced
in this
country.
It is
largelyconsumed
as
"
popped
corn."
Popping
consists
of
a
rapid
heating
which
causes
the kernel to
explode
and
turn inside
out. The
plant
suckers
freely,
bears several
ears,
and
matures
early.
209. Soft or flour
com
resembles white flintin
appear- ance
both
as to
ear
and
plant,
but has
no
hard
endosperm
at all. Because it is
readilyground,
it
was
grown
by
the
Incas of Peru for food.
210. Pod com received this
name
because each kernel
is inclosed in
a
husk. The
ears are
short and the
plants
smaller than flint. It is used to
some
extent
for cattle
feeding,
but neither this
nor
soft maize
are
grown
on a
commercial scale.
211. Varieties. " There
are nearly
three hundred
varieties of
corn,
but
as already mentioned,
these
may
be
changed
and
improved
so easilythat,
in
many cases,
the
same variety
has several sub-varieties called strains.
Many
varieties
are
known
by
different
names
in different
localities, causing
a hopeless tangle
out of which little
can
be cleared.
Improved Leaming,
Reid's Yellow
Dent,
Boone
County
White,
Silver
King,
Silver
Mine,
Gold
Mine, King Philip, Longfellow, Legal Tender,
Wisconsin No.
7,
and Minnesota No. 13
are
wide-spread,
standard varieties.
212. Distribution.
" The total
production
of
corn
from 1905 to 1909 was 3,585,418,600
bushels
yearly.
Austria-Hungary,
Argentina,
Russia, Egypt, Australia,
and Mexico in the order named
produced
corn, though
the LTnited States
grew
76
per
cent of the
whole,
producing
about
two-thirds
of its
crop,
or
one-half the total
output
of
the world,
in
eight
states:
namely, (1) Illinois, (2)
198
TJw
Principlesof Agronomy
Iowa, (3)Missouri,(4) Nebraska, (5) Indiana, (6)
Kan- sas,
(7)Ohio,
and
(8)
Texas. These
eight
states have
an
area
in
square
miles
equal
to 22
per
cent
of the
area
of
the United
States,
and to
one-third of 1
per
cent of the
total land
area
of the world. One-half of all the
corn on
earth would not be
produced on one three-hundredth
part
of the earth's
area
if this
particular
section
were not
especiallyadapted
to corn
production.
213. Factors in
production.
" The four
important
factors that determine the successful
production
of
corn
are : (1)
market
conditions,(2) length
of
growing-season,
(3) rainfall,
and
(4)
soil.
If the
crop,
its manufactured
products, or
the meat
produced by feedingit,
did not sellto
advantage,
the
crop
could not be
grown
though
the climate and soil
were
ever so
favorable to its
production.
The
corn
belt of
the United States has
shipping
facilities
through a
net- work
of railroads and
waterways ;
Chicago
and St.
Louis,
the
great
meat markets of the
world, are
at hand
;
vast
factories in which
starch,glucose,oil,
and
sirup
are
made
have
grown up
in the
region.
It is hard
to conceive of
more
favorable
marketing
conditions than here exist.
214.
Adaptation.
" Corn is
extremely
sensitive to
frost "
so
much
so
that the
length
of its
growing-season
is measured
by
the last
spring
frost and the first
one
of
autumn. One
slight
frost in the fall
injures
the
plant
to
such
an extent that, althougha
month of
warm
weather
follows the
freeze,
this first
drop
of the
thermometer,
even though
of
only
a
few hours'
duration,
ends its
grow- ing-season.
An
even
temperature
free from cold
nights
is
desirable,
but absence of frost for
nearly
five months is
absolutely
essential. In the
corn
belt there
are no
late
spring
frosts and
no early
fallfrosts.
The water
requirement
in
proportion
to
dry
matter
Corn
or
Maize 199
produced
is less for
corn
than for other
grains.
This
does
not
indicate,however,
that
corn
needs less water
than the
small-grains.
It
grows very
rapidly
after tassel-
ing begins.
In
one case
it
was
found that 1300
pounds
of
dry
matter to the
acre was produced
in
a single
week.
Thus
great
quantities
of moisture
are
needed in the
grow- ing-season.
Experience
has shown that the
yield
of
corn
is almost
directlyproportional
to the moisture
supply
during a
few criticalweeks.
Corn
responds
very
readily
to the
presence
of
organic
matter in the soil. Soils that
are loose,black,
and rich
in
organic
matter
are common
in the
corn
belt. The
crop
is
grown
on
the heavier
soils,
but is at its best
on
the
loessial
soils,
which
are
easilykept
loose and friable.
The
physical
condition of the soil is
important,
since
good
tilth allows soil moisture
to move freely
to the roots.
The
average
acre-yield
for the United States from 1900
to 1910
was
24 bushels
;
for
Connecticut,
39.9 bushels
;
Massachusetts,
38.3 bushels
;
Maine,
37.3 bushels
;
Ohio,
36.9 bushels
;
and
Pennsylvania,
36.8 bushels. In the
South,
the
yieldswere less,
but the methods of culture
were
also
infinitely
poorer.
Systematic handling
of the
crop,
itis
estimated,
should in the North
givea
100-bushel
crop
and in the South
even more.
The
bumper
crop
of
226 bushels
grown
by
a
Tennessee
boy
is
worthy
of
attention.
215.
Preparation
of the seed-bed. "
Deep fall-plow- ing
seems
rather
advantageous
to corn
because it enables
winter moisture to
sink into the
soil,
and allows frost
to
mellow the seed-bed. Since
largequantities
of
organic
matter cause
abundant
growth
in
corn,
moderate
appli- cations
of farm
manure usually
pay.
Corn is
a good
crop
to
follow
clover,alfalfa, or
other
sod-producers.
Whether
plowing
is done in
spring
or fall,
the
plow
should
cover
200
The
Principlesof Agronomy
all the
vegetable
material to insure
decay.
In the
spring
the disk
or spike-tooth
harrow should fine the seed-bed
until
a loose,
friable surface is
ready
to receive the seed.
216. Seed and
planting.
" After the farmer has decided
upon
the
variety
he wishes to
grow,
he should choose
seed
adapted
to the climate. Seed should be selected
in the field before the
grain
is cut in ordter to
identify
high-producing,early-maturingplants.
Because both frost and moisture
injure
the
germinating
power
of
corn,
seed
requiresa
warm,
dry,
well-ventilated
place
for
storage.
A
good
way
is to
hang
the
ears
in
strings,
in such
a
way
that
they
do
not
touch. Kernels
from
butt, tip,
and middle of
ear
have
equal value,
al- though
irregular
butt and
tip
kernels
may
interfere with
even
distribution
by planters.
In
most
cases,
no treat- ment
before
planting
is needed.
On
some large farms,
machines do the
planting,
but
on
most small
farms,
seeding
is done with hand
planters.
Although
there
seems
to be
no advantage
in
planting
deeper
than
one or
two inches in humid
sections,
farmers
of the West consider three
to
six inches
none too deep
because
they
find it
necessary
to
plant
below the
dry
surface soil. In
heavy soils,planting
should not
be
so
deep as
in
light,sandy ones.
Thickness of
planting
varies from
more
than
a
kernel for
each
square
foot
to
one
for each fifteen
or
twenty
square
feet.
Mediimi thick
planting,a
kernel for each three
or
four
square
feet,
usuallygives
the most
grain.
Seed is
nearly
always planted
in
rows
and
generally
in hills. A
common
practice
is to
plant
three
or
four kernels in hills two to
five feet
apart,
with three to five feet between
rows.
About
a
peck
of shelled
corn sows an acre
for
grainproduc- tion,
but,
for fodder
or silage,
thicker
planting
is desir- able.
202 The
Principlesof Agronomy
as soon as
the land will
permit.
Some
hand-hoeing
may
be needed to
keep
down weeds in the
rows.
Shallow is
better than
very
deep cultivation,
and
frequent
better
than occasional.
It is
usually
unnecessary
to
irrigatecorn
until it has
a good start,
but in
case
the soil is too
dry
to
germinate
the
seed,
it is advisable to
apply
the
water
before
planting
INCREASE
IN y|"LO OF GRAIN AND STOVER PRODUCED BY 40 ACRE
INCHES OF IRRIGATION WATER APPLIEDTO DIFFERENT AREAS.
r
I
\
Fig. 60. " Results of
irrigation on corn.
rather than after. The time for
irrigation
will be indi- cated
by a
dark color and
by
the
wilting
of the leaves.
The
amount
and distribution of
irrigation
water will
vary
greatly
with
conditions,
but it is
rarely
necessary
to
use more
than
thirty
inches
during
a season.
It is
usually more
convenient to
apply
water
by
the furrow
method. The charts
(Figs.
59 and
60) show the results
to be secured from
judiciousirrigation.
Corn
or
Maize
203
218.
Harvesting.
" A
good
time to
begin
to harvest
corn
is when the
grain
is
just
hard
enough
to resist
pres- sure
from
the thumb nail. About this time the husk
turns
whitish,
but the fodder remains
green
if frost has
not
nipped
the leaves.
Nothing
is
gained by allowing
maize
to
go
unharvested after it is
ready,
and
since,
in
many
sections,
frosts
are likely
to do considerable
injury
to the
fodder,
much risk
accompanies
late
harvesting.
Some
growers
turn
hogs
and
occasionally
cattle into
the
corn
to harvest it
on
foot.
Rape or
cowpeas
sowed
between the
rows
add much to its
pasture
value. The
practice
of
"
hogging-off
"
is
increasing.
Sometimes the
ears are pulled by
hand
or machinery
and the
stover
pastured. Again
the leaves
may
be
stripped
off and
saved, or
the
top
of the stalks and leaves
cut. Most
satisfactory, perhaps,
is the method of
cutting
off the
stalks at the
ground
and
stacking
them in shocks in the
field
or
in the
yard
to be husked later.
There
are
several kinds of
corn-cutters, some
of which
bind and shock the
corn.
Much maize is cut with
long
knives and short-handled hoes.
Husking
is
commonly
done
by hand,
in
spite
of the fact that there
are
machine
buskers and shredders. The
great
expense
and the
complicated, easily-injured
mechanisms have retarded
the universal
adoption
of
corn-harvestingmachinery.
219.
Silage.
" Corn to be made into
silage
is allowed
to stand in the field until the
grain
is in the
roasting-ear
stage,
when it is
cut,
usually
with
a binder,
and hauled
on
a
low
wagon
to
the silo. Here it is cut into
piecesa
half
inch
long,or
thereabouts,
and blown into the silo. It
settles into
an air-tightmass
and
preserves
itself for
green
feed
in winter when
dairy
stock have
no
pas- ture,
or
in the hot, dry summer
when succulent feed is
scarce.
204
The
Principlesof Agronomy
220. Enemies.
" Weeds
cause
the most
difficulty
in
corn-growing,
but
as already pointed out, they
may
be
largely
controlled
by
proper
tillage.Cocklebur,
bind- weed,
Russian
thistle,milkweed, and
common pigweeds
all
cause
the
corn-grower
trouble. The
perennial
bind- weed,
milkweed,
and
ground cherry are most troublesome
west of the Great Plains.
Besides
weeds,
maize
smut
and the
corn ear-worm are
the worst enemies to the
crop.
The
smut
masses
should
be
picked
off and burned before
they
burst and
spread
the
smut
spores.
As smut
lives
over
winter in soil
or
manure,
it is useless to treat the seed. Clean cultivation
and rotation of
crops
are
the effective methods of control.
This is likewise true of the
corn
ear-worm,
billbugs,
the
root-louse,
rootworms,
and
chinch-bugs,
which do
con- siderable
damage, especially
where
corn
is
grown year
after
year
on
the
same land, or
where culture methods
are
otherwise
poor.
Fall-plowing
and clean
farming
are
the best methods of control. Sometimes remedies
are
used
advantageously.
A
treatment for the chinch-
bug
is
given
in
Chapter
XVI.
221. Uses and value.
" About nine-tenths of the
crop
enters the food ration of animals without first
being
shelled. For
fatteninghogs
and beef it has
no equal.
Dairymen
and horsemen also
use
much of it
as
feed. It
mixes well with
alfalfa,
which is
a
flesh and bone
builder,
while
corn
furnishes
energy
and fat. Corn alone is
not,
however, a
balanced food.
Green, dried,
and canned
corn,
hominy, corn meal,
cereal breakfast
foods,
popcorn,
and
corn sirup are
human foods. Corn
oil,starch,
distiller's
grain, cobs,
husks, and
pith
find various
uses,
while the stalks and
leaves
are
used for
roughage.
The value in dollars of
corn produced
in the United
Corn
or
Maize 205
States
exceeds that of
any
other
single
crop
in this
country
or
any
other
one
country,
although
the world
crop
of
wheat
and rice
surpass
the world
crop
of
corn
in value
because little
maize is
grown
in the Old World.
The
great
number of
uses
to which
corn can
be
put
gives
it
a
value aside from its
sellingprice.
It
was partic- ularly
useful to the
pioneers
of the
MississippiValley
because
it
grew
on
almost unbroken
land, even
among
Fig. 61. " A
good type
of farm
grain bin.
the
stumps.
It furnished both animal and human food
and needed little
care.
It and meat
were
the chief foods
of the
early
colonists in Jamesto-vVn and
Plymouth;
it
accompanied
the
pioneers
until
they
reached the
dry plains
east of the Rockies,
where wheat
displaced
it.
222. Storage
and
marketing.
" Because of the
high
percentage
of moisture in kernels and
cob, the
grain
molds
easily
in
poorly
ventilated
places
;
hence the value
of the
slatted cribs. After
being
shelled the
germination
206 The
Principlesof Agronomy
power
is
injuredby freezing,though
the
feedingqualities
are
not hurt. On the other
hand,
the best
way
to handle
fodder is to
shock it
on
well-drained
ground.
The
con- struction
shown in
Fig.
61 is
a good
type
of store-house
for the farm.
Corn is marketed
mostly
"
on foot,"
that
is,
fed
to
animals that
are being
fitted for market. It does not
enter into world markets
so largelyas
other
cereals,
but
where it
does,
it is handled much
as
is wheat
except
that
greater precautions are
taken in
drying.
For
big
markets there
are grades
Nos.
1, 2, 3,
and 4 in
each of three classes "
white, mixed,
and
yellow.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Corn,
Bowman and
Crossley.
The Com
Crops,Montgomery.
The Book of
Corn, Myrick
et al.
Maize, Joseph Burtt-Davy.
Cereals in
America,
T. F.
Hunt,
pp.
138-279.
Southern Field
Crops,
J. F.
Duggar,
pp.
78-216.
Manual of Corn
Judging,
A. D. Shamel.
Field
Crops,
Wilson and
Warburton,
pp.
47-135.
Field
Crop Production,
G.
Livingston,
pp.
29-98.
Principles
of
Irrigation Practice,
J. A.
Widtsoe,
pp.
255-264.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
II,
pp.
398-427.
U. S. D. A. Yearbook for
1906,
pp.
279-294.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins
:
No. 81. Com
Growing
in the South.
199.
Corn-growing.
229. The Production of Good Seed Com.
253. The Germination of Seed Corn.
292. The Cost of
Filling
Silos.
303.
Corn-harvestingMachinery.
400. A More Profitable Com
Planting
Method.
414. Com Cultivation.
415. Seed Corn.
CHAPTER XVIII
OTHER CEREALS
Besides
corn
and wheat,
the cereals
commonly
grown
in America
are
oats and
barley. Rye
is less
important
and rice is confined to
a
few districts in the South. Buck- wheat,
though not
a
true cereal,
is
grown
to
some
extent
for
grain. Sorghums are more important
for
forage
than
for
grain,
and,
on
that
account, are grouped
with the
millets.
OATS (Avena sativa)
223. Origin
and
relationships. "
It is little wonder
that oats
were
not used for human food until
long
after
wheat and
barley,
when
we
consider that wheat has
no
husk
covering
the kernels and the
barley
has
a
much
thinner
one
than
oats. The
Egyptians
knew
nothing
of
oats,
and Greeks
or
Romans did not cultivate
them,
extensively at least,
although they
knew them. This is
not
strange,
since the
grain
is
primarily adapted
for animal
feed. It is not
surprising
that
oats probably
came
from
the
region
of the
great
central Eurasian
plains " prob- ably
from the
region
of
Tartary
in west-central Asia
"
where cattle and horses had
long
been cared for.
They
spread
over Europe
later,
especially
in the
cool,
moist
sections. When introduced into America
by
the
early
colonists, oats
did best in the
damp
North.
208
.
210 The
Principlesof Agronomy
holding
them far
apart.
The
panicle
may
be nine to
twelve inches
long
and from two to
eight
inches
wide,
with intermediate measurements most
common.
The
spikelets,
of which there
are
from
forty
to
seventy-
five in
a panicle,generally
contain two kernels,a
smaller
one being
tucked
snugly
into the
groove
of
a
largerone.
Occasionally,a
third
grain develops,
but this is
rare.
Since
single
kernels
are
rather
uncommon,
the
grain
appears
somewhat variant in siz6 of kernel.
Each kernel is covered with
a comparatively
thick
husk, or hull,
which breaks
away
from the interior
grain
when rolled. Some varieties known
as
hull-less shell
free from the husk
on threshing.
A crooked
awn occurs
on
the back of the husk instead of at the end
as
with
wheat, barley,
and
rye.
In other
respects,
the structure
of the
grain
is almost identical with that of the wheat
kernel
save
that the oat
grain
is
proportionately
much
longer
and covered with hair.
225. Distribution. " Oats
are naturally adapted
to
those
parts
of the
temperate
zone
that have
a cool,
moist
climate
throughout
the
growing-season.
The
crop
is
not
sensitive to kind of soil
except
as
it
regulates
the mois- ture
supply. Heavy
soils rich in
organic
matter
favor
even
distribution of moisture in the
soil,and, therefore,
are
best.
Sandy
soil demands
frequentapplications
of
moisture for
high yields.
The countries that have the favorable climatic condi- tions
are
the best
producers.
A
study
of the rainfall
and
temperature
of
Canada,
northern United
States,
central
Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary,France,
and
Great Britain reveals the
reasons
for their
vast oat
crop.
Parts of Scotland and the Scandinavian countries have
almost ideal
conditions,
but these
areas are
too small
to
enable them to count as
world
producers.
For the five
Other Cereals 211
years ending
with
1910,
the nations
produced annually
as follows
:
United States
932,000,000
bushels
European Russia
865,000,000
bushels
Germany 583,000,000
bushels
France
299,000,000
bushels
Canada
295,000,000
bushels
There
are vast
fields of oarts in Manchuria and Ar- gentina
whose total
crops
are unreported.
The total for
the world is
over
four billions of
bushels,nearly
the
same
as
for wheat and
corn.
These other
grains, however,
exceed oats
in total
weight.
The
oat-producing areas are spread over
the United
States,
but the northern states from New York to Wash- ington
and
Oregon are
situated most
favorably.
The
leading
states in order
are : (1)
Iowa, (2)
Illinois,
(3)
Wis- consin,
(4) Minnesota,
(5)
Nebraska, (6) Ohio, (7)
In- diana,
(8)
New
York,
and
(9) Michigan.
Western Ore- gon
and
Washington
have
perhaps
the most ideal
climates,
but the district is
not
large. Many
mountain
valleys
in the West which
are
small and
generally
isolated also
have favorable conditions.
The
average
acre-yield
in the United States has been
slightly
less than
thirty bushels,
while in
Germany
and
Great Britain it is much
higher,being
in the
neighborhood
of
forty
to
forty-five
bushels.
By states,
the
leading
acre-yields (1902-1911)
are as
follows:
Washington
47.6 bushels
Montana
.
43.0 bushels
Idaho
41.7 bushels
Utah 41.5 bushels
212
The
Principlesof Agronomy
The
great
producing
states all
average
less than
thirty-
four bushels. A
good
farmer
may
expect
from
sixty
to
more
than
one
hundred bushels.
226. Varieties.
" Oats
are
classified into
groups
ac- cording
to
shape
of
panicle,
season
of
planting,
color,
and size and
shape
of
grain.
There
are spring
and winter
oats. The South
grows
winter varieties
principally
in
order to throw the
growing-season
in the cool
part
of the
year.
If the
spikeletsare
borne
on
short
pedicels
and
are
all
on one
side of the
culm, they are
side
oats, or
"
horsemane
"
oats
;
if the head
spreads,they are spread- ing.
These
are
the oat
types.
Further classifications
according
to color
are
described
as white, yellow,black,
red,whitish-yellow,
etc. Some varieties
are early,
others
late
;
some plump,
others
long-hulled.
Seedsmen and
growers
introduce
new
varieties
every year,
and old varie- ties
get
new names.
A
hopeless
confusion results
ren- dering
clear
grouping
and
naming impossible.
A few
leading
varieties for the
country
are Big Four, Silvermine,
Clydesdale,
Swedish
Select,
and American Banner.
227.
Seeding
and cultivation. " The
preparation
of
the seed-bed for oats is similar to that for wheat. The
depth
of
planting
varies from
one
to four inches,
just
under the
dry
mulched soil. As
soon as
the land
can
be
worked oats
may
be
sown
in
quantities
of from five to
eightpecks depending on
the
yieldexpected
and moisture
supply
available. In
some
districts
as
little
as
three
or
four
pecks are
used
;
in others
as
much
as
twelve
or
four- teen
pecks. Harrowing
may
begin as soon as
the
grain
is
up
and continue until it would
injure
the
plant.
From
five
to
thirty
inches of
irrigation
water
may
be
applied
in
parts
of the
West,
in
one to
six
applications.
228.
Harvesting
and
marketing.
" Oats
are usually
cut with the
binder,
though
the header finds occasional
Other Cereals 213
use
in
the
regions
of small rainfall.
Only on
very
short
or
badly-lodged
grain
should the farmer
use
the
mower.
Shockingin the field follows in most
regions. Although
oats should
not be cut until after
they
have reached the
hard-dough
stage,
the
straw is often
so
green
at this
stage
that the bundles
must be
piled
to
permit
air to
pass
through
the shocks.
Setting
the bundles in ricks
two at
a
time with
the second
pairjust touching
the first until
ten
or
twelve
bundles
are
in
a rick,permits
ventilation
and
drying.
Careful
drying
in the shock
prevents
mold,
which is detrimental to the
quality
of the
grain.
After
the straw is
dry, most
farmers stack the oats instead of
threshing
at
once.
Well-built stacks insure the
grain
against
storms until the thresher
can
be obtained. It
is asserted
by some
that
stackingseems to
improve
the
qualityby causing
it to
"
sweat."
Tight
bins to
prevent
insect
injury
and to
prevent
odors
from stables
being
absorbed
by
the
grainare
essential
(Fig.
61)
.
Although some
farmers sell
directly
from the thresher
after
sacking,
most
of the
crop
is stored for
feeding
pur- poses.
The
part
sold makes its
way
into the elevator
system
to be handled and
graded
like
wheat,
except
that
the
groups
are
classed
as white, mixed,
and red. White
is standard. Four
grades
in each
group
are
made.
229. Uses.
" The most
important
use
of oats is for
feeding
farm animals,
such
as cattle,hogs,
and
horses,
horses
being especially
fond of them. The hull
prevents
formation of
a pasty
mass
in the stomach
;
the
grain
is
palatable,
nutritious,
and
easily
masticated.
Rolled
oats,
or
oatmeal,
is used
as a
human food. The
Scotch
formerly
used it much. This
gave
rise
to a
clash
of wit between
a
Scotchman and Dr. Samuel
Johnson,
who said
he noticed that in
England
oats were
feed for
horses,
but in Scotland
men
ate them. The Scotchman
214 The
Principlesof Agronomy
sagely
remarked that the best horses
grew
in
England
and the best
men
in Scotland.
Oat
hulls,lightgrain,
dust,
and
impurities
"
by-prod- ucts
of oatmeal factories "
are
used for
feed,as
is the
straw,
which has
more frequent
use as bedding
for
animals,
although,as roughage,
the straw
supplemented by some
hay
or grain
may carry
stock
over
winter
nearly as
well
as
wild
hay.
Oats alone, or
mixed with
peas,
make fair
hay
if cut
before the
graingets
hard and while the leaves
and culms
are
still
green.
Peas,
of
course,
increase the
nitrogen
in the ration.
230. Enemies.
" The
common
weeds all trouble oats.
Wild mustard is bad
;
clean cultivation and
rotation,
clean
seed,
and
spraying
with iron sulfate
are helpful
means
of eradication. Wild oats
(Avena fatua) are
very
troublesome
in
some
fields
long sown
to
oats,
because
they
mature
ahead of the
crop
and shell out
before harvest.
Crop
rotation and clean seed
are preventives.
Since
wild oats
are lighter
than the cultivated
grain,
the
fanning
mill will
partly
clean the seed. Smut
injures
oats to
considerable
extent
unless the seed is treated. The
spores
enter the oat at blooming
time. Oats
are
treated in
the
same
way
as wheat,
the formalin treatment
being
per- haps
the best.
Rust
causes
much loss but cannot be remedied
directly.
Indirectly
it
may
be
partly
controlled
by
selection of
early or
rust-resistant
varieties,by using only
well-
drained
land,
and
by using
culture methods
to
prevent
lodging.
The
chinch-bug,springgrain-aphis,
and the
army-
worm
injure
the
growing
crop.
Remedies for the
chinch-bug
have been
given
in
Chapter
XVI. Clean cultivation and
fall-plowing help
to
control the others. It is not
usually
profitable
to
spray
or
otherwise treat
growing oats
for
Other Cereals 215
insects.
Grain weevils and the
Angoumois grain
moth
are
best controlled
by storage
in
tight
bins. If the bins
become
infested,fumigation
with carbon bisulfide will
kill the insects.
Hydrocyanic-acid
gas
is also
effective,
but
extremely dangerous,
one
full inhalation of it
being
fatal
to
man.
BARLEY (Hordeum sativum)
From the earliest dawn of
civilization, man
has culti- vated
barley
continuously.
It has been
an
important
crop
in all the
empires
of which
we
have record.
Barley
belongs
to
the
same
tribe
as
wheat. It has for its
near- est
relative
barley-grass
(Hordeum juhatum) variously
called foxtail and
squirrel-tail.
231.
Description.
"
Barley
resembles wheat
very
closely,having a
fibrous
root-system
of less
extent
and
having stools,culms, leaves,
and
spikes
that
are
very
much like those of wheat. The chief
apparent
differences
are
that it stools
less,
has shorter
straw,
and that the
kernels
are usually
covered with
a lightly-adhering husk,
which breaks when the
grain
is crushed.
Barley
heads
commonly
have
beards,although
there
are a
number of
varieties that lack
them; some
lack
hulls,
and others
lack both beards and hulls.
These, however, are not
as yet
in
general
use.
The
spikeletsare single-flowered, and, therefore,
bear
only one
kernel. Three
spikelets, however,
lie side
by
side. In
one
type
all three
spikelets
bear
grain,
while
in another
type
only
the middle
one
is
fertile,
giving
rise to
three
rows or
to
one
row,
respectively, on
each
side of the
spike,
" the two sides
making
six and
two
rows
;
hence the name
of these
types
: two-rowed and
six-rowed
barley.
Two-rowed
barley
is
springgrain,
while six-rowed is
216 The
Principlesof Agronomy
either
spring or
winter. These varieties of six-rowed
barley are
standard
: (1) Oderbrucker, (2) Manchuria,
and
(3)
California. Cahfornia Feed and
Bay Brewing
are common
in California. Of the two-rowed
type
Cheva-
her and Hanna
are
rdost
popular.
In the Mountain
States,
Tennessee
Winter, Chevalier,
Utah
Winter,
and
Beardless do well. The Southern States
grow
winter
varieties in the main.
232. Distribution and
adaptation.
" No other
grain
crop
withstands
successfully
such wide differences of
climate, elevation,land
soil
as barley.
It is cultivated
from the
equator
up
to
the Artie
circle,being
grown
as
a
crop
at 65" north latitude. In
Peru, at
11,000
feet
above sea-level
ityields
well. It is
a leading
crop
on
the
hot,dry plains
of
Spain
and North
Africa,though
it does
best
on
well-drained
loam_
soils with moderate moisture.
It
grows
on
almost
any
soil and withstands
considerable
drouth
being, therefore, a good dry-farm
crop.
Since
it is the most alkali-resistant
cereal,
it
grows
well in arid
regions
that have
slightly
alkaline soils. It is often
grown
on virgin
land until other
crops
can
be made
to
grow
profitably.
Russia,
United
States, Germany, Austria-Hungary,
Japan, Spain,
the British
Isles,
and Canada in the order
named
are
the
leadingproducers.
California, Minnesota,
Wisconsin,
the
Dakotas,
and Iowa
yieldover
80
per
cent
of the
crop
of the United States.
In
average
acre-yields,
Idaho is
first,
with
an
average
of about 40 bushels
;
Utah
second,
with 38.5 bushels
;
and
Washington third,
with 37 bushels. Good
yields are
from 50 to 100
bushels,though
125 bushels have been
harvested in
some
districts undfer
irrigation.
233.
Sowing
and cultivation.
" For
barley as
for other
small-grains,a fine,
deep
seed-bed is desired. This is
218 The
Principlesof Agronomy
within
forty-eight
hours of each other. The careful
removal of dirt and weed seed much
improves
the
grain
for both feed and malt.
Careful
storage
is essential for the
same reason as
that
stated for careful
shocking
and
stacking.
Since malt
barley
is all
sold,
it must be
carefully
handled. Two-
thirds of all
barley
finds its
way
into the market
by a
course
similar to that of wheat. There
are
two
groups
of
grades
"
"
barley
"
and
"
rejected."
In each there
are
grades1,2, 3,
and 4.
235. Enemies and
uses.
" The insects that attack bar- ley
are chinch-bug,grain-aphis,
and Hessian
fly.
Reme- dies,
where
pests
are
present,
are fall-plowing, rotation,
and clean
farming.
Insects in the bin
are
controlled
by
carbon-bisulfide
fumigation.
Loose and closed
smuts of
'
barleyare preventedby
the formalin
or
hot
water treat- ments,
respectively.
Where the rusts
are
present,
selec- tion
of stiff
-strawed,early-maturingvarieties,
and
plant- ing
on
well-drained land
not
so
rich in
organic matter
as to cause
lodging,
are
the methods of control.
For
hogs,barley
is
a
splendidconcentrate, producing
a good quality
of
pork.
For
sheep,cattle,
and
poultry,
itis
usually
crushed and mixed with oats
or
bran
to
lighten
it. It is much used
on
the Pacific Coast for horses. In
the Latin countries of
Europe, barley
is used for
bread,
but not
so
much
as formerly.
In the United
States,
the
kernel with husk removed is used
as pearlbarley
in
soup.
It forms
a
part
of the manufactured cereal foods.
The
by-products are
used in various
ways:
(1)
the
straw for
bedding
and
feed,although
the
beards, or
awns,
lower the
feedingvalue; (2)
hulls and broken
grain
for
feed
products;
and
(3)
malt
sprouts
and brewers'
grain
(remnants from malt
industry),
which
are
high
in
protein,
for
feed,
particularly
for
dairy cows.
In the West and
Other Cereals 219
South,some
barley
is
cut
green
for
hay.
Hull-less
barley
mixed with
peas, cowpeas,
or
vetch makes
fairlygood hay,
and
a good
pasture
for
hogs.
The value of
barley
like that of
oats and
corn
is
closely
related to the livestock
industry. Barley
and bran
are
high
in
protein
and mix well with
corn,
which is
high
in
carbohydrates.
There
may
be
a growing use
for
barley
as
one
of
a
number of
grains
in
a
mixed
grain
ration. An
increased number of
choppers on
the farm should widen
its
use.
As
a
world
crop,
barley yieldsonly one
and one-half
biHion bushels and ranks far below the other
grains.
In
the United States
barley
ranks
ninth, oats
sixth,
wheat
second,
and
corn
firstin
importance.
EYE
(Secalecereale)
236.
Description
and distribution. "
Rye came
into
Europe
later than Roman times and
spread rapidly
over
the northern and central
parts
of the continent from
Spain
to Central Asia. It is
more closely
related
to
wheat than to
any
other
crop.
Another
speciesoccurs
in
Austria-Hungary
and Russia.
The
root-system
is
fibrous,
but its
rooting
habit is not
as deep as
that of wheat. It stools
considerably,
grow- ing
longer,finer,tougher
culms than other
small-grain.
It has few leaves and
long spikes,
the
glumes
of which
always
bear beards. The kernels
are naked, long,slim,
and dark-colored.
Rye
has the
power
of
sending
up
new
culms after
being cut,
a
power
possessedonly
to
a
slight
extent
by
other cereals. There
are
but few varie- ties
of
rye,
because cross-fertilizationtakes
placeso readily
in the field that all strains
are
mixed.
Russia
produces
more
than half and
Germany more
than
220 The
Principlesof Agronomy
a
fourth of the
crop
of the world. Other countries fol- low
in this order
: Austria-Hungary, France,
and the
United States. In the United
States,(1) Pennsylvania,
(2) Wisconsin, (3) Michigan, (4) Minnesota,
and
(5)
New York
produce
most of the
crop.
Rye,
grown
as a
winter
crop
in
Alaska,
is
more
frost-resistant than
even
wheat
or barley.
It
can
grow
on
poorer
soilsthan
nearly
any
other
crop ;
it is also drouth-resistant.
237.
Handling
the
crop.
" Fertile soil and
a good
seed-bed increase the
yield.
It is
usually sown
with
drillsin fall
or spring
at the
rate
of five
or
six
pecks
;
dry-
farms sometimes
requireonly
two
or
three
pecks
and
pasture
as
much
as eightpecks.
It
grows
best with the
shallowest
planting
that will enable it to
sprout.
Har- rowing
encourages
stooling,
but
irrigation
does not
pay
ordinarily,
because
yields are
too small.
Harvesting
and
threshing
methods
are
the
same as
for
wheat,
oats,
or barley.
Ergot, a
fungous disease,
is the
only
serious
enemy.
It is
poisonous
to cattle in addition to
injuring
the
yield.
Cleaning
the seed and
rotating
each
year
help
to
over- come
it. Insects trouble but
little;
there
are no special
weeds.
238. Uses.
"
Rye
bread feeds
a vast number of the
people
in
Russia, Germany, Norway,
Sweden,
and other
parts
of Slavonic and Teutonic
Europe.
It is
yielding
place
to wheat
as
human food. As animal
food,
the
grain
is used
mostly
in mixed rations. It is better for
hogs
and horses than for other animals. The
grain
also
forms
part
of the mixtures for
malt,
and the
by-products
are
used
as
animal food. When
green,
the
plant
furnishes
second-class
hay,
or,
if
plowed under, a
poor green
manure.
The
straw is
poor
feed
on account of
being
tough. Fall-planted
rye
is sometimes
pastured by
cattle
Other Cereals 221
or sheep.
In
parts
of
Europe
the straw
is
more
valuable
than the
grain,being
woven
into
mats,
carpets,
plates,
dishes,baskets,boxes, trunks,
and various trinkets and
articles of
apparel. Rye cannot,
at
present,
be
an
im- portant
grain
crop
in the United States. In
Europe,
it
ranks
high
;
in the United
States,
it is
only
eleventh
;
as
a
world
crop,
it is smaller than
wheat,
corn, oats,
and rice.
RICE (Oryzasativa)
239.
Description
and distribution. " Rice has fed
nearly
half of the
population
of the earth for about 4000
years.
In
1694, a trading
vessel carried the first rice
to South Carolina. It
spread slowly
until the last
thirty
years,
during
which time it has become
a
valuable
crop
in
Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas,
and Central America.
The nations
producing
it rank
as
follows
:
India 70 billion
pounds
China 50 billion
pounds
Japan
.18 billion
pounds
All
Europe
12 billion
pounds
The
high price
" about three cents a pound
"
gives
it
a
greater
cash value than
any
other
crop.
The
plant slightly
resembles
oats,
save
that the
panicles
are
closed. The
grain
is covered with
a
husk called
paddy
that must be removed before it is used for food.
Upland
and
lowland
are
the two
types,
lowland
requiring
to be
flooded a largepart
of the
growing
season,
while
upland
is not
irrigated.
240. Uses. " The most
important use
of rice is
as
food for man. Machinery removes
the hull
;
rollers
covered with
sheepskin,one going
faster than the
other.
222 The
Principlesof Agronomy
polish
the
grain.
The flour
or polish
is valuable stock-
feed. Asiatics
qmit
the
polishing,thereby saving
much
food value. Rice straw has
some feeding
and'
weaving
value.
EMMER (Triticum
satimim
dicoccum)
241.
Description
and
use.
" Emmer is
a sub-species
of
wheat and differs from it
chiefly
in that in
threshing
the
spikelets
retain the kernels in the
glumes.
It is
grown
rather
extensively
in
Russia,
southern
Europe,
and east
central Africa.
During
the last
thirty
years,
dry-farm
sections of the United States and sections that cannot
profitably
grow
oats for feed
produce constantly
increas- ing
quantities.
Rust- and drouth-resistance
are qualities
recommending
its
use.
Both winter and
spring
varieties
are
grown
"
winter in the West and
spring
in the East and South.
Black winter
emmer
is the most
commonly
grown
variety.
It is
planted,as are
oats,
at the rate of from four to
twelve
pecks an acre.
It
yields
from
twenty
to
seventy
bushels.
The husk
covering
the
grain
prevents
the formation of
heavy, pasty masses
in the stomachs of
animals,thereby
aidingdigestion.
In this
respect
it is like oats.
BUCKWHEAT
{Fagopyrum esculentum)
242.
Description,distribution,
and
uses.
" Buckwheat
is not
a
true cereal,
since it
belongs
to the
dock,
instead
of to the
grass
family.
It
came
from Manchuria to New
England,
New
York,
and
Pennsylvania,
where it is still
largely
used
as a catch-crop
when other
crops
fail and it
is too late to
replant
them.
The
plant
has
a
tap-root
;
a
branched
stem two
or
three
feet in
height,
each branch
ending
in
a
flat-topped
cluster
Other Cereals 223
of white
flowers; and broad leaves
something
like those
of the
morning-glory.
The seed is dark
gray
or
brown,
angular,
and covered with
a
rather
strong,
loose hull.
The
growing-season
is
so
short that
a
field
may
be
planted
as
late
as July 1,
and
yet
mature. Its
yield
is small
but it
pays
better than
no
crop
on
land where
some
other
crop
has failed
to begin growth.
It is
cut with
a
binder
and shocked in order to
dry
the succulent stems. Buck- wheat
is famous
as
the
source
of
pancake
flour. It has
some
value for
hogs
and
poultry
and the straw is
some- times
used for feed and
bedding,
but it is rather
coarse
and
unpalatable.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Cereals in
America,
T. F.
Hunt,
pp.
280-410.
Field
Crops,
Wilson and
Warburton,
pp.
175-268.
Field
Crop Production,
G.
Livingston,
pp.
145-193.
Southern Field
Crops,
J. F.
Duggar,
pp.
1-31, 68-77,
217-230.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
II,
pp.
202-206, 485^94,
559-564.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins
:
No. 139. Emmer
:
A Grain for the Semi-arid
Regions.
395.
Sixty-day
and Kherson Oats.
420. Oats
:
Distribution and Uses.
424. Oats
: Growing
the
Crop.
427.
Barley
Culture in the Southern States.
436. Winter Oats for the South.
443.
Barley : Growing
the
Crop.
466.
Winter Emmer.
518.
Winter
Barley.
CHAPTER XIX
PO TA TOES
{Solanum tuberosum)
Of the
crops
designated as
"
root crops,"
potatoes
and
sugar-beets are
by
far the
most important.
The methods
by
which
they are
produced, depending
much
on
hand-
labor and
requiring
fertihzers and constant attention,
demand that these
crops
be handled
on
small
areas
in- tensively
farmed. There is
a
noticeable absence of
machines that
cover
ten to forty acres
in
a single day,
although
there is
a promise
of
implements
that will
modify
methods of culture.
Planters, cultivators, and
diggers
have done much
to
relieve the farmer of slow and
ex- hausting
hand-labor. Field conditions in
potato-growing
are
shown in
Figs.
62 to 65.
243.
Origin.
" The
potato was growing
wild in the
valleys
of Peru and Chile when the
Spaniards
first visited
these countries about
1542. Another kind of
potato was
found in Mexico and southern Colorado. This useful
plant
made its
way
into
Virginia
in time to be carried
to
England
and Ireland
by Raleigh's expedition
in 1586.
In Ireland it did
so
well that it
soon
became the
princi- pal
food
crop.
Meantime,
the Indians and whites in
the
neighborhood
of
Virginia gradually
increased their
dependence
on
it
until, by
the first of the
eighteenth cen- tury,
they
used it
generally. By
the middle of the
cen- tury,
it had
spread
into the
parts
of
Europe
favorable
to
its
growth
and
gained larger
and
larger
footholds
on
224
226
The
Principlesof Agronomy
length
of this
underground
stem
depends on
the
depth
of
planting.
At various
placeson
this
stem,
new branches,
or
stolons,
grow
horizontally
outward
bearing
tubers
at
the end. Meanwhile,
from two to four roots
grow
from
the
upright
stem
just
at the base of
tuber-bearing
sto- lons.
By
the time of
maturity,
the fibrous roots
have
spread
for six
or eight
inches and have extended four
or
five feet
Fig. 63.
" Constant cultivation is
necessary
for
good potato yields.
into the soil if it is loose and well-drained. Tubers from
one
to
thirty
in
number, varying
from the size of
a
pea
to
six
pounds,
have
developed
in
a single
hill. About six
or seven
potatoes
as largeas
the double-fist
are preferred.
The
angular
stem,
from
one
to five feet in
length,usually
about
two
or
two and
a
half feet
high,
stands
upright
or
droops across
the
open space,
depending on
the
variety
and soil conditions. The leaves
are compound
with
small leaflets
growing
in the axil and scattered
irregularly
Potatoes 227
between the
thick, pointed,
oval
leaf-parts,
which
are
from
one to three inches
long.
Buds
or
eyes
are
borne
sparsely
at the
stem end and
close
together
at the bud end. A
stringpassed
round
the tuber and held in
position
with
a pin
in each
eye
shows the
spiral
arrangement
of
eyes.
Cross-section^
of
a
tuber show three
nearly concentric,
and
one irregular
part.
The
outermost,
the external
cortical,
is
poor
in
starch and
so
thin
as to be almost
entirely
removed in
peeling.
Then
comes a
thicker
layer,
rich in
starch,
called the internal
cortical,surrounding
the external
medullary,
also rich in starch. The dark colored
core,
the internal
medullary,
is
watery
and low in starch. A
potato
that contains
proportionately large
external
medullary
and internal cortical is desirable
on
account
of
high
starch
content,
which
gives
the
potato
the
quality
of
mashing readily
when cooked. Potatoes that
are
yellow
and
soggy
after
cookingare
undesirable in
America,
where
they are
baked
or boiled,
but
are highlyprized by
the
French,
who
serve
them fried.
246. Varieties.
" Potatoes
are usually
classed
as early
and
late,
although
color,
depth or
arrangement
of
eyes,
and
roughness
of skin
might
each
give
rise to
a grouping.
The
early
varieties
yield less,
but
mature
in about
one
hundred
days bringinghigher priceson
account of reach- ing
market
early.
Late
potatoes
comprise
the biilk of
the
crop
wherever
large
acreages
are
grown,
except
near
city
markets.
Requiring
about
one
hundred and
thirty
days
to
ripen,they
cannot reach the
early market,
but
are
allowed to
grow
late in order to
give
the
greatest
pos- sible
yield.
Varieties
originate
either
by
variation in hills
planted
by sets, or
from mixtures
arising
from the
seed-planted
hills,
which
always
contain several distinct kinds of tubers.
228 The
Principlesof Agronomy
The
Pearl,
for
example, comes
from
a
bud variation of
Blue
Victors,
while the Burbank
was
found in
a
seed-sown
hill. Often old varieties
are given new names
in order
to
sell them. Some confusion in different sections
can- not
be
avoided,
but should be
as nearly
eliminated
as
possible.
Bliss
Triumph, Peachblow, Eureka, Early Ohio,
and
Early
Rose
are common early
varieties. Rural New
Yorker,
Sir Walter
Raleigh,
Carman No.
3,
Green Moun- tain,
and Burbank
are popular
in the Northern States.
In the Mountain
States,Pearl,
Idaho Rural,
Rural' New
Yorker, Mortgage Lifter,
Netted
Gem, Carmen, Peerless,
Majestic,
and
Freeman, are profitableyielders
under
irrigation.
247. Distribution and
adaptation.
" A
cool,even
grow- ing-season
without
severe frost,
and
a loose, warm
soil
containing
medium moisture
throughout
the
season,
are
the conditions most favorable to
potato-growing.
Ideal
conditions in
Scotland, Germany,
and Russia
produce
almost unbelievable
yields. Eighteen
hundred bushels
to the
acre was
grown
on
the seed-farm of Lord
Rosebery
near Edinburgh.
Scandinavia also has
a good
climate
for
potato
production.
The
large
countries that lie in this section of
Europe
are
all
heavy producers,ranking as
follows in total
pro- duction
: (1) Germany, (2) Russia, (3) Austria-Hungary,
and
(4) France,
with the United States
fifth,
and Great
Britain sixth.
Out of the five billion bushels
produced, Germany
grows
about
one
and seven-tenths
billions,
while the United
States
produces only
one-third of
a
billion bushels.
The
acre-yield
is 197 bushels in
Germany;
186 in the
British
Isles; 140 in
Austria-Hungary;
134 in
France;
100 in Russia
;
and 90 in the United States. Maine leads
Potatoes 229
230 The
Principlesof Agronomy
all
states,
with 225 bushels. Some other leaders
are Idaho,
200 bushels;
Montana and Utah,
180 bushels;
Wash- ington,
170; Colorado, 160;
and
Wyoming,
145. All
except
Maine
are
in the
irrigated
district. As total
pro- ducers,
the
states
rank
: (1)
New York, (2)Michigan, (3)
Maine, (4) Wisconsin, (5) Ohio,
and
(6) Illinois,
with
only
Maine
averaging more
than
ninety-two
bushels.
In the
East,
four hundred bushels is
a good acre-yield,
Fig. 65.
" Great potato-producing
section,
Aroostook
County,
Maine.
while in the
irrigated
district seven
hundred to
eight
hundred bushels are produced
occasionally,
and
one
thousand
bushels under
especially
favorable conditions.
Good
farmers
may
expect
from three
hundred to
five
hundred
bushels
an acre.
248.
Preparation
of
land. " Farmers can
well afford
to
spend
extra
time and labor
preparing
a good
seed-bed
for
potatoes.
Heavy
applications
of farm
manure
pay,
though
it is well to
apply
it to
the
previous
crop
or
in
the
fall
precedingpotatoes
in order that it
may
be well de- composed.
This
helps
to
form
a fine,
moist seed-bed.
Coarse manure
opens up
the soil
permitting
excessive
Potatoes 231
drying,
which is detrimental. The
high
water-holding
capacity
of soilsdue
to
manuring
increases
yields
materi- ally.
To
serve efficiently
the
organic
matter must
be
thoroughly
mixed with the soil. Old
decomposed
manure
does this
very
well,
but fresh
manure
sometimes does
more
harm than
good.
Moreover,
too much
coarse
organic
matter
in
limy
soils
aggravates potato
scab.
Where commercial fertilizers
are used,
potatoes
respond
readilyto
potash.
Deep fall-plowing
is essential in
loosening
the seed- bed
and in
holding
water
for the next
season.
A
rough
surface left
over
winter
prevents
any
run-off and
gives
frost
an opportunity
to
disintegrate
clods and liberate
plant-food.
A disk
completes
the
fining
process
long
before
a plow
could be used. This hastens the
warming
of the soil and reduces the
enormous evaporation
of
early
springby
the formation of
a
mulch. Another
disking,
or one or
two
harrowings
to
keep
the mulch
loose,
will
leave
a
deep,
mellow,
moist seed-bed
ready
for
planting.
249. Seed. " Some varieties have much
higheryield- ing
possibilities
than do
others; therefore,
the
variety
chosen is
important.
One
disturbing
factor in
choosing
potato
seed is that
some
districts cannot use home-grown
seed. The North
ships
to the South
practically
all the
seed used there. Arizona also
imports
seed
potatoes.
In
the
West, some
growers
have small farms in mountain val- leys
which furnish seed for their
large
farms in the lower
valley.
In most
cases
selected
home-grown
seed is best.
After
a good variety
is
chosen,
the next most
important
thing
to
consider is
disease,
which
may
reduce the
yield
from 5 to
50, or even
100
per
cent.
Most diseases
can
be detected
by examining
the tubers. Absolute freedom
from
disease,
if
possible,
is desired.
Sometimes varieties
deteriorate,or
"
run
out." This
232 The
Principlesof Agronomy
need not
happen
if
proper
selection is
practiced.
There
is
a tendency
to
use or
sell the marketable
potatoes,
thus
leaving
the small
ones
for seed. It has been found
that
potato
hills
vary
a
great
deal not
only
in the ntunber
of
potatoes they produce,
but also in the
kind. Some
hillshave from four to
eight
tubers of
very
much the
same
size and
shapecontainingno
very
largeones
and
not
many
small
ones
;
others
one largepotato
and
a
number of
small
ones;
while stillothers consist almost
entirely
of
small tubers. Since both
very
large
and
very
small
potatoes
are
undesirable
on
the
market,
hills with
a
fair
number of medium-sized tubers
are
most
desirable.
A
set from
any
potato
in the hill tends to
produce a
hill like the
parent
hill. A
big
potato
from
a
poor
hill
is not
so good
seed
as a
smaller
one
from
a good
hill. It
seems
that
any
potato
in
a
hillis
as good
for seed
as
any
other and if such is
true,
there is
no objection
to
using
the small
potatoes
from desirable hills.
If, however,
small tubers from
a
bin
or pitare used, most of them will
be from
poor
hills.
Seed selection is
so simple
that
every
farmer
can
fol- low
it
successfully.
The farmer will know which
part
of the
patch
has the healthiest
potatoes.
With
a dig- ging
fork he
can
take
out
a
few hundred
hills, piling
them
separately.By examining
the
piles,
he
can easily
select
hills that contain the
type
he desires. For
more
techni- cal
work, some
may
desire to
study
the
plants
all
summer.
When such is the
case,
a
peg may
be driven close
to
the
hillsthat
promise
well.
Selected seed
requires
careful
storage,
and
protection
from frost and heat. Boxes
or
crates
holding
from
forty
to
seventy
pounds are convenient,
since this method
prevents decay
of
any
great
number of
tubers,
and
per- mits
quickershipment.
234 The
Principlesof Agronomy
to
a notched, revolving,
horizontal
disk which is watched
by a
man,
who fills
empty
notches
or removes a set
iftwo
are
in
one place.
When the notch
passes
over
the
delivery
spout,
the
set drops through.
The
picker
machine
re- quires
only
the
driver,
but misses from 5 to 20
per
cent
;
the other
requires
two men
and
can
be made
to miss less
than 1
per
cent.
The
horse-powerplanterfurrows,drops,
and
covers
five
or
six
acres a day.
It is estimated that
a
farmer
can
afford
a
machine
planter
if he
grows
six
acres or more.
There is
no
fixed
depth
for
planting.
From two to
six inches is
usual,
while three to four is most common.
Light, warm
soils
permit
and
require
greater
depths.
Growing
tubers should be surrounded
by
loose soil and
yet
not be
so
liear the surface
as
to
expose any
to
sunlight,
which will
injure
them
by causingchlorophyll
to develop.
Early potatoes
are plantedas soon as possible,
and late
ones usually
in
May, though
in
some districts, early
June
is the best time. In the
South, January
to
April
is the
time; a
second
crop
is
planted
in
some
districts in
July
or August.
The distance between hills and
rows
varies
from twelve
to
twenty
inches. Ten to fifteen bushels
will
plantan acre.
251. Treatment
during growth.
" If the
ground crusts,
harrowing
before the
potatoes
are
up may
help
them
through.
About
two weeks later when the vines
are
three
or
four inches
tall,
another
harrowing
is advisable.
The cultivator
inay begin
work in another week
or two,
mulching deeper
toward the middle of the
space
between
rows
if
irrigation
water is to be
applied.
This
prepares
for
a
furrow.
From five to
twenty-five
inches of
irrigation
water
may
be
applied
in
one
to five
or
six
applications.Every
two
weeks, or so soon as possible
after each
irrigation
or
Potatoes
235
rainstorm,
the cultivator should be used
to
stir the
soil,
graduallyleavinga
wider
space
untouched
as
the vines
increase in size. This
may
be continued until the
plants
would be
injuredby
the horse
or
cultivator. Then suffi- cient
hand-hoeing
to control weeds is
necessary.
252.
Harvesting
and
marketing.
"
Early
potatoes
are
harvested
as soon as they
are largeenough
to be
put
on
the market
;
the late
crop
is left
as long as
is consistent
with
approaching
winter
or maturity,
in order to
gain
all
possibleadvantage
from the
cool, autumn
growing-
season.
Small
patches are frequentlydug
with forks
or
turned out with the
plow;
but
diggersare gaining
in
importance,particularly
for
large
fields. A shovel blade
passes
under the
potatoes
and elevators
carry
the tubers
upward
at the
same
time
shaking
off the dirt. Some
machines have
rotatingarms
that throw out the
vines;
some
also sort the tubers. The
potatoes
are picked
up
by
hand behind the
fork,
plow,
or digger,
and
sacked,
boxed, or
loaded loose into
wagons
to be hauled
away
and
sold
or
stored in
pitsor
cellars.
The
potatoes
that
are
sold
go
either to
consumers
directly,or
to jobbers
who
ship or
distribute them to
retailers. Potato
prices
vary
so
much that it is hard
to
tell whether to sell
at harvest
or
to store
for the winter
and
spring
markets. Because of its
perishability,
the
crop
is waste in
spring
if it cannot be
disposed
of. Some
growers
sellhalf and
store half
;
others
belong
to
coopera- tive
associations that assistin
marketing.
Wherever
ship- ping
is
practiced,
carload lots of
single
varieties sell to
the best
advantage.
Careful
sorting
and
grading
also
help
sales and
prices.
Both boxes and sacks
are
used
for
shipping.
253.
Storage.
" The
part
of the
crop
that is stored
goes
into
pits
loose
or
into cellars
loose,
in
sacks,or
in
236
The
Principlesof Agronomy
boxes. Pits
cost
less than do cellars.
They ordinarily
consist of
a
trench
a
few inches
deep
in which is set
a
rick
heaped-up
with
potatoes
and covered with straw
and earth.
As winter
approaches,they are
covered with
more
straw and earth. A
stove-pipethrough
the
cover- ing
to aid in ventilation
may
be closed with cloth in
freezing
weather. Pits should be
emptied
when
once
opened,
the
potatoes being
sold
or
removed to a
cellar.
The
important points
in
storage
are : (1)
to
keep
the
temperature
above
freezing,
but not over
40" F.
;
(2)
to
provide ventilation; (3)
to examine for disease and
condition of
keeping;
and
(4)
to be able
to
remove con- veniently
a
part
without
disturbing
the others. In these
respects
cellars excel
pits;
boxes
are
better than
sacks;
and sacks better than bins of loose tubers.
254. Weeds and insects.
" All
common
weeds trouble
potatoes,
though
there
are none
that
are
troublesome to
f/otatoes
alone. The intensive culture demanded
by
the
potato
should control
any
weed. Of the
insects,
the
flea-beetle
(Epitrixcucumeris)
bores holes in the leaves
allowing
the
blights
to enter. Arsenate of lead aids
in
lessening
the
injury.
More
injurious
is the
potato
beetle
or
Colorado
potato
beetle,
which eats the leaves
about the time of bloom.
Paris-green
spray,
at the rate
of
one
pound
in
one
hundred
twenty gallons
of
water;
or
arsenate of
lead,
six
or eightpounds
in
one
hundred
gallons
of water lessens this
injury.
Potato
worms,
potato
stalk
weevils,
grasshoppers,
and June beetles
do lesser
injuries.They are generally
controlled
by
clean cultivation and rotation.
255. Diseases.
"
Potatoes
are
attacked
readilyby
par- asitic
organisms,
which often
cause a
loss in
a
district of
from one-fourth to one-half the
crop,
sometimes
completely
destroying
it. Late and
early blight,
Fusarium wilt
Potatoes
237
(Fig.66), Rhizoctonia, blackleg,
and scab
are
found in
various
parts
of the
country.
Late
blight(Phytophthorainfestans) ,alihough.iiot
preva-
lent in the
West,
is the most serious disease in the East.
It caused the Irish famine of the
"
forties,"
during one
year
of which
300,000 people perished
and thousands
emigrated to America. The disease attacks the vines
and tubers
causing
the tubers to rot.
Damp
weather
Fig. 66. "
Potatoes killed
by
Fusarium wilt.
seems
to
encourage
it.
Injury
is lessened
by spraying
with Bordeaux
mixture,
which is made
by dissolving
five
pounds
of
quicklime
in
twenty-fivegallons
of
water,
and five
pounds
of blue vitriol in
twenty-fivegallons
of
water
and
mixing
the two solutions. There should be
sufficientlime to
prevent burning.
Early blight{Alternariasolani)
does its
damage
earlier
in the
season
than late
blight.
It attacks the
vines,turn-
238
The
Principlesof Agronomy
ing
them
yellow
and
reducing
the
yield.
Bordeaux
mixture
spray
aids in its control.
Dry
rot
(Fusarium oxysporum)
is
widespread.
It at- tacks
the
stems,
causes wiltingby clogging
the tracheal
tubes,
and
grows
downward into the
tuber,forming a
dark
ring
which shows in
a
thin cross-section of the
stem
end.
All seed
showing
infection should be discarded. Since
this disease lives in the
ground,
rotation is essential
to
its
control.
Rosette, or
Rhizoctonia
{Corticiumvagum),
is
common
and
may
be noted
by
black
spots
on
the
potatoes.
It
attacks the stems from the outside and
eats
through
the
phloem,
thus
holding
the food in the vine. This
causes
rosettes
of leaves and small worthless tubers to form
on
the vines. To discard infected seed and
to soak the
tubers in
a
mercuric bichloride
(HgCla)
solution 1
part
to
1000 of water
are
the remedies used. Because the disease
lives several
years
in the soil
or on
other
plants,
clean
farming
and rotations
are
necessary.
Scab
{Oospora scabies)
attacks the tuber
causing a
rough
appearance
resemblinga
scab. As it survives in
the
soil,
rotations
are
beneficial. The seed
treatment
is
soaking
two hours in formalin solution
one pint
to
thirty
gallons
of
water. Fresh
manure
and lime
seem
to
encour- age
the disease.
Blackleg {Bacillus
phytophthorus)
attacks the
vine,
causingwilting,
and the
tuber, causing
rot.
Rotations,
clean
ground,
and littlewater after
an
attack
are recom- mended
as means
of control.
Seed selection for resistant
strains,
discarding
infected
seed,
long rotations,
and seed treatment
are the
most
hopeful means
of
keeping
up
yields. Neglect
is
likely
to
cause
the ruin of the
potato industry
in
some localities.
Second
growth
is the
production
of
new tubers
when
Potatoes 239
water
is
applied
after drouth. The
potatoes
cannot
get
large
and
they are
poor
in
quality.
Internal brown
spots are
found in the interior of
some
potatoes, especially
in the
Early
Ohio. It is
probably
not
a disease,
but
a
physiological
condition which
injures
the odor and flavor
of the
potato
but not its seed value. It is caused
by
drouth in
some cases.
Growing potatoes during
tuber formation
are
very
sensitive to sudden
changes
of
temperature. Heavy
storms
and
irrigation,
at times, cause
abnormal conditions
that
are not
easilyexplained.
256. Use and value. "
The most
important use
of
potatoes
is for human food.
Large parts
of
Ireland,
Germany, France, Austria-Hungary,
and Russia
are
dependent on
the
potato as
the
principal
food
product.
A
general
crop
failure would
probably cause a
famine in
some
districts. The
per
capita consumption
is
twenty
bushels in
Germany, as against
five and one-half in the
United States. Desiccated
potatoes
are
valuable foods
in
tropical
and
frigidzones.
Potatoes
are
sliced and
toasted to make
potato chips.
In
addition,
potatoes
are
used
some
for stock-feed and for the manufacture of
starch,sirup,
alcohol,
and dextrin.
They are
sometimes
used for
silage.
Since
potatoes
are
about three-fourths
water,
the total
dry
matter of the
crop
is less than that
of the
leading
cereals,
although
in
gross
weight
the
yield
exceeds
any
one
of them.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
The
Potato,
Samuel Fraser.
The
Potato,
Grubb and Guilford.
Field
Crops,
Wilson and
Warbiu-ton,
pp.
422-443.
Field
Crop Production,
G.
Livingston,
pp.
358-369.
240 The
Principles of Agronomy
The Potato
Industry
of
Colorado,
Colo. Bui. No.
175, Fitch, Bennett,
and Johnson.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
II,
pp.
519-529.
American
Irrigation Farming,
W. H.
Olin,
pp.
170"188.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins
:
No. 91. Potato Diseases and Treatment.
295. Potatoes and the Root
Crops
as
Food.
320. Potato
Spraying.
365. Potato
Growing
in Northern Sections.
386.
Potato Culture
on
Irrigated
Farms of the West.
407. The Potato
as a
Truck
Crop.
410. Potato Culls
as a
Source of Industrial Alcohol.
533. Good Seed Potatoes and How to Produce Them.
544. Potato-tuber Diseases.
242
TJw
Principlesof Agronomy
from the
sugar-beet.
In 1805
one
of his
pupils,
Achard,
began
the
sugar
industry by startinga factory
in the
German
province
of Silesia. Six
years
later the French
planted
90,000 acres
of beets at the order of
Napoleon,
who
appropriated a large
sum
of
money
for instruction
in schools and to assist in
building
factories.
By 1825,
it had become
an
established
industry
in
France; by
Fig. 67. "
Thinning sugar-beets, Germany.
1835,
the
Germans, realizing
how much the French had
gained
both from the
industry
and
improved
culture
methods, began beet-growingon a
commercial scale. In
1836,
France
produced 40,000
tons of
sugar
and
Germany
1400 tons. Soon the German
output
led,as
it has done
ever
since. Beet-culture
spread rapidly
into other
parts
of
Europe
and
finally
extended to
the United States
about
1830,
but it did not become
important
here
until
1879,
when
a factorywas
built at Alvarado, California.
Since that
time,
growth
has been
rapid
and
regular.
In
a
Root
Crops 243
century,
the culture of
sugar-beets
has
grown
to such
an
extent that half the
sugar
produced
in the world is beet
sugar,
Europe producing more
than nine-tenths
of the
total.
Sugar-beet
conditions
are
shown in
Figs.
67-69.
258.
Description.
" In
general
appearance,
the beet
is whitish and
shaped
like
a long
cone,
broadest
just
below the
crown
from which about
a
dozen leaves
grow
out
in thick clusters. These
vary
in
length
from six
inches to two
feet,
and in width from two to six inches.
On
opposite
sides of the root
are
two
depressionsor
dim- ples,
usuallyslightlyspiral
in
shape.
From the
dimples
and from the central
tap-root
of the
beet,
fibrous
feeding
roots
branch
off,gathering
food and moisture from
a
rather
large
area,
sometimes to
a depth
of five
or
six feet.
Cross-sections of
a
beet show
a
series of concentric
alternatingrings,mostly
of soft and firm tissue. The
compact ringsare
thought
to be richer in
dry-matter
and
sugar.
A
longitudinal-section
shows
(1)
the
crown,
which
is
rough,slightly greenish
in
color,
and
watery,
and
(2)
the
root,
which contains the
sugar.
The
root
should
taper
slowly,keep
broad to considerable
depth,
and be
single
;
branching
roots
are objectionable.
The concentric
rings
show in
straight
lines
converging
at the bottom. The
crown,
removed in
topping,
is
a
part
of the
stem,
as
shown
by
the leaves
growing
from
it; the lower
part
is
an en- larged
root
that should
weigh
from
one
to
one
and
one-half
pounds
in order to meet the demands of
factory
operators.
During
the second
year,
seed-stalks,
from
two to four feet tall and
considerablybranched,
bear
from one-fifth to two
pounds
of seed for each mother
beet.
259.
Adaptation
and distribution. "
Beets,
like
pota- toes,
do best in
cool,
moist climates that have
long
grow- ing
seasons. They are
not sensitive to
frost,
being
grown
244 The
Principlesof Agronomy
Fig. 68. "
Sugar-beets require a vigorous leaf
growth.
Root
Crops 245
extensively
in climates too cool for
corn. Well-drained
soils,varying through
sands and loams
to
clay loams,
are
used
;
soils
containing
small
quantities
of alkali
also
yield satisfactory
crops.
Salt, however, causes
some
difficulty
in the extraction of
sugar.
Abundant
sun- shine
is
necessary
to build
up
the
sugar
which is
entirely
carbohydrate
and, therefore,
the result of
photosynthesis.
Where the soils
are deep
and
can
be
drained,
where mois- ture
is
suppliedby
rainfall
or irrigation,
and where
sun- shine
is
abundant, sugar-beetgrowing can
become
an
im- portant
industry.
Northern United States from
Virginia
to Canada is
adapted
to the culture of
sugar-beets, though
but small
parts
of the section
now produce
them. The
following
states named in the order of their
sugar
production
excel the others in this
industry: Colorado, California,
Michigan, Utah, Idaho,
and Wisconsin. These
states,
in
1913 contained four-fifths of the factories. The
industry
is
capable
of almost indefinite
expansion.
In
Europe,
the
beet-growing
nations
are
the
same
that
lead in
potato
production, namely, (1) Germany, (2)
Russia, (3) Austria-Hungary,
and
(4) France,
and their
rank is the order named.
Nearly
every
nation
grows
some.
260.
Preparation
of the
land, seed,
and
seeding.
"
Very light
and
very
heavy
soils
are
to be avoided because
of
poor
water-holdingcapacity
and
firmness,
respectively.
With other
soils,a good supply
of
organic
matter is
essen- tial
to
maintain
good physical condition,
which aids
materially
in
holding
moisture,
in
maintainingfertility,
and in
promoting
easy
penetration
of
roots.
Plowing
may
be from ten to sixteen inches
deep according
to
power
and
implements.
In
some cases sub-soiling
is
practiced
to
break
hardpans or
to
loosen
compact
sub-soils.
Deep
246
The
Principlesof Agronomy
fall-plowing
mellows the seed-bed and
permits
winter and
spring
rainfall to
penetrate
deeply.
Two
or
three double-
diskings
in the
spring
will firm the seed-bed and
conserve
Fig. 69. "
Sugar-beets require a large
amount of hand labor.
moisture. Factories furnish the seed
and,
in
many cases,
plant
it
by
contract.
The seed has been bred and selected
for six
or seven
years
to
insure
high
sugar
content. If
a
Root
Crops
247
person
keeps
in mind that
percentage
of
sugar
is
a
variable
character and that ithas been raised from 6 to 16
per
cent
and
as high
as 25,
he will
appreciate
that without constant
selection low
percentages
would result in
a
few
years.
Seed costs about fifteen cents
a pound
in America and
is
sown at
the rate of ten to
twenty pounds an
acre,
usually
in
Aprilor May, though
earlierin
some
localities
and later
in others.
Planting
is
commonly
done with
a
four-row
seed drill and
a team.
From
one to three inches is the
usual
depth
of
planting
"
slightly
less than for small-
grains
" in
rows
from sixteen to
thirty
inches
apart.
261. Treatment
during growth.
" As
soon as
the
rows
show
plainly,
the beets
are
cultivated with
a
four-row
cultivator,
which follows the
rows
of the
planter.
Weeds
between the
rows are
removed and the soil is mulched.
The beets
are
blocked
every
six to ten inches
by means
of
short hoes. The blocks
are
thinned
by
hand
to one
beet in
a place.
Four
or
five
sprouts
come
from
one
seed
or
boll. This and the thick
planting
to insure
good
stands make
thinning
necessary.
For
a time,
government
experts expected
to
develop
seed with
single-germs,
but
the
experiment was not
entirely
successful.
Whenever the soil needs
it,
further cultivation is
given
the
crop.
Two
or
three
hand-hoeings remove
weeds and
loosen soil in the
row
around the
plants.
Toward the
end of June
or
in
early July
in
most
irrigateddistricts,
furrows
are
made and five to
thirty
inches of water
are
applied
in from
one
to four
applications.
Rather
thorough soakings seem
to be
beneficial, as
the cultiva- tion
that follows lessens
evaporation,
and the
greater
length
of time between allows the water to distribute
itself
evenly
in the soil.
Water-logging
must
not,
how- ever,
be
permitted,
since this
causes
short
or
branched
beets,
as
does
compact
soil. Not
many
cultivations
can
be
248 The
Principlesof Agronomy
given
after
irrigation, as
the leaves
soon
become
so large
as
to
be
injured.
Some farmers count
on harrowing
six
or seven
times
early
in the
season.
262. Diseases. " Cultivation
necessary
for beets
should be
so
intensive
as
to
keep
weeds well under control.
The constant
selection of beets has
prevented
diseases
from
causing widespread
losses.
Heart-rot, leaf-spot,
and
a
bacterial
disease,however, injure
the
crop
materially
in
some
sections. Both disease and insect
injury
increase
with the
age
of the
sugar
industry
and with the
presence
of other
plants
in the
Chenopodium
group,
including
white
pigweed,
Russian
thistle,
and white tumbleweed.
Heart-rot and
blight (Phoma betce),a
distinctive
disease of
beets,
is the worst hindrance
to
sugar-beet
production
in
Germany, Austria-Hungary,
and France.
It has
recently
entered this
country. Generally
in
August,
the inner leaves and then
outer
ones blacken;
both die
leaving
the bare beet
crown.
The disease
passes
down into the concentric
rings
and
produces rot, some- times
almost
ruining
the
crop.
The destruction of all
plant
remnants from infested
areas
prevents
spread,
and
treatment of seed with Bordeaux mixture
prevents
propagation
of the disease in
new
crops.
Leaf-spot (Cercosporabeticola)
appears
on
the leaves
as
brown
spots
with
reddish-purple
borders which
spread
until the entire leaves become
dry.
The
crown
sends out
new
leaves
at the
expense
of the
root. The best
precau- tion,
some think,
is
to
spray young
plants
with Bordeaux
mixture.
Beet leaves
are
also attacked
by a
bacterial disease
about which littleis known. The disease makes its
way
into the
roots
reducing yield
and
percentage
of
sugar.
Rotation and
care
in
irrigationare
the methods of
control
advocated.
250 The
Principlesof Agronomy
beets
are
loosened and raised from their
positionby some
sort
of
diggeror puller,
and then
topped by
hand.
The
crown
of the beet
as
far
as
it is
green,
that
is,at
lowest leaf
scar,
is removed. Leaves are
either left
on
the
ground or
hauled off
to
feed
cattle,
while the beets
are usually
hauled
directly
to
the
factory,or they are
loaded
on cars by arrangements
which
dump
the load
from
platforms.
In rush
seasons,
however,
many
beets
are piled
in fields
or
yards
and covered with
tops
to
pre- vent
frequentfreezing
and
thawing. Freezing seems to
do
no injury
unless
thawing
follows. At the
factory,
the beets
are
stored in
long
bins left
open
to the weather.
The beets
grown
for
sugar
are weighed
and the
sugar
company pays
the farmer either
a
flat
rate
"
so
much
a
ton
"
or according
to
sugar
content
and
purity,
" that
is,on a sliding
scale.
265. Use and value.
" The
most
important use
of
sugar-beets
is in the manufacture of
sugar,
though they
have considerable feed value. The
tops
are
valuable
and
are
often
pastured on
the
ground
because
they con- tain
most
of the mineral elements of
fertility.
The
pulp,
a by-product
from the
sugar
industry,
is
a
valuable
stock-feed,being highly
succulent.
Beet-sugar manu- facturing
can never
become
a
farm
operation
because it
requires
much
expensive machinery
and
many
compli- cated
operations.
Beet-culture has
a
decided value
on
the farm aside from
the cash
returns. The
deep plowing,
the intensive cul- ture,
and the fertilization
necessary
in successful
pro- duction
of beets
improve farming
methods
materially
and increase
yields
of other
crops.
Weeds
are
also
controlled and business methods introduced into
agri- culture.
The
farmer,
the
soil,
and the
sugar company
are
mutually
benefited in most
cases.
Root
Crops
251
266.
Manufacture of
sugar.
"
When the
factory
is
ready
to
use
the beets in
a bin,
the end is
opened
and
a
section of the floor in the bottom of the
V-shaped
bin
removed. The beets tumble into
a
stream of
water
which
carries them
to
rotatingpaddles
or brushes,
where
they
are
washed and scrubbed. An elevator carries them to a
weighinghopper,
after which
they
are
sliced into cossettes
and steamed under
pressure
to dissolve out the
sugar.
The
juice,or
gar,
is mixed with lime to
precipitate impuri- ties,
whereas the
pulp
is
run
outside into
vats
or
silos for
stock-feeding.
Carbon
dioxide,
which is
now run
into
the
juice,
unites with the lime
rendering
it insoluble and
causing
it to settle and
carry
to the bottom much of the
dark, impure
substances. Filters
remove
the small lime
particles.
Lime
and carbon dioxide
are again
added.
After
filtering,
sulfur-dioxid
gas
is
passed through
the
juice
to
remove
dissolved lime.
Surplus
water is boiled
off,
and
the
juice
goes
to
crystallizing
pans
for further concentra- tion.
Before
going
to the
centrifugals,
which
are
steel
cyl- inders
with
perforatedlinings,
the
sirup
ismixed. In the
rapidly-whirling centrifugals,
the
liquid
is forced
through
the small holes of the
lining
and the
crystalsare scraped
off and dried
by a
current of
warm
air. The
liquid
which
has not
undergone crystallization
is saved and
again
concentrated for two
more yields
of
sugar,
small
ones,
of
course. Sacking
is the last
process
before
marketing.
MANGEL-WURZELS
267.
Description.
"
Mangel-wurzels,or
mangolds, as
they are variously
called,
differ from
sugar-beets,
in that
they are usually
much
larger,weighing
from four to six
pounds. Generally they
grow
partly
out of the
ground,
and
are
very
irregular
in
shape,being largestsome
dis-
252 The
Principlesof Agronomy
tance below the
crown;
they are
reddish in
color,
with
yellowish or pinkish
flesh;
and
they
contain
approxi- mately
12
per
cent
dry
matter,
about half of which is
sugar,
whereas
sugar
beets
are
about 20
per
cent
solid,
four-fifths of which is
sugar.
Beef cattle and
hogs
do
well
on
this
crop.
Dairy cows can use
them
as a
part
ration,
but
they
demand
more solids,
especially protein,
than the succulent
mangel can supply.
268. Use.
" The
mangel
is the chief root
crop
used
for
feeding
in the United
States, although
in
England
turnips
and
rutabagas
rank first. The value of the
mangel
is in its succulence. Corn
silage
is
displacing
it to some
extent, though
in northern United States and Canada
roots
deserve
more
consideration. One
disadvantage
of
roots is that for
one
ton of
dry
matter from
eight
to ten
tons
of
water must
be handled. The food value of the
dry
matter is
high,
however,
because it is both
palatable
and
digestible.
Great
quantities
cannot be consumed
on
account of the
excess
of water.
269. Culture.
" The land should be
prepared as
it is
for
sugar-beets. Seeding
is done with
one-row drills,
with four-row
drills, or by
hand
on
small
areas. They
are
planted
at the rate of six to fifteen
pounds
to the
acre
and
at a
depth
of
one to two
inches.
Planting
is
usually
done in
April or May.
The small
plants
grow
slowly
and it
requirescare
in the first cultivation to
prevent
covering
up
the
rows. Mangels require
the
same atten- tion
as sugar-beets
in
regard
to
thinning,
except
that
they
are
left farther
apart.
As
to
cultivation and
irrigation,
the
same methods
apply.
When frost kills the
outer leaves,thereby stopping
growth, mangels are ready
to harvest.
They are some- times
pulledby
hand
or by plowing a
furrow close to the
row.
Beet
diggers
are
also used to loosen the
roots.
Root
Crops
253
Mangels
in baked soils
are
especially
hard
to
dig.
Yields
vary
from
ten to
forty
tons under favorable conditions.
About
thirty
tons
may
be
expected
under
irrigation.
After the
tops
are removed,
the
roots should be stored
in
a
well-ventilated cellar where
a
temperature just
above
freezingcan
be maintained.
High
temperatures
are to
be
avoided,
particularly,
to
prevent heating,
which is
dangerous
because of the
high
moisture
content.
TURNIPS AND RUTABAGAS
270.
Description.
"
Turnips (Brassica
rapa)
and
ru- tabagas
(Brassica campestris) belong
to the mustard
family (Cruciferse),
which include
cabbage, kohlrabi,
and
rape
in addition to several
garden vegetables
such
as
radish and cauliflower.
Turnips are
much smaller than
rutabagas. They
have
a
much
more regular shape
;
and white rather than
yellowishor
orange
flesh.
They
have
a
much shorter
growing
season,
and since
they are
more
watery
they are a
less valuable feed.
They
have
rough foliage
attached to
a short,
flat
crown,
while
ru- tabaga
leaves
are
borne
on a neck, become
smooth,
and
take
on a
bluish color. The
rutabaga
is
long
and ir- regular.
Both have
a
distinct
outer
layer
that
peels
free from the flesh. The
root-systems
of both
are com- paratively
small.
271. Culture.
" A fine seed-bed is
requiredon
account
of the
root-system.
Sandy
soils
seem best,
and
a moist,
cool climate is essential to best
development.
The seeds
are single-germed
and, on
this
account, require
much less
thinning
than do the
mangels or sugar-beets.
The
rows
should be about
as
far
apart
as
beets and should be
thinned to six
or eight
inches
apart
in the
row.
Turnips
may
be
planted
for winter use as
late
as July,as a
catch-
254
The
Principlesof Agronomy
crop
after another
crop
is
removed, or
between
rows
of
corn.
Two
or
three
pounds
of seed to
the
acre are
used
;
rutabagas
should be
sown
twice
as
thick and
usually planted
in
May or early
June.
Plantingought
to be
justdeep enough
to
place
the
seed in
warm,
moist earth.
Cultivation,
irrigation,harvesting,
and
storage
are
the
same as
for
mangels save
that
turnips
must be used in
early
winter.
272. Value.
" In
England turnips
and
rutabagas
form
part
of the
regular
farm
rotation,
and take the
same
place
for stock-feed that
mangels
do in
Germany. They
are
grown
in Canada
;
in the United
States,
their culture
is not extensive.
Turnips are
used also for human food.
As
feed,rutabagas
rank
high, enabling
the farmer to
greatly
reduce
grain
rations. Five to
fifteen
tons
of
turnips
and
ten to
twenty
tons of
rutabagas are good
acre-yields.Rutabagas are
valuable for beef
cattle,
hogs,
and
sheep.
Because
they keep
well into
spring,
they serve
well for this
purpose,
particularly
where silos
are
not used.
They are
easy
to
feed,
since
only slicing
is
necessary,
and this
saving
of time
gives
them consider- able
additional value.
Turnips are
used for
sheep
and
hog
pasture.
They pull
up
easily
and the
use
of leaves
as
well
as roots
is
possible.
CARROTS
(Daucus carota)
273.
Description.
" The
root
of
carrots
may
be
taper- ing,
cylindrical, or
short and
thick;
they
may
be
white,
yellow,
orange,
or
reddish in color. An outer
layer
breaks
away
from
an irregular
interior that is
more
watery
and
more palatable.
A medium-sized
root-system spreads
outward
;
the leaves
are finely
divided
;
white flowers
are
borne the second
year
in dense flat umbels
;
the seeds
are
cup-shaped.
Root
Crops
255
274. Culture and
use.
"
Loose, sandy soils,
in which
well-rotted farm
manure
is
incorporated,
make
a
warm,
mellow seed-bed.
Seed,
at the
rate
of four
to six
pounds
to
the
acre,
is
sown as soon as
the
ground
is in
good
condi- tion.
Since it is
small,
the seed
requires
shallow
planting.
Rows should be about
thirty
inches
apart
to
permit use
of
cultivators;
the carrots should stand from
two to
four inches
apart.
If
thicker,
they
should be thinned.
Irrigation, cultivation,harvesting,
arid
storage
are
the
same as
for
mangels or rutabagas.
"
The
garden
crop
is used
principally
for household
pur- poses.
For
forage,largerareas
should be
grown.
When
used for
forage,
carrots
furnish succulence and
are es- pecially
desirable for horses.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
The
Sugar Beet,
Ware.
Field
Crops,
Wilson and
Warburton,
pp.
412-422,
451-463.
Field
Crop Production,
G.
Livingston,
pp.
323-336.
Forage
and Fiber
Crops
in
America,
T. F.
Hunt,
pp.
275-303.
Forage Crops,
E. B.
Voorhees,
pp.
275-291.
Southern Field
Crops,
J. F.
Duggar,
pp.
425^56.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
II,
pp.
539-550,588-595,
613-623.
U. S. D. A. Yearbook for
1904,
pp.
341-352.
Principles
of
Irrigation Practice,
J. A.
Widtsoe,
pp.
286-298.
The Commercial Production of
Sugar
Beet Seed in
Utah,
F. S.
Harris,
Utah Bui. No. 136.
American
Irrigation Farming,
W. H.
Olin,
pp.
205-228.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins
:
No. 52.
Sugar-beet.
392.
Irrigation
of
Sugar
Beets.
548.
Storing
and
Marketing
Sweet Potatoes.
567.
Sugar-BeetGrowing
under
Irrigation.
568.
Sugar-BeetGrowing
under Humid Conditions.
615. Leaf
Spot,a
Disease
of the
Sugar-beet.
CHAPTER XXI
ALFALFA
(Medicago sativa)
Permanent
agriculture must
be diversified. Not
only
must there be
a variety
of
crops
in
rotation,
but livestock-
raising must
accompany crop
production.
Horses
are
necessary
as
beasts of
burden; cattle,
sheep,
and
hogs
are
valuable
as
milk-
or meat-producers.
Good
hay
is
an important
factor in the successful
production
of live- stock.
In this alfalfa is unexcelled. In
regions
that
have
poor
shipping
facilities,cattle-raising
is
important.
Pasturage
and
hay
are
essential
on
both ranch and farm.
In
supplementing
the native
pastures
of the West when
range
lands could
not
be used in winter
or
when
they
pro- duced
little
feed,
alfalfa has been of inestimable value.
In
fact,
it made
possible pioneer
settlement in the West.
An
early start, heavy yields
of delicious
forage, long life,
and
adaptability to
arid climates and arid soils
promoted
its
spread.
So marked has been the effect of all these
influences
that 95
per
cent
of the alfalfa
crop
of the
United States is
produced west of the
Mississippi.
Methods of
handling
the alfalfa
crop
are
shown in
Figs.
70 to 72.
275. Name and
origin.
" Of
thirty
or forty names
by
which alfalfa
is,
or
has
been,
known in various
parts
of
the world
"
alfalfa
"
and
"
lucern
"
are
most
widely
used.
"
Alfalfa
"
seems
to
be
gaining rapidly
in
popularity,
largely
on
account of the
adoption
of that
name
in treatises
256
258 The
Principlesof Agronomy
fifteen
years ago.
Practically
every
state now
grows
it
to
some
extent.
Although
alfalfa had been introduced
into southern California from
Mexico,
and into New
York from
Europe nearly a
century
before the Chile
introduction,
there
was no widespread
cultivation. Per- haps
the favorable conditions that
gave
the
crop
a good
start
were
necessary
to
bring
its true value to the
atten- tion
of farmer and ranchman.
276.
Relationships.
" Alfalfa
belongs
to the
Legumi-
nosse,
in which
are
thousands of
species,
among
which
are
peas,
beans, clover, vetches,
locust
trees, lupines,
sweet
peas,
and the little
astragaluscommon on
sage- brush
lands of the mountain states.
In the
genus
Medi-
cago,
about
fiftyspeciesare
found.
The
legume family
is
easily distinguishedby
pea-
shaped flowers, by pods
that break
open
along
both
sutures,
by
the
compound
leaves,
and
by
the
tiny enlarge- ment
on
the roots
called
nodules, or
tubercles. In these
live bacteria which feed
upon
the
planttaking
free nitro- gen
from the
air,
and
assisting greatly
in the maintenance
of soil
fertility.
In the
valleys
and
on
the hills of the
West,
there
are fiftyor more species
of native
legumes
which have
probably
had much
to
do with the
great
fertility
of
virgin
lands.
277. Roots.
"
Young
alfalfa
plants
send down
pro- portionately
long
tap-roots
bearing
fine
branching
roots.
The firststem is
single,
and lacks the
crown
that
develops
with
age.
The
plant
is
decidedly perennial living
from
four to
fiftyor sixty
years
depending on
the favorableness
of the field. The roots continue to
grow
in well-drained
soils
as long as
the
plant
lives. This results in immense
root-systems.
Roots fifteen to
twenty
feet in
length are
common
;
thirty
to
forty
feet is
occasionally
reached
;
a
cave
in the
gravel
delta at
Logan, Utah, exposed a
root
Alfalfa
259
fifty-six
feet
long,
while Coburn
^
reports
that roots
pene- trated
the roof of
a
tunnel
one
hundred and
twenty-nine
feet below the surface of
an
alfalfa field. Water-tables
limit
depth
because roots will not
penetrate
more
than
six
or eight
inches into
a
soil devoid of air.
Though they are nearly always single
tap-roots,
three
or
four
large
roots sometimes
displace
the
singleone.
About half
an
inch is the usual diameter below the
crown.
The thickness
gradually
diminishes until the roots
are
al- most
hair-like. These fine roots that do the
feeding
form
a
network in the
soil,
but
they
do not
form sod because
they are
not stoloniferous.
Hence,
if all roots
are broken,
the
plantdies,
since there
are no
buds
except
on
the
crown.
The fine roots bear,
scattered in various
places,
small
nodules which
are
either
separate
masses or enlarge- ments
of the
roots,
and which
vary
in size from
a
small
pin-head
to that of
a
pea.
These
may
be found
by
carefullydigging
into the
root-system
of almost
any
alfalfa
plant.
Some
plants,however,
bear
only a
few.
278. Stems and leaves. " When the stems
are
har- vested
for
hay, new
shoots
come
out
from the thickened
crown near
the surface of the
ground.
As
more
and
more
crops
are cut,
the
crowns
increase in size until
some are
six inches
across,
becoming
divided into two
or
three
distinct
parts.
Some make the land
rough by standing
four
or
five inches above the surface. If
a
harrow
splits
the
crown
without
cutting
the
roots, separate
plants
may
form.
In
spring,
young
stems
develop as soon as
the
ground
is
warm.
These
grow
steadily
until blossoms
appear,
when
they stop
increasing
in size in order
to
develop
seed. At this
time,
the stem
may vary
from six to
sixty
inches in
length
and from one-sixteenth to one-fourth
1
The Book
of Alfalfa,p.
6.
260 The
Principlesof Agronomy
of
an
inch in
diameter; twenty-four
to
thirty
inches in
height
and
one-eighth
of
an
inch in thickness
are
usual.
The stems
are usually
green,
but
they are
sometimes
marked with red
;
they are
hollow with white
pith
in
the
center; they
branch
frequently
in the axils of leaves
which
are arranged alternately.
In
general, first-crop
stems, containingmore
fibrous
material,are
much
coarser
than those of
succeeding
crops.
A
longer period
of
growth
is used
by
the first
crop,
in most
cases,
than
by
later
crops.
Pinnately-compound
leaves of three leaflets
grow
out
from the main
stem
and branch first
on one
side and then
on
the other. Three leaves
usually
arise from
one axis,
with
a
middle
one
much
larger
than the two side
ones;
bracts indicate the
presence
of still other
rudimentary
leaves. The central vein of the
compound
leaf
may,
at
any
time, develop
into branched
stems, or simply
divide
to form the midrib of the
leaflets,
which
are oval-shaped,
and
slightly
saw-toothed at the
outer
end. The midrib
sends out
parallel
side veins which show
on
both
surfaces,
the
upper
of which is
a
much darker
green
and the lower
slightlyhairy.
279. Flowers and seed.
" At
blossoming time,
each
branch and the main stem bear at least
one
cluster of
pea-shaped
flowers that
are purple
in
common alfalfa,
though some
varieties bear
yellow
and others
greenish
flowers. The
calyx
is
five-parted,compound
at the base
and
sharply pointed
at the
singletips. Separatepetals,
nine stamens in
a bundle, one alone,
and
a compound
ovary
that
develops
into
a pod,
form the other
parts
of
the flower.
Growing pods are distinctlycurled,
making
from
one to
four distinct
curves
and
bearing
from
one
to
a
dozen seed. As
maturity approaches,
the
pods
take
on a
dark brown color and the seeds become
yellowish,
Alfalfa
261
greenish-yellow,or
brown.
Though
alfalfa seed is
nat- urally
kidney-shaped, a large
percentage
of it is
angular
in various
ways,
on
account of the seeds
touching
each
other
as they
grow.
Peas
are
flattened
on opposite
sides
due
to
lack of
room
;
but
curling
in the
pod
exerts
pres- sure
on
the
corners,
rather than
on
the sides
or
ends.
Failure to mature
properly
leaves
some
shrunken
seeds;
others
are
brown with
tough
seed-coats. These
are
usually
slow to
germinate or
may
even
lack the
power
to
do
so.
The seeds
are usually
about one-sixteenth of
an
inch in
length
and half that in width and thickness.
280. Varieties.
" In
adjacent
parts
of
Asia, Africa,
and
Europe a
number of varieties of alfalfa
grow
wild.
In
cultivation,however, only
two distinct kinds find
use.
One is
erect,
blue-
or purple-flowered,
and familiar
;
the
other
yellow-flowered,
not well-known,
rather
creeping
of
stem and
stoloniferous,a quality
absent in the
common
alfalfa. The
second, Siberian,
has its chief value in
crossing
with the
ordinary plant
to
give
resistant strains.
A number of strains have been taken from
regions
in
which
they
have been
grown
for
a
time
long enough
to
become
adapted
to climate, soil,culture,
and
use
of that
section. These strains
are : (1)
"
common," (2)
Turkestan, (3) Arabian,
(4) Peruvian,
(5) variegated,
and
(6)
Grimm. Half
a
century
on
the
dry-farm
has
given
rise to the so-called
dry-landalfalfa,
which
probably
differs but
slightly
from the
common
strain. None of
these
are
of
specialimportance save Grimm,
which resists
winter-killing
to a
remarkable
degree. Variegated, a
cross
with
Siberian,
has
variously
colored flowers.
Since,
in
general,adaptation
to
a locality
determines
the value of
a
lot of
seed,
these cultivated varieties have
littlevalue.
Perhaps we
may
learn
enough
about them
to
establish certain strains for
particular
conditions. As
262
The
Principlesof Agronomy
yet,
95
per
cent of
our
crop
continues to be
"
common
"
alfalfa.
281. Distribution and
adaptation.
" Western United
States, Argentina,Chile,Peru,
southern
Europe,
North
Africa,
South
Africa,Australia,
and western central Asia
"
produce
alfalfa
extensively.
All these sections
are
semi-
arid,
with
hot, dry summers
and winters either not
rigor- ous
or
else snow-covered. The
greatest production by
states in the United States is
as
follows
: (1) Kansas, (2)
Nebraska, (3) Colorado, (4) California, (5) Idaho, (6)
Utah, (7) Montana, (8) Oklahoma, (9) Wyoming,
and
(10)
New Mexico.
A
deep, fertile,
well-drained soil
permits
the
greatest
development
of the
crop,
especially
when lime is
present
in liberal
quantities,as
it is
likely
to be where
no leaching
has occurred. The
deep-feeding
roots
can
then
supply
food and moisture
abundantly.
The
right
kind of bacteria
must also be
present,
since in their absence the
young
plants
grow
only a
few inches
high
and then die. Some
soil from
an
old field scattered
over
the
new patch
in- oculates
it if the
necessary
bacteria
are lacking
in the
new
seed-bed. Porous sub-soils
are
desirable for root
expansion
;
the
plants
tolerate
some gravel.
Water-logging seriously
hinders
development
of the
plant by preventing
aeration and
by causing
alkali
accumulation at the surface.
Young plants
suffer
quickly
from salt concentrations
;
but when
older,a corky crown
enables the
plant
to
resist
girdling.Adaptability
of the
crop
to either extensive
or
intensive culture
strengthens
its
positionas one
of the
principal
crops
in the West.
Alfalfa
responds readily
to
manuring, irrigation,
and
cultivation
by
increased
returns;
it also
produces
much
forage on dry-farms. Then,
too,
it
yields
best when
grown
only
five
or
six
years
on one piece
of
ground,
but
Alfalfa
263
will continue
to
produce hay
for
ten,
fifteen,or even
twenty
years
when conditions
are
favorable. That such
a
crop
is
widespread
is
natural, particularly
since it is
most
palatable
and nutritious.
282.
Preparation
of the land and
seeding.
" Fall-
plowing
fines the seed-bed and allows rainfall to enter
the soil
freely
;
both of these
are important
for
planting.
Small seed cannot
get
a
hold unless food and moisture
are at hand. Liberal
applications
of well-rotted
farmyard
manure warm
the soil and increase the available water
and
plant-food.
After such
preparation,spring-planting
should
give good
stands. If
deep
cultivation is
practiced
the roots
penetrate
more easily.
Lime is
necessary
on
acid soils.
Since
fall-planting gives as good
results
as spring-
planting,
farmers often
plant
then to
save
time in the
spring
and to
get
a larger
harvest next
season.
In this
case,
the
previous
crop
must come
off the land
generally
by August
in order to make
possible
the
ready
prepara- tion
of
a fine,moist,
porous,
yet
firm seed-bed.
August
or even July seedingpermits
the
plants
to establish them- selves
before winter
sets
in. When
spring planted,
alfalfa should
begin growth as soon as
the land is
warm.
One to five
pounds
of seed to
an acre
have
given
full
stands,
though
from ten to
twenty
are more satisfactory.
From
twenty
to
thirtypounds are required
for successful
stands in humid
regions or on
soils in
poor
condition.
Drills
are
almost
universally
used. Nurse
crops
of
barley, oats, or
wheat
may,
or
may
not,
be desirable.
They are
necessary
only on
very
hard
or
very
loose soils.
In
Algeriarow
cultivation
pays,
but in American
hayfields
it is not used,
except
in small
platsplanted
for seed.
283. Treatment
during growth.
" Some farmers har- row
with
spike-tooth,spring-tooth,or
disk harrows in
264 The
Principlesof Agronomy
springor
fall.
Insects,disease,or
weeds
may
necessitate
special
attention.
Light applications
of farm
manure
pay
on
some,
and
irrigation on
all soils in arid sections.
Irrigation
water
up
to about
forty
inches
brings
in- creased
returns.
From
one
to ten
applicationsare
made
either
by floodingor
in shallow furrows which aid in
leading
the water
over
difficult
patches or
in
coveringlargeareas
with small
streams. Over-irrigationmenaces some
dis- tricts,
since
flooding
for
more
than
one day
at
a
time
may
"
drown
"
the
plants
and
permit
frost to
do considerable
injury. Fall, early spring,
and winter
irrigationare
all
important
in
regions
of
scarce
water and mild winters.
Conservation of rainfall is
a
fundamental
economy
in
all
dry regions.
284.
Harvesting.
" Under normal
conditions,
the best
time
to cut the
crop
for
hay
is in
early
bloom. Rakes
may
follow the
mower
almost
immediately
"
directlyon
dry-farms
and well-drained land.
Irrigated
alfalfa
cures
best if
piled
in small cocks within
a
few hours of
cut- ting
" the
same day
if
possible.
In this
way
farmers
can save
the leaves
on
the
stems,
which makes the
hay
more
valuable than swath-cured
hay.
In
rainy weather,
moreover,
hay
suffers
more
in the swath than in
com- pact
piles.
When bull-rakes
are used, hay cures
in
heavy
windrows
and is
pushed
to the stack without
being
loaded
on
wagons.
Various kinds of forks and nets and several
types
of der- ricks
unload the
wagons,
which
are
loaded
by
hand almost
entirely,though
loaders
are
used in
some
sections. On
dry-farms, a
ton to the
acre
pays;
one
and one-half to
two and one-half tons
are frequent.
Four
or
five tons
for the
season
is
a good
return under
irrigation, though
six to
eight are
harvested from
an acre
under favorable
conditions.
266 The
Principles of Agronomy
requires
much skill. Sheds
are preferable,
since it is
not
necessary
to stack
carefully
under
cover.
Most
hay
is fed
on
the farm
or
marketed loose in the
vicinity.
When
shipments
are made,
the
hay
is
com- pressed
into bales
weighing
from 50 to
150
pounds.
Baled
and loose
hay are usuallyweighed on
wagons
for
market,
although
stacks
are
often measured.
Inaccuracy
in
Fig. 72.
"
Hay
should be fed
on
the farm.
measuring
due to variation in
shape, regularity,
and
density
cause
this to be
unsatisfactory
in
many
instances.
286. Use and value. " In
palatability, digestibility,
nutrition,
and
healthfulness,
alfalfa
hay
leads. Some
horsemen
prefer timothy
because alfalfa is laxative for
driving
horses. A
part
of the
preference
for
timothy is,
however,
due to custom. Work animals need
only
moder- ate
grain
ration when alfalfa is fed because of the
high
protein
content.
It excels
as
roughage
for
dairy
cows.
Alfalfa
267
beef
cattle,
and
sheep.
As
silage
it has
not
been
success- ful
because of
difficulty
in
compacting.
Ground
hay
is used in mixed feeds
as
alfalfa meal.
It wastes less and
compounds
in rations
more readily,
but otherwise it has
no advantage over hay.
Alfalfa
pasturing
is
widely practiced
in
spite
of the
danger
of bloat to cattle and
sheep.
Dew-covered leaves
eaten
by hungry
stock
may prove
injurious.
Horses
and
hogs
may
feed
on
alfalfa
pastures
any
time. If
cattle
are
left
continuouslyon
the feed
night
and
day,
danger
diminishes but it
never disappears.
Wisdom is
necessary
in
pasturing
cattle and
sheep on
the
growing
crop.
After
haying, nearly
all fields
are grazed over
indiscriminately.
Withered stands need
cause no
alarm.
Extremely
close
pasturing
weakens the
alfalfa,
for it is
not stoloniferous and forms
no true sod.
287. Mixtures
are generally
detrimental in that
they
lessen the
yield.
On account of
maturing
at
a
different
time,they
also hurt the
quality
of the
hay by introducing
coarse,
woody
stems
or
undesirable beards. Orchard-
grass,
timothy, Kentucky blue-grass,
and Bermuda-
grass
are
mixed with alfalfa
purposelyor
creep
in nat- urally,
but
they are unsatisfactory
and
are
considered
weeds.
Squirrel-tail, locally
known
as
foxtail
{Hordeum
jubatum), dodder, sweet clover,yellow trefoil,June-grass
quack-grass,
and
crab-grass
all
cause
trouble.'
Thorough
harrowing
and occasional
plowing are
the remedies for
almost all weeds in alfalfa.
288. Enemies.
" Besides
weeds,
root-rot,
stem-blight,
leaf-spot,
and several minor diseases do
varying damage
to
the
crop.
Rotation and cultivation
largely
control
them.
Stem-blight,
which
seriously
attacks the stems
of the first
crop
only, can
be controlled
by cutting
as
soon as
the disease
appears.
268 The
Principlesof Agronomy
No
widespread
insect does constant
damage.
Grass- hoppers
may
be
disregarded
if
fall-plowing
and clean
farming are practiced.
Hibernations
are
thus
destroyed.
Dodder
on
alfalfa
plants.
Swarms from waste lands
occasionallycause
trouble.
Various
traps
for
catching
them have been devised.
The chalcis
fly
has
recently
done much seed
injury
in
Alfalfa
269
the West. It
enters the
ovary
at bloom,
lives inside the
seed,
and bores out
by a
small clear-cut hole in the
pod
just
before
maturity. Thrips
also
injure
the
seed-crop
at
blooming
time.
In
1905,
the alfalfa leaf-weevil
(Phytonomus posticus)
appeared
in Utah and has since
spread
rather
widely
over
the
state and into southern Idaho and south- western
Wyoming.
Small
green
larvae feed
on
the
growing buds, usually
of the first
crop,
thus
delaying
the second
crop
and
causing
the third
cutting
to be
small
or lacking.
If the first
crop
is cut
as soon as
the larvae
appear
in numbers sufRcient to do marked
injury,
and if the land is
thoroughly spring-toothed
followed
by a weighted brush-drag
after the surface
has
dried,
the weevil
nearly disappearson
that
patch
for the
rest
of the
season.
Besides the
good
which
cultivation does in
destroying
weeds and
insects,
it
con- serves
moisture
by forming a
mulch.
Contrary
to
public
opinion,
the seed cannot
carry
the insect into
new
dis- tricts.
289. Seed
production
is confined almost
entirely
to
dry regions
because
constant moisture
encourages
the
growth
of
new
shoots which lessen seed
bearing.
Half
the seed
produced
is
on irrigated
lands where water can
be withheld.
Dry-farms produce
most of the rest.
Second-crop
alfalfa bears
most of the seed. Even in
arid
regions,seed-producing
sections
are
isolated
valleys
or areas.
Row cultivation has
given
the best
yields
of
seed
on some
arid farms.
Seed alfalfa
generally ought
to be
thinly sown.
Bumble bees aid in
cross pollination
but much self-
fertilization takes
place.
Mowers
or
binders
cut the seed stand and threshers
are
used to
separate
the straw from the seed. The straw
270
The
Principles of Agronomy
and chaff
are
used for feed. From
one
to
twenty
bushels
weighing
from
sixty to
seventy
pounds
are
harvested
from
an acre.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
The Book of
Alfalfa,
P. D. Coburn.
Alfalfa in America,
J. E.
Wing.
Forage Plants,
C. V.
Piper,
pp.
305-360.
Field
Crop Production,
G.
Livingston,
pp.
278-293.
Forage
and Fiber
Crops
in America,
T. F.
Hunt,
pp.
170-199.
Alfalfa in the Southwest,
G. F.
Freeman,
Ariz. Bui. No. 73.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
II,
pp.
192-197. '
American Irrigation Farming,
W. H. Olin,
pp.
141-169.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins
:
No. 194.
AUalfa Seed.
339. Alfalfa.
373. Irrigation
of Alfalfa.
495. Alfalfa Seed Production.
637. The
Grasshopper
Problem and Alfalfa Culture.
CHAPTER XXII
THE CLOVERS AND OTHER LEGUMES
Alfalfa is the
important forage
crop
west of the
Mississippi.
Red clover is
similarly important
north of
the Ohio and east
of the
Mississippi, save
that it has
timothy
for
a
teammate in
furnishing forage.
What
alfalfa is to the
West,
and red clover to the
North,
cow-
peas
are
to the South
:
the
important legume forage.
The other
legumes yield
seed
or hay,
and all
are
able to
fix
atmospheric nitrogen. They
also have
high-feeding
value
as a
result of
high protein.
RED CLOVER {TrijoUum, pratense)
Red clover is the most important leguminous
crop grown
in the United States. As
a
forage,
it and
timothy
com- pete
for first
place leaving
alfalfa third. The
acreage
of red clover diminished about 40
per
cent from 1899 to
1909 due to
the
increasing difficulty
of
getting good
stands
on
old farms. Some attribute this to
"
clover
sickness,"
an
abnormal condition little understood but
partly
remedied
by long
rotations.
Romans and Greeks
never saw
red clover. Not until
the thirteenth
century
is there record of its
use as
forage.
It
was near
the end of the
eighteenth
century
before
Europe
cultivated it
extensively. Early
colonists carried
it to Massachusetts,
where mention
was
made of it
as a
crop
in 1750.
271
272
The
Principlesof Agronomy
290.
Description.
" The
root-system
confines itself
largely
within the
plowed
soil
sending a
few roots down
four to
six feet and
occasionallyeight.
A small
crown
sends
up
hairy,
much-branched stems
bearing
many
pal-
mately compound
leaves which
are generallypatterned
with white
on
the
upper
surface.
Dense, globular
flower-
heads rise from the end of all branches.
Fifty
to
one
hundred and
fifty
small blossoms
varying
from
palepink
to
red
comprise
these heads. The whole
plant
presents
a bushy
appearance every
part
of which is covered with
fine hair.
Cross-pollination
seems
necessary
to seed
production.
Bees aid
greatly
in
carrying pollen
from
plant
to
plant.
When
mature,
the
seeds,
which
are
in most
cases
heart-
shaped,
vary
from
yellow
to
deep purple
in color. From
twenty
to
one
hundred
develop
in
one
head.
Ordinary
red clover is about
a
foot in
height
with
hollow
stems; a variety
known
as
mammoth clover is
large
and has solid
stems. Mammoth clover blooms at
the
same
time
as timothy
and is
better,therefore,to use
in
a timothy
mixture than red
clover,
which blooms two
weeks earlier. A much
larger
second
crop
is sent
up
by
red clover. Like
alfalfa,
red clover has
many
strains
named from the sections that
grow
them. In
general
the strains
are
much
alike,
with each best in its
own
home.
291.
Distribution and
adaptation.
" Red clover is
widely
cultivated in
Europe, Chile,
and New Zealand
as
well
as
in the United States. In all northeastern
states,
it ranks with
timothy as
the
leadingforage.
In
acreage,
the states stand in the
following
order
: (1)
New
York,
(2) Iowa, (3) Missouri, (4) Michigan, (5) Wisconsin, (6)
Pennsylvania, (7) Illinois,
(8)
Ohio,
(9) Indiana,
and
(10)
Minnesota, -r-
every
large
state north of the Ohio and
Missouri rivers and east
of the arid section. This
area
274 The
Principlesof Agronomy
it will bloat
sheep
and cattle. In rotations it fixes atmos- pheric
nitrogen
in the
soil,
which benefits the
next
crop
materially.
Because of
lastingonly
two
years,
it
enters
naturally
into
practically
every
rotation where it
can
be
grown.
Disease-resistant strains and
better-planned
rotations
seem
to be much
needed,
at least where
"
clover
sickness
"
prevails.
OTHER CLOVERS
294. Alsike clover
(Trifolium hybridum).
" Alsike is
much like red clover
save
that it is
smooth, more
cold-
resistant,
has
lightpink
flowers and brown
seed,
and
can
endure
water-logging
with much less
injury.
It succeeds
where
"
clover sickness
"
and wet lands kill red clover.
295. White clover
{Trifoliumrepens).
" White clover
is
common
in lawns and
pastures.
Because of its
creeping
habit of
growth, haying machinery
cannot
gather
it
readily. Acre-yieldsare
small when harvested for
hay,
since
only
the leaves and flower stalks
can
be
gathered.
A
variety
known
as
Ladina clover is
grown
for
hay
in
northern
Italy.
Since it has
a
creeping
habit,its stems
hug
the
ground
rather
closely.
Roots
grow
out from these branches
giving
the
planta new
start. A
nearly
fibrous
root-system
aids in
formingsod,
which
helps
to withstand
tramping
in
pastures
and lawns. Wherever cool weather
prevails
and
plenty
of moisture is
present,
white clover thrives. It
grows
from Canada
to Mexico where these conditions
exist,
and does well in
shady places.
296. Sweet clover
(Melilotus
alba)
is
a
rank-growing
biennial,
having an
abundance of small white flowers
and
coarse stems which become
woody
after
blooming.
Cumarin
gives
the
planta
bitter
taste and
a characteristic
The Clovers and Other
Legumes
275
odor that
repel
stock.
Being a legume,
it is rich in nitro- gen.
The
plant
is
deep-rooted,
resists
drouth,
but
can
also tolerate wet soils. It likewise withstands both heat
and cold
to a
marked
degree.
It
grows
on
any
soil,
thrivingon roadsides,
ditch
banks,
and
on irrigated
land
not
carefully
cultivated. In
some sections,
it
covers
the
mountain sides.
Stock feed
on
it in
waste
places.
Coarse
woody
stems
and bitter
taste
lessen its
palatability.
If
cut,
however,
before
blooming,
the stems
cure
in such
a
way
that
they
are
soft and the bitterness is less intense. Stock like the
hay.
Its wonderful
adaptability
and
good yieldsrecom- mend
its cultivation in
sections,where,
for
some reason
neither alfalfa
nor
red clover is
profitable.
297. Crimson clover
(Trifolium incarnatum),
much
grown
in the middle Atlantic and Southern States for
a
green cover-crop,
bears
a flaming
crimson
flower,
'from
whence its
name.
This clover is
a
winter annual in the
South and
a
spring
annual in the
North,
where it is
occa- sionally
found. As
a hay
crop,
it lacks
some
of the valu- able
properties
of other clovers. It bears
many
hairs
which,
in the intestines of
horses,occasionally
form balls
causing
death to the animal.
Dagger
of bloat also
accompanies
its
use as a
pasture.
Despite
these
un- desirable
qualities,
it is
widely
used
as feed;
for
green
manure
and rotation it is valuable.
Hungarian clover,
Mexican
clover, berseem,
shaftal
or
Persian
clover,yellow trefoil,
and the bur clovers fur- nish
some forage
in small districts.
FIELD-PEAS {Pisum arvense)
298.
Description
and
adaptation.
" The
field-pea,
often
known
as
the Canada
field-pea,
resembles the
garden
pea
276 The
Principlesof Agronomy
save
that it is
more thrifty
and has
longerstems, larger
leaves,
violet instead of white
flowers,
and smoother and
slightly
smaller seed. In
depth,
the
root-system
seldom
exceeds three
feet,
while the stems
vary
from
one to ten
feet in
length.
The
stems,
which
are hollow,
stand
up- right
in the
early
part
of the
season
but
soon
flatten down
on
account
of the
length
of the vines. On the
whole,
the
plant
is smooth and rather
succulent, covering
the
ground
almost
completely
in
good growth, or
climbing
plant
stalks and frames
by means
of tendrils at the termi- nal
division of
pinnately-branched
leaves.
Beingan annual,
it
grows
and
matures
rapidly
in 75
to 110
days.
Earli-
ness,
color of
flower,
shape
of
pods,
variation in
seed,
and
length
of vine factor in
differentiating
about
a
hundred
varieties, some
of which
are
favorites in
one place
and
some
in another. All of
them, however,
do best in
cool,
moist
climates and
on heavy
loam soils. On account of
being
adapted
to the
same
conditions
as oats, field-peas
grow
in
the
sam,e
sections,
often in the
same
fields mixed with
them. Southern Canada and the Northern States
produce
most of the
crop,
though
many
high valleys
in
the West
yield fairly
well.
Ontario, Michigan,
and
Wisconsin,
in
order,
lead in
acreages.
Excessive
heat,
which
peas
cannot
withstand,
prevents
their cultivation
south of
Maryland.
299.
Sowing.
" The abundance of food in the
large
seed
permitsfairlydeep sowing
" from
one
to four
inches,
even on a coarse
seed-bed.
Fall-plowing
in the North
renders
possibleearlysowing,
since the
pea
has consider- able
frost resistance and
may
be seeded
as soon as heavy
frosts
are over
and
as soon as
the condition of the land
permits.
Farmers
commonly plant
from
one
and one-half
to
three and one-half bushels
an acre
when
peas
are planted
The Clovers and Other
Legumes
277
alone. If
sown
with
oats,
as they
often
are
for
hay,
usually
from
one
to two bushels of
peas
and from
one-
half
to one
and one-half bushels of oats
are sown.
On
irrigatedland,
about
two
bushels of
peas
and
one
bushel
of oats
are
used. Both
are
drilled at the
same time,
but
some
persons
favor
separate
planting or even
broadcast- ing.
300. Culture and
harvesting.
"
Since the
peas
are
sensitive to mechanical
contact
and not
grown
in
rows,
littlecultivation is
given
after
they come
up.
Three to
six inches of
irrigation water,
where
used,
may
be
applied
at intervals of from
one
to
several
weeks,
depending
on
the
physicalcomposition
and condition of the soil and
on
the needs of the
crop.
The
shading
and
heavy lodging
of the
crop
render
over-irrigation more
undesirable
on
claysor clay
loams not underlaid with subsoil than in
sandy or gravelly areas.
Peas
grown
alone
are
har- vested
for
hay by cutting
with
a mower
before
they begin
to
ripen,
and
they are
cured like alfalfa. For
hay,
oat-
and-pea
mixtures
are
cut when the oats
are
in soft
doUgh,
and
they
are
handled
as
other
hay
;
for
seed,mowers
with
attachments for
piling
the vines
are
used, or a man
lifts
the swath aside
so
that the horses and machine will
not
shell
out
the
peas.
Grain threshers,
with teeth removed
from the
concaves
to
prevent breaking
the
seed,
separate
pods
and vines from the
peas.
301. Use.
" Pea
hay,
if
properlycured,
is
palatable
and
nutritious.
Dairy
cows,
beef
cattle, sheep,
and
hogs
relish it and make
rapidgrowth on
it because of the abun- dant
protein
which it contains. Horses
use
it advanta- geously.
When it ismixed with oats
or
beardless
barley,
all classes of livestock do well
on
it. The
necessity
of
annual
sowing
prevents
its
more general use
for
hay.
Then,
too,
the
green
vines
are good
for
soiling,
while
278 The
Principlesof Agronomy
hogs
and other animals
pasture
it to
advantage.
The
extreme
palatabihty
of the
green
vines makes it valuable
in
a
mixed ration. Refuse vines and
pods
from factories
that
can garden
peas
are
valuable feed if
preserved
in
stacks
or
silos.
Fruit-growers
and others who want
green
manure
find
peas
good
in
spite
of the fact that shallow
rooting
lessens their
sub-soiling
value.
BEANS
{Phaseolus
species)(Fig.74)
302.
Description.
" Beans
belong
to the
same family
as
peas,
and
though
there
are
several
genera
most of them
belong
to the
genus
Phaseolus. The
plants
have
a
shal- low
semi-tap
root-system,
rather erect
stems,
broad,
hairyleaves,
and
long
tendrils. The flowers
vary
through
whites,
yellows,
and
blues;
the
pods are generallylong;
the seeds
may
be
practically
any
color
or shape.
In size
they
vary
from
one-eighth
to
one
and one-half inches
in
length. Nearly
all varieties
are
smooth.
Unlike
peas,
beans
cannot withstand frost.
They
resemble
corn
in that
a slight
frost
not
only
retards but
stops growth.
On this
account, they are
limited
to sec- tions
that have four months free from
frost,
that
is,
from
about the middle of
May
to the middle of
September.
Michigan
and New York
produce
60
per
cent of the beans
grown
in the United States.
California, Florida,
and Wis- consin
are
also
heavy
growers.
Cool,
moist climates
and
rich,loamy
soils
promote
the
greatest development,
but under
irrigationthey
may
resist
fairlyhot, dry
weather.
Loose,
warm,
well-drained soils rich in lime
may
be
displacedby
poorer ones,
though
at cost of
high
yield.
303. Culture. "
Fall-plowing
prepares
the
warm,
mel- low
seed-bed that is best for beans.
Fine
manure
also
The Clovers and Other
Legumes
279
helps.
Late
planting permits spring-plowing,
which
ought not,
however, to be
delayed
until
just
before
plant- ing
as
isoften the
case,
since too much moisture
evaporates
and the soil does not become
sufficiently
firm for
good
Fig. 74.
" A
good crop
of field beans.
germination.
From
a peck
to
a
bushel
an acre
is
planted
by hand, by planter,or by grain
drill with the width
regulated
by stopping some
of the holes. Planters
can
drop
the beans in hills
or
in drill-rows.
As
soon as
the
rows
show
well,
cultivation should
begin
280 The
Principlesof Agronomy
in order to loosen the soil and kill
weeds,
and it should
continue at intervals until the vines become
so large
that
they
would catch
on
the cultivator. Cultivation should
be
given
after
every
application
of
irrigation water,
which
may
be used in moderate
quantities
from
one
to five
or
six times.
As
soon as
the beans
are
mature
enough
to
prevent
shrinkage,they
may
be cut and stacked to avoid loss from
shelling,
which
they
do at
complete maturity.
Two-
row
bean cutters make
harvesting
easy,
while bean thresh- ers
simplify threshing.
An
ordinary grain thresher,
slowed down to avoid
splitting
the
beans,
does satisfac- tory
work. Beans
pay
fairly
well but
are
not
widely
grown.
They seem
to have
gained gradually
in the
last few
years,
having
been introduced into
many
dis- tricts
in which
they were
not
formerly
grown.
Nearly
all
experiment
stations in the West
give
favorable
reports
for
some variety,
but this is not
surprising,
because there
are so
many
varieties that
they are adaptable
to
widely
different conditions.
304. Use. " Beans sell well
on
the
market,
dried
or
canned.
They
have considerable
feeding
value for stock
as grain
when
ground
and mixed with other feeds
;
they
seem
to have
a
laxative effect when fed alone. Some- times
the
green
plants are
cured for
hay or they
may
be
pastured.
To whatever
use
the
plantsare
put
after har- vest,
they always
fix
some nitrogen
in the soil
during
'
growth.
COWPEAS
(Vigna
Sinensis and V. Cat.
jarg)(Fig.75.)
305.
Description.
"
Cowpeas are not
peas
at
all,
but
beans, differing
from the
garden
bean in that
they
have
long,
wrinkled
pods, generallylong, trailingvines,
and
282 The
Principlesof Agronomy
the
crop
has
grown
much in
importance.
What alfalfa
is to the
West,
and what red clover is to the
North, cow-
peas
are to
the South
: a leguminous forage
crop
of
high
feeding, pasture,
and rotation value. Cotton lands
need
a
rotation
badly
and such
a one as
will
support
livestock. In
this,
cowpeas
excel,
for
they
furnish
large
yields,good
pasture,
and abundant
organic
matter whether
fed
or
used
as
green
manure.
The maintenance of
greater
numbers of
livestock,so
necessary
for the
South,
will
depend largelyon
this
crop.
306. Culture. " Well-worked
seed-beds, warm
and
not
water-logged,are
essential. From two
pecks
to three
bushels of seed
an acre are
broadcasted
or
drilled
;
planted
alone,or
mixed with
sorghum,
corn,
Johnson-grass,millet,
or soybeans.
Since its chief value is for
forage
it is cut
green
and cured in the field
or on
racks
as
the weather
permits. Ripened
seed is
hand-picked or
threshed from
the vines.
Cowpea hay seems equal
if
not
superior
to red
clover,
and is
nearly as
nutritious
as
alfalfa for
cattle,sheep,
and
hogs.
As
pasture,
it has considerable
value,
espe- cially
when
planted
in
corn
fields late in the
season
to be
"
hogged-off."
Note
Fig.
79.
"
SOYBEANS
(Sojamax)
307.
Description.
"
Soybeans
resemble other beans
in
general,
but
they are more erect, more woody,
and
more
hairy.
The
root-system
consists of
a well-developed
tap-root
with few side branches. Blossoms
vary
in
color from white to
purple;
the
pods are usually short,
flat,
and
tawny;
most seed is
flat,smooth,
and
oily.
In
height,
the
plant
varies from six inches to
several
"
feet,
but two to three feet is most
common.
At this
height,
the fields
present
a
compact
appearance
on ac-
The Clovers and Other
Legumes
283
count of
prolific branching.
When the seed
ripens,
the
entire
plant dies,
since it is
an
annual.
Both the climatic and soil
requirements
for
soybeans
approximate
those for
corn
rather
closely,
except
that
frosts
are not
nearly so injurious.Warm, moderately
moist
growing-seasons
and
warm,
loose,
soils rich in lime
are
best. Like all other
legumes,
the
right
kind of bac- teria
must be in the soil to secure
luxuriant
growth.
308. Culture. "
Well-prepared
seed-beds aid materi- ally
in
early germination.
Seed is
commonly planted
during May
at
the
rate
of
twenty
to
thirtypounds an
acre
in drilled
rows.
From two to four inches
seems
the
most
favorable
depth.
Shallow cultivation
may
begin
as soon as
the
rows
show
plainly,
and continue until
the size of the
plants
prevents
the
use
of horse and culti- vator.
Weeds
injure
the
crop
seriously
and
must,
there- fore,
be
kept
out. The
plan
of
irrigation
for
cowpeas
is
practically
the
same as
that for field beans.
When used for
hay
the time to cut is
justas pods
form.
The rake
ought
to
follow the
mower closely
in order to
prevent
the leaves from
drying
too
quickly. Curing
is best done in the
cock,
because the stems do not then
get
too hard
nor
the leaves over-brittle.
Cattle, sheep,
and
hogs,
for which the
crop
is best
adapted,
do not relish
the
stems as they
do softer food. Mixtures of
corn,
cowpeas,
sorghum, millet,
and
grass
increase the
yield,
but not the
quality,
which is
naturally high. Hogs,
particularly,
do well
on soybean
pastures.
For
seed,
the
crop
is handled
as are
field beans.
MISCELLANEOUS LEGUMES
309. Vetch
(Vicia)
.
" Of the
many
kinds of
vetches,
common
vetch and
hairy,or winter,
vetch
are most fre-
284 The
Principlesof Agronomy
quently
grown
for
forage.
These
plants are
annuals and
winter
annuals, respectively.
The
root-systems
are
branching
and
only moderately deep
;
the stems
are long
vines;
the
numerous
leaves
are finely
divided
ending
in tendrils.
Purple
flowers
are
borne in
compact masses
on a pedicel
;
flat,
bro"d
pods
bear small dark seeds which
are fairly
hard.
Hairy
vetch is covered with abundant
velvet-like hairs.
Common vetch does well in
cool,
moist climates that
do not
get
very
cold. Pacific Coast
regionsare
favorable.
Hairy
vetch does well in
temperate
regions
that favor
soft winter wheats. It
seems adapted
to these
regions
on
account
of
being fairly
drouth-resistant.
From
forty
to
sixty pounds
of seed will
sow an acre
whether drilled
or
broadcasted.
Mixing
with oats
or
grass,
which
help
to
support
the
tangled vines,
is
usually
recommended for
pasture
and
hay.
The method of
curing
vetch
hay
differs but littlefrom that of alfalfa.
The
hay
is fine and
palatable,especially
for
cows
and
sheep.
Horses like it less than
clover, alfalfa,or
peas
on
account of its
extreme softness. For
soiling
and
silage
it is
good.
Annual
planting
and mediocre
yields
make
it less valuable than
alfalfa,
for
only one
full
crop
can
be
cut. Farmers
may grow
their
own seed,
thus
reducing
the
expense
of
planting.
310. Other
legumes.
" Peanuts
are
grown
in the
South for
hog
pasture
and for nuts.
Tangier
peas,
ochrus, fenu-greek,lupines,serradella, lespedezaor Japan
clover,
velvet
beans,
Florida
beggar weed,
jackbeans,
mung
beans,
moth
beans, hyacinth beans,
guar,
sanfoin,
kudju,
bird's-foot
trefoil,
astragalus, chickpeas,
and
grasspeas
are
used in various
parts
of the United States
and the Old World for
hay or
pasture. They are
all
legumes
and valuable
as nitrogen
gatherers
and for
feed,
The Clovers and Other
Legumes
285
but
they
are
of
secondary importance to alfalfa,
the
clovers,
peas,
beans,
and
cowpeas.
Vetch and
soybeans
seem
to be
growing
in
importance
and
cowpeas
are
much
urged
for the South.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Forage Plants,
C. V.
Piper,
pp.
361-570.
Field
Crops,
Wilson and
Warburton,
pp.
355-374,
390-412.
Field
Crop Production,
G.
Livingston,
pp.
253-277,
294-322.
Forage
and Fiber
Crops
in
America,
T. F.
Hunt,
pp.
140-173,
201-
374.
Forage Crops,
E. B.
Voorhees,
pp.
167-208,
231-274.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
II,
pp.
206-212, 235-349,
260-267, 467-469, 510-514, 582-586,
658-660.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins
:
No. 224. Canadian Field Peas.
237. Lime and
Clover,
pp.
5-7.
260.
Seed of Red Clover and its
Impurities.
289. Beans.
318.
Cowpeas.
323. Clover
Farming on
the
Sandy
Jack Lands of the North.
441.
Lespedeza or Japan
Clover.
455. Red Clover.
485. Sweet Clover.
515. Vetches.
529. Vetch
Growing
in the South Atlantic States.
550. Crimson Clover
: Growing
the
Crop.
561. Bean
Growing
in Eastern
Washington, Oregon
and
Northern Idaho.
579. Crimson Clover.
CHAPTER XXIII
GRASSES
To the
grass
family belongs a
host of
plants
similar
in structure
yet
varying so
widely
in size and usefulness
as
to
seem
unrelated.
Between lawn
grass
and
gigantic,
tree-like bamboo is
a
wide
gap
partly
filled with
larger
grasses
such
as
timothy, sorghums,
and
corn,
which reach
Fig. 76. " The effective
use
of
light machinery
in handling
the hay
crop.
great
size in
some
climates. Thousands of
species
belong
to this
family. Among
them
are
many
of
our
most
useful
plants.
In
fact,
the
grasses
are probably our
most
valuable
plants,
since with them
are
classed all the cereal
286
Grasses 287
crops,
most of the
forage
and
pasture plants except
a
few
legumes,
and most of the
range
and
prairieplants.
In
addition,some speciesserve man as lawns, as orna- mental
plants,as weaving material,
and
as packing
for
furniture and other breakable commodities.
Some writers class with the
grasses
all
hay
and
pasture
plants,
"
clover and alfalfa
as
well
as
members of the
Fig. 77.
"
A covered
haystack
in the humid section.
Graminese, or
grass
family. Only
the true
grasses
will
be
treated here.
Among
the most useful of these
are
the
grain,
the
hay,
and the
pasture
crops.
Not all
grasses
are useful,
since
some are our
worst weeds. The
hay
crops
are fundamental
to the nation's
prosperity.
Methods of
handling
these
crops
are
well shown in
Figs.
76 to 78.
A fibrous
root-system
with
or
without rootstocks;
stems
composed
of nodes and internodes which
are
either
hollow
or
filled with
a
porous
pith save
at
the
nodes;
leaves
clasping
the culm for
a
distance above the node
288 The
Principlesof Agronomy
from which
they spring
and terminate in
narrow,
parallel-
veined
blades; a
branched head
bearing
seed with
a
closely-bornecovering:
these
are
the
important
structural
characteristics of the
grass
family.
The
forage
grasses
are
timothy, redtop, orchard-grass,brome-grass,blue-grass,
Johnson-grass,
oat-grasses,
rye-grasses,
fescues,
wheat-
FiG. 78.
"
A
good supply
of
forage
well stacked.
grasses,
meadow-foxtail,
and
a
few others. The firstfive
mentioned
are
much
more important
than the others.
TIMOTHY (Phleum pratense)
Timothy originated
in the Old World where
a
number
of wild
speciesare
found. The
name probably
came
from
Timothy Hansen,
who introduced the
crop
into
Mary- land
from New
England.
311.
Description.
"
Timothy
bears
a slender,spike- like
panicle
from
one
to twelve inches in
length on a
slender culm
one
to six feet in
height.
From three to
eight
leaves branch off from the
upright
stem.
As the
roots are
not
strongly stoloniferous,
the
plant
does not
290 The
Principlesof Agronomy
crop
having
very
small seed.
Well-decayed organic
matter increases both moisture and
fertility.
Fall-
plowing permits
frost to
mellow the
surface;
winter
storms
dampen
and firm the seed-beds for
springplanting.
About half the
crop
of the United States is
sown
in
the fallwith winter wheat for
a nurse
crop.
In this
case
a
grass
seed attacliment
drops
the seed
just
in front
of,
or justbehind,
the shoes of the drill. A
lightharrowing
covers
the
seed, though Piper
^
thinks
deeper planting
would be better. The seeds must touch moist soil in
order to
germinate,
and should be
planted
from
a
half
inch
to
one
inch in
depth depending on
the
season
and
soil. Seed
may
also be
planted
in the fallwithout
a nurse
crop,
and in
spring with, or without, a ntirse
crop.
Broadcasting
both
by
hand and
by means
of the wheel- barrow
seeder is much
practiced. Irrespective
of the
method used in
planting,
the farmer should
sow
about
fifteen
pounds
of seed to the
acre.
In
some sections,corn or
potato
land is
prepared by a
thorough harrowing
without
previous plowing.
In
most
sections,however,
fall-plowing, spring-harrowing,
and
drill-sowinggive
the most
satisfactory
stands. Fre- quent
irrigations
pay
on
lands that have
good drainage.
Heavy applications
of
farmyard manure
to the stub- ble
pay.
Where commercial fertilizers
are used, nitrog- enous
manures
make most
profitablereturns.
Clover
mixtures
serve
this
purpose.
Timothy ought
to be
cut
as soon as
the blossoms
fall,
but it does
not deteriorate
rapidly
-untilthe seed reaches
the soft
dough
stage.
This enables the farmer
to utilize
a
later
harvestingseason
than for
any
other
forage
crop.
The
hay cures
readily,being
in
many
cases
hauled
on
the
same
day
that it is cut. In humid
sections,tedders,
side-
'
Piper, Forage Plants,
p.
130.
Grasses 291
deliveryrakes,
and loaders
are widely
used
;
in the
West,
it is handled
largely
as
alfalfa. Derricks
are
used
to
build stacks and tracks to
fillbarns. The first
crop
bears
most
seed. Grain binders
commonly
harvest the seed
crop,
which is threshed in
an ordinary
separator
with
special
sieves.
314. Use and value.
" The most
important
use
of
timothy
is for
hay,
since the
pastures yield
but littlefeed
and the sod weakens under
tramping.
As
a silageor a
soiling
crop
it is littleused.
Though
the standard
hay
crop
of
America,
its intrinsic feed value is less than that
of the clovers
or
alfalfa
on
account of its
lacking
the
high
Table 3. Acreage
and
Yields
of
Foeage Crops
in the
United States. (From
Piper.)
Crop
Per Cent
Timothy (alone)
....
Red clover
(alone)
. . .
Timothy
and clover
(mixed)
'
. . . .
Timothy (total)
....
Red clover
(total)
. . .
Alfalfa
Cereals for
hay
....
Other tame
grasses . .
Sorghums
Millet
Cowpeas
Canada
peas
Kentucky blue-grass . .
Brome-grass
All other tame
grasses
Wild
grasses
31.2
15.9
12.2
5.5
4.3
3.2
1.6
1.1
.3
.8
.1
.6
18.9
^
Taken as
half clover and half
timothy
when
grown
in mixture.
292
The
Principlesof Agronomy
protein
content of
legimies.
Common
grasses vary
little
in food value
or digestibility. Palatability, ease
of
cur- ing,
prolific
seed
production,
healthfulness,
and
yield- ing
power
determine what
grass
ismost
profitable
to
grow.
Timothy
excels other
grasses
in these
qualities.
Market
demands influence
price;
the
prejudice
of farmers and
stockmen also
plays a
part,
often
not
an insignificant
one. Timothy
has
an advantage
also in that it is the
standard market
hay,
and that
many
stockmen
prefer
itto clover and
alfalfa,
in
spite
of the fact that it
surpasses
them
only
for
feedingdriving
horses.
315. Enemies.
"
Bill-bugs
and
joint-worms cause some
insect
injury; a rust
and
a
smut infest the
plant.
The
greatest
harm, however, comes
from
leaving
meadows
sown too
long
without rotation. This
causes
the stand
to be
so
thin
as
to reduce
yieldsmaterially.
REDTOP (Agrostisalba)
316.
Description.
"
Redtop
is
so
called from the dis- tinctly
reddish
appearance
of
a
field of it in bloom. It
is
more long-lived
than
timothy,
itsstems
are more
slender
but
tougher,
its leaves
finer,
its sod
more
compact
but
more shallow,
and its
panicle
much
more spreading.
The
seeds
are small,light,triangular
in
shape,
and
generally
grayish-brown
in color. The
compact
sod is
a
result of
numerous rootstocks,
and of decumbent stems
sending
out roots
from the nodes.
317.
Adaptation.
" As
redtop
withstands
water-log- ging
to
a
marked
degree,
it
replacestimothy on
very
wet
land,
sometimes
growing
in
sloughsor
bottom-lands
in which
water stands
part
of the
year.
It resists
as
much cold
as timothy
and
more
heat. It
grows
in all
parts
of the United States and
as
far
north
as
Alaska.
Grasses
293
It has
an extremely
wide
adaptability
in
regard
to
soils,
provided they are
wet.
Strange
to
say,
when
once es- tablished
it resists considerable drouth.
318. Culture. " Pastures
nearly always
contain red-
top
in
mixtures,
but seldom does it form fields
grown
by
itself. Since seed varies much in
viability,
from
two to
fiftypounds are planted,
from two to ten
pounds being
common
in mixtures. Much of it
on
wet land is started
by broadcasting
the
seed,
often without
any
cultivation,
whatever. For
hay,
it is handled
as timothy.
In irri- gated
pastures,
it
occupies
the
wettest
places.
319. Value and
use.
" As
feed,
it is much less
palat- able
than
timothy or blue-grass,
but because of
being
able
to
endure
water-logging
and
tramping
it is valuable.
It
grows
well
on
soils too wet
or
too acid for
blue-grass
and
timothy,
and
grows
wild
on
many
of the
boggy
range
lands,
where it
supplements
the native
grasses.
In lawns
it forms
a fairly
smooth
sod,
but becomes
coarse
unless
kept
well
cut.
On the market it is considered
an
adulterant of timo- thy,
the
price
of which it lessens. As the
yield
is
fair,
no particularobjectioncan
be made to it.
KENTUCKY BLUE-GRASS
{Poa pratensis)
320.
Description.
"
Kentucky blue-grass
is marked
by
its
smooth,
firm
sod,
fine
stems,
and blue-colored
leaves,
which end without
a
distinct
point.
The
panicle
is loose and turns whitish at
maturity.
There
are sev- eral
blue-grasses,
but the
only
other
common one
is
Canada
blue-grass(Poa compressa),
which
may
be told
by
its
sparsity
of
leaves,tough stem,
and
compressed
panicle.
It
yields
less than
Kentucky blue-grass,
being
considered
a
weed
on
that account.
294 The
Principlesof Agronomy
321.
Adaptation.
"
Apparently no degree
of cold
kills this
grass,
though
it loses
vigor
in hot
summers
even
when abundant water is
supplied. Naturally
adapted
to
temperate regions,
it thrives in this
zone
wherever sufficient moisture falls
on
well-drained soils
that
are
rich in lime. It
can
endure neither
aciditynor
water-logging.Nearly
all of the seed
grown
in the United
States is
produced on a
few hundred
square
miles
near
Lexington,Kentucky,
which
is in the heart of the Blue-
grass
Region.
322. Cultixre. " Because of the low
vitality
of the
seed, heavy seeding
is
required
for
good
stands. If
sown alone, forty pounds
may
be needed.
Usually
the farmer
sows
smaller
quantities
in mixtures. In
many
cases blue-grass,
due to
persistentspreadingby means
of
rootstocks,
will drive out
other
crops,
leaving nearly a
straight
stand.
Fine,
moist
soils,
well mixed with
humus,
are
best. The seed is'most often broadcasted and har- rowed.
Better stands
may
be had
on
lawns
by covering
them with
straw, or by shading
in another
way.
Nurse
crops may
or
may
not
help
in field culture. This de- pends
on
soil and climatic conditions.
323. Use and value.
"
Blue-grassyields
little
forage
that
may
be
gathered
for
hay.
As
a
pasture
plant,
it is
king
in
America, though
meadow-foxtail is most
popular
in
England.
Mixed
with white
clover,
Kentucky
blue-
grass
forms the best
pastures
in this
country
and also
the best lawns in the North and West.
Bermuda-grass,
however,
supplants
it in the South.
Its
popularity
for
pasture
is not without
reason.
Though yields are small,
it is
so aggressive
that bare
spots are soon
filled. It
gains
rather than loses under
heavy pasturing,
if it
gets
sufficient moisture. All ani- mals
are
fond of the
grass
when it is
green.
When
dry
it
Grasses 295
is much less
desirable,
however. In
palatability,
fresh
blue-grass
excels all
others,
with the
possibleexception
of smooth
brome-grass.
On account of its
aggressiveness,
it is
a
bad weed in clover and alfalfa fields. The
legumes
yield
much
more heavily,
and suffer when
blue-grass
creeps
in,
since it
eventually
crowds them
out,
unless
frequentharrowings or
occasional rotations follow.
ORCHAKD-GRASS
(DactyKsglomerata)
324.
Description.
"
Orchard-grass
is
a deep-rooted,
rather
rank-growing,bunchy, yet leafy
grass.
The
shape
of the
paniclesuggests
a
cock's
foot,by
which
name
it is
known in
England. Bunching
is due to
vigorous
roots
devoid of stolons. Tufts sometimes two feet
across cause
decidedlyrough
surface,
bare in
many
places.
These
tufts
are strongly
netted
by means
of
many
tough,
fibrous
roots.
Undoubtedly,
the
plant
roots three
or
four feet
deep
in favorable soil.
325.
Adaptation.
" Heat
injures orchard-grass
less
than it does
timothy or blue-grass,
but cold hurts it much
more seriously.
The natural
place
for its cultivation
is
just
south of the
timothy
belt. It is to be
regretted
that
timothy
has
gained
such
a
hold that other useful
grasses,
such
as orchard-grass, oat-grass,
and
brome-grass,
were
not
tried in
regions
too
warm or
too
dry
for the
greatest
development
of
timothy. Porous, well-drained,
fertile soils
permit orchard-grass
to
make best
growth.
The
plant
uses
considerable moisture to
advantage,
though,
when
necessary,
it
can,
with the
help
of
deep
roots,
endure rather
severe
drouths. As shade does not
injure
the
crop
to
a
great extent,
it does well in orchards.
326. Cultiu"e.
" Similar
care as
to
preparation
of the
land for
sowing,
and method of
scattering
the
seed,
296 The
Principlesof Agronomy
should be observed in the
case
of
orchard-grassas
in that
of the other
grasses.
Both
spring
and fall
plantingsuc- ceed.
Fall
planting
should take
place early enough
to
permit
some growth
before
winter; springplantinggives
best results when the
ground
has become
warm
but is
still
damp.
When
sown
alone for
hay,
from
twenty-five
to
forty
pounds
of seed
are
used. More
commonly,
from four
to ten
pounds are planted
in mixtures. Patches
grown
for seed
require
a
stand
only
half
as
thick
as hayfields.
Orchard-grass
makes the best
hay
when cut in
early
bloom, as
the stems
become
woody
very
rapidly,
thus
decreasing palatability.
Because this
grass
matures
several
days
before most
other
grasses,
mixtures
are
usually unsatisfactory
for
hay on account
of the varia- tion
in time of
cutting. Harrowing
and
manuring help
to
keep
up
yields
and
to
prevent
the
growth
of
excessively
large
bunches.
Applications
of
irrigation
water
up
to
thirty or forty
inches
pay
in the
West, though
smaller
quantitiesyieldmore
in
proportion
to the water used.
327. Value and
use.
"
Orchard-grass yields
about
as
much
hay as timothy
and
more
second
growth,
which
consists
largely
of
leaves,making
it valuable for fall
pas- turage.
Since it
beginsgrowth early,
it also affords
con- siderable
springpasturage.
Where
severe
and continuous
tramping injures
the
roots,
bare
spots
appear
at
intervals.
Other
grasses
are
needed
to
keep a good
sod in
pastures.
Hay
from
over-ripeorchard-grass
is
coarse
and
woody
;
unless
very
carefully
cured it lacks the
palatability
of
timothy or
blue-grass.
The shortness of the
period
during
which it
may
be cut and stillmake
good hay
is
a
decided drawback.
Early maturity,on
the other hand,
aids in
keeping
down weeds in the
crop
and
permits
pasturing
of
the
fields.
298 The
Principlesof Agronomy
wheat, is,however, probably
more satisfactory.
From
ten to
twenty pounds
an acre are
planted
for
hay
and from
four to ten
for
pasture.
Because the seed
clogs
the drill
holes,
farmers
usually
broadcast and
cross
harrow it.
When it is
once established,severe harrowing improves
its
growth by preventing
the fields from
becoming
sod-
bound.
Applications
of
barnyard
manure
help
to main- tain
yields on
fields five
or
six
years
old. Moderate
quantities
of
irrigation
water
are
beneficial.
By care- ful
handling,
the
crop
ought
to
succeed in
some
localities
on
the
dry-farm.
331. Value and
use.
" For
hay,
the
grass
is cut
just
after full bloom and cured
as
is alfalfa. The abundance
of
green
leaves makes
curing more
difficult than is the
case
with other
grasses.
The arid
regions
in which it is
largely
grown
overcome
this
objection
in
part by offering
bright haying
weather.
Brome-grass
will
cure
where
alfalfa does. The
high
percentage
of leaves
to stems
gives
the
foragean inviting
look and
a
desirable softness.
The
grass
is
probablymore
nutritious and
a higheryielder
than other
common
grasses.
Its
great palatability causes
stock to relish it
highly.
Pastures of
brome-grass wear well,
furnish much
feed,
and
grow
earlyas
well
as
late. Some
investigations
sug- gest
that it be mixed with alfalfa for
pasture.
Where
alfalfa is used for
hay
and
thrives,
this should
not
be
done, as
grasses
yield
less and the value of alfalfa is low- ered.
In
spite
of the
many
good qualities
of
brome-grass,
it
may prove
undesirable. Not
enough
is known about it
to make it advisable to
plant great
areas
with
impunity.
However,
it
promises so
well
as
to deserve
a
trial. Farm- ers
should
try
the
grass
in small
areas,
or
get
advice from
their
Experiment
Station,or
from
growers
in their
neigh-
Grasses 299
borhood before
sowing
extensive fields.
Brome-grass
varies
widely. Keyser
of Colorado found 121 variations.
Wisdom in
selecting
the correct
variety
for
hay or
pas- ture
on irrigatedor dry-farms
may
lead
to
unqualified
success
with this
new
crop.
OTHER GRASSES
332. Tall meadow
oat-grass
{Arrhenatherum elatius)
is
an erect-growing perennial
bunch
grass
that thrives
under the
same
conditions
as orchard-grass.
It with- stands
more heat,more drouth,
but lessfrost than
timothy.
It does not count for much in American
agriculture
at
present,
but ranks
high
in France and other
parts
of
Europe,
where it is
grown
for
hay.
When
heavily
pas- tured,
it weakens
rapidly
because of
inability
to fill
unoc- cupied
soil,
due
to its lack of rootstocks. Its
long
life
increases its value to
some
extent.
Perhaps,
it
may
find
some regions
too
warm
for
timothy
and
brome-grass,
too
gravelly
and
too
dry
for other
common
grasses
where
farmers need such
a
crop-plant.
Oat-grass
is
sown
in either fall
or spring
without
a
nurse
crop
because it
cannot
endure shade to
any
marked
degree. Heavy seeding
is
necessary
on account of the
low
viability
of seed.
Eighty pounds are frequently
used when the
crop
is
grown
alone. More often about
twenty pounds are sown
in mixtures with
orchard-grass,
with alsike
clover,or
with both.
A bitter taste lessens the
palatabilityconsiderably.
If
cutting
is
delayed
till after
bloom,
the culms
get
woody.
A
yieldslightly higher
than that of the
ordinary
grasses
partly
counterbalances its
poor
quality.
333.
Bermuda-grass
(Cynodon
Dactylon)
is valuable in
lawn and
pasture
in the South. It is
an exceedingly
300 The
Principlesof Agronomy
strong
sod-former often
serving effectively
in
preventing
erosion
on unprotected
soils. Wherever moisture abounds
and
regular
frosts do not
occur,
it resists
tramping
and
grows
continuously save
in
early spring.
Lawns in the
South
are
almost
universally
of this
grass,
which
keeps
green
in hot
summer
but isbrown in winter and
earlyspring.
Little seed is
produced ordinarily.
New stands
are
started
by planting
small
pieces
of sod in furrows
on
a
firm,
moist seed-bed. These should be two to three feet
apart
each
way
for fieldsand
one
foot for lawns.
Heavy
disking
opens up
the sod
causing a more vigorousgrowth
when fields have become sod-bound.
When used for
hay,
each
cutting
is
small,
but with
a
fertile soil and
a
warm,
moist
climate,
several
growths
make
a high
total
yield.
In
many cases,
however, suc- cessful
hay
crops
are
not
produced.
In
feedingvalue,
it is
very
similar
to
timothy.
Because of its
aggressive
underground stems,
it is
a
bad weed in
many
fields.
To eradicate
it,men
who have studied the
grass
recom- mend
shallow
plowing just precedingdry,
hot weather
or
frost.
Smothering
it with
cowpeas
or some
other rank-
growing
crop
is sometimes successful.
334.
Johnson-grass {Holcicshalepensis)
is
a
coarse,
broad-leaved
grass
closely
related
to
sorghum.
Produc- ing
both seed and
large
rootstocks
abundantly,
it
spreads
rapidly by means
of
irrigation
ditches in
warm
sections
such
as
the
South, Arizona,
and
southern California.
Johnson-grass
succeeds
anywhere
in the
cotton
belt.
In
fact,
it not
only
succeeds but
usurps
fields unless it is
carefullyguarded against. Difficulty
of eradication has
caused farmers
to
regard
it
as a
noxious
weed,
in
spite
of
the fact that it is
probably
the best
hay
grass
in the South,
frequentlyyielding as
much
as
five
tons
a
year.
If
cut
young,
the
quality
of
hay
is
fair,
but
pastures
are
Grasses 301
only
medium because the succulent rootstocks weaken
when
it is
grazed closely.
Stock have
occasionally
been
fatally
poisoned as they are
sometimes
by sorghum.
Freezing
of the soil below six inches in
depth
killsthe
plant.
Where
growth
is
vigorous,
eradication is best
accomplishedby plowing
before frost
or
drouth and then
planting
the soil
to a
crop
that is
to
be
intensely
culti- vated,
such
as
cotton,
or
to
a
crop
that will smother the
pest,
such
as oats and vetch.
335. Miscellaneous
grasses,
" Two
rj'c-grasses,
sev- eral
fescues,
meadow-grass,
and slender
wheat-grass are
cultivated in various small districts
or throughout
broad
regions
in scattered
patches.
Western
wheat-grass
and
slender
wheat-grass
grow
in bunches
throughout
the
moun- tain
region. Many sedges [Carex
sp.)
and rushes Juncus
sp.) are erroneously regarded as
grasses.
In
sloughs
and
wet
bottom-lands, they
furnish much
low-gradehay
and
rough
pasture.
On salt
lands, salt-grass{Distichlis
spicata)
makes
a
small
growth
of medium
quality.
These
last
are
not cultivated,
but
are
harvested from native
meadows
largelyby ranchmen,
who wish
a coarse rough- age
to
feed cattle
over
winter.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Farm Grasses of the United
States,
W. J.
Spillman.
Meadows and
Pastures,
J. E.
Wing.
Textbook of
Grasses,
A. S. Hitchcock.
Forage Plants,
C. V.
Piper,
pp.
307-348.
Field
Crop Production,
G.
Livingston,pp.
194-238.
Forage
and Fiber
Crops
in
America,
T. F.
Hunt,
pp.
1-99.
Farm Grasses of
Ohio,
C. G.
Williams,
Ohio Bui. 225.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
II,
pp.
365-377.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins
:
No. 402. Canada Blue Grass. Its Culture and Uses.
502.
Timothy
Production
on
Irrigated
Land in the North- west.
CHAPTER XXIV
PASTURES, MEADOWS,
AND SOILING
SYSTEMS
The
pasturing
of livestock
on
grassy
plains
and
steppes
was
the most primeval
form of
agriculture.
As civiliza- tion
increased,
man
left off
hunting
and took
to tending
flocks and herds. Soon he found it
profitable
to. have
an
understanding
with his
neighbor as
to whose cattle
were
to
graze
on
particular areas.
Abraham and Lot divided
their
pasture-lands
for this
purpose.
Later,
when
crops
became
important,
livestock
were
still
necessary.
Thus
to-day,
wherever
man
lives,
he has cattle and beasts of
burden. These
get a part
of their feed from
pastures
or
from
unoccupied public
lands,
called
ranges.
336. Definition. " By
the term
"
pasture
"
is meant
any
land from which livestock
gather
feed for
themselves,
as opposed
to
soiling,
which is
cutting
and
feeding
the
green
plants, or as opposed
to
hay-making,
which
con- sists
of
curing
the
crop
by drying
it before
feeding.
It
makes
no
difference whether the
areas are
man-made
or
whether
they are
natural,
nor
does it
matter
what the
nature
of the
plants
grown may
be,
so long
as
they are
used for feed.
337. Kinds of
pasture.
"
If the
area
is
naturally cov- ered
with
pasture
crops,
or
if the land is'
continuously
used
for the
grazing
of
livestock,
the
pastures are
said
to
be
permanent.
These
permanent pastures are
either
range
302
Pastures,Meadows,
and
SoilingSystems
303
land, meadows, or sloughs.
A
part
of the extensive
prairies
east of the Rockies is still
a
range
pasture.
The meadows and fields renewed
occasionally
"
regu- larly
or
irregularly
"
are
temporary pastures. They
consist either of fields left
sown
for
a
number of
years
or
for
one or
two
seasons.
In
many
sections the stubble
of
grains
and
forage
crops
is
pastured. These, strictly
speaking,are not
pastures,
that
is,
the
primary
use
is
not for
pasture
but for
crop
harvests.
Nevertheless,
they are
of economic
importance.
338. A
good
pasture
should be
thoroughly
and
evenly
covered with
plants
that will form sod of such
a
nature
as not to be
injuredby
the
tramping
of animals
nor
be
checked
"
in its
growth through
close
cropping.
These
plantsought
to be
so palatable
and fine
as to
encourage
the animals to eat
sufficient
quantities,
and
so
nutritious
that the
quantities
eaten
will nourish the
body
and
supply
energy
for
work,
whether itbe
drawing loads,
growing
wool,
or manufacturing
milk. The
pasture
needs
to
be
green
a
considerable
part
of the
year,
and
to
yield
much feed.
339.
Importance.
" More than one-third of all the
improved
farm land in the United States is in
pasture.
In the
West,
the
range
land far exceeds the farm land in
area.
Pait of the farm land
"
perhaps a
third
or more
"
is in
temporary pasture.
Much western land is
so
dry
that it
cannot
be classed
as grazing
land, although
sheep
feed
on
it.
Immense droves of
sheep
and cattle formerly grazed
throughout
the West. The
day
of the cattle
kings
is
passingrapidly
where it is
not now
past,
but forest
re- serves
still furnish
pasturage
for
numerous
animals.
The animals,
taken from the
range
lands in the fall,are
turned into the meadows and stubble fields to
pick
at
the
ungatheredplant
parts.
In
some
sections
they
winter
304
The
Principlesof Agronomy
on
meadows
supplemented
with
a partial
ration of
hay.
The convenience of
a
pasture
in which
to
turn animals,
especiallyduring haying
and
harvesting,
is of consider- able
value.
Much labor is also saved.
340. Native
grass,
together
with rushes and
sedges,
largelycomprises
these meadows. The
sedges (often
called
broad-leaf),
with three-cornered stems and
broad,
bunched
leaves,
and the rushes
(wire-grass
and
bulrushes),
with
round, hollow,
stemlike
leaves,
grow
abundantly
in the wet
valley
bottoms and
sloughs.
These
supply
considerable second-class feed
on
the
wet
lands that
are
impregnated
with alkali.
Salt-grass
and related
species
also
grow
in similar
placesmaking
finer
hay
and better feed.
Wheat-grasses,lupines,
wild
vetch,
and
numerous
other
plantsoccur on
the
ranges.
Sheep
get
considerable
graz- ing
from
sagebrush
and shadscale.
341.
Crop-plants.
"
Kentucky
and Canada blue-
grasses,
timothy, redtop,
smooth
brome-grass,
orchard-
grass,
tall meadow
fescue,
Italian and
perennial
rye- grasses,
tall meadow
oat-grass,
and
red,white,
and alsike
clovers
are
all used in
permanent
and
temporary pastures,
and
some
of them for
hay.
In addition to
these,alfalfa,
the
small-grains
with and without
a
mixture of
peas, rape,
corn,
and millets
are
used to
varying
extents in different
localities. In
general,
these
yield more palatable
and
more
abundant feed than the native
grasses.
Except
redtop, they
thrive best
on
well-drained soils that
are
fairly
rich in lime. I^ime and
drainage are especially
necessary
for
Kentucky blue-grass,timothy, brome-grass,
alfalfa,
and red clover.
Blue-grass
and the
rye-grasses
need much moisture.
342. Mixtures
help
in
many ways
:
(1) They usually
insure
a
continuous
growth
from
earlyspringthrough summer to late fall.
306
The
Principlesof Agronomy
For
low, wet
lands such
as sloughs:
Perennial
rye-grass
8
pounds
Redtop
10
pounds
Rhode Island
bent-grass
4
pounds
Meadow fescue 2
pounds
Alsike clover 5
pounds
White clover 2
pounds
A mixture used with
success on
the
good
soils of the
East is
as
follows
:
Timothy
10
pounds
Red clover 4
pounds
Alsike clover
3
pounds
White clover 2
pounds
Kentucky blue-grass
.......
3
pounds
Tall meadow fescue 2
pounds
Orchard-grass
2
pounds
For
poor
land in the humid
sections,
the
following
is
often used because it is
cheap :
Timothy
3
pounds
Redtop
.
5
pounds
Alsike clover
5
pounds
White clover 2
pounds
Kentucky blue-grass
is the most
popular
of all
single
pasture plants.
The
long dry periods
encountered in
dry-farm regions
prevent
the formation of
good
pastures.
Various
experiments on dry-farms
show that smooth
brome-grass
and
rye
are
successful.
Timothy
has done
best
on
the* mountain
ranges,
with
brome-grass
second.
Brome-grass
has
a deep
root-system
and forms
a
sod resist- ant
to
tramping. This,
except
that it does not
sod
strongly,
is likewise true of
alfalfa,
which is sometimes
Pastures,Meadows,
and
SoilingSystems
307
used for
dry-farm
pasture, particularly
when either the
first
or
second
crop
promises
to be
too small to
pay
for
cutting. Many
farmers
turn the animals
on
stubble to
gather
remnants which would
dry
up
and be lost
by
blow- ing
away.
Pastures
on dry-farms seem to be
more
suit- able
for horses than for other animals.
343. For different animals. " One
reason why
horses
do best
on dry
pastures
is that
they
need rather
large
fields which
promote
exercise.
They
do not feed
so
close to the
ground as to
injure
the root-crowns of alfalfa.
They can
get
on
with less
water
than
some
other
animals,
but need it
regularly.They
do not bloat
as
do cattle and
sheep.
Cattle need
a more
succulent
feed,
and
more
water,
than horses
;
therefore,
green
pastures
are more valuable,
particularly
for milch
cows.
Since cattle eat
rapidly,
they
sometimes
bloat,especiallyon
alfalfa wet with dew.
For
sheep
small
pastures
used in rotation
are recom- mended
in order to
keep
down
parasites.
Fine feed is
desirable
;
resistant sod is
preferable,as they
eat close
and
injure
the roots of such
plants as alfalfa,timothy,
and
orchard-grass.They
bloat
easilyon
alfalfa and
some
grasses.
If there
are no
willows in the
field,
there should
be sheds to
provide
shade.
Hogs
like coolness and water.
They
do
as
well
on
small
pastures,
since
they require
littlefood at
one
time.
Shade and water in the feed lot
compensate
for small
area;
this, however,
does not
imply
that food should
be
scarce.
Hull-less
barley
and
peas,
corn
and
rape,
corn, rape,
barley
and vetch, oats and
vetch, oats and
peas,
and
barley
make
good
crops
on
which
to turn
hogs.
They
also
dig
out
root-crops
to
advantage.
Poultry
do better
when
they
have
access to
green
feed. Grains and alfalfa
are
used most.
308 The
Principlesof Agronomy
344. Condition of
pastures.
" It is
a common
prac- tice
to
utilize land not
easily
handled in tlie
regular
cropping
system
for
grazing.
This land
may
be too
rocky
to
permit
the
use
of
plows
and other
machinery.
It
may
be
water-loggedor
covered with
water;
covered with
willows; rough
and
uneven;
cut
up
by sloughs
and low
ridges
;
or
filledwith
some
native
growth
such
as
rushes.
Sometimes the
very
extensiveness of
a
man's
ownings
renders it
impossible
to farm the land with the
equip- ment
he has. His livestock
may
roam
at will
over
what- ever
part
of the
public
domain is unreserved. A number
of serious faults
are
here
suggested.
In
addition,too
many
farmers
permit
bunches to
develop
and weeds to
get
a
hold in
a
part,
or
all of the field. Some
parts
may
be too
dry, even
when other
parts
are
covered with water.
Finally,
many
pastures
are not
yielding
to their full
capacity on
account of
a
poor
stand of
plants.
345.
Improving pastures.
" The
rocky
and
very
rough
areas will,
for
a long
time at
least,
be left in
pastures,
as
not much else
can
be done with them.
Removing
many
rocks is rather
expensive.
Draining
will much
improve
meadows that
are too wet
either in the
springor throughout
the
season.
Land that
is
water-logged
in the
spring
is
likely
to suffer for
water
later in the
summer
because the
water-holdingcapacity
is lowered
by puddling,
and because
a
shallow root-
system
is
produced by excess water. A combination of
drainage
and
irrigation
will
remedy
this condition.
Brush-lands
generally
need
partialor
entire
clearing
before
they
become
good pastures. Firing, grubbing,
and
sheep or
goat pasturinghelp
to clear
brushy
districts.
Rushes and
sedges
tend to
give
way
slowly
to the
more
valuable
grasses
after lands
are
drained.
Plowing
and
resowing
may
substitute this slow method. The farms
Pastures,
Meadows,
and
SoilingSystems
309
that
are
yet unimproved
will
gradually disappear
with
the
development
of the
country,
and the
permanent
grazing
lands will be made to
yieldgrain
and other
crops.
The bunches
are
rejectedforage
close
to a spiny weed,
such
as a thistle,
but
usually near a manure
dropping
which
seems
to taint the
grass
or
drive off the animals
by
its odor.
Harrowing
two
or
three times
a
year
with
brush-dragsor spike-toothharrows, or disking,
loosens
the soil and scatters the
manure,
making good
fertilizer
from that which in
heaps was repellent.
The
harrow,
supplemented by a grubbing-hoe,removes
the weeds
that
cause
cattle to leave
grassy
bunches.
Thin stands
may
be made thicker
by harrowing
and
by sowing
extra seed.
Overstocking
causes too close
grazing,
which
injures
the
pasture
as
well
as
the animals.
The
remedy
is
manifestlyone
of
prevention.
Fertilizers,
particularly
farm
manure,
increase the
yield
if
they are
well scattered.
Finally,
constant
use,
even
when
unaccompanied by overstocking,
is bad. Al- ternating
on
two
or
three
pastures
will
prevent
this
injury.
346.
Overstocking.
" The
pasture,
which
requires
but
little
attention,
is
regarded by
many
as
clear
profit,
though
the
yield
is small. The
sooner
this idea is thrown
aside,
the
sooner truly
successful
pastures
will be de- veloped.
A number of
points deserving
attention have
already
been indicated.
Overstocking
is
puttingon
the land
a
greater
number of
animals than the feed
can
maintain. The animals
soon
go
short of the best
feed,
and under
stress of
hunger
eat
the
coarse,
perennial plant
parts.
Sheep
and
hogs eat
root-crowns
and
occasionally
the roots themselves.
Deforesting
and
heavy sheep pasturing
have
practically
ruined
some
of the best
ranges.
In
parts
of the
West,
cattlemen have
come
to
realize this and
they now
compel
310
The
Principlesof Agronomy
the
sheepmen
to
keep
their flocks
away
from
designated
districts. Forest
reserves
handle the situation
by
limit- ing
the number of animals that
may
be
pasturedon
the
reserve.
In excessive
hunger during a snowstorm,
for
example, a
herd of
range
cattle ate at
the oak
brush,
leavingno
branches
smaller than
an
inch in diameter.
Practically
the
same thing happens
in
over-grazed
meadows. At firstthe stand
gets
poor ;
then bare
spots
make their
appearance ;
and, finally,
the surface becomes
tramped, rooted-up,
and barren
except
in
spots.
Of
course
the animals cannot
keep
in
good
condition. The
greedy owner
loses
on
both the animals and the
pasture.
347.
Management.
"
Manifestly,
the
remedy
for
over- stocking
is to
prevent
the
injury. Proper
discretion must
determine the number of animals that
may
pasture
a
field,
and the time
they
should feed
continuously. Strong
sod will bear close
grazinglonger
than will weak. Timo- thy,
orchard-grass,
and
clovers,
except
the
white,
suffer
immediately. Blue-grass, redtop, sedges,
and rushes
are
rather
persistent
and will withstand considerable
close
feeding.
It is not
profitable
to
pasture
too
closely,
however,
except
in
an
emergency.
It is doubtful whether
pastures
of the less
persistent
grasses
should remain
longer
than
a
few
years
without
being plowed.
The
plants
may
weaken,
the soil structure
break down,
and
parasites
accumulate until the old sod
is
a menace.
Some of the most successful
pastures
are
a
part
of the farm rotation. In its
turn,
say every
four
to ten
years,
the
pasture
may
be moved with
advantage
to the
plant,
the
soil,
the
animals,
and the farmer.
Horses should not
always
be
pastured
in
one
meadow
and cattle in another.
Feeding
habits differ
enough
to
be
a
factor in
pasture management.
With
a large field,
itis
usually
better to
use only part
of itat
a
time and rotate
Pastures)Meadows,
and
SoilingSystems
311
the animals if
they are not to be
mingled. Dairy cows
should
not be worried
by
horses
nor
be in
contact with
the wallows of
hogs.
A
part
of the
pasture
should be allowed to
go
unused
;
it needs
a
rest. This
permits
the
plants
to
grow up.
Legumes
and other
plants
that
grow
at the end of the
stem
demand this
more insistently
than the
grasses,
the
leaves of which have their
growing point near
the base
of the leaf-blade.
They
grow
without
starting
from the
ground
each time
as must other
plants.
Parts of the
grass
will not be eaten down. To
encourage
a
fresh
start,
the
mower
should be
run over
these
spots
at least twice
a
year.
Then the
coarse
stems make better
hay
when
cut. In
many
cases
horses and cattle will
pick
up
the
clippedstems, although they
avoid them while
standing.
Sometimes, early
in the
spring,
grass
is
not
as palat- able
as
it is
a
few weeks later. Waste is often
prevented
by waiting
before
turning
the animals into the field. The
yield
and
palatability
of
young grass
increase with
age.
348. Meadows. " In
general,
meadows for the
pro- duction
of-
hay
demand about the
same
attention
as
pastures.
Drainage
of the wet land, irrigation
of the
dry,
the
use
of
superior
crops,
the removal of
weeds,
the
reseeding
of
spots
that
are killed,
and the renewal
by
rotation all deserve
intelligentpractice.
Less attention
is
paid
to harrowing
and
crop
mixtures. For
hay, plants
should mature
about the
same time,
while in
pastures
they
should mature at different times,
except
when the
meadows
are
used for
pastures
a
part
of the
year
as
many
are.
The natural
meadows, as already
indicated, are being
gradually replaced by
cultivated
grasses
or
other
hay-
crops,
because these
yield more hay
of better
quality.
In
river- and
lake-bottoms,
much land is still
bearing
312 The
Principlesof Agronomy
salt-grass, sedges,rushes, blue-grass,
and
redtop,
all cut
for small
hay yields. Many
of these
areas
cannot be
reclaimed
on
account of the
expense
in labor and
capital,
and, therefore,
will
persistas
pastures
for
a long
time.
SOILING
349. Use. " In sections of the United States that
have to feed cattle from
high-priced land,
and where
labor is
cheap, pastures
are being partlyreplacedby
soil- ing.
Animals
are
not
pastured
but
are
fed
on
green
for- age
hauled to them
soon
after it is cut and before it has
lost its moisture. Succulence is
especially
valuable for
dairy cows
and for stock
being
raised for beef.
In
Germany, soiling
is
practiced generally,
while in
Denmark,
the animals
are
tethered in the fields instead
of
being
allowed
to
pasture.
In both of these countries
land is
high-priced
and labor is
cheap.
Land must be
made to
produce as
much
as possible,
because extensive
tracts
are
not available to the
farmers,
consequently
waste about the
edges
of the fields is decreased in
every
"
way.
Fences
are commonly
omitted,
permitting
all the
land to be cultivated. Since the United States still
has unused
areas
that
may
be
pastured,soiling
and tether- ing
are
not
practiced,
except
locally.
Some of the
soiling
crops
are
shown in
Figs.
79 to 82.
350. Value.
"
Disadvantages
of
soilingare :
1. Much
more
labor is
required
to
mow
and feed the
crop
in small
quantities
each
day
than to
pasture or
cut
the entire field at
once.
2.
Haying
each
day
is
a
hindrance
to other farm work
and is inconvenient
on
that
account.
3. In
stormy
weather it is
very
disagreeableto handle
crops.
314
The
Principlesof Agronomy
3. The feed is
more economically used,
since there is
no fouling
from
manure heaps.
4. The cattle
can
be
kept more
comfortable when fed
green
forage
than when
exposed
to
the hot
sun or
to wind
and storms
in
open
pastures.
^u^t^i-
".
tiLH
,
"^~
'
'"
Fig. 80. "
Sorghums are adapted
to
hot, dry
cHmates.
5. Manure
can
be
preserved
and
applied
to
the
right
crop
in
rotation,thereby conservingfertility.
6. In
consequence,
about three times
as
many
cattle
may
be
kept on a givenarea
of land. Their
gain
in flesh
is
greater
or
their milk flow is
kept more even
than under
other
systems
of
feeding.
The
disadvantages
off-set the
advantages
in such
a
way
as to cause
the utilization of
crops
for
soiling
to
be
an
Fig.
81. Sorghum jields
abundant grain
and forage.
Kansas.
316 The
Principlesof Agronomy
economic
question.
It
may
not be
profitable as a general
practice
in the United
States,
but it is in
many
dairy
sections.
351.
Soiling
crops.
"
Any one
crop
is not
ready
for
soiling
for
more
than
one or
two
weeks. A series of
crops
needs to be
carefullyarranged
in order to
keep
green
feed
constantly on
hand. In alfalfa
districts,
this
one
crop
can
be
kept ready throughout
the entire
season
except
in
earlyspring,
when itis
watery.
An alfalfa fieldmowed
part
at
a
time until full bloom is reached
can
be mowed
over
in the
same order, yieldingnearly
mature feed for
the remainder of the
summer
and fall. Alfalfa
is,more- over,
the best
soiling
crop
known,
because of its
high-
yielding
power,
its
palatability,
and its
high proteincon- tent.
It cannot be
surpassed
in districts where it
grows
successfully.
Green cereals
cut
in the
milk,corn fodder,
grasses,
peas,
soybeans,millets,sorghums, vetches,
rape,
clover,
and
cowpeas
are
used
separately
and in combination. A vari- ation
in time of
plantingchanges
the time of
maturity
to considerable
extent,
thus
lengthening
out the
period
of usefulness. A series of small
areas
may
be
planted
to
various
crops
so selected,planted,
and
arranged as to
give a
constant
supply
of
green
forage.
As
soon as
the
early
crops
are used, they
should be
resown or others
planted
to
prevent
the land's
lying
idle. Roots
may
assist in autumn.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Meadows and
Pastures,
J. E.
Wing.
Farm Grasses of the United
States,
W. J.
Spillman.
Field
Crops,
Wilson and
Warburton,
pp.
379-390,
301-306.
Field
Crop-Production,
G.
Livingston,
pp.
370-380.
Forage Crops, Voorhees,
pp.
34-41,
311-327.
Pastures, Meadows, and
Soiling Systems
317
Cyclopedia of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
II,
pp.
434-456,
569-574.
Reseeding
of
Range
Pasture Lands
to
Cultivated
Forage Crops,
U. S. D. A.
Bulletin,
No. 4.
Forage Plants,
C. V.
Piper,
pp.
67-113.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins
:
No. 66. Meadows and Pastures.
72. Cattle
Ranges
of the Southwest.
102. Southern
Forage
Plants.
147. Winter
Forage Crops
for the South.
361. Meadow Fescue.
502. Timothy
Production
on
Irrigated
Land in the North- west.
509. Forage Crops
for the Cotton
Region.
CHAPTER XXV
SORGHUMS AND MILLETS
The
sorghums
and
millets,
a comparatively new
and
rather distinct kind of
crop,
have
recently
come
to notice
in the semi-arid sections of the United States. The
United States
Department
of
Agriculture
found them
growing
in similar
regions
of the Old World and intro- duced
them here
as
worthy
of trial. The millets
spread
rapidly
for
a
time. The
sorghums are now
replacing
them
slowly
but
surely save
in
a
few districts.
Both
are
by nature dry-weather
crops,
offering possi- bilities
on
the
dry-farm
and
even
under
irrigation.
Peren- nial
forage
crops
are
favored in the West
largely
because
of alfalfa's
being so extremely well-adapted.
In
spite
of
this,
there
seems
to be
a
need for annual drouth-resistant
crops.
SORGHUM (Holcus,
or Andropogon, Sorghum)
352.
Origin.
" No
one
will
ever
know
exactly just
where the
group
of
plants
we
know
as sorghums orig- inated.
Some evidence
suggests
Africa
as
the
starting
point,
but other facts likewise indicate
an independent
origin
in India.
Many
wild
grasses,
closely
allied
to
the
domesticated members of the
family,
are
found
growing
wild in Africa "
more,
in
fact,
than in
any
other
part
of
the world. The
sorghums are
shown in
Figs. 80, 81,
and
82.
318
Sorghums
and Millets
319
320
The
Principlesof Agronomy
As
crop-plants,sorghums are as
old
as
any
known.
In
Egypt they were
grown
when
history was
first
re- corded.
They soon spread
into Asia
as
far
as
Manchuria.
Notwithstanding this,
the Greeks
grew
no sorghum;
neither did the Romans until
shortly
after the Christian
era,
when
an importation
from India took
place.
As far
as
American
experience
is
concerned,
the
history
of the
crop
is brief. In 1853 Chinese
sorgo
(whence the
word
as we
have
it)was brought
from France. In
1857,
the United States
Department
of
Agriculture
introduced
varieties from
every
part
of the world where much
was
grown.
The national
government
also
encouraged
the
spread
and trial of these varieties. Rather
constant
development
has since followed in the
regions adapted
to the
particular
members of the
family brought here,
although
the
crop
has not
as
yet
become
a
major
one.
Its
possibilities are potential
rather than
realized,
that
is,
its
promises are extensive,
but its records
narrow,
on
account
of its
having
had but littlechance to
prove
itself.
353.
Relationships.
"
Sorghums belong
to the
grass
family,being
in
many
respects
closely
related to maize.
Johnson-grass (Holcus halepensis)
is
a
bad weed in the
warmer
parts
of the United States.
Vigorous
rootstocks
are largelyresponsible
for the
pestiferous
habits of this
plant.
Not all
Johnson-grass
has
rootstocks,
since
a
few varieties of it
are annuals, spreading only by
seed.
Then
comes Sudan-grass
and
Tunis-grass,
which resemble
Johnson-grass
and
vary
toward the
sorghums.
All of
these
are annuals,
lacking
rootstocks which
cause
peren- nial
rooting
habits.
Sudan-grass seems to
occupy
a
place
of intermediate
improvement
between
Tunis-grass
and the cultivated
sorghums.
354.
Description.
" Corn is
so
much like
sorghum
that
by
the
ordinary
person
they
would be mistaken for
322 The
Principlesof Agronomy
different
purposes.
Just
as corn
varieties fall
into six
groups,
or
types,
sorghum
varieties
naturally
group
them- selves
into three distinct
types according
to the
purpose
for which
they developed.
355. Varieties.
"
Though
other classifications
are
often
made,
the
sorghums are commonly
classified
as (1)
sweet
sorghum, (2) grain sorghum,
and
(3)
broom-corn.
Particularlyadapted
for
sirup,grain,or
whisk
production,
each
type
is used for
forage
and
grain.
On account of
the
comparative infancy
of the
industry,sorghum
pro- duction
has not become
nearly so specializedas corn- or
fruit-growing
in
regard
to selection of varieties for different
purposes; yet,
there is
a general adaptation
of varieties
that cannot
be
ignored.
Sweet, or saccharine,
sorghum
is
grown
primarily
for
sirup
and
sugar.
For that
purpose, sorgo,
as
it is
called,
was brought
to the United States. The sudden
growth
of the
beet-sugarindustry,however,
offered
a more eco- nomical
means
of
procuring
sugar.
Shortly
afterwards
sweet
sorghum proved
the most valuable
type
for
forage.
The sweet
sap
seems
to
give
it
a
palatability
not found
in other
groups.
The stalks
are
fine and leaves
more
abundant than in other kinds. The seed is
small,
with
distinct red
or
dark brown color and borne in loose
pani- cles.
Amber,
Orange,
and Sumac
are
the most exten- sively-grown
varieties
;
Red
Amber,
Planter's
Friend,
and
Gooseneck
are,
also
worthy
of mention.
Those varieties used for
grain
have
little,
if
any,
sweet
juice
iii the
pith,
and
they are coarser
than the
sac- charine
type.
Shorter
nodes, fewer
leaves,
largerkernels,
and
more
clear-cut
sheathing
characterize
grainsorghums.
The heads
are
generally
compact
and
white,
yellow, or
dark brown.
Kafir, milo, feterita,durra,
shallu,
and
kowliangare
most
common
varieties. Milo
and
kowliang
Sorghums
and Millets 323
mature earlier than kafir " in about
ninety
to
one
hun- dred
days.
Not
only are
the kernels used for
grain,
but
the fodder is used
to
some
extent for
forage.
Broom-corn is
distinguishedby
the
long
brush
on
which
small seed is borne
sparsely.
Since this
type
is
grown
for
whisk,
the
length
and
evenness
of the
pedicelsare
primarily important.
Standard
broom-corn,
which is
generally
about twelve feet
tall,
bears brush from
eighteen
to
thirty
inches
long.
A shorter brush from twelve to
eighteen
inches in
length
is
produced on a
smaller
plant
which is known
as
dwarf broom-corn because of
being
only
four to six feet in
height.
356. Distribution and
adaptation.
" As
might
be
expected
from
a plant
of
tropicalorigin,sorghum
is nat- urally
adapted
to
a region
of warmth and abundant
sun- shine.
By
choice of varieties
or
from
having
been
grown
for centuries in arid
regions,
it has
come
to
prefera dry
atmosphere.
Greatest
yields
are,
of
course,
obtained
where moderate moisture is
available,
but it
can
be
suc- cessfully
produced
in
comparativelydry
districts. It is
rather drouth-resistant in sections similar to South Africa
and the Great Plains section of the United States.
Piper
^
says,
"
No
degree
of
summer
heat
seems
too
intense for
the
sorghums,
but
they are injured
both in
spring
and in
fall
by light
frosts."
Grain-sorghum
varieties mature
in such short
grow- ing-seasons
that
they are
able to mature
in South Dakota
and southward.
Some
forage
varieties do well in Minne- sota
and Ontario.
Rapid growth coupled
with drouth
resistance enables this
crop
to
produce more
economical
grain
and
forage
than
corn on
the Great Plains where
rainfall is less than
twenty-five
inches,though corn
has
not
been
replaced
to
any
marked extent
where the annual
1
Forage Plants,
p.
262.
324 The
Principlesof Agronomy
precipitation
exceeds this. The best
area
for
sorghum
in America
begins
in about the
same longitudeas
does
that of
dry-farm
wheat. The considerable resistance
to
alkali that is manifested
by sorghums as a
class should
also hasten the
spread
of the
crop
in arid
regions.
Nearly
all arid
regions
of the Old World
grow
sorghum,
with
Egypt,
South
Africa,Australia,India,
and northern
China
leading
in total
production.
The order of
impor- tance
cannot be
ascertained,
since statistics
are
unavail- able
partly
because much of the
crop
which is used for
forage
is fed without
being
measured. In the United
States,
moreover,
statistics
are
unreliable when it
comes
to details. Kansas is far in the
lead, producingperhaps
half the entire
crop.
Nebraska, Oklahoma, TeXas,
Colorado,
and California
grow
small
acreages.
These
states
and Utah "
perhaps some
others " have
large
tracts
of
new
land that could be made to
produce sor- ghum
economically.
In
some
cultivated
sections,
other
crops
might
be
replaced profitably. Many
trials
by
farmers and
Experiment
Stations must
precede a
definite
statement as
to where the
crop
will succeed
or
fail.
Roughly, however, vast
promise
lies in the
undeveloped
possibilities
of
sorghums
in
dry regions
west of the
ninety-
eighth
meridian.
This,
of
course,
implies
that selected
varieties be tested
as was suggested
for
corn.
That
some
tropicalsorghums
have
requiredmore
than
seven
months
to mature when
grown
in Florida shows how essential
the
use
of
adapted
varieties is to successful
production.
Soils should be well-drained and
porous
to
permit
root
penetration. Sorghums
have
a reputation
for
being
"
hard
on
the land
"
by causing
the
crop
that follows to
yieldlightly.
Some
persons
think this isdue
to
the
power
of the
plant
to
dry
the soil
considerably
below the wilt- ing
point
of other
crops.
Careful
preparation
of the
Sorghums
and Millets
325
seed-bed lessens the
injury,
which
may
be due to
an
exhaustion
of
readily-available plant-food.
Poor
soils,
too, are
often used
to
grow
the
sorghum
crop,
not that
the
plant prefers
naturally
the difficult soils and
dry
climates,
but that it is
hardy
under adverse conditions.
357.
Preparation
of seed-bed and
seeding.
" In
pre- paring
the
seed-bed,
the
same
precautionsare
taken
as
for
corn
except
that soil
ought
to be made finer. The
best time for
planting
is after all
danger
of frost has
passed
and the soil is
warm.
Grain
crops
are always
drilled in
rows
from
eighteen
to
forty-eight
inches
apart.
More often
corn-planters
are
used with
specialplatesor
with holes
partly
stopped
to
govern
the rate of
seeding.
Seed is
dropped
from six
to ten inches
apart
in the
row.
From three to five
pounds
will
plantan acre
at this rate.
Forage
crops
are planted
either in
rows or
broadcasted
at the
rate
of from fifteen to
fortypounds an acre.
Under
most
favorable conditions two bushels
are planted.
Dwarf broom-corn is
planted
three feet between
rows
and
two
inches
apart
in the
row,
while standard varieties
do better in
rows
three feet six inches
apart
with seed
at
three-inch intervals in the
row. Uniformity
of stand
givesuniformity
of
brush,
which is
highly
desirable since
both too
coarse
and
too
fine whisks
are
less valuable than
the normal.
358. Treatment
during growth.
" Because
seedlings
are
sensitive to
soil
or moisture,
weeds
injure
them
severely,
and since
they are tougher
to
mechanical
eon-
tact
than
corn,
more frequent
and later cultivation
may
be
given,
and
is, indeed, required. Intertillage
with
one-row
cultivators
keeps
down weeds and mulches the
soiluntil flowers
appear.
Listing
is also
practiced
in
some
cases.
326 The
Principlesof Agronomy
359.
Harvesting.
" When
fullymature,
the
grain
crop
is cut either with a corn-binder,
with
a sled-cutter, or by
hand.
Thorough drying
before
threshing
prevents
heat- ing
of the
grain. Curing
is most
easilyaccomplished
in
shocks which
are
built wide at the bottom to
keep
the
heavy-headed grain
from
fallingover.
The bundles
are
either
run through
thresher
or
the heads
run
in and the
stover withdrawn and shocked
or
stacked until used for
rough
feed.
Occasionally
the farmer heads the
plants
"
particularly
dwarf strains "
by
hand
or machinery
and
threshes
only
the heads. The stalks
are pastured or
harvested
separately.
"Yields
as high as
seventy
bushels
an acre
occur,
though
twenty
is
more common
and
forty
is
good.
In
years
so
dry
that
corn fails,sorghum
has
given
twelve to
twenty-
bushel
yields.
Forage
is cut
green,
silage
in the soft
dough,
and fodder
just
at bloom. Corn-binders
cut
largeareas more
cheaply
than hand-labor.
Hay
is made sometimes
by
broad- casting
thick
stands,cutting
with
a
mower,
and
curing
as
grass.
In this
case
the stems
ought
not to exceed the
thickness of
a pencil
and should be cut
before
blooming.
Acre-yieldsvarying
from
ten to forty tons of
green
feed have been
reported.
Fifteen
to
twenty
tons are
taken off the land
frequently.
In cured
hay or
dried
fodder,
the returns net from
two to
eight
tons in from
one
to six
cuttingsdepending on
the
season
and moisture
available.
The whisk of dwarf broom-corn is
pulled
from the stem
at the
upper
node and removed from the field at once.
In standard
varieties,
the
stems are cut
partly through
two feet
or so
above
ground
and two
rows
bent
across
each other
making V-shaped platforms, or "tables,"
of
crossed stalks. The
"brush,"as
the whisk is
called,
is
Sorghums
and Millets 327
now
cut off and
placed on the
"
tables
"
to dry.
After
being
cured in
sheds,
it is made into bales of 300
or
400
pounds.
Sometimes
seed is allowed to
ripen,
but
this lessens the value of the whisk
more
than it increases
the value of the
grain.
In both
cases
threshers
remove
the seed from the
brush,
which is thrust
against
the
cylin- der
and then withdrawn. From
two hundred to
seven
hundred
pounds
of cured brush
represent
ordinary
returns
from
an acre.
When
grown
for
sirup,
sweet
sorghiun
matures in the
field. While still
standing
the leaves
are stripped
off;
heavy
rollers
press
the
juice
from the culms. Heat and
settlingclarify
the
juice
of
impurities.Warming
in
shallow
pans
concentrates the
sirup
to the desired
con- sistency
of 30
per
cent moisture. About half
or
two-
thirds of the
juice
presses
out
in
a good mill,a
ton
yield- ing
from 700
to 1200
pounds
of
juice
which concentrates
from ten to
thirtygallons
of
sirup.
From five to fifteen
tons of stems
grow
on an acre.
360. Use. "
Sorghum grain
is used
only
for stock-
feed in
America, though
in Asia and Africa it is
an
im- portant
human food. The
grain
is
starchy
and hard.
Unless
crushed,
fed
wet,
or
mixed with other
feeds,a
part
of it
escapes
digestion.Eighty
to
ninety pounds
of
corn
equal
one
hundred
pounds
of
sorghum
in
feeding
value. If fed
alone,
the
grain
has
a
constipating
effect,
which is relieved
by
the
accompanying protein
feed
neces- sary
to balance the ration.
Colored seed is
sharply
bitter,
due to tannin. Poultrymen prize
the
grainhighly
for their fowls.
The
dry
stems and leaves of the
sorghiun
make fair
roughage.
As
silage,sorghum
nearly equals
corn;
as
hay
it ranks about the
same as oats,
wheat, or barley.
It is cut
for
hay
with
mowers or
binders. Stock
may pas-
328 The
Principlesof Agronomy
ture
considerable
quantities
of feed from
green
fields,
since under favorable conditions it makes several
growths
and suckers
freely.
One serious
danger, however,
besets
its
use as
pasture.
After
being
stunted
by
excessive
heat and
drouth,prussic
acid,a
virulent
poison,
sometimes
develops
in the leaves
or stems.
This will kill stock in
a
few minutes.
Exactly
what conditions
cause
poisoning
is not clear,
but it
seems
that ifthe
plant
is
kept growing,
there is
no danger.
The dried fodder does not
injure
stock.
Sirup manufacturing
is not
widely practiced.
The
demand for whisk
supplies
for the manufacture of brooms
encourages
broom-corn
production. Illinois,Kansas,
Missouri,
and New York
produce
80
per
cent of the whisk
crop.
361. Enemies.
" Kernel
smut
attacks individual seeds.
Formalin seed treatment lessens the
injury.
Head
smut
covers
the whole head and has not been
successfully
treated.
Blight
may
kill the leaves. Selection of resist- ant
varieties
can
probably
control it.
In
Texas,
the
sorghum midge
does considerable dam- age
to the heads. Corn
ear-worms,
fall
army-worms,
chinch-bugs,
and
sorghum aphids
do
some damage.
Wise cultivation will
largely
control insects and
plant
diseases
as
well
as
weeds.
362.
Storage
and
marketing.
" The brush from broom-
corn
is marketed in
a
number of
grades
at one
to six cents
a pound depending on
the
length,uniformity,flexibility,
and color of the whisk. Careful
drying,sweating,
and
balingare
essential in
curing
for
quality,
since the
high
moisture content renders
molding
and discoloration
likely. Grain, fodder,
and
silageare
handled
as
is
corn,
but
very
little
gets
to
market. It is
primarilya
local
crop.
Not
even
the
sirup,
which is
a
farm
delicacy
and
not a
market
product, gets
far
away.
330 The
Principlesof Agronomy
Europe use
them
extensively
for
forage. They
grow
well
in
dry,
hot districts with short
seasons,
sometimes matur- ing
in
forty
to
fiftydays. They
do well wherever
sor- ghum
pays,
and will
grow
farther
north,
but
they
have
several faults which confine them to districts where
sor- ghums
cannot mature
sufficiently,
and which
cause
them
to
be used
only as catch-crops
when it is too late to start
more
valuable
plants.
More than
a
million
acres are
grown,
but cultivation is
diminishing
rather than in- creasing.
365.
Relationship
and
description.
" The millets in- clude
ten different
species
in five
or more
genera.
The
most
common
valuable
type
is the foxtail millet
{Setaria
italica).
In this
group
are
common,
German, Italian,
and
Hungarian
varieties. Other
types
are
broom-corn
millet,
Japanese barnyard
millet,
and
pearl
millet. Foxtail
millet is
closely
related to the
common weed,
green
foxtail
(Setariaviridis).
It
was
cultivated in
prehistoric
times. Chinese records mention it about 2700
B.C.
The
plantsare
annual
grasses, very
leafy,growing
from
one to
four feet tall. The heads
are
from
two to
eight
inches
long
in rather
compact spikes
which in
some
varieties
are distinctly
lobed. The seed is
yellowish,
about
one
millimeter in
diameter,
with the hull boxed
around the
grain.
Numerous
bristly
hairs
project
out- ward
from the
spike.
366. Culture and value. " From
two to
four
pecks
of
seed
are sown to the
acre,
usually
with drills. Row-
planting
is used
occasionally
for seed
production.
The
slightest
frosts kill
millet;
hence late
planting
pays.
Any
time in June
seems
favorable.
Quality
in the
hay
deteriorates
rapidly
after full
bloom,
when the
yield
and
qualityare
both
greatest.
For
cattle,
millet
hay
is about
equal
to
grass,
but is
inferior
to clover
Sorghums
and Millets
331
and alfalfa.
Horses suffer in several
ways
from contin- uous
feeding
of millet
hay.
Action of the
kidneys
and
bowels increases
;
joints
swell and
get
lame
;
bony
texture
weakens. Wisdom
suggests
that cattle
as
well
as
horses
be fed mixed
roughage
rather than
straight
millet.
Seed
crops
yield
from fifteen to
fifty fifty-pound
bushels
an acre.
Just before
maturity,
binders cut the
seed
crop,
which
cures
in the shock.
Ripe
heads shatter
badly. Ordinary
threshers
are
used to
separate
the seed
from the straw.
A smut attacks the
seed,
but it
can
be
destroyedby
the
formalin
treatment that is used
on
seed wheat. Chinch-
bugs are
fond of
millet,which,
for that
reason,
isoften used
as a
trap
crop
to be
plowed
under when the insects have
collected
on
the
plants.
367. Other
t3rpeg.
"
Japanese barnyard
millet is
coarser
than foxtail millet,
has branched
heads,
and is
used for
soiling,
but does not
cure readily
for
hay.
It is
grown
widely
for food in
China, India,
and other
parts
of
Asia.
Broom-corn millet has
a
brush-like head and
larger
seed than the
common
type.
It
grows
as a
cereal
crop
in
Russia and also to some
extent
for
forage.
The Dakotas
and Manitoba
produce
considerable,
which is also used
mostly
for
forage.
Pearl
millet,
sometimes called
penicillaria,
is twice
as
largeas
other
millets,
has
a
rather
woody
stem filledwith
dry pith,
and bears seed in
a
compact
cylindrical
head
from which it has been called cat-tail millet. It is rather
coarse and
dry
for
hay.
In the South,
its immense
yields
of
green
forage
make it and
teosinte,
another annual
very
similar to
corn,
popular
for feed. As much
as fifty
tons to the
acre
of
green
fodder
has been cut
in
one season
from each of these
crops.
332
The
Principles of Agronomy
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
The Corn
Crops, Montgomery,
pp.
279-342.
Field
Crops,
Wilson and
Warburton,
pp.
258-263, 336-347.
Cereals in
America,
T. F.
Hunt,
pp.
382-399.
Field
Crop Production, G.
Livingston,
pp.
221-238.
Forage Plants,
C. V.
Piper,
pp.
260-304.
Forage Crops,
E. B.
Voorhees,
pp.
37-131.
Forage
and Fiber
Crops,
T. F.
Hunt,
pp.
111-120.
Southern Field
Crops,
J. F.
Duggar,
pp.
23I7247.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol. II,
pp.
384-388, 469-474,
574-582.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' BiUletins
:
No. 101. Millets.
174. Broom Com.
288. Kafir Corn.
322. Milo.
448. Better
Grain-sorghum Crops.
458. The Best Two Sweet
Sorghums
for
Forage.
552. Kafir
as a
Grain
Crop.
605. Sudan Grass.
CHAPTER XXVI
FIBERS AND MISCELLANEOUS CROPS
The world is
so
wide;
soils
are so different;
climates
vary
in
so
many
respects;
there
are so
many
kinds of
plants
with
varying
habits of
growth
that the
plants
grown
for the
use
of
man
and beast
are
almost without
number.
FIBERS
Both the
plant
and the animal
kingdoms
furnish fibers
which
are
used
largely
for
clothing, carpets,
rugs, ropes,
nets, cordage,
and
bags. Vegetable
fibers consist almost
entirely
of
cellulose,
while animal fibers have sufficient
nitrogen
in them to
give off,
when
burnt, an
odor char- acteristic
not only
of wool and
silk,
but of hair and flesh.
A white ash remains after the
burning
of
vegetable fibers,
but animal fiber burns to
a crisp
char that
usually
curls.
Vegetable
fibers
may
be
woody,
bast, or
floral. The
wood and bast flbers
are
borne in the interior of the
plant,
bast in the inner
bark,
and wood in the
deeper
tissues of
the fibro-vascular bundles. Bast fibers such
as
flax and
hemp,
and floral flbers such
as
cotton
are by
far
more
important
for textiles than the wood fibers. Leaves also
yield some fiber, as
in the
case
of sisal and manila
hemp.
COTTON (Gossypium
hirsutum)
368.
History.
" Cotton cloth is
cheap
and
practically
all
people wear some
cotton.
This has not always
been
333
334 The
Principlesof Agronomy
the
case.
A
century
ago
wool and silk
were
the
common
textiles.
Cotton had been
grown
for centuries in China and for
a
shorter
period
in India and
Egypt,
and
being a
native of
the New
World,
for
an
unknown
period
of time in Peru
and other
parts
of America. Not until the
beginning
of
the nineteenth
century,
however,
did it count for much
as a
world
crop.
Introduced into the Southern
States,
it
thrived and
was
cultivated
on a
small scale before the
Revolution.
Washington
and Jefferson
grew
it with the
help
of slaves who
separated
the lint from the seed
by
hand. When Eli
Whitney's cotton-ginproved successful,
cotton-growing spread rapidly.
It has
supported
most
of the
people
in the
South, supplieda
livelihood for
millions in northern
factories,
and
helped
to build
an
immense
foreign
trade. On the other hand it
was one
of
the
big
factors in
intensifying
the
misunderstanding
that
led to the Civil War.
369.
Relationships.
"
Hollyhock
is the most
common
plant
that is
closely
related to cotton
;
the mallows
are
also in the
same family.
In the
same
genus
are
five
species
of cotton:
(1) Upland, (2) Sea-island, (3)
Egyptian, (4) Peruvian,
and
(5) Bengal, or
Indian. Of
these
long-
and short-fibered
upland or long-
and short-
staple
cotton
comprise
most of the commercial fields in
America. Some Sea-island is
grown,
however,
in the
tidewater
regions,particularly
in
Georgia.
The chief
difference in the
species
is
length
of
fiber,
which varies
from one-half inch in
short-staple
to two and one-half
inches in
Sea-island,long-stapleproducing a
fiber of
intermediate
length.
Altogether
there
are
several hundred varietiesof cotton.
These
are
grouped
into
eight
types
or
variety
groups
: (1)
Cluster,(2) Semi-cluster,(3)
Rio
Grande, (4) King, (5)
Fibers and Miscellaneous
Crops
335
BigboU, (6) Long-limbed,
(7)Intermediate,
and
(8)Long-
stapleUpland.
These
names,
in
general,
indicate
growth
habits
or growth regions. Jackson, Hawkins, Peterkin,
Layton,
Toole, King,
and Allen
Long-stapleare
standard
varieties.
370.
Description.
" Cotton has
a deep-rootinghabit,
but also sends
numerous
horizontal branches in the
upper
three inches of soil. The stem is
solid,
woody,
consider- ably
branched,
and from three
to
six feet
long.
The
leaves
are broad, three-lobed,
and
palmately-veined,
while the flowers
are usually
white
or yellowish
contain- ing
a pistil
with
a
divided
stigma
and
a
compact
group
of stamens
bearing
waxy
pollen.Though naturally
cross-fertilized
by insects,
the flowers
are capable
of self-
fertilization. Small stems
arising
from the main branches
or
sub-branches bear the flowers and later the
boll,
which
is
a heavy pod containing
the lint and embedded seed.
Under
a microscope,
mature lint shows
a
definite twist- ing,
perhaps
due to
drying
of the tubular fiber. This
twist
roughens
the surface of the lint
strengthening
the
gripone
fiber
gets
on
another when it is made into thread.
Each
fiber,a single
cell,
is
a product
of the flower. It
surrounds the
seed,
which is about one-fourth inch in
diameter. A coat of oil that
covers
the lint must be
re- moved
before cotton is
dyed or
before it is made into
absorbent cotton.
371.
Adaptation.
" Cotton will
grow
in
most
soils
;
clays
and
loams, moderately dry
and
well-drained,are
most favorable. Moderate moisture and frost-free
seasons
from six to seven
months
in duration
encourage
the best
growth.
Because these conditions exist in the
Southern States
as
nowhere
else,
it is this section that
produces
most of the cotton
of the world. Of
twenty
million
500-pound
bales,
the United States
produces
12
336
The
Principlesof Agronomy
million,
India 4
million,Egypt
1.3 million. The other 7
million bales
are
the combined harvest of
Brazil, Peru,
Mexico, Turkey,
and China.
Texas, Georgia,
Mis- sissippi,
Alabama,
South
Carolina, Arkansas, Oklahoma,
North
Carolina,
and Louisiana
produce
96
per
cent of
the American
crop
and rank in the order named. So
exclusively
does Texas
grow
cotton that 40
per
cent
of
her
improved
land is devoted to this
crop.
372. Culture. " It is
a practice,common
but
unwise,
to
grow
cotton on a
field several
years
in succession. The
stalks
are
broken and
plowed
under
or
burned.
"
Beds
"
are
made
by turning
two furrows toward each other
every
three
to five
feet,
the
spaces
often
remaining un- broken
until the first cultivation. Seed at the rate
of
one-half to
one
bushel
an acre
is drilled into these beds
by a one-row planter
after
a
shallow furrow is
opened.
When the
plants are
well
started,
dirt is thrown
away
from them and
they are
"
chopped
out
"
until the
plants
are
left
one or
two feet
apart
in the
row.
From
one
to
five cultivations
are given, generally shallow,
to avoid
cutting
the
roots,
which
are
abundant
near
the surface.
Much of the cultivation has been done with one-mule
plows
and
poor
machinery,
but
recently
two-row
culti- vators,
good harrows,
and efficient
plows
have been in- troduced
into
many
sections. Extensive cultivation
without rotation and without
barnyard
fertilizer has
resulted in the ruin of
many
fieldsin
spite
of the fact that
lint and oil
cause no
drain
on
mineral
fertility.
Cotton- seed
meal and commercial fertilizers
are
used to some
extent;
diversified
farming, rotation,
and better culture
are badly
needed.
Boll-weevils and bollworms have caused much
damage
;
cotton wilt and
root
rot,
both
plant diseases,injure
the
crop
considerably.
Better
farming
methods
through
338
The
Principlesof Agronomy
browsed.
Burning
the stalks is bad
practice,
unless
necessary
in insect
or
disease
control,
because
they
add
organic
matter to
the soil when
plowed
under.
FLAX
(Linum tisitatissimum) (Fig.83)
Flax has been
grown
from the earliest times
as a
fiber
crop.
Priests used it for their robes and for
wrapping
mummies,
and the
people
made
clothing
from it in both
Palestine and
Egypt long
before the time of Christ.
375.
Description.
" The
plant
consists of
a
slightly
branched
tap-root;
a
slender stem from
one to three
feet
long,
either
simple or
branched
according
to whether
it is in thick
or
in thin
patches
;
linear lanceolate leaves
that
are
alternate and
nearly sessile;beautiful,.five-
parted,
delicate blue
flowers; or a globularpod
filled
with ten
flat-oval,
russet seeds rich in oil. The bast
fiber,or linen,
is
separated
from the stem
by
"
retting."
376.
Adaptation.
" Flax will
grow
on
any
kind of
good
soil in climates that
permit
the successful
production
of
wheat. Russia
produces
two-thirds of the fiber flax of
the world
;
Austria-Hungary, France,
Belgium,
and
Holland
grow
most of the
remaining
third. The
crop
of
the United
States,
grown
largely
for
seed,
is
produced
almost
entirely
in the three
states: North
Dakota,
Minnesota,
and South Dakota. Since
many
states in
wheat
areas
have
flax-growingpossibilities,
the
crop
will
probably spread
much. Like the United
States,
Ar- gentina
grows
flax for
seed,
producing
34
per
cent
of the
entire
seed-crop.
This exceeds the
production
of
any
other
country.
Russia is third and the United States
second in
importance.
377. Culture.
" Most of the flax
crop
in the United
States is
produced
on
newly-broken ground
before
any
Fibers and Miscellaneous
Crops
339
other
crop
is
sown. After
plowing,
the land is smoothed
and
two
or
three
pecks
to the
acre planted one or two
inches
deep by means
of
grain
drills. .Little treatment
Fig. 83.
"
A good
crop
of flax seed. Wisconsin.
before harvest is
given.
The seed and fiber
crops
are
harvested
differently.
Seed flax is cut
with
a grain
binder and threshed
by
an
ordinary threshing
machine. For
fiber,
the flax is
pulled
by
hand,
tied in bundles,
and cured in shocks. The
next
process,
retting,
consists of
spreading
the stems
340 The
Principlesof Agronomy
thinly
on
the
ground
and
exposing
them
to dew
or
water
for three
or
four weeks. This loosens the
fiber,
which is
removed
by pounding
with mallets
or by bending
in
a
machine. A
thorough beating
with wooden
paddles
completes
the
separation,
after which
combing
separates
the
long
fiber
(fiaxline)
from the short
(tow).
378. Use and value.
" Linseed
oil,
used in the
manu- facture
of
paints,
varnishes, medicine, oilcloth,
and
linoleum,
is extracted from the seed
by crushing,heating,
and
pressingor by treating
with
naphtha. Residues,
pressed
into oil-cake
or ground
into linseed
meal, are
valuable for stock-feed. The
straw
contains
some
feed- ing
value,
and also
a
littlebrittle fiber that
can
be made
into
coarse bagging or
used for
packing
in
upholstery.
Well-cured
fibfermakes
a
cloth that is valuable because
of its
strength
and uniform
whiteness;
because it does
not
fray
in
launderingas
does cloth made from cotton or
wool
;
and because it takes starch well. For these
rea- sons,
linen is used for
collars,cuffs,
other
apparel,
and for
household articles that must be of
spotless
white.
OTHER FIBERS
379.
Hemp (Cannabis saliva),
which is related
to the
mulberry
and the
"
mock," or
osage orange,
yieldssome
coarse
fiber for
ropes,
burlap bagging,
and
matting.
The best
crops
are
produced
in
corn-growing
sections that
have
a moist,
fertilesoil rich in lime.
Though
other
sec- tions
have favorable soil and
climate,
the
blue-grass
regions
of
Kentucky
and
Tennessee,
and
parts
of New
York and Nebraska
as
yet produce
most of the
crop.
The stamens and the
pistilsare
borne
on
different
hemp plants.
Staminate
plants
branch less than the
pistillate,
and
on
that account
yielda
better fiber. Both
Fibers and Miscellaneous
Crops
341
kinds of
plants
vary
from three to twelve feet in
height.
A
tap root-system,
a
strong stem,
and
deeply-serrated
leaves
ending
in
a
cluster
are
characteristic of the
plant.
Oval
seed,
about
one-eighth
of
an
inch in diameter and
covered with
a hull,are
borne at the
top.
From four to six
pecks
of seed
are sown
to the
acre,
just
before
corn-planting season.
Little cultivation is
necessary,
as
the
plants usually
smother weeds. When
ready
for
harvesting,
the
crop
is cut
with
mowers
and
binders,or by
hand if it is
too
large
for
machinery.
The
separation
of fiber from the stem is similar to that of flax.
380. Miscellaneous fibers. " Manila
hemp, or
abaca
{Musa textilis),
in the
same
genus
as
the
banana,
is much
grown
in the
Philippine
Islands for
strong
fiber out
of
which
rope
hawsers
or cables,
and
high-grade
binder
twine
are
made. The
plant requires
abundant rainfall,
considerable
warmth,
and well-drained soils. The leaf-
sheaths of the
plant
furnish the fiber,
which the natives
get
by scraping
off the
pulp.
Sisal
{Agave rigida),
in the
same
genus
as
the
century
plj,nt,
furnishes
a
fiber used for twine and for
mixing
with
manila fiber in cordage.
The leaves
are
crushed
by
machinery
to loosen the hard strands. It is not
very
useful in marine service because salt water
markedly
decomposes
it.
A number of other
plantsproducing
fibers
are
grown
in
various
parts
of the world :
jute
in India
; maguey
in
Mexico and Central America
;
istle in
Mexico,
New
Mexico,
and Texas;
and New Zealand
hemp
in New
Zealand.
MISCELLANEOUS
CROPS
Many
other
plants
are
grown
wherever and for what- ever
purpose
man
desires them. He
cares
not what
family
342 The
Principlesof Agronomy
they
are in,nor
what kind of
plantsthey
are,
provided
he
can
make
some use
of them. The
use
may
in
some cases
be harmful,
but this
makes
no
difference
;
if he wants
the
plant,
he
grows
it
as a
crop.
381.
Cabbage {Brassicaoleracea),
and kohlrabi
{Bras-
sica oleracea
var. caulo-rapa)
are
used to some extent
for
feeding
in isolated districts. Kohlrabi,
not widely
grown
Fig. 84.
"
Cabbage as a
field
crop.
Delaware.
in
America,
is
an enlargement
of the
stem,
while
cabbage
heads
are
massed leaves. Kohlrabi is
sown,
thinned,
cultivated,harvested,stored,
and fed in the
same
way
as
rutabagas;
in
yield
and
feeding
value it is also
very
similar to the
rutabaga. Cabbages
are commonly sown
in hot houses and
transplanted
in
May or
June two
or
three feet
apart
in hills with
rows equally
far
apart.
For
feeding,
the
crops may
be seeded thick in fields after
Fibers
and Miscellanemis
Crops
343
the last frost
and thinned
later. Their chief
use
is for
human
food, though
in
some sections,they are
grown
for
stock-feed,
yieldingoccasionallyas high as forty
tons
of
forage
to the
acre.
Cabbage
is valuable for milch
cows,
but is rather difficult to
cure;
as
pasturage
it
serves
both cattle and
sheep
very
well. A
cabbage
field
is shown in
Fig.
84.
382.
Rape (Brassica
Napus)
grows
from two to four
feet tall
sending
out
many
broad, succulent leaves in
earlygrowth.
Sown broadcast at the rate
of three to
five
pounds an
acre,
it will
keep
down
weeds;
it
yields
most in
rows two to three feet
apart.
It
may
be
sown
in late
springor during earlysummer
either alone
or
with
grain.
Sometimes it is
planted
two or
three weeks after
grain, leafing
out
abundantly
when the
grain
is cut.
Sometimes it is
sown
between
corn rows
after cultivation
has ceased. It is valuable for
hog or sheep
pasture,
but
is
not cured for
dry forage.
Yields
are
rather
heavy.
Dwarf Essex is the usual
variety.
383. Kale
{Brassica oleracea),a
headless
cabbage,
furnishes considerable winter
soiling
in the coast
region
of
Washington
and
Oregon, being
cut
for
green
feed
during
the mild winter. The
yields
vary
from
ten
to
thirty
tons
of
green
foragean
acre,
with fifteen to
twenty
tons
common
under favorable conditions. This
slightly
exceeds the
yield
of
rape.
Since all the mustards feed
heavilyon
mineral food of the
soil,
fertilizeris beneficial
in considerable
quantities.
Farm
manure
in the West
and commercial fertilizersin the East and in the Old
World
are
used to
supply
these demands.
384. Enemies.
"
Although
intensive culture should
easily
control
the
weeds, some
insects and the disease
club-root,common
to
the whole
family,are by no means
easily
eradicated. The club-root
{Plasmodiorpha
hrassi-
344 The
Principlesof Agronomy
cos)fungus develops
inside the
root, distorting
it and
causing
the
plants
to die. The
spores
live in the soil
awaitinga
chance to attack other roots.
Long
rotation
is the
only
method of control known for soil
once
infested.
The
cabbage-root
maggot
{Pegomyia hrassicos)lays
its
eggs
near
the
root,
and the
maggot
riddles the root
causing
the
plants
to
look
sickly
and then to die. One
method of control is to
place a spoonful
of carbon
bisulfide in the soil four to six inches from the
plant,
and
to
compress
the soil
tightlyover
hole. The
liquid
be- comes
gas
and
penetrates
to
the
maggots.
Paris
green
or
arsenate of
lead,
used
as
for
potato bugs,
that
is,sprayed on
young
plants,
aids
greatly
in control- ling
the
green
cabbage worm {Pieris
rapes). Plowing as
soon as
the
crop
is removed also
helps considerably.
The
cabbage aphis {Aphis brassicce)
feeds
on
the leaves
and but for
parasitic
enemies would be
decidedly injuri- ous
to all crucifers. It is best handled
"by thorough
spraying
with tobacco solution ("
black-leaf 40
") one
part
in four hundred of
water.
Flea-beetles,
cabbage loopers, cabbage webworms,
cross-striped cabbage
worms,
diamond-back
moths,
and
cabbage
curculios do
damage
in various
ways.
The
method of control is
largelyone
of
prevention by means
of culture and rotation.
Any good
manual
gives
insecti- cide
treatments.
TOBACCO (Nicotiana
Tabacum)
Some
plants
have
always supplied man
with
drugs
which he has chosen to
use
for
remedies,stimulants, or
narcotics.
Opium
and cocaine
were
used for
a long
time
to
soothe, stimulate,or
deaden
nervous
response.
After
the
discovery
of
America,
tobacco became the chief
346
The
Principlesof Agronomy
by cutting
the whole
plant. Curing requiressteadydry- ing
that
keeps
the leaves
pliable.Large
barns
are
filled
with the leaves
hung
over
laths. Slow fires
are
often
used to hasten
curing
in wet weather.
When well
cured,
the leaves
are uniformly
brown and
not brittle. On
a damp day, they are stripped
off the
stem and tied in bundles. These
are
later made into
larger
bundles and allowed to
"
sweat." If warehouses
are
near,
the loose bundles
are sold,
but if
shipping
is
necessary,
the tobacco is
packed
in
large hogsheads.
Since
carefully-graded
leaves
bring
the best
price,con- siderable
care
is exercised to
separate
leaves of different
quality
and to
place only
one grade
in
a package.
388.
Sugar-cane.
" About half the
sugar
of the world
is made from
sugar-cane
{Saccharum officinarum)
,
which is
produced only
in
tropical
and
semi-tropical
countries.
Fig. 8S.
"
Planting sugar-cane.
Louisiana.
Fibers and Miscellaneous
Crops
347
British
India, Cuba, Java,
and Hawaii
are
the chief
pro- ducers.
Louisiana and Texas
produce
all that is
grown i^
the United States. Alluvial soils
along
the lower Mis- sissippi
supply
abundant moisture and, therefore,
pro- duce
good yields.
Sugar-cane,
which is
a
perennial,
has
plume-liketassels,
bears
no
ears,
has buds at
the
nodes,
and resembles
corn
in
size,
nature of
stem,
leaves,
and
root-system.
The
buds
grow
when the stalks
are
covered with moist
earth,as they are
when
a new
crop
is started
(Fig 85).
After
planting,
sufficient cultivation is
given
to control
weeds.
Chemical
analyses
indicate the time for harvest
by
showing
when the
sugar
content is
highest.
The
cane
is
stripped
of its
leaves,topped
in the
field,
and cut close
to the
ground
with
large
knives. Since the
sugar
content
lowers
soon
after
cutting,
the
cane
is taken at
once
to the
factory,usuallyon cars. Heavy
rolls crush the
stalks,
squeezing
out the
juice,
which is made into
sugar
by
much
the
same
methods
as
beet
juice.
389. Sweet
potatoes.
"
Most
of the
sweet
potato
{Ipomaea
Batatas)
crop
of the United States is
grown
in.
the South. Loose,
friable soils favor best
growth
of the
enlarged
roots which
are
the edible
plant
parts.
Cultiva- tion
is
very
similar to that
given
"
Irish
"
potatoes.
Shoots from the roots are transplanted
for
a new
crop
(Fig.86).
Since frost
injures
the
crop
readily,
the
plant
is
harvested
before cold weather sets
in.
Sweet
potatoes
are
used almost
entirely
for
human
consmnption,
forming
in the South
a more important
article
of diet than the
common
potato (Fig.87). They
are
fed to hogs
to some
extent
and the fields
are
used
for
pasturing
hogs,
which
are
turned in to
"
root
"
out the
potatoes.
348
The
Principlesof Agronomy
Fig. 86.
"
Sweet potato plants
started in
a plant-bed.
Fig. 87.
" In the South sweet
potatoes are an important
crop.
Fibers
and Miscellaneous
Crops
349
390.
Fruits. "
Apples,
peaches,
pears,
cherries,
citrus-
fruits, and small-fruits
are
all
grown
extensively
in various
parts
of the
country
on
such
largeareas
that
they might
rank
as
field
crops,
though,
of
course, they are
classed
as
horticultural
products.
Formerly, they were
grown
in small
plots,
but with
more
extensive culture their
problems are
akin in
some
respects
to
grain
and
forage,
differing, however,
in
pruning,spraying,thinning,pack- ing,
and
marketing.
Irrigation,cultivation,
and
fertility
of orchard soils
depend on
the
same
principles
that influence farm
crops.
Weeds must
be
kept
down
by plowing
between the
trees
or by using
cultivators
(Fig.89)
;
the soil
must
be
kept
in
good
tilth
by
the addition of farm
manure or
the
plow- ing
under of
cover
crops.
Clovers
are
probably
best for
this
purpose.
In
some
cases,
at
least,
it
seems
advisable
to have the
rows
in sod instead of bare.
391. Truck
crops.
" In the
neighborhood
of
canneries,
large
acreages
of
tomatoes are
grown
under contract.
This
crop
is
usually transplanted
from hot-beds and
cultivated much
as
potatoes
until harvest
season,
when
the tomatoes
are picked by
hand and hauled to the fac- tory.
Peas, beans, cucumbers, cauliflowers,
and other
garden
crops
are
grown
near
factories for
canning
purposes,
or
near large
citiesthat afford
ready
markets.
Cantaloupes
and melons are
also
grown
under
peculiarly
favorable
conditions and
shipped
or
hauled to market.
Squash
and
pumpkins
are
grown
on
many
farms for
use
in the
house, or
for cattle- and
hog-feed. They are
usuallyplanted
in hills five
or
six feet
apart
and culti- vated
as long as
the vines
permit.
When the vines die
from frost
or
from
maturity,
the
squash
and
pumpkins
are gathered
and stored under cover.
350
The
Principlesof Agronomy
Fig. 88.
" Greenhouse
crops
are
in demand near large
cities.
"Fig. 89.
" A
good implement
with which to cultivate
on a large
scale.
Fibers and
Miscellaneous
Crops
351
392. Timber
crop.
"
With
the
depletion
of
many
forest
lands,
the
price
of lumber has risen to such
an ex- tent
that it is
profitable
for farmers in
many
localities
to
grow
small
patches
of
timber. Hardwood for
repair
of various machines and tools
ought
to be
at hand at all
times. In
some sections,a
few
trees
may
be
grown
for
this
purpose
and
kept
free from low branches
by pinching
off branch buds and
by pruning wisely.
393. Other
crops.
"
Tea, coffee,
nuts, tropicalfruits,
rubber
trees,
sugar
maples, poppies
for
opium, hops, cacti,
and
dye
and medicinal
plantsare
grown
to
some extent
in
parts
of the world. Besides
these,countless
plantsare
grown
in small
gardens
for home
use.
Finally,
the
flower-growing industry
has assumed
importance(Fig.88).
Greenhouses and
home-, roof-,
and
house-gardens
abound
with innumerable
plantsbearing
beautiful
flowers,leaves,
or stems.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Cotton,
C. W. Burkett.
Hemp, Boyce.
Field
Crops,
Wilson and
Warburton,
pp.
241-255,
363-386.
Field
Crop Production,
G.
Livingston,
pp.
337-357.
Forage
and Fiber
Crops
in
America,
T. F.
Hunt,
pp.
304-402.
Forage Crops,
E. B.
Voorhees,
pp.
292-310.
Forage Plants,
C. V.
Piper,
pp.
589-595.
Southern Field
Crops,
J. F.
Duggar,
pp.
248-424,
484-547.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
H,
pp.
221-224, 226-229,
247-258, 281-303, 377-380, 380-384, 388-391, 494r^l0,
530-
534, 554-559, 631-636,
639-656.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins
:
No. 27.
Flax for Seed and Fiber.
36.
Cotton Seed and its Products.
47. Insects
Affecting
the Cotton Plant.
48.
The
Manuring
of Cotton.
164.
Rape as a
Forage Crop.
352
The
Principles of Agronomy
209.
Controlling
the Boll Weevil in Cotton Seed and
at
Ginneries.
211. The Use of Paris Green in
Controlling
the Cotton
Boll Weevil.
217. Essential
Steps
in
Securing
an
Early Crop
of Cotton.
223. Miscellaneous Cotton Insects in Texas.
226.
Building
up
a
Run-down Cotton Plantation.
274. Flax Culture.
276. The
Advantage
of
Planting Heavy
Cotton Seed.
290. The Cotton BoUworm.
302. Sea-Island Cotton.
314. A Method of
Breeding Early
Cotton
to Escape
Boll
Weevils.
333.
Cotton Wilt.
344. The Boll WeevU Problem.
364. A Profitable Cotton Farm.
433.
Cabbage.
500. The Control of the Boll Weevil.
501. Cotton
Improvement
Under Weevil Conditions.
512. The Boll Weevil Problem.
519. An
Example
of Intensive
Farming
in the Cotton Belt.
577.
Growing Egyptian
Cotton in Salt River
Valley,
Ari- zona.
601. A New Method of Cotton Culture and its
Application.
625. Cotton Wilt and Root-Knot.
354
The
Principlesof Agronomy
yielders,
whatever increase
came might
be
expected
year
after
year.
Nor would this bar the
opportunity
for
improvement by superior
cultural methods; indeed,
it
often
happens
that the better the
plant
the
more readily
it
responds
to
additional
care.
Hunt
^
estimates that if
grainplants
could be obtained
that would
.produce
one
additional kernel in each
head
or
on
each
ear,
the total
yield
of the United States would
Fig. 90. "
Breeding
nursery
for
timothy. (Pennsylvania
Experiment
Station.
)
increase
by 5,000,000
bushels of
corn,
15,000,000
bushels
of
oats,
and
1,500,000
bushels of
barley.
One
additional
potato
in each hill would total
21,000,000
extra
bushels
of
potatoes.
394. What is
improvement
? "
Perhaps
the most
im- portant
thing
in
crop
improvement
is increase in
yield.
Better
quality
also deserves attention in that it increases
the usefulness and market
price
of the
product.
Clean,
uniform
potatoes
free from disease
are
much
sought
after,
particularly
for seed. Growers would
pay
extra
for them.
'
Cereals in America,
pp.
14^15.
Improvement of Crops
355
Plump
wheat of uniform
texture
;
soft,leafyhay
;
or
apples
alike in
color,
flavor,
and size
bring
extra
prices.
Both
yield
and
qualityare
resultants of several
complex
factors.
They are
ends "
goals
toward which
improve- ment
must be
pushed.
Not
always can
this be done
directly,
for it
may
be that
one
factor
alone,
such
as
disease
in
potatoes,
is
hindering. Improvement in
yieldor quality
Fig. 91.
" Hand thresher for work in
plant-breeding.
is
most
often made
by looking
back to find the
cause
of
the defect. One
muddy tributary
will discolor all the
river below its
entrance;
if this is
cleared,
the whole
stream is clear. If
a
crop
lacks resistance to
drouth,
to heat,
to frost,to insects,to disease,to
alkali,or
to
water,
it
may
be
injured
seriously
any
time
by a single
weakness, though
it has
strength
in all other
respects.
"
A chain is
no
stronger
than its weakest link."
356 The
Principlesof Agronomy
Should
a variety
of
corn
from
a
section with
a long
growing-season
be
brought
into
a
district with
a
shorter
one,
it could not mature
;
and whatever its
possibilities
in other
respects,
not much will
actuallycome
from it.
Though
climatic
adaptation
is
paramount, general
suit- ability
to soil and cultural methods is also essential.
Potatoes succeed best
on
loose,
fertile soils and under
clean cultivation. A selection of
adapted
varieties is
the first
step
toward better
crops.
Experiment
stations
are continuallytesting
crops
to
find the strains best
suited to their localities.
395. Ideal
sought.
"
Improvement
consists
largely
of
advancement toward
some
desired
quality
in
a
given
crop.
The factors that determine best
growth are
tools
of the
plant-breeder
who
can
wield them
effectively.
This he
can
do
only
when he knows where
to
strike and
how. We have much to learn about
plant-breeding,
but
even
if
we
knew
all,no
great gains
could be made unless
the breeder had
an
ideal
plant clearly
in mind. Just
as
an
architect
sees
and
always
works to build the house he
has in
mind, so
must the
plant-breeder
know
just
what he
desires. Nor must the ideal
change. Imagine
the kind
of house
a
person
would have if he
changed
his mind each
week while he
was building
it. If his ideal is
wrong,
he
will
come
out
wrong ;
if he has
a good plan,
he will
come
out
right,provided
he does not
change.
So it is with the
plant
;
the first ideal must be
right,
then all effort must
bend toward it. But this ideal
may
be
impossible or
so nearly so
that it is
not
feasible. We
can hardly hope
to
grow grass
that is all
leaves,
but
we can accomplish
much in
reducing
the
percentage
of
stem. The ideal
sought
should be
possible,valuable,distinct,
and
constantly
striven for.
Improvement of Crops
357
METHODS OF IMPROVEMENT
Crops
may
be
improved by
three
general
methods : (1)
better
culture,(2)
attention
to the
purity
and
strength
of
seeds,
and
(3)
plant-breeding,
which consists of selection
or
of
crossing
and selection.
396. Cultivation. "
Though
farm methods have im- proved
very
materially
since the Civil War and
even
in
the last few
years, many
farms do not
get
cultivation
that
comes
up
to the best
knowledge
of the
owners,
much
less
up
to the standard
urged
upon
them
by agricultural
colleges
and farmers'
organizations.
A
more systematic
practice
of the
care
and
use
of farm
manure,
good plowing,
earlyspringharrowing,
wise
rotation,
moderate
irrigation,
clean
farming,
treatment
for insects and
plant
diseases,
harvesting
in the
proper way
and at the
proper
time all
deserve attention. A
systematicpractice
of these well-
known cultural methods will
improve
both the
yield
and
the
quality
of farm
crops.
In
any
kind of
farming
the
best results cannot
come
without
proper
attention to
these
principles.
397.
Seed-testing.
" Whether the farmer raises
or buys
his
seed,
it is almost
sure
to contain
some impurities,
such
as
broken kernels,
seed of other
crops,
dirt,chaff,
and weed
seed. A mixture of varieties
prevents
marketing
to best
advantage
where it does not
hinder in other
ways,
while
broken
kernels,dirt,
and chaff
may
cause
poor crop
stands,
thereby lowering yields
and
affordingopportunity
for
weeds to
get
started. Weed seeds introduce undesirable
plants
into the field. These
usually cause a
decrease
in the
desirability
of the harvest
as
well
as a
decrease in
yield,
to
say
nothing
of the extra
labor entailed in
con- trolling
the
pests.
Noxious weeds
new
to the district
or to
the farm
are frequently
introduced into
fields, causing
358 The
Principlesof Agronomy
endless
difficulty
and
perhaps making impossible
the
profitableproduction
of
some
crop.
Russian
thistle,
bindweed,
quack-grass,perennial sow-thistle,
Canada
thistle,
and milkweed
are a
few weeds
especially
hard to
eradicate that
may
be
thoughtlessly
introduced in
impure
seed.
In addition to
impurities
in the seed there
may
be
some
that lack the
power
to
germinate or
lack the
necessary
strength
to send
up
vigorous plants.
Since it is desir- able
to know what kind and how much
impurity
seed
contains,
and its relative
power
to
grow,
it is essential
to test
samples
before
sowing.
In order to do
this,
small
quantities
of seed from several
parts
of the sack
or
bin should be mixed
thoroughly
and
divided into
halves, one
of which should be
repeatedly
mixed and divided until
a representativesample
small
enough
to test is secured. With the
help
of hand
forceps,
needles,
and
a
hand lens
a separation
of the
sample
into
five
piles
may
be made
: (1) good seed, (2)
dirt and
chaff,
(3)
other
crop
seed, (4)
broken
kernels,
and
(5)
weed seed.
By carefullyweighing
the
separates,
the
tester can
deter- mine
the
percentage
of
purity,
and
by comparing
the
weed seed with
samples
in
a collection,
he
can
find out to
what weeds
they belong.
The
next
step
is to test the
viability, or germinable
power,
of the
pure
seed. To do
this
a plate
half full of moist sand is covered with
a piece
of white cloth
or blotting
paper,
and 100
or
200 seeds
are
counted out
on
it. After
placing
another
plate on
top
to
prevent drying^
the
platesare
set in
a warm place.
In
a
few
days
the seeds that have
germinated
may
be counted
and recorded.
Repetition
of the
counting
every
day
for
a
short
period
will show the
percentage
of
germination.
By referring
to tables of
purity
and of
germination
stand- ards,
one
may
find out if the seed is worth
planting.
Improvement of Crops
359
398.
Reproduction.
" A seed is the
mature,
fertilized
ovary
of
a plant
and the
connecting
link between
two
generations
of
plants.
The
parent
plant
grew
and
developed partly
in order to
produce
seed that it
might
leave another
generation
of similar
plants.
Flowers in
plantsseem to be
primarily
for this
purpose.
A
perfect
flower consists of
calyx,corolla,
stamens,
and
pistil,
but
many
plants
have
only
the last two
parts,
which
are
the
important
ones,
since from them the seed
develops.
Pollen from the stamens
alightson
the
stigma
of the
pistil
and under favorable conditions sends
a long
tube
down the
style
to the ovule. The union of the
pollen
and
ovary
causes a
union of the male
gamete
in the
pollen
with the female
gamete
in the ovule. This
process,
known
as fertilization, begins
the lifeof the seed
which,
when
mature,
consists of
(1) a
miniature
plant or embryo
surrounded
by (2) a quantity
of
stored-up food,
both
of which
are
in turn inclosed in
(3)a
membranous
cover- ing
called the hull. Since each seed is
capable
of be- coming
a plant,
the number of descendants
a
parent
plant
may
have
depends on
the number of seeds it
can
produce.
This varies from
a
few hundred in the
case
of
some
crops
to a
quarter
of
a
million
or more
in the
case
of
large
Russian thistles
or tumbling
mustard.
399. Variation.
^-
Mere chance would
cause some
of
the
many
descendants to differ from
others,
but the law
of variation
causes
each individual to differ from
every
other. Just
as no
two
people are alike,no
two
plants
are
alike.
They
differin
color,size,shape,rooting,
flower- ing,
and in
numerous
other
ways.
Oats
always bring
forth
oats,
but there
are no
two oat
plants
that do not differ.
One
among
several thousand will do best in
particular
surroundings.
It is
upon
this
principle
that both natural
and artificialselection
depend.
360
The
Principlesof Agronomy
400. Natural selection. " Because
some one plant
out
of thousands is
more
fitted to
survive in its
particular
surroundings,
that
one plant
will
grow
most
vigorously.
Now,
if all the seeds from
any
one
kind of
plant
grew,
this
plant
would
soon
fillthe whole earth.
Therefore,
in the
end, not
many
more
individuals
can
live next
year
than do this
year
without
crowding
out
others. Since
only a
few of all the descendants of
a plant can possibly
survive,
those most
fit live and the
remaining ones
die.
Thus nature constantly improves
the wild
plants by
unending,
relentless selection. For countless
ages,
only
the most fit of whole
races
have endured to
rear
descend- ants,
which in
turn are
culled out
by ever increasingly
rigorous
selection. The
longer
this
weeding
out of the
weakest
continues,
the better
adapted
the survivors
are
to
cope
with their enemies. All
our
bad weeds
origi- nated
in the Old World
where,
for thousands of
years,
they
have been
struggling
for existence in cultivated
fields. This
long,
incessant
struggle
to
retain foothold
has
developed
their
means
of survival.
401. Artificial selection.
" Because
man
has
put
his
crop-plants
in unnatural
surroundings,they
have lost the
fitness
acquired
before
they were
domesticated. The
new
struggle
thus set
up
causes
many
variations which afford
opportunities
for selection. With
an
ideal in
mind, man
can improve
these
plants
if he continues
to select
rig- orously
and
unerringly
from
many
generations
of
plants
grown
in the
same
environment. This is
one reason
why home-grown
seed is better than
imported.
His ideal
must not
change nor
must his
grip
weaken
by
unwise
choosing. Only
the best
can
be tolerated.
Although
the method of
procedure
looks
simple,con- siderable
difficulty
is encountered in
decidingjust
which
individual
plant
is best. For
example,
the hillof
potatoes
362 The
Principlesof Agronomy
403.
Variety
tests.
" Much is
being accomplishedon
experimental
farms
by testing
in
rows or
in
plats
the
yielding
power
of the
numerous
varieties of
crops
in order
to find out
the
one
best
adapted
to climate, soil,and
cultural methods of the district. Since
out
of
twenty
or more
varieties
some
must be
best,variety
tests
prom- ise
much.
The United States
Department
of
Agriculture
has
broadened this work
by keeping
in the field
a
number of
men
to look for
new
crops
or new
varieties of
common
crops
that
promise
to do well in
some
section of the
United States with similar soil and climate.
Turkey
red and durum wheats
exemplify
such introductions. At
experiment stations,new
varieties
are
tested for
a
number
of
years
before
they are
recommended to farmers.
Many
crop
plants are
found unsuited and
are rejected;
but
a
few have been valuable. In
general,
crops
from southern
Europe
do well in
California,
from middle
Europe
in
the Central
States,
and from the arid
Steppes
of
Russia,
in Great Plains
areas.
404.
Steps
in
breeding.
" There
are
then three
steps
in
breeding:
(1) Inducing
variation.
(2)
Selection of
most
promising
variations.
(3) Testing
the selections
to find but their
power
of
transmitting
desirable
qualities
to
progeny.
405.
Crossing.
" Besides
changing
the
food,
the mois- ture,
the
heat, or
the cultural relations of
a
crop,
a
person
may
induce variation
by artificially bringing
the
pollen
of
one plant
in
contact
with the
pistil
of another. Some
plants,
such
as
com,
are
naturallycross-fertilized,
while
others, such
as oats, wheat, and
barley, are naturally
self-fertilized
;
but this makes
no
difference in the effect
of
crossing.
In either
case a widely-variant
progeny
Improvement
of Crops
363
will
result in
a
few
generations.
This offers
new starting
points
for selection.
406. Mendel's law. " If
pollen
from flint
corn
fertilizes
dent, or
if dent
pollen
fertilizes
flint,
the
resulting
kernels
all look
flinty.
Let this
corn
be
so planted
next
season
as
to be
protected
from further
crossing,
and about
one-
fourth of the
corn
will be dent and three-fourths
flinty.
The dent will
always
breed
true but the fhnt will continue
to
produce some
dent and
some
flint. A third
part
of
the flintwill breed
true,
but it is hard to tell which
part,
since all three-fourths
appear
to be
flint,
but
only one
part
is
pure
flint. The
corn
that isharvested the fallafter
the
cross
is made has both characters in it but
appears
to be
flint,
that
is,
the flintcharacter is dominant and the
dent character recessive.
Let F
represent
the flint
character,
D the dent char- acter,
and
X
the nature of the
cross-pollination.
FxD
gives
FD. Next
year
FDxFD
gives
1 FF
:
2 FD
:
1 DD. One-fourth of the
corn,
FF,
and
one-fourth,
DD, are
pure
and will breed true.
Half is
FD, or hy- brid
(contains
two characters),
and will
"
break
up
"
next
year
into I FF
:
2 FD
:
1 DD. The union of the
two characters is called combination and the later
separa- tion
is known
as segregation.
Most characters of
plants
seem to
go
in
pairsbehaving as
F and D in the
example
cited.
They are
then known
as
unit characters. This
law of
breeding
may
be stated thus
:
When two
plants
each
having one
of
a pair
of unit characters
are crossed,
the
two
characters form
a
combination in which both
are
present
but in which the dominant character hides
the recessive
;
and that in the next
generation
the domi- nant,
the
hybrid,
and the recessive used will
segregate
out
in the
proportions
of 1:2:
1, respectively.
It is
called Mendel's
law,
after its discoverer,Gregor
Mendel.
364 The
Principlesof Agronomy
By
the
help
of Mendel's
law,
breeders
can
tell
something
as to
what the results of
a cross are likely
to
be. Natu- rally,
this has
helped
much in
breeding work,
but
many
things
not
yet
understood stand in
the
way
of
rapid
prog- ress.
One of these obstacles is that
some plants
like
potatoes
do
not
propagate
by means
of se"d
but
by
buds.
In these
cases,
only straight
selection
can
be
used,
since
crossing
is
impossible
under
ordinary
farm
practice,
though
the true seed of
potatoes
is sometimes made to
produce new
variation
by crossing.
407.
Importance
of
large
numbers. " Since
plants
do
not cost much,
thousands of them
may
be bred.
Only a
few animals
can
be discarded
on
account of their
great
value,
but with
plants,
all
save one or
two out of thou- sands
may
be
set aside. Because of
this,
greater
rapidity
in
plant
than in
animal-breeding
may
be
expected. Why
then the
poor
development
of
plant-breeding? First,
sexuality
in
plantswas
unknown until
recently
;
secondly,
animal-breedingbegan
with the dawn of
history
and
plant-breedingonly
two hundred
years ago ;
thirdly,
the
male animal
can
be
controlled,
while
pollen
of
plants,
which blows
everywhere, can
be controlled
only
with the
utmost
difficulty.
Much has been
done, however, by
selection and
variety-adaptationtests.
408. Better seed. "
Plant-breeding
farms occasion- ally
send out desirable strains of
some
crop.
Frost-
resistant fruits have introduced
fruit-growing
in districts
where it
was
hitherto
impossible;
rust-resistant
carna- tions,
cantaloupes,
and
small-grains
decrease losses in
many
sections
;
seedless
oranges
and
grapes
are
boons to
the fruit
industry
;
corn
that
ripens
in short
seasons
allows
this
crop
to be
grown
northward; frost-resistant alfalfa
is
now widely
grown
in the northern Great Plains where
this
crop
previously
became
winter-killed.
Improvement
of Crops
365
By
the methods outHned in the treatise of each
crop,
farmers
may
get
better seed. Assistance from the state
and from the national
government
should
help
them.
Careful attention
to
seed-testing,
seed
selection,
and seed
treatment
will hasten the
day
of better seed and better
crops.
"
It is
a
time-worn but none-the-less true
saying
that
good
seed is essential
to
good agriculture.
No matter
how well the farmer
prepares
his
land,
no
matter how
much
time, labor,
and
money
he
spends on
it,
if much
or
all of his seed fails
to
grow
he will either have
a
poor crop
or
be
obliged
to reseed,
thus
losing
time and labor."
^
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Plant-breeding, Bailey
and Gilbert.
Plant
Breeding, Hugo
De Vries.
Domesticated Plants and
Animals,
E.
Davenport.
Cereals in
America,
T. F.
Hunt,
pp.
14-24.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
H,
pp.
53-69,
141-144.
Book of
Alfalfa,
F. D.
Coburn,
pp.
27-43.
Forage Plants,
C. V.
Piper,
pp.
46-65.
The Corn
Crops,
E. G.
Montgomery,
pp.
85-93.
Corn,
Bowman and
Crossley,
pp.
447-479.
Selection of Seed
Wheat,
G. W. Shaw. California Bui. No. 181.
Wheat
Breeding,
E. G.
Montgomery,
Nebraska Bui. No. 125.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins
:
No. 382. The Adulteration
of
Forage-Plant
Seeds.
428.
Testing
Farm
Seeds in the Home and in the Rural
School.
'Coburn,
The Book
of Alfalfa, p.
27.
CHAPTER XXVIII
WEEDS
Natukal selection has been
operating so long
that
some
plants are
able to hold their
ground against
natural
com- petitors.
Weeds have survived not only against
other
plants
but
against
man,
who, by cultivation,
has attacked
them in
new
ways
and in
new
places. They
have survived
in
spite
of man's effort to
eradicate them. His effort to
surround
crops
with conditions favorable to
their
growth
has made the
fight against
weeds in cultivated
ground
still
more
relentless. On the other
hand, crop-plants
have been unfitted for
competition by constant
care
and
protection. Wheat,
for
example,
would
probably
dis- appear
in
a
few
years,
if it
were
left to take
care
of itself.
This
ever-increasing
keenness of
competition
makes
weeds
more
and
more
fit to maintain themselves. Vari- ous,
indeed,
are
the methods
they
have
adopted.
To
overcome
them,
man
first must learn their
ways
:
to find
a
weak
place
in their
armor
is his
hope.
New
tools,
new
methods of
cultivation,
and the
application
of
sprays
are
only
attempts
to send
against a
weed
an
enemy
whose methods of attack the weed is not
prepared
to
face. The farmer must know the nature of the weed he
is
attempting to control;
what it
can
and
cannot
with- stand
;
and how best to strike into its weakest
part.
409. Definition. " Weeds
are
simply plants growing
where
they are
not wanted, " nuisances to the farmer in
handling
any
particular
crop
or
piece
of land. Alfalfa
366
Weeds
367
in
potatoes
and volunteer wheat in beets
are as distinctly
weeds
as are
the
common
pigweeds or
foxtail. Sometimes
the
crop-plants themselves stand
so thickly
upon
the
land that
they
crowd each
other
out
by shading or by
competition
for moisture.
Much
damage comes to
dry-
farm wheat in this
way,
which
causes
larger
losses than
appear
at first
glance.
Apples
and
peaches
must be
thinned to insure
large
fruit. When
one apple
limits
the size
or
quality
of
another,
it is
a
weed.
Some
persons
maintain that
ugly plants are weeds,
and
only ugly ones.
Morning-gloriesare
not
ugly
but
they are
abominable
nuisances.
Sagebrush
is
ugly,
but
it is valuable in its natural home. Some
persons
regard
as
weeds
only
those
plants
that have flowers which do
not
attract attention. The flowers of the
small-grains,
for
instance, are
not at all
noticeable,while
morning-glories
and Canada
thistle, two of
our
worst
weeds,
have
showy
flowers. Others consider
plants
that
spread rapidly
to be weeds. This is
usually
the
case.
Below
are
two
commonly-used definitions,but
they probably
make
no
clearer statements than the
one given : (1)
"A
plant
which interferes with the
growth
of the
crop
to which the
field is
temporarily
devoted,"
(2)
"
Any injurious,
troublesome, or unsightlyplant
that is at the
same
time
useless
or comparatively
so."
410. Classification.
" As
regards length
of
life,
weeds
may
be classified
as annuals,
winter
annuals, biennials,
and
perennialsaccording
to
whether
they
live
one,
two,
or more
years.
'
This
is,perhaps,
the most useful
as
well
as
the most
comprehensive
classification
made,
for in it
are
all
weeds,
and
upon
it
depends
the method of eradica- tion.
Another useful
grouping
is to
name
the
families,
such
as
grasses,
mustards, composites,
and
legumes.
The
objection
to this
system
is that annuals and
peren-
368
The
Principlesof Agronomy
nials often
occur
within
a family,
and hence demand
different treatment.
To tellwhether
a
weed is
an
annual
or a perennialsuggests
the
general
method of control.
Both
systems
of
naming
are helpful
and should, therefore,
be used.
411. Occurrence.
" No farmers
are exempt
from weed
pests.
They
occur everywhere;
they
grew
even
in
Eden.
Ever
since, they
have been
spreading
far and
wide
by
the
numerous
and
ingenious
methods that
they
have transmitted to the next
generation,
or
that
they
have since
acquired
in the
struggle
for existence. So
thoroughly
has nature done the work that
no spot
has
escaped.
At the
doorstep,they
creep
out
from the
edge
of the
stone
or
out of
a
crack
;
along
the
pathway, they
cover
all
ground
not
constantly
trodden
;
in waste
places,they
mar
the
landscape;
in
crops,
they
crowd and
struggle
for
supremacy ;
and
even
in the
cemetery, they
grow
from
the
graves
of the dead. It is
only
the
living
man
with
a
hoe
or a plow
that
they respect ;
only
from him do
they
hide their
heads,
and
then,
not until he
uses sharpedges.
Nor do
they
lack
persistency
;
let him leave
a singleroot,
and
though they languish
for
a time,
if he does not
find
the
solitary
root
by
which
they cling
to the soil and
to
life,
they
take
a
fresh hold and before he is
aware,
have
tightened
the
grip
until he realizes that he has lost his
opportunity
of
easy
conquest.
Not
only
do
they persist
in the
soil,
but
they
feed
on
other
plantsas parasites.
The dodder twines about the
alfalfa, sucking
the
sap ;
the mistletoe does the
same on
trees. Plant diseases
are largely
due to
plantparasites.
The first
year
that
virgin
land
produces a
crop,
some
weeds
creep
in. Soon
they trespass
in
large
numbers.
In
a
forest
region
devoid of
common weeds,
let
a
fire
lay
370
The
Principlesof Agronomy
get
more
profit
when
the
grain
is sold. Often he does
this
innocently,
but he has been known
to
do it
willfully.
Much
sweet
clover
seed has been mixed with alfalfa because the
clover
was
worth less
on
the market
pound
for
pound.
Canada
blue-grass
seed has been
imported
to adulterate
that of
Kentucky blue-grass.
(9)
Settlers have
introduced,
for medicinal
properties,
new plants,
which have later
proved
to be
unmitigated
nuisances. Burdock and hoarhound have been coaxed
across
the
continent, coming perhaps
as
herbs from
Europe.
(10) Finally,a
few weeds scatter
their
own
seed
by
means
of miniature
explosionsgenerally
caused
by a pod
bursting,as
in
some
of the vetches. The
squirtingcu-
cimiber
accomplishes
the
same
purpose
by
the rind
keeping
rigid
and
forcing
the seeds out.
413. Losses from weeds. "
Exactly
what
are
the losses
due to
weeds,
is
usuallyextremely
hard
to estimate. In
some
cases,
they
steal
plant-food
and in others moisture
from the
crop-plants.
In addition
large
weeds shade
or
crowd
out the smaller useful
plants.
One
or
all of these
injuries
may
result at
any
time. In
the West, however,
the loss of water is the most serious,since,
upon
the
moisture
depends
the
quantity
of
crops
produced,
that
is,
water is the
limiting
factor.
Badly-infested
farms lose
much in
selling
values
on
account
of weeds.
They can
be
cleansed
only
at
great
expense
in
cash, labor,
crop
loss,
and time. Paint adds
more
to the
price
of
a building
than the
cost of material and
application
;
weeds detract
more
from the
price
of land than the
cost
of eradication.
They are
eye-sores.
Some farms have suffered
so
much
that
they
will
not
bring
the
owner
any
reasonable
price;
they are
unsalable. Coe^ cites
an instance where land
"
South Dakota
BuUetin, No. 150.
Weeds
371
valued
at
$150 to $200
could
not be sold because it
was
infested with horse nettle.
Some weeds
are poisonous,
causing
loss
by
the
killing
or
the
weakening
of stock.
Larkspur, loco,
and
water
hemlock do this
;
other weeds taint
milk,or
render animals
unclean
;
burs
injure
wool
to
a
considerable
extent.
Besides these direct
injuries
to the
crop,
the farmer suf- fers
other losses
no
less
important.
Weeds
may carry
plant
diseases
or
shelter insect
pests.
A troublesome dis- ease
of
cotton
also attacks numbers of
common
weeds
which
keep
the
fungus
alive until it finds another
oppor- tunity
to attack cotton.
Alfalfa leaf-weevil is sheltered
during
the winter in dead weeds and rubbish of
any
sort.
Many
weeds
are a
great
hindrance in
harvesting. They
clog grain-binders, potato-diggers,
and other
machinery.
Containing
much
moisture,they
prevent
crops
from
curing
properly.
In marketable
products,
extra labor is
re- quired
to remove
such
foreign
matter. Moreover,
when
the
crop
sells,
the
buyer
docks in
priceor weight, or
in
both,
far
beyond
the actual
damage, on
account of the
presence
of
dry stems,
seeds,odor, or
taste due to im- purities.
Here is
a
direct
money
loss.
The most
noticeable of all difficultieswith weeds is that
in their
removal,
incalculable labor is
expended yearly.
If cultivation had
no
other
purpose
and
performedno
other
service than the
killing
of
weeds,
the loss would be
enor- mous,
but
cultivation benefits the
crops
by loosening
and
mulching
the
soil,
and
perhaps
in other
ways.
A
crop
that
is one-third weeds increases the labor of
handling
it
by one-
half. Here is
a
loss seldom reckoned,
but
one deserving
consideration.
Tumbleweeds, catching
in wire fences, lodge
there in
numbers sufficient almost to
hide the fence lines.
Strong
and
even
moderate winds exert
immense
pressure
on
this
372
The
Principlesof Agronomy
increased surface, tugging
and
strainingon
the
wire,
looseningposts
in soft
ground,
and
pullingstaples.
In
addition to
being unsightly,
these weed accumulations
when
dry
increase the
possibility
of disastrous fire.
Finally,some
students maintain that weeds
exert
a
moral stress on
the farmer. From
one viewpoint
it does
seem
reasonable that the
neglect
of weeds
may
extend
to
other
things.
More reasonable,perhaps,
is the idea that
the weeds would not
be allowed to
over-run
the
farm,
ifthe carelessness
were
not
alreadypresent.
If,however,
there
be
a
moral loss in addition to the
one
hundred million
dollars due to
damage
of
crops
in the United States
an- nually,
the harm
is,indeed, astounding.
414. Prevention.
" Let
us glance
at the
vital,practical
phase
" eradication. The
sources
of
seed,
the structure
of the weed
plant,
and the
nature
of the
injury are
all
factors in
determining
the method of control.
Here, as
anywhere
else,prevention
is
primary.
Seed
must be clean
;
let the farmer and seedsman look well to
that. It is fundamental. Then the farmer should
exer- cise
wisdom in
haulingmanure
from
yards
where contami- nation
is
likely.
If ditch banks and fields
are clean,
water
will
carry
but few weed seeds. Let roads and fence lines
be cleared
;
horses and
sheep
cannot then
carry
"
stickers."
If
man
is
careful,
there is
no
need of seed
scattering
from
cars,
ships,or
food
products.
These
last,however, re- quire
the wisest kind of
inspection
and
legislation,
with the
legislation
cut to
a
minimum.
Inspection
and education
are
the most
hopefulavenues
from which aid is
expected.
In
a large
measure,
the
problem
of
eradicating
weeds
must be handled
by
the
community,
that
is, by
the
farmers
as a
group
in
a cooperative
unit. Under the
direction of the
county
farm
demonstrator,
the farmers
that
are not
alreadyorganized
should
cooperate
to combat
Weeds
373
weeds,
especially new
weeds which could be exterminated
rather
easilyon account of their small number. Canada
thistle is
spreadingthrough
entire
sections,
where it
might
be held at
bay.
Then
everybody
must be alive to
recog- nize
new menaces.
Here is
a
field for
county
"
agents,"
agricultural teachers,students,
and farmers who have
some
technical
knowledge.
To assist the farmers who
try
to control
weeds, a
law
compelling,
at
least,
the
mowing
of weeds
previous
to
seeding
should be in force. The law
must,
of
course,
carry
with it
a penaltysevere enough
to make it effective.
A law alone is of
no
avail. Unless
a representative
part
of the
community
is
living
the
law,
offenders will
not be
punished.
In such
cases
the law becomes
dead,
and
worse
than useless.
Only
the
minority can
be driven
or
de- terred
by a law;
the
majority
must make and enforce
it. Good
farming comes first,cooperation,
second
;
a
general enlightenment,
third
;
force and
penalty
have
placesonly
after these have served.
415. Eradication.
" Meanwhile farmers must culti- vate;
especially
while the weeds
are
young,
since
they
are
then killed much
more easily
than later. To
exter- minate
annuals,
which seed
every year,
only
reasonable
culture methods
are
necessary.
To
prevent
their seed- ing
is the
crux
of the whole matter. This eliminates
them
automatically,as soon as
all the seed in the soil has
germinated,
which, however,
may
not be for
years.
To
gain
control of biennials,
two
years
instead of
one are
required,
for
the
plant
forms seed two
seasons. Plowing
or cutting
below the
crown
will kill them. Winter
annuals, beginning growth
in the
fall,
need attention
during
the autumn
and
early
spring. Ordinary
culti- vation
destroys
these three kinds of weeds.
It is,however,
with
perennials
that most
difficulty
is
374
The
Principlesof Agronomy
encountered. Some
part
of the
plant
lives
a
number of
years.
Leaves and seed-stems
grow up
from root-crowns
or
rootstocks each
year.
These
parts
are generally
so deep
in the
ground
that
they are
hard to reach. Dan- delions
and mallows
are examples
of
plantspropagated
by
root-crowns.
Rootstocks
are underground
stems
cov- ered
.
with buds,
any
one
of which will
grow.
The
leaves have dwindled into scales
hiding
buds which send
out
both stems and roots.
This is the
difficulty
with
morning-glories, salt-grass,
Canada
thistle,
quack-grass,
rushes,
and
sedges.
The roots will
eventually
starve
if
they are not
fed.
The leaves feed the roots
;
therefore,no
green
part
is to
be allowed above
ground.
It is
necessary
to rotate
with
crops
that will smother them
by shading,or
that will
permit
constant cultivation. The rootstocks
ought
to
be
plowed
in the
fall,
thus
giving
frost
a
chance to
"
get
in
a
good
lick."
Constancy
alone
can
prevent pests
gainingstrength
;
leaves above
ground soon
become
green.
The
chlorophyll
makes food for the storehouse that
must be exhausted. A
besieging
fleet would not consider
lettingan
occasional
ship-load
of
supplies
pass
the block- ade.
When
a
strict blockade has weakened the
enemy,
then is the time
to strike. In the control of weed
pests,
the
course
is identical. Weeds
are
most
easily
killed
immediately
after
they germinate,
before
they can es- tablish
a
root-system.
This is the best time
to
attack
them,
since their lease
on
life is
now
weakest. Harrow- ing
will both
root out the
plantlets
and
bring
other seeds
near
the surface where
they
find conditions favorable
to
begin growth.
It is
nearlyas
essential to
germinate
the seed that is
in the soil
as
it is to kill the weeds.
Though
all seeds
lose
vitality
in
time, some
live
a
number of
years
in the
Weeds
375
soil.
Among
these
are mustard, eocklebur,
and other
hard-shelled
seed.
If,
for
any reason,
weeds
are not
attacked when
only
a
few
days old, cultivation should not be
delayed longer
than
necessary.
As
some plants seem
to
be weaker
during blooming,
this
may
be
a good
time for attack.
It
is,
in that seed has not
yet
formed.
Delay beyond
blooming period
is
likely
to be
fraught
with serious
con- sequences,
for
some
weeds mature seed
very
shortly
after the blossoms
disappear.
Some flowers of
a plant
may
show
at the
same
time that others contain mature
seed. The blossom should
serve as signalhung
out to
warn
that seed will
soon begin
to
ripen.
416. General
principles.
" Clark and Fletcher
^
give
the
following:
"1. There is
no
weed known which cannot be eradi- cated
by
constant attention,
if the nature of its
growth
is understood.
"
2. Never allow weeds to
ripen
seeds.
"3. Cultivate
frequently,particularlyearly
in the
season,
so as
to
destroy seedlings.
"
4.
Many
weed seeds
can
be induced to
germinate
in autumn by cultivating
stubble
immediately
after
harvest. Most of these
seedlings
will be winter-killed
or can
be
easilydisposed
of
by plowing or
cultivation in
spring.
"
5. All weeds
bearing
mature seeds should be burnt.
Under
no
circumstances
should
they
be
plowed
under, i
"
6. All weeds
can
be
destroyed by
the
use
of
ordinary
implements
of the farm,
the
plow,
the cultivator,
the
harrow,
the
spud,
and the hoe.
"7. Be
constantly on
the alert to
prevent
new
weeds
from
becoming
established."
1
Farm Weeds,
pp.
15-17.
376 The
Principlesof Agronomy
"
The
practice
of
summer-fallowing
land, to the exclu- sion
of all
crops
throughout
the
season,
whatever
may
be said
againstit,
affords the best
opportunity
to
suppress
noxious weeds. For lands foul with
persistentgrowing
perennials,a thorough
summer-fallow will
usually
be the
most effective,
and in the
end,
the least
expensive
method
of
bringing
the weeds under control.
"
To
keep
farms free from
weeds,
few methods
give
such
good
results
as a systematic
short rotation of
crops,
with
regular seeding
down to
grass
or
clover at
short
intervals."
417. Herbicides
have been
experimented
with for
a
number of
years
in
Europe,
Canada,
and the United
States. Some
interestingthings
have been discovered
concerning
the
spraying
of weeds to
kill them.
Copper
sulfate
(blue vitriol),
iron
sulfate,common salt,
sulfuric
acid,
slaked
lime,
corrosive
sublimate,
and several other
compounds
have
given some success
in different
experi- ments.
Much
care
is
necessary
or
the
crop
is
injured
along
with the weeds. If
a
rainstorm follows
soon
after
spraying,
the chemicals
run
off and lose their effect.
With
more knowledge
of the effect of chemicals
on plants
and
more care
in their
application,
considerable
help
should be derived from the
use
of herbicides.
Copper
sulfate is mixed twelve
pounds
in
fifty-two
gallons
of
water;
it kills
burdock, pricklylettuce,com- mon
mustard,
prostrate pig
weeds,
and
goosefoot,
ac- cording
to
experiments
at the Iowa Station.
Common
salt,applied
both
as
spray
and
directly
to
the
soil,
kills
some
weeds but also
injures
the
crop-plants.
It is most valuable
on an area
in which
a
weed is
just
starting
and where the
crop
can
be sacrificed
to
eradicate
the weed.
Carbolic
acid,
mixed
one
part
to four of
water,
aids
378
The
Principles of Agronomy
Weeds, Thomas Shaw.
Farm Friends and Farm
Foes,
C. M.
Weed,
pp.
1-55.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
II,
pp.
110-118.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins
:
No. 28. Weeds,
and How
to
Kill Them.
188.
Weeds Used in Medicine.
279. A Method of
Eradicating
Johnson Grass.
306. Dodder in Relation
to
Farm Seeds.
368. The Eradication of
Bindweed,
or
Wild
Morning-
Glory.
464. The Eradication of
Quack-Grass.
531. Larkspur,
or
"Poison Weed."
545.
Controlling
Canada Thistles.
610. Wild Onion
:
Methods of Eradication.
660. Weeds and Their Control.
PART IV
FIELD
MANAGEMENT
CHAPTER XXIX
PLANNING THE FARM
In order to make
a
well-balanced farm business
capable
of
yielding
the
highestreturns,
considerable careful
plan- ning
is
necessary.
Farmers
are
too
prone
to
develop
the farm
enterprisealong
lines of least
resistance,
arrang- ing
the fields in the easiest
way,
rather than
planning
to
save
time and work
during
all the
years
that the farm
will be
operated. Planning
is
as important
in
farming
as
in
business;
and
no good
business
man
conducts his
affairswithout
a
definite scheme.
The fact that
a
farmer does not know
exactly
how he
wants
his farm to be
arranged permanently
should
not
prevent
his
making plans.
He
may
have to
change
them
somewhat in later
years,
but this should be
no reason
for
not
working on some
kind of
plan
in the meantime. All
planning
should be done with the future in mind. It
may
be that sufficient
capital
is not
available to
place on
the
farm all the livestock that it is
capable
of
supporting;
but
every
farmer should
plan
to
have
some
stock
as soon
as
possible.
Almost
every
farm should be
planned
to
this end. Other
enterprises,
to
be added from time to
time,
should be
provided
for in the
plan.
Some of the
situations and
appurtenances
to
a good
farm establish- ment
are
shown in
Figs.
92 to
97.
419. Plan should be stable.
" Constant
changing
from
one type
of
farming
to another with
every
shift in
prices
381
382
The
Principlesof Agronomy
is not
consistent with
good
business methods.
Every
type
of
farming
has its
ups
and
downs,
there
being
a more
or
less
regular
rise and fallin the
price
of allfarm
products,
particularly
those
susceptible
of
rapid over-production.
The farmer who succeeds is
usually
the
one
who stands
by
his colors until the time of
adversity
has
passed;
he
is then
ready
to
reap
the reward which follows his
per- sistence.
It
would,
of
course,
be foolish to continue in
a
type
of
farming
that could
never
be made to
pay
under
the conditions in which the farmer finds
himself;
but
he should not be induced to
change on
account
of
reverses
that follow
a
temporary
depression
in
prices.
A series of
years
with
high prices
for
any
farm
product
is almost
sure
to be followed
by
years
of
over-production.
When the
price
of
potatoes
is
high, everybody plants
potatoes;
this
means
that the
price
will fall. A
good
market for
hogs can easily
be overdone
on
account of
the
rapidity
of their
multiplication
and the short time
required
for them to
come
to
maturity.
It takes
a longer
time to
change
the
price
of
horses, cattle,
and
apples
than that,of
hogs
and
potatoes ;
but
they
too
are subject
to
changes. Staple
crops
like wheat and
corn
that
can
be stored from
one
year
to another
and
transportedgreat
distances
are
much less affected
by rapid
fluctuations
in
price
than the
more perishableor bulky products.
As
a rule,
it is safer
to
go
into the
raising
of
potatoes
when
pricesare
low than when
they are high,
because
only
few farmers will
plant potatoes during a depression.
The farmer who
plants
about the
same area
of each
crop
every year
gets
the
advantage
of
high pricesas
well as
having
to suffer from the
low;
he is
usually
better off
than the farmer who
changes
his
system
every year.
The unstable farmer is
likely
to make
changes just
at
the
wrong
time.
Planning
the Farm 383
420.
Number of
enterprises.
" Each farmer should
maintain
enough enterprises
to make
sure
that his income
will not be
shut olT
by
the failure of
one or
two
crops ;
and stillhe should
not have
so
many
enterprises
that
no
specialization
is
possible.
Each farm should have
a
number of
major
kinds of
products
from which the
greater
part
of its income is derived. This enables the farnier
to learn these branches
especially
well and makes him
able
to
compete
in them. There
are only a
few condi- tions,
however,
where
high specialization
in
farming
is
desirable. If
a
farm is located
near a specialmarket,
or
ifconditions
are particularly
favorable to some product,
it
may pay
to
specialize;
but
on
the
ordinary farm,
diversification with
a
number of
leadingproducts
is much
safer.
421. The
farmstead, including
the farm home and
other
buildings
connected with
it,
isthe center
of the farm
activities. It should be
so
located that the
operations
of the farm
can
be carried
on
with the
greatest
economy ;
it
should,
at the
same time,
be
a
desirable
place
to live.
On
many
farms the farmstead is located
on
the
corner
nearest the town.
This is
usuallya
poor
location,
since
it is
necessary
to
make
many
more trips
to the land than
to town. For convenience in
getting
at the
land,
the
best location is in the center
of the farm
;
but
so
many
advantages
go
with
having
the home located next to
a
public
road that this is
usually a
better
place
to
build.
Something
in the
ease
of
getting
at
the land is sacrificed
for the convenience of
being on a regularly
traveled road.
Where land is owned
on
both sides of the
road,
it is
a
poor
practice
to
put
barns and
stables
on
the side
opposite
the house,
since the
danger
from
passing
vehicles is
great,
and the
arrangement
for
convenience and
beauty
is not
desirable.
384
The
Principlesof Agronomy
The
farmyard
should be
kept
neat and the various
buildings
arranged
for
convenience, beauty,
and healthful-
ness.
As much
care
should be taken in
planning
the farm
home
as
the
city home,
because the farmer is
as
much
entitled to the
conveniences of life
as
his cousin
living
in the
city.
422.
Arrangement
and number of fields.
" Some of the
farms that have been handed down from
generation
to
generation
have been divided and sub-divided into fields
of various sizes and
shapes,seemingly
without
any
plan,
until it would be
impossible
to
adopt
any
definite
system
without
a complete rearrangement.
Farms of this kind
should be overhauled and
entirelyreplanned
to
permit
the
use
of modern
machinery
and modern methods. A
great
deal of time is wasted
on irregular
fields of unde- sirable
sizes.
The fields should be
so arranged
that
they
will all be
easily
accessible from the farmstead. A desirable
ar- rangement
is to
have
one
main road situated in such
a
way
that itisconnected with each field. This road if
kept
in
good repair
enables the farmer to haul
large
loads of
manure to the fields
as
well
as large
loads of
crops
from
them. A lane
rurming
to the
pasture saves
time and
annoyance.
Where
one or
two rotations
are
in
operation
on
the farm,
it is desirable to have all the fieldsthe
same
size in each rotation. The number of fields should not
be
larger
than
necessary,
since the land between fields
is
usuallywasted,
and
encourages
the
growth
of weeds.
423. Size and
shape
of fields.
" The best size for
fields will
depend on
the
crop grown
and
a
number of
other factors. For
garden
crops,
where
most
of the work
is done
by hand,
the size of the fieldis
not
important
;
but
for
ordinary
crops,
where
machinery
is
employed,
fields
should be
so large
that time is
not lost in
too
frequent
386
The
Principles of Agronomy
land, neatness,
convenience in
handling water,
and
a num- ber
of other factors
must
be
kept
in mind in
planning
ditches.
425. Use of
waste places. " Many
farms contain
patches
of land that
are
difficult to cultivate
on
account
of their
topography, arrangement, or
the
presence
of
rocks. It often
costs
more
to
till these
patches
each
year
than the
returns justify.
Where this is the
case,
it is
advisable
to
use
the land for
a permanent pasture,
for
a
wood
lot,
or
for
some
other useful
purpose
that does
not require
cultivation.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Farm
Management,
G. F.
Warren,
pp.
239-269,
365^01.
Farm
Development,
W. M.
Hays,
pp.
96-116.
New
York,
Cornell Bulletin No. 295.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
I,
pp.
142-161.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
II,
pp.
90-97.
The
Young Farmer,
T. F.
Hunt,
pp.
9-26.
Farm
Management,
F. W.
Card,
pp.
70-90,
198-207.
Agricultural Economics,
H. C.
Taylor,
pp.
117-135.
U. S. D. A. Yearbook for
1892,
pp.
343-364.
U. S. D. A. Yearbook for
1912,
pp.
343-364.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin No.
370, Replanning
a
Farm for
Profit.
CHAPTER XXX
WHAT CROPS TO GROW
Crops form
a
considerable
part
of the income of
prac- tically
every
farm,
whether the farmer is
specializing
in
crops
or
in livestock. The income
may
be derived from
the sale of
crops
or
from the sale of milk and
beef,
which
are
crops
transformed into
more
refined
products.
The
keeping
of
any
kind of stock is
impossible
without
crops
to
feed them.
True,
feed
may
be
purchased
from the
outside,
but this
greatly
reduces
profits. Warren,
in
,
New York
State,
found that the farmers who made
most
money
always
sold
crops,
even though they were
in the
livestock business. Men in the
dairy
business find it
possible
to
raise
a
considerable amount of extra
hay at
very
little additional
expense.
A farmer
may
have
a
hobby
for livestock
raising
;
but to make
profitscertain,
he
ought,
in addition to
stock
products,
to have
some
crops
to
sell.
426.
Crop adaptation.
" It is
probable
that
as
many
losses in
farming
result each
year
from not
raising
the
right
crops
as
from
poor
culture methods. In
deciding
whether to
raise
a
crop,
it is not sufiicient to know that
it will
grow;
but its relative value in
comparison
with
other
crops
should also be taken into consideration. Too
many
farmers
are
satisfied to
produce
the
crops
that
have
always
been raised,
without
making a
careful
study
to
see
if other
crops
would not be
more profitable.
387
388 The
Principlesof Agronomy
In
deciding
what
crop
to raise,
the
climate,
the
soil,
and the market must be taken into consideration. Most
crops
can
be made to
grow
under
a
number of climatic
conditions,
but
they
do best in
a given
zone;
and it is
working
with
a handicap
to
take them out
of the
zone
in
which
they
do best. Cotton
might
be made to
grow
in
parts
of New York State
or
Colorado,
but in these
places
itcould never
compete
with that
produced
in the Southern
States.
Crops
have
preferenceregarding
soils also. Peaches
and cherries will
grow
in
a heavy clay,
but
they
do much
better in
a sandy
soil. The
small-grains,on
the other
hand,
do best
on a heavy soil,although they
will
grow
in sand. It is well for the farmer to learn the kinds of
soilto which each
crop
is
adapted
in
planning
his
crop- ping
systems.
A farm
may
be able to
produce a given
crop
ever so
well,
but unless there is
a profitablemarket,
it should
not be
grown.
Perishable
crops
must be raised
near
the
place
of
consumption; bulky
crops
for market
can- not
be
produced profitably
at
a
great
distance from the
railroad.
427.
Diversity
of
crops.
" The value of
crop
rotations
in
keeping'
up
fertility
has been discussed. It is
not
advisable,however, to do
as one man
proposed
after
reading
of the benefits of rotation
: plant
all his farm
to
alfalfa
a
few
years,
then
plow
it all
up
and
plant
to
corn,
and the
next
year
to
wheat, raising
but
one
crop
each
year.
While this
procedure
would
give
the soil the bene- fits
of
a rotation)
it would lack the
diversity
demanded
by good
farm
practice.
A nimiber of
crops
should be raised at the
same
time
on
the farm in order
(1)
to lessen
risk,(2)
to distribute
man-
and horse-labor
more evenly throughout
the
season,
(3)
What
Crops
to Grow 389
to
use
equipment more
effectively,
and
(4)to
get
a
better-
distributed farm income. It
may
be that all the
crops
raised will
not
give equal
returns;
but the
one paying
best
can
be raised in
as
largequantitiesas practical,
and
the others
produced
with labor that would otherwise be
idle
part
of the time.
428.
Crop specialties.
"
Under certain conditions
crop
specialties
pay.
For
example,
parts
of California
are
so
well
adapted
to the
raising
of
oranges
that
no
other
crop
can
compete
with them. Farmers under this condi- tion
are probably justified
in
raising
but
one
crop,
and
in
maintaining
the
fertility
of the soil
by
the
use
of fer- tilizers.
Under these
special conditions,
it is difficult
to
have
a
well-balanced
agriculture
;
and. it is doubtful
if
permanency
of soil
fertility can
be secured with the
intensive cultivation of these
specialties.
429. Conditions for various
crops.
"
Each
type
of
farming,as
well
as
each
particular
crop,
requiresa special
set
of conditions. Some of the factors that determine
what
crops
can
be raised
successfully
have been discussed
already.
A
summary
of the
requirements
of
a
number
of the common
crops may
justify
attention.
Corn
requires
a
climate
having a
hot
summer
with
nights
not too
cool. It needs
a large
amount of moisture
during
the
period
of most
rapid growth,
and it needs
a
soil well stocked
with
organic
matter which cannot be
entirely supplied
through
the
application
of mineral
fertilizers.
Oats
grow
best
in
a cool,
moist climate.
They are
not so particular
about the
fertility
of the
soil,
but demand
that it be well
supplied
with
moisture.
If the soil is too
rich,
there is
a tendency
for this
crop
to lodge
and
rust.
Barley
is less
particular
about moisture than
are
oats,
but
it has
many
other
requirements
which
are
the
same.
390
The
Principlesof Agronomy
Wheat
grows
over a
wide
range
of
conditions,
and
can
endure much
more
cold weather than
corn.
It is also
able to adapt
itself
fairly
well
to
moisture conditions.
Rye
is
adapted
to
cool climates. It will
grow
in
a
very
poor
soil,
but does best in
a
soil that is
fairly
fertile. It
never produces
very
heavy yieldseven
under the best
of conditions and
is,therefore,not adapted to
intensive
farming.
All of these
grain
crops may
be
grown
at
great
distances
from
large
markets
as they are sufSciently
concentrated
to
be
shipped.
Most farms
can,
with
profit,
raise
some
kind of
grain
for home
consumption
even
where it would
not
pay
to
raise it for
shipment.
Potatoes
requirea
rather cool
climate,
and do best in
a mellow, deep
soil.
They
need sufficient moisture
to
insure
a uniform, even growth
;
but their
quality
is
injured
if too much water is
present.
Potatoes
are
perishable
;
hence the
price
is
likelyto be
irregular.
Mangels, sugar-beets,
and other root
crops
require
conditions similar to those
required by potatoes.
Since
they
cannot
be
shipped
any
great
distance,
the market
for
sugar-beets
is
dependent on nearness to
a
sugar
factory.
Alfalfa is
one
of the most
profitable forage
crops
where
conditions favor its
growth.
It
requires
a
soil
containing
lime,
and
prefersan
open
sub-soil. The
grass crops
re- quire
cool,
moist conditions for their best
growth. Every
farm should
produce some forage.
The kind of
crop
to
raise for this
purpose
depends on a
great
many
conditions,
such
as moisture,climate,soil,
and the kind of livestock
whose food it is to be.
Cotton,
sugar-cane,
and rice all
requirea warm
climate
and other
special
conditions which limit their
growth
to
comparatively
small
areas.
What
Crops
to Orow
391
The
fruit-crops usually
pay
well if raised under the
particular
soil,climatic,
and
marketing
conditions which
they
demand. Before
plantingan orchard,
great
care
should be
exercised
to
see
that conditions
are favorable,
since
many years may
be wasted before
a
mistake is
discovered.
From the
numerous
crops
that
are available,one
should
experienceno difficulty
in
gettinga diversity
of
profitable
crops
for almost
any
conditions.
430. Work in
producing
various
crops.
"
In
arranging
a
croppingsystem,
crops
should be selected which do not
conflict with each other
by requiring
attention at the
same
time. As far
as possible,
the work should be
evenly
distributed
during
the
year.
After
being planted,
the
small-grains
require
very
little attention until harvest
time. Corn and
potatoes,
on
the other
hand,
need cul- tivation
during
the
growing-season.
The main work in
raisingsugar-beetscomes at
thinning
and at
digging
time.
Hay
needs but littleattention
except
at harvest. Much
of the work in
an
orchard
can
be done
during
the winter.
Thus,
by
proper
planning,
crops may
be selected which
use labor,machinery,
and
irrigation
water at
different
times. This
greatly
increases the
profits,by making
returns
more
certain and
larger,
and
by insuring
constant
work for
men
and horses.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Any
book
on
field
crops.
Farm
Management,
G. F.
Warren,
pp.
42-103,
402-415.
New York
(Cornell)
Bulletin No. 295.
Soils,Lyon
and
Fippin,
pp.
497-502.
AgriculturalEconomics,
H. C.
Taylor,
pp.
65-77.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
I,
pp.
81-109.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletin
446,
The Choice of
Crops
for Alkah
Lands.
CHAPTER XXXI
EQUIPMENT
OF THE FARM
Farming is
now an
industry
that is conducted
largely
by
the
use
of
machinery.
There is
hardly an operation
from the
planting
of
crops
to
the
milking
of
cows
that is
not
done with the aid of
some
kind of machine. In the
early history
of
farming, practically everything was
done
by
hand,
and the few
implements
used
on
the farm
were
very
simple. During
the last
century,
however,
there
has been
a complete
revolution in this,
respect.
With
the invention of the
grain harvester,
the
possibilities
of
agriculture were
very
greatly
increased. Before this
time the amount
of
grain
that could be raised
was
limited
to
the
quantity
that could be harvested
by
the slow meth- ods
then in
use. To-day no
such limit
exists,
since
every
operation
in
grain-farming can
be done with
machinery.
The size of
a
grain-farm
is limited
now only by
the
capital
that is available. In the other branches of
agriculture,
the
use
of modern
equipment
has
wrought
similar
trans- formations.
431. The farmer
as a
mechanic. " The farmer of
a
few
generations
ago
could
get
along
with but
very
little
knowledge
of
machinery,
since he had
no
machines,
but
now
all this has
changed.
The modern farmer
hardly
does
a thing
without the aid of
some
complicated ma- chine.
The
use
of these various devices
requires
skill
as
well
as
considerable
knowledge
of mechanism. The
392
394 The
Principlesof Agronomy
Some farmers
go
to the other extreme and
buy
every
new
machine and device that is
put
on
the' market. As
a
result
they
have hundreds of dollars' worth of
idle
equipment.
The wise farmer is conservative in
pur- chasing
equipment,
and
buys only
standard
implements.
He is
not,
however,
afraid to
purchase a
machine when
he
sees
that it will
earn
money.
433. Machines that
get
out of date. "
Every
year
many
new
kinds of machines
are
offered for sale. Some
Fig. 94.
"
Cement finds
many
uses on the farm.
of these
can safely
be
purchased
at
once,
but the
majority
of
new
devices
are only
in the
experimental
stage
when
first
put
on
the
piarket. They
may
be
good
in
prin- ciple,
but
probably
many
things
about them will be
per- fected
after
a
few
years
of trial. This
means
that there
will be
a rapid change,
and that the first machine will
be rendered
out of date
by more perfect
models. It is
usuallya good thing,therefore,
for the farmer
to
let
new
equipment
have
a
year
or two of trial before he ties
up
Equipment of
the Farm 395
his
money
in it.
Standard
equipment
such
as
wagons
and
plows
seldom
gets
out of date.
434.
Machines that
are seldom used. " Some
pieces
of
equipment
that
seem
almost
necessary
on
the farm
are
used but few times in
a season.
The farmer who has
a
few
acres
of
grain
needs
a fanning
mill to clean the
seed,
and
yet
it
seems a
waste to have this machine idle
except
for
a
few
days during
each
year.
This
difficulty can
be
overcome
in
part
by
the
cooperation
of
a
number of farm- ers
in the
purchase
and
use
of such
machinery.
Seed
grain can
be cleaned almost
any
time
during
the
year.
This makes it
possible
for
a
dozen
or
twenty
farmers
to
use
the
same
fanning mill,making
the
expense
for
each
one
very
slight.
The
same
rule
can
be
applied
to
the
ownership
of
grain drills,harvesters, threshingma- chines,
and
numerous
other
implements.
435. Size of
machinery.
" The size of
machinery
must be
adapted
to the. needs
of the farmer. On the
very
largefarm,
it is desirable to
have all the
machinery
so
large
that it
may
be
operated
with
as
little
man
labor
as possible.
Where fields
are small, on
the other
hand,
large
machines cannot be used to
advantage
on
account
of the
constant
turning
that is
necessary.
The traction
engineas a source
of
power
in
tillageoperations
may
be
used under certain
conditions,
but it finds
no placeon
the
ordinary
farm. In
trying equipment
of all
kinds,
the
farmer should consider well the sizes that will best meet
his needs. The machines should be
large enough
to do
his
work,
and not so large
that
capital
is
unnecessarily
tied
up
in them.
436. The
duty
of machinery
refers to the amount of
work done, or
the
area
of land served, by an implement
during
one season.
The
duty
of
a mowing
machine would
be
very
great
if it could be
working
the
year
round,
but
396 The
Principlesof Agronomy
it is used
onlyduring
the
comparatively
brief
period
when
hay
is in the
right
stage
to cut.
The
duty
of
a grain
drill
is
low,
because the
season
when
grain can
be
planted
is
short and
one implement can cover only a
limited
area
of land. The
duty
of
an implement
is increased
by keep- ing
it in
good
working
order and
by running
it double
shifts
during
the
busy season. By usinglights
and
chang-
FiG. 95. " -
Gasoline
engine
used for staclcing hay, Wisconsin,
ing men
and
teams,
a
potato digger
may
be
run twenty-
four hours in
a day
if
necessary,
thereby making
its
duty
two
or
three times what it would
ordinarily
be. The
same plan
may
be followed with
many
other
implements,
437.
Depreciation.
"
Every
farm
implement depre- ciates,
partly through wearing
out and
partly through
getting
out of date. A
gasolineengine
built fifteen
years
ago
would be worth
very
much less
to-day,
had itnot been
used at all,
because
many
improvements
have since been
Equipment of
the Farm 397
made. The Minnesota
Experiment
Station found that
depreciation
of
equipment
each
year
ranged
from 12
per
cent for
threshing
outfits
to 3.47
per
cent for
grain
tanks.
Implements having compHcated machinery
hke
corn
binders
depreciate
much
more rapidly
than
simple ones
like
wagons.
Depreciation
is
dependent
less
on
actual
use
than
on
the
care given.
Machines
soon
rust
away
when left
exposed
to the
sun
and storms
even
if
they
are not used.
438.
Caring
for
machinery.
" The
sure
way
to waste
money
on
the farm is to
buy expensivemachinery
and
Fig. 96.
"
Cheap
but effective shelter.
leave it
unprotected
during
all
seasons
of the
year.
Costly
machine houses
are
not
necessary,
or even
desirable.
Some machine sheds,
however, are so
constructed that
they
depreciate
about
as rapidly
as
the
machinery they were
built
to
protect.
A
simple
but neat
shed that will
keep
out water
and
sun
will suffice.
This
can
be built at
slight
expense,
and
will
pay
for itself in
one
year
if there
are
many
expensive
machines to
shelter.
It is
a good
idea to clean
and
repair
all
machinery
at
the
end of the
season
when
it is
put
away.
All
parts
398 The
Principlesof Agronomy
likely
to rust
should be oiled. If this is
done,
the
imple- ment
is
always ready
for
use.
The
practice
of
repairing
when the machine is taken out for
use
in the
beginning
of the
season
results in
a great
waste of valuable time.
All
machinery
should be
kept
in
a good
state of
repair,
as
this lessens the
depreciation
and increases the
efficiency.
Mower
knives, plows,
and other similar
implements
work
much
more efficiently
if
kept
well
sharpened.
439. Suitable farm
buildings.
" Farm
buildings,
al- though
necessary, may
be considered
as
the
non-produc- tive
part
of the farm.
They are
needed
as protection
for the farmer
as
well
as
for his
stock,
farm
products,
and
machinery, yet they
add
nothing directly
to the farm
income.
Buildings, therefore,
should not
be
expensive,
since
they
tie
up
capital
that is needed in the
more
pro- ductive
enterprises. People
who know
nothing
about
farming
and the
way
its
profits are
obtained
are likely
to criticize the
average
farmer for his lack of
expensive
buildings.
The farmer must be conservative in this
re- spect,
however, or
his desire to make
a showing
in build- ings
will
cripple
him in his
working capital.
There is
no
doubt that farm
buildings
could be im- proved
in
design,
and
that,
with
proper
planning,
the
money
now
invested could have been better
spent.
The
arrangement
of farm
buildings
in
many
cases
results in
a
great
waste of time. The modern
farmer, by
the
use
of
cement and other available
building
materials, can con- struct
all
necessary
buildings
at
comparatively
low
ex- pense.
Care in
planning
enables him
to do much
more
with his
money
than if he constructed
a
number of small
buildings
without
regard
to
arrangement.
The
impor- tance
of convenience and sanitation have also been
largely
overlooked in the
past.
Equipment of
the Farm 399
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Farm Structures, K. J. T. Ekblaw.
Farm
Management,
G. F.
Warren,
pp.
355-364.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol. I,
pp.
162-278.
Farm
Management,
F. W.
Card,
pp.
40-47.
Physics
of
Agriculture,
F. H.
King,
pp.
223-254,
329-553.
Farm
Machinery
and Farm
Motors,
Davidson and Chase.
Farm
Development,
W. M.
Hays,
pp.
355-384.
Farm Equipment,
Ohio Bui. 297.
Cost of
Producing
Minnesota Farm
Crops,
Minnesota Bui. 117.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins
:
No. 303. Corn-Harvesting Machinery.
347.
Repair
of Farm
Equipment.
475. Ice Houses.
481. Concrete Construction
on
the Livestock Farm.
574.
Poultry
House Construction.
589.
Home Made Silos.
CHAPTER XXXII
FACTORS OF SUCCESS IN CROP PRODUC- TION
One of the most
difficult
things
in
any
business is
to
maintain
a
proper
balance between its
parts.
There is
a
constant
tendency
to
develop
hobbies,
which
means
that
other
phases
will be
neglected.
A merchant had
a hobby
of
keeping
his store neat
and
clean, claiming
that
an
orderly
establishment attracted trade. He
was so
particular
about
scrubbing
and
putting things
in
order,
that when customers
came
in
they were neglected;
customers
were secondary
to
cleanliness. He also
neg- lected
to
give
proper
attention to
buying
and to other
important
parts
of his business. As
a
result of his
hobby
and in
spite
of the fact that his store
was a
model of
neatness,
he lost most of his trade and became
bankrupt.
The
farmer,
unless he is
careful,
will
give
most of his-
attention to
one or two
phases
of his business and
neglect
the others. He
must
be
constantlyon
the alert to
keep
the business well
organized,
to have the
capital
all work- ing,
to
practice
the
righttype
of
farming,
to handle the
crops
and animals in the best
way,
and to market to the
best
advantage.
He must
recognize
that successful
farming
is made
up
of
a
great
many
important
factors.
440. Size of farm.
" In order to make
a success
in
the
production
of
crops,
the farm
must be of the
proper
size.
High yields
may
be
obtained, but unless
a
consider-
400
402
The
Principlesof Agronomy
also to
pay
for itselfin
a
very
few
years.
If it does
not
do this,they
say
there is
nothing
in
farming. Every one
recognizes
the fact that
capital
is
required
to enter the
banking
business;
yet
more capital
is often invested in
a
farm than in
a
small bank.
The
raising
of field
crops
can probably
be done with
less
capital
than is
required
for
any
other branch of
agri- culture.
Dairying
and the
pure-bred
livestock business
require
a large
initial
outlay
for stock; fruit-growing
requires
the investment
of
capital a
number of
years
before returns
are expected.
Notwithstanding
the rel- atively
low
capitalrequired
to raise field
crops,
they
cannot
be
successfullyproduced
without the investment
of considerable
money.
The land must be
purchased
or
rented and
a
suitable seed-bed
prepared.
Seed must
be
planted
and the
crop
cared for
during growth,
then
harvested and marketed before
any
returns
are
secured.
Many
failures
occur
in
farming
because sufficient
capital
is not available. The
prospectivefarmer, therefore,to
be
most successful should have
at his
disposal
sufficient
funds to
operate
his farm in the most efficient
manner.
442.
Proper type
of
fanning.
" The
type
of
farming
followed is
as important
to success as are
the methods
used. In
every
section
some
types
pay
better than
others,
and the
discovery
of the
paying type
is
one
of the chief
problems
of the
man on
the land. This has been dis- cussed
more fully
in
Chapter
XXX.
443. Good
management.
"
Farming
will not
pay
under the
most
favorable conditions without
intelligent
management.
There
are so
many
chances for losses
that unless
good judgment
is exercised failure is
sure
to
result. In
farming,new
conditions
are
constantly
pre- senting
themselves;
hence it is
impossible
to
lay
down
any
set rules. The farmer must be
constantly
alert and
Factors
of
Success in
Crop
Production
403
ready
to
adapt
the method
to conditions
as they
exist. In
many
of the
industries,
the work is
exactly
the
same
year
after
year,
and when
once
learned
no difficulty
is
expe- rienced.
Farming, on
the
other
hand,
is
never
the
same
during
any
two
years.
Seasonal variations
are so
great
that each
day presents
new
problems.
The economical
use
of horses
and
machinery
"
plowing,
planting,
and
harvesting
at the
right
time and in the
right
way
" and
marketing products
to the best
advantage,
both call for the
highest
type
of executive
ability.
It is
not
enough
to be able to raise
good
crops ;
they
must be
produced
at
a profit.
This
requiresgood
management.
444.
Keeping
records. " The farmer
cannot,
without
keeping some
kind of
records,
tell which
phases
of his
business
are
most
profitable.
The merchant
keeps
books
primarily
to tell whom he is
owing
and who
owes
him.
The farmer
can usuallykeep
account
of these
things
without
a set
of books
;
but in order to tell where his
profitscame
from and where the losses
occur a set
of
simple
farm
accounts
is
indispensable.By doing this,
he is
able to eliminate
unprofitable
crops
and raise
only
those
givinggreatest
returns.
Few farmers will find it advis- able
to
keep a complex
set of
accounts,
but
some simple
bookkeeping
will
certainly
pay.
445. Profits to a
fanner vs. yields
to the
acre.
" In
discussing
crop
production,
the idea issometimes advanced
that the
chief aim
of the
farmer is to
get high acre-yields.
While
high yields
are
desirable,they
are by no means
all that the
farmer wants.
His chief
concern
is to
get
a high
total income
for his
year's
work. A net
earning
of ten
dollars
an acre on a
farm
of 100
acres
is
more profit- able
than an earning
of
twenty-five
dollars
an acre on a
farm of ten acres.
High
yields
do not
always
bring a high
net
profit
for
404
The
Principlesof Agronomy
each
acre.
For
example,potatoes usuallybring
actually
less
money
to the farmer
during a
year
when
yieldsare
high
all
over
the
country
than
during
years
of low
yields.
Methods should be
adopted
which
givelargeyields
;
but
of
equal importance,
is the
organization
of the business
in such
a
way
that the farmer will receive
a high
total
income
even though
the
yield
of
any
individual
crops
is
not
high.
In
short,
the function of the farmer is
not
primarily
to
make his land
givebig yields,
but to
use
the
land in
helping
himself to
get
a
largeyearly
income. The
farm is for the
farmer,
and
not the farmer for the farm.
446. Profits from
man
and horse labor. " The farmer
should not
expect
to make all his
profits
from
the
land;
he should also make
money
from the
men
he hires and from
the horses he
uses.
Some farmers
seem to
think that
money
paid
out
for hired
help
is
lost,
whereas in
reality,
a good profit
should be made
on
every
day's
labor
used
on
the farm. To do this
requires
careful
management.
The work
must be
so
well
planned
that
no
time is
spent
doing unprofitablejobs. Employment
must be
arranged
for
rainy days
and other times when it is
impossible
to
do the
regular
farm work.
More attention is
usuallygiven
to
man
than
to horse
labor. No farmer would think of
keeping
hired
men
if
there
was no
work for
them to
do,
but idle horses
are
kept
on
the
place
for
months at a
time.
By
providing
work
for all the horses
on
the
farm,
the cost of
producing
crops
is
greatly
reduced.
447.
Understanding
each
crop.
"
Each kind of
crop
has its
own
peculiarrequirements,
which must be catered
to
if
they are to be
profitable.
The farmer should
base his
practices
upon
a
knowledge
of the needs of his
crops.
He
must understand that alfalfa needs
a
soil
containinglime,
while
corn
needs
a
soil
having
consider-
Factors
of
Success in
Crop
Production
405
able
organicmatter. He should also learn how
fertilizers,
irrigation
water,
and other factors affect the
quality
of
the
crops
he raises
so as to be able to
produce
crops
which the market demands. To have the
highest suc- cess,
therefore,
the farmer
must be
an observing
naturalist.
448. Markets. " It is useless to raise
crops
unless
they can
be sold
at
a profit.
The
ordinary
farmer is
a
much better
producer
than salesman. He is
thinking
continuously
how to increase
yields,
but the
question
of
markets attracts his attention
only once or
twice
a
year
"
justduring
the
marketing season.
The farmer
may,
how- ever,
at market-time lose
more by a single
unwise
trans- action
than he has made
during
the entire
season through
extra
attention
to his
crops.
A number of
ways
of
marketing are
available to the
farmer. He
may
sell all his
crop
at wholesale to the
dealer
or consumer
;
he
may
dispose
of it
through a com- mission
man
who
charges
a
percentage
for
making
the
sales
;
he
may
sell
on a regular
market
through an
auction- eer
;
or
he
may
retail his
products
in small
parcels
to the
individual
consumer.
No
one
of these methods of
selling
is best in all
cases.
Farmers
are too
prone
to trust to
local
markets,
instead
of
investigating
every
possible
place
of sale.
Considerable
loss
accompanies
the
storage
of most
farm
products;
hence,
the
common
practice
of
holding
for
higherprices
is not always
to be recommended. Shrink- age
and loss often amount to
more
than the increase in
price
received
after
holding
for
a
number of months. If
prices
are particularly
low at harvest and indications
point
to
a
rise later,
it
may pay
to store.
The farmer
must
watch
markets
closely
from
one
year
to the
next,
and investigateevery
opportunity
to market his
products
profitably.
406
The
Principles of Agronomy
Success in
crop
production
does
not
consist alone in
doing
one
thing
well
;
it calls for
good judgment
in
many
distinct kinds of work. The farmer who has
a
fad of
marketing,
or
of
raising
crops
in
a
particular
way,
often
neglects
other
important factors,
and
as a
result falls
short of
success.
The successful farmer
must keep
his
business well balanced, that is, he
must give to each
phase
of his work the attention that its
importance justi- fies.
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
Farm
Management,
G. F. Warren.
Rural
Economics, T. N. Carver.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
I,
pp.
162-202.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
II,
pp.
81-109.
Cyclopedia
of American
Agriculture,
Vol.
IV,
pp.
215-276.
Rural Wealth and
Welfare,
G. T. Fairchild.
Agricultiu-al Economics,
H. C.
Taylor.
The
Young Farmer,
T. F. Hunt.
Cooperation
in
Agriculture,
G. H. Powell.
The Farmers' Business
Handbook,
I. P. Roberts.
Farm
Management,
Andrew Boss.
U. S. D. A. Farmers' Bulletins
:
No. 454. A Successful New York Farm.
621.
Marketing
Farm Products.
APPENDICES
410 Appendix
Nevada " Reno.
New
Hampshire
" Dvirham.
New
Jersey
" New Brunswick.
New Mexico "
Agricultural
Col- lege.
New York "
State Station " Geneva.
College
of
Agriculture
and Cor- nell
Experiment
Station
" Ithaca.
North Carolina "
College
Station " West Ra- leigh.
State Station "
Raleigh.
North Dakota "
Agricultural
College.
Ohio "
Experiment
Station " Woos-
ter.
College
of
Agriculture
" Co- lumbus.
Oklahoma " Stillwater.
Oregon
" Corvallis.
Pennsylvania
" State
College.
Porto Rico "
Mayaguez.
Rhode Island "
Kingston.
South Carolina " Clemson Col- lege.
South Dakota "
Brookings.
Tennessee "
Knoxville.
Texas "
College
Station.
Utah "
Logan.
Vermont "
Burlington.
Virginia
"
Blacksburg.
Washington
" Pullman.
West
Virginia
"
Morgantown.
Wisconsin " Madison.
Wyoming
" Laramie.
The United States
Department
of
Agriculture
is at
Washington,
D.C. One
may
address the
Secretary
of
Agriculture,or
write to
one
of the Divisions of the
Department.
The most
important
divisions
are as
follows
:
Weather Bureau.
Bureau of Animal
Industry.
Bureau of Plant
Industry.
Forest Service.
Bureau of
Chemistry.
Bureau of Soils.
Bureau of
Entomology.
Bureau of
BiologicalSurvey.
Division of Publications.
Bureau of Statistics.
Office of
Experiment
Stations.
Office of Public Roads and En- gineering.
Some of the most
important
addresses in Canada
are :
Dominion
Department
of
Agri- culture,
Ottawa,
Ontario.
Experimental Farms,
Ottawa.
Ontario
Agricultural College,
Guelph,
Ontario.
Agricultural College, Winnipeg,
Manitoba.
Appendix 41 1
APPENDIX
B
LABORATORY GUIDES
Manual of
Agriculture
"
Soils and
Crops,
D. O. Barto.
A
Laboratory
Manual of
Agriculture,
L. E. Call and E. G. Schafer.
Lessons
on
Soil,
E. J. Russell.
The
Physical Properties
of
Soils,
A. G. McCall.
Soil
Physics Laboratory Manual,
J. G. Mosier and A. F. Gustafson.
A Unit in
Agriculture,
J. D. EUif.
Examining
and
Grading Grain, T. L.
Lyon
and E. G.
Montgomery.
Laboratory
Manual of Farm
Management,
G. F. Warren and K. C.
Livermore.
Laboratory
Manual of Cereals and
Forage Crops,
Geo.
Livingston
and Malon Yoder.
412
Appendix
APPENDIX
C
FERTILITY
IN FARM
PRODUCE
Approximate
Maximum Amounts Removable to an
Acre
Annually
1
From
Hopkins'
Soil
Fertility
and Permanent
Agriculture. (Ginn "
Co.)
Appendix
413
APPENDIX D
COMPOSITION,
AMOUNT,
AND VALUE OF MANURE
PRODUCED BY DIFFERENT KINDS OF FARM
ANIMALS
(Results
of
experiments
conducted at Cornell
UniversityExperiment
Station)
MINIMUM AMOUNT OF FARMYARD MANURE TO
REPLACE THE ELEMENTS ABSTRACTED FROM
THE SOIL BY A GOOD ACREAGE OF DIFFERENT
CROPS
Wheat
5 tons
Barley
5 tons
Oats
5 tons
Corn
7 tons
Meadow
hay
8 tons
Red clover
12
tons
Beans
10 tons
Turnips
15 tons
Potatoes
10 tons
Cabbage
25 tons
Carrots
10 tons
414
Appendix
APPENDIX E
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES
AvoirdupoisWeight
16 ounces (oz.)
=1
pound (lb.)
100
pounds
=1
hundredweight (cwt.)
20
hundredweight
(cwt.)
. .
= 1 ton
(T.)
1 ton
=20 cwt. = 2000 lb. =
32,000 oz.
Ldnear Measures
12 inches
(in.)
=1 foot
(ft.)
3 feet =1
yard (yd.)
5^ yards,or I65
ft.
. . .
= 1 rod
(rd.)
320 rods =1 mile
(mi.)
1 mi. = 320 rd. = 1760
yd.
= 5280 ft. =
63,360
in.
Square
Measures
144
square
inches
(sq.in.)
9
square
feet
30j
square
yards
160
square
rods
640
acres
. .
1
square
mile
36 sections
43,560
square
feet
160
acres
. .
1
square
foot
(sq.
ft.)
1
square
yard (sq.yd.)
1
square
rod
(sq.
rd.)
1
acre (A.)
1
square
mile
(sq.mi.)
1 section
1
township (twp.)
1
nn..^
1
acre
T
section
Solid
or
Cubic Measures
1728 cubic inches
(cu.in.)
27 cubic feet
1 cubic
yard
1 cubic
yard
24j cubic feet
128 cubic feet
1 ft.
X
12 in.
X
1 in.
= 1 cubic foot
(cu.ft.)
= 1 cubic
yard (cu.yd.)
=
46,656 cu.
in.
= 1 load
= 1
perch
= 1 cord
= 1 board foot
Appendix
415
Liquid
Measures
4 gills
(gi.) =1
pint (pt.)
2
pints =1
quart (qt.)
4
quarts =1
gallon (gal.)
3H gallons =1 barrel (bbl.)
7J gallons water =1 cubic foot
(approximately)
1
gallon water
=
8.3254 pounds
1 U. S.
gallon
.....
=
231 cubic inches
Dry
Measures
2
pints
=1
quart
8
quarts
=1
peck (pk.)
4
pecks
=1 bushel
(bu.)
1 bushel
=
2150.42
cu.
in.
416
Appendix
APPENDIX F
QUANTITY
OF SEED PLANTED TO THE ACRE
Wheat 1-2 bushels
Oats 2-4 bushels
Barley l2~2|
bushels
Rye ! 1-2 bushels
Peas
2j-35
bushels
Buckwheat
5
bushel
yj.
, ,
J
oats 1 bushel
(
peas
2 bushels
Flax
^-2
bushels
Com
15-20
pounds
Potatoes
10-18 bushels
Red clover
8-12
pounds
Alsike clover
6-10
pounds
White clover
4-8
pounds
Timothy 10-15
pounds
Orchard-grass 15-20
pounds
Sugar-beets 12-16
pounds
Blue-grass 10-15
pounds
Alfalfa
10-20
pounds
Brome-grass 15-20
pounds
Bur clover
12
pounds
Sweet clover
10-25
pounds
Mangels 5-8
pounds
Redtop 6-8
pounds
418 Appendix
APPENDIX H
MEASURING
RULES
Measuring grain.
" A bushe) of
grain
contains
approximately
J
cubic foot. To determine the
capacity
of
a bin,
find the number
of cubic feet and
multiply by
y,
or multiply by
8
and divide
by
10.
Measuring ear com.
" It
requires
about two
bushels of
ear corn
to
make
one
bushel shelled. To find the
capacity
of
a crib,
find
the number of cubic feet and
multiply by f or
.4.
Measuring hay.
" The
quantity
of
hay
in
a mow
is
very
hard to
estimate
accurately.
The
deeper
the
hay is,
the harder it will be
packed.
Some kinds of
hay are
heavier than
others;
the
longer,
it
stands the
more compact
it becomes. Settled
hay
will
usually weigh
about five
pounds
per
cubic
foot, or
400 cubic feet will
weigh one
ton. (See Appendix
I.)
Measuring
land. " The easiest
way
to calculate land
measurements
is to
figure
160
square
rods
as one acre.
A
stripone
rod wide and
160 rods
long,therefore,equals
an
acre,
as
does
a strip
four rods wide
and 40 rods
long, or eight
rods wide and 20 rods
long,
etc.
A
surveyor's
chain is four rods
long.
It is divided into 100
links,
so
that all calculations
are
in decimals. Ten chains
square
equal
SQUARE
MEASURE
EQUIVALENTS
Appendix
419
APPENDIX
I
RULES FOR
MEASURING HAY IN THE STACK
A number of
measurements
are
taken and the
average
obtained
f
or :
L
=
length,
W
=
width,
O
= overthrow
(a
line is thrown
over
the stack to the
ground on
the other side and the overthrow is the
distance
over
the stack from the bottom
on one
side to the bottom
on
the
other).
Then the number of cubic feet in the stack
may
be
found from the
following
formulas
:
(O + W)
. . .
multiplied by
itself and this
product by
the
length
of
4
stack =
cu.
ft.
(O
times
W)
^. ^ c^
times L = cu.
ft.
4
(O " W)
For
small,
low ricks
use
the formula ^W times L
= cu.
ft.
2
For round
stacks,
get
the
average
circumference
(C)at
or
above the base
or
"
bulge,"
find the vertical
height
of the measured circumference
from the
ground
and the slant
height
from the circumference to the
top
of the stack. Then
use
the formula " 8 times
(height
.100
of the base
+ ^
slant
height
of
top)
=
cu.
ft.
When the number of cubic feet is
known,
this number is divided
by
the number of cubic feet in
a ton to find how
many
tons there
are.
There
are
about 343 cubic feet in
prairiehay
that has settled 30
days
or
more,
but 422 cubic feet is often considered
as
closer. For alfalfa
422-512 cubic feet
are
used in different
regions
for
hay
that has set- tled
30
or more days.
When the
hay
has settled 5 to 6 months 422
cubic feet and after
a
year
343
cubic feet
are usually accepted as a
ton. For round stacks
a ton usually
contains 512
or more
cubic
feet after 30
days.
The number to be used varies with the
depth
of stack
as
well as
with the time of
settling.
420
Appendix
APPENDIX J
WHEAT HARVEST CALENDAR
January. " Australia,
New
Zealand, Chile,
and
Argentine Republic.
February
and March.
" Upper Egypt,
India.
April. "
Lower
Egypt, India, Syria, Cyprus, Persia,
Asia
Minor,
Mexico, Cuba.
May. " Texas, Algeria,
Central
Asia, China,
Japan,
Morocco.
June.
" California, Oregon, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia,
North
Carolina,
South
Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, Kentucky, Kansas,
Arkansas, Utah, Colorado, Missouri, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Spain,
Portugal,
South of France.
July. "
New
England,
New
York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana,
Michigan, Illinois,Iowa, Wisconsin,
Southern
Minnesota, Nebraska,
Upper Canada, Roumania, Bulgaria, Austria-Hungary,
South of
Russia, Germany, Switzerland',
South of
England.
August. "
Central and Northern
Minnesota, Dakotas, Manitoba,
Lower
Canada,
British
Columbia, Belgium, Holland,
Great
Britain,
Denmark, Poland,
Central Russia.
September
and October.
" Scotland, Sweden, Norway,
North of
Russia.
November. " Peru,
South Africa.
December. " Burmah,
New South Wales.
Appendix
421
APPENDIX
K
PRICES OF
WHEAT
(CHICAGO MARKET)
1863-19101
Months
of Lowest
Prices
Yearly Range
OF
Prices
Months of Highest
Prices
August
March
.
December
February
August .
November
.
December
,
April
August .
November
September
October
February
July
August
.
October
.
January
August .
January
December
October
.
December
March
.
October
.
August .
April
. .
June
.
February
July
. .
.80
1.07
.85
.77
1.55
1.04i
.76i
.73i
.991
1.01
.89
.81i
.831
.83
l.Oli
.77
.81!
.86i
.95f
.911
.90
.691
.731
.691
.661
"7li
.75i
.741
.85
@ 1.12i
@2.26
@
1.55
@2.03
@2.85
@2.20
@
1.46
@ 1.311
@
1.32
@
1.61
@
1.46
@
1.28
@ 1.30i
@
1.26f
@ 1.76i
@
1.14
@ 1.33i
@
1.32
@ 1.43i
@
1.40
@ 1.13i
@
.96
@
.9lf
@
.84f
@
.94f
@2.00
@
1.08f
@ 1.081
@
1.16
December
June
January
November
May
July
August
July
Feb.
,
April,
and
Sept.
August
July
April
August
December
May
April
December
January
October
April
and
May
June
February
April
January
June
September
^
February
August
April
iNo. 2 cash wheat.
2
The
Hutchinson
"
ing
day.
corner"
figures$1.04^ "LOSJ
the follow-
422 Appendix
PRICES OF WHEAT (CHICAGO MARKET)
1863-1910
(Continued)
Years
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
Months
of
Lowest
Prices
October
.
July
. .
September
January
.
June
.
April
. .
October
.
December
January
.
July
. .
October
.
March
.
January
.
August
.
Aug. -Sept.
January
.
July
. .
August
.
November
Yearly Range
OP
Prices
.69j
"54|
.50
.48f
.531
.64|
.62
.64
.61*
"63i
.67i
.701
.811
.771
.69i
.71
.841
.99i
.901
@
.91|
.88
@
.651
@
.83|
@
.941
@
1.09
@
1.85
@
.79i
@
.871
@
.791
@
.95
@
.93
@
1.22
@
1.24
@
.94f
@
1.05i
@1.11
@
1.60
@
1.27*
Months
of
Highest
Prices
February
April
April
May
November
December
May
1
May
June
December
September
September
October
February
April
October
May
June
February
1
The Leiter
"
corner
"
figure.
The above table
was compiled
by
Charles B.
Murray,
editor of the Cinoinnati Price Current.
Appendix 423
APPENDIX
L
CROP STATISTICS
FOR CONTINENTAL
UNITED
STATES
i
1
Calculated from Yearbook United' States Department
of
Agriculture.
The
average
yields
per
acre
and value
per
bushel
as
here
calculated are
the
averages
of the ten yearly
averages.
424 Appendix
APPENDIX M
PLOWING
AS AFFECTED BY SHAPE OF THE FIELD
(8 inch furrow)
426 "
Appendix
APPENDIX O
GLOSSARY
Alkaloid.
" Substances in
plants
that stimulate
or
deaden
nervous
action,
such
as strychnine,morphine,
and caffein.
Ash.
" Mineral matter left after
burning
;
ashes.
Awns. " Beards
on
seed-coats
or on
chaff.
Bacteria. "
Extremely
small one-celled
plants,
" the smallest
mem- bers
of the
plant kingdom. They depend on
other
plantsor
animals,
either
living
or dead,
for food.
Bast. " The fibrous
part
of the bark.
Bracts. " Leaflets
near
the base of true
leaf,or on
rootstocks
; any
leaves
normally
much reduced in size.
Calyx.
" Outer
envelope
of the flower
;
if the
parts
are
separate,
they are
called
sepals
;
if not
wholly separate, they are
lobes.
Cambium. "
Growing
tissue
usually
between bark and wood. It
hes between the
phloem
and the
xylem
of the fibrovascular
bundle,
and
as
these
bundles,
when
active,are on
the outside
of the
woody cylinder,
the cambium
seems
to lie between the
wood and bark.
Capillary
water.
" All water that is held in films and that will
evapo- rate
without
heating,
if
exposed
to the air.
Carbohydrates.
" Substances
consistingwholly
of
carbon, hydrogen,
and
oxygen,
such
as
sugar,
starch,
and cellulose.
They
consti- tute
the
greater part
of the
dry weight
of
plants.
Cell." Smallest unit of
livingthings,consisting
of cell-wall in- closing
jelly-like cytoplasm
and heavier nucleus.
Cellulose. " Material
composing
cell-walls.
Cotton, wood,
walnut
shell,bark,
straw,
and
cabbage
leaves
are chiefly
cellulose.
Chlorophyll.
" Green
coloring
matter of
plants,by
the
use
of which
plants
manufacture their food.
Corolla. " The
petals,or
the inner floral
envelope,
in the flower
(usuallyshowy).
Cortex. " The bark. All of the tissues between the cambium and
the
epidermis
;
in
woody plants,
the whole exterior
covering
of
the trunk
or
branches.
Cortical. "
Pertaining
to cortex
;
outer
layers
of the
potato tuber,
except epidermis,
outside of the faint
yellowish-green ring.
Cross-fertilization.
"
Fertilization is caused
by
the male element of
Appendix
427
pollen
uniting
with the female element of the ovule. The
transfer
of
pollen
from another
plant
is called
cross-pollination.
Crude
fiber.
" Fibrous
part
of
plants
hard to
digest
;
cellulose.
Current
meter. " An
apparatus
lowered into
a stream to find how
fast the
water flows.
Denitrification.
"
Changing
of nitrates to
a
less usable form of nitro- gen.
Dicotyledons.
" Plants with
two
cotyledons or
seed-leaves
or
with
seeds in two
parts.
These
plants
grow
from
a
cambium and
lay
down
rings
in the stem.
They
form two of three
great
divi- sions
in
higherplants. They are
subdivided into
gymnosperms
such
as
pines,
and
angiosperms
such
as
oak
trees,
peas,
and all
plants
with
split
seeds. See
Monocotyledons.
Elements. " Various chemical substances that cannot be
separated
by present
means
into two
or more
other substances.
Embryo.
" The
part
of the seed that
begins growth
;
the
germ.
Endodermis. " Inner
skin,usually
rich in starch.
Endosperm.
" The contents of
a
seed that lies outside the
germ
or
embryo.
It
supplies
food for the
growing seedling.
It is the
white
part
of wheat.
Entomology.
" The science that deals with insects.
Enzymes.
" Chemical substances within
plantsor
animals that aid in
reactions
or changes,
such
as
the transformation of starch to
sugar.
Epidermis.
" An outer
covering (from epi,outside,
and
dermis,skin)
;
itis cast
off
by
trees in
early
years
of
growth.
The outer
cover- ing
of trees is often cortex.
Fermentation. " The
breaking
down
or
changing
of
compounds by
chemical reaction,
such
as
the
heating
of
manure
and the
formation of alcohol from
sugar
by yeast.
Fibro-vascular bundle. " Bundle
or body consisting
of
fibers,
and of
ducts which
transport
water
up
the stems
and elaborated
foods down the stem.
They
show in
corn pith
as strands,
and
in wood and
squash
vines
as V-shaped
bundles.
Flocculation.
"
Grouping
of the soil
particles.
Formalin.
" Solution of
formaldehyde
in
water, usually
40
per
cent.
Fungus,
fungi.
" A
group
of
plants
such
as mildew, smut,
mold,
and
mushrooms
consistingmostly
of thread-like
tissues and devoid
of chlorophyll.They propagate
by
means
of
spores
(detached
cells)
instead of seeds.
Genus.
" A
group
of
closely-related species
of
plants,
all
bearingone
generalname,
as
Trifolium,
the clovers
;
Populus,
the
poplars.
428
Appendix
Gravitationalwater. " Water in
excess
of film water. It
passes
down- ward
through
soil due to
pull
of
gravity.
Hygroscopic
water. " Water held
closelyby
soil
particlesas a
thin
film. It cannot be
evaporated
without
heating.
Lenticels." Pores in
plants.
The
epidermis
is often torn
by
the
growth
beneath. These
openings
may
penetrate
into
deep
tissue.
Ldnt. " Cotton fiber.
lAnters. " Short fiber
on
cotton seed.
Medullary.
" The inner
layers
of the
potato,
inside the faint
yellow- ish-green
ring.
Medullary
rays.
" Ducts
or pithy areas extending radially
from
bark to center
of stem.
Microorganisms.
" Plants
or
animals
so
small that
they
cannot be
seen
without
a microscope.
Monocotyledons.
" Plants
havingonlyone cotyledonor seed-leaf, or
seed in
one
part. They usually
have
parallel-veinedleaves,
and since
they
have
no cambium,
do not
lay
down
rings
in
growth. They
constitute
one
of three
great
divisions of
higher
plants.
All
grasses
and cereal
grains,palms,lilies,
and orchids
are examples.
See
Dicotyledons.
Natural selection." Selection
or persistence
in nature of those in- dividuals
most fitto
survive,
out of the
many
that
begin
life.
Nitrification.
"
Changing
less available
nitrogen
to nitrates which
are readily
used
by plants.
Bacteria
change ammonia,
free
nitrogen,
and nitrites to nitrates
by oxidizing
them.
Nitrogen-fixation.
"
Making
free
nitrogen
into
compounds
of nitro- gen
that
are
solids
or can
be made into solids
readily.
Nodules. "
Enlargements on roots of
legumes containing
colonies
of bacteria which live
on
food made
by
the
plant,
but which
take
nitrogen
from the air.
Legumes are
the
only agricultural
plants
known to bear nodules.
Nucleus. " The
center of cell
activity,usually
darker than the
other cell contents.
Organism.
"
Any livingthingor body, as a plant,an animal,a
mi- crobe.
Osmosis. "
Passage
of water
or
dissolved material
through
a mem- brane
to
equalize
the concentration of the solution
on
both
sides of the membrane.
Ovary.
" The
part
of the
pistil containing
the ovule
or
ovules
;
the
seed-case.
Ovule. " The
body which,
after
fertilization,
becomes the seed.
Appendix
429
Palisade
cells."
Elongated
cells under the
epidermis
of
some
leaves.
Panicle. "
Branching
flower-cluster
or seed-cluster,as
in oats.
Parasites. " Plants
or animals that subsist
or
feed
on
livingplants
or animals.
Pathology.
" The science concerned with the
nature, cause,
and
con- trol
of disease.
Pericycle.
"
Region
of the
stem
just
outside the
phloem
;
inner bark.
Phloem. " Fibrous tissue
on
the inner
part
of the bark
just
outside
the cambium
through
which elaborated
plant-food
passes
downward.
Photosynthesis.
" Manufacture of
sugar
and
starchy
foods
by-
chlorophyll
in the
presence
of
sunlight
from
water
and carbon
dioxide.
(From photo,light,
and
synthesis,
to
put together.)
Pistil."
Ovule-bearing
organ
of
flowers,consisting
of
ovary,
style,
and
stigma;
when
ripeor mature,
the seed-case.
Plasma membrane
.
" A
thin,
colorless membrane
covering
the
pro- toplasm.
Plastids." Small distinct bodies of
protoplasm,
which store
starch
and which contain
chlorophyllor
the
yellow
color of flowers.
Pollen. " Contents of the
anthers,usually
in the form of small
grains.
Pollen carries within it the male element. When this unites
with the female element in the
ovule,
fertilization results and
seed
growth begins.
Pollen is
usually
flne
powder,
such
as
the
yellowish
dust that
comes
from
corn
tassels.
Protein. " Plant
or
animal
compounds comprising protoplasm,con- taining
nitrogen
and
sulfur,
in addition to
carbon, hydrogen,
and
oxygen.
Protoplasm.
" The
living
contents
of
a cell,
rich in
nitrogen.
Reproduction.
" Process of
starting
the next
generation.
Respiration.
"
Breathing ;
a
process
that
proceeds
in all
living
or- ganisms.
Oxygen
is used
up,
carbon dioxide
liberated,
and heat
given
off.
Saprophytes.
"
Organisms
that secure a
part
of then- food for
energy
from foods already
combined.
These foods
are
often dead
tissue.
Self-fertilization.
" Fertilization
results from
a
union of
pollen
and
ovule.
When
pollen
fertilizes the ovule of the
same
plant,
the
process
is called
self-fertilization.
See
Cross-fertilization.
Sieve-tubes.
" Vertical row
of cells in the
phloem through
which
elaborated
food
passes
downward,
so-called because of sieve- like
end
walls.
430 Appendix
Species.
" One kind of
plant,
as alfalfa,
red
clover,
white
clover,
sugar
maple,
oat.
Any
group
or
assemblage
of individuals
that
are so
much alike
as
to seem
to be the
progeny
of
one
similar
ancestor,
or
which are
not
sufficiently
unUke
to warrant the
giving
of
more
than
one
botanical
name
to them.
Spermatophytes.
" Plants that
produce
seeds, as
all the so-called
higherplants.
Spike.
" Cluster when seeds or
flowers
are
borne
on
short
pedicels
or
branches
bringing
the
spikelets
close
together,
as
in wheat.
Sponge
tissue. " Loose tissue in
leaf,
so-called because of
large
spaces
between cells.
Stamens. " The
pollen-bearing
organs
of flowers
;
the essential
part
is the anther or pollen-case,
and this is
usually
borne
on a
stalk
or
filament.
Stigma.
" The
part
of the
pistil
that receives the
pollen;
it is
usually
at the
top
of
a styleor
stalk.
Stoloniferous.
"
Spreadingby means
of
rootingbranches,or
stolons
which
appear
at or near
the surface
;
in
grasses,
sod-forming
by
rootstocks.
Stomata. " Mouth-like
openings
in leaves of
plants. They permit
the intake of carbon dioxide and allow
water
and
oxygen
to
pass
out. When
plantswilt,
two small cells fall
together,partly
closing
the
opening.
Style.
" The neck-like
or stalk-like
part
of the
pistil
that holds the
stigma
well out toward the
opening
of the flower.
Tissue. "
Groups
of cells that do the
same
kind of work
;
speciahzed
parts
of
plantsor
animals.
Tracheal tubes. " Channels
or
tubes ift
woody part
of
plant,
for
carry- ing
water
from
roots to leaves.
They are
found in the
xylem
and have thick and thin
places
in their walls.
Translocation. " Movement of stored food from
one
part
of the
plant
to another.
Transpiration.
" The
giving
off of water
from the leaves and other
parts
of
plants.
This
water has been used in
carrying
dissolved
material
to the leaves.
Evaporation
also cools the leaves
in hot weather.
Vacuoles. " Bodies of
cell-sap
inclosed in the
cyptoplasm.
Weir. " A device to
measure flowing
water.
Xylem.
" That
part
of the fibro-vascular
bundle, through
which
sap passes
upward.
It lies within the cambium. Wood in
trees is almost
entirelyxylem.
INDEX
Absorption, selective, 46.
Accounts, farm, 403.
Acid
or sour
soils :
cause of, 157.
correction
of,
157.
how detected, 157.
Acre-foot defined, 103.
Action of
enzymes,
43,
60.
Adaptability
of
crops,
12, 21.
Adaptation
of
:
alfalfa, 262,
390.
barley, 216,
389.
beans,
278.
beets, 243.
brome-grass, smooth,
297.
corn,
198,
389.
cotton, 335, 390.
cowpeas,
281.
crops,
12, 21,
387.
field-peas,
276.
flax, 337.
hemp, 240.
Kentucky blue-grass,
294.
mangels,
390.
oats, 210,
389.
orchard-grass,
295.
plants to environment,
12, 21, 48,
149.
potatoes, 228,
390.
red clover, 273.
redtop,
293.
rice, 221,
390.
rye,
220,
390.
sorghum,
323.
soybeans,
283.
sugar-beets,
243,
390.
sugar-cane,
390.
tobacco,
345.
timothy,
289.
vetch,
284.
wheat, 173,
390.
Advantages of furrow irrigation, 103.
Aeration of the soil, factors influenc- ing,
86.
Age
of
plants
and
usefulness,
61.
Agents of soil formation, 74.
Agriculture :
and the advance of
civilization,
3.
and the
sciences, 2.
as a business, 2.
as an art,
1.
as a science, 1.
definition
of, 1.
divisions
of,
4.
its
scope,
1.
opportunities in, 3.
relation to other professions
and
industries, 1,3.
social and educational
aspects of,
3'.
Agronomy :
definition
of,
4.
phases of, 4.
Air:
distribution through tissues, 41.
in the soil, importance of, 86.
Aleurone cells in wheat kernel,
171.
Alfalfa,
256.
adaptation,
262.
and
permanent
agriculture, 256.
common,
261.
cultivation, 263.
distribution,
262.
enemies,
267.
flower, 260.
,
Grimm, 261.
harvesting, 264,
269.
history,
257.
inoculation,
262.
irrigation, 264.
leaf-weevil, 269,
370.
leaves, 260.
marketing.
266.
mixtures,
276.
431
432
Index
Alfalfa:
name,
256'.
nodules,
259.
nurse
crops,
263.
pasture,
267,
304.
planting,
263.
relationships,
258.
root-system,
258.
seed,
260.
seed-bed
preparation,
263.
seed
production,
269.
Siberian,
261.
stems,
description,
259.
storage,
265.
value,
266.
varieties,
261.
weeds,
267.
Alkali :
injury
done to vegetation,
156.
injury to plants,
46.
kinds
of,
155.
permanent
freedom
from, 108,
156.
reclamation of,
156.
resistance of
sugar-beets,
245.
some
of its
problems,
154.
Alsike
clover,
274.
Aluminum minerals, 71,
72.
Amendments,
126.
Analysis
of
soils,
120.
how
useful,
127.
in land
valuation,
163.
Animal :
'
fiber,
333.
husbandry,
its
field,
4.
pathology,
4.
Animals;
as
agents
in soil
formation,
79.
dependence on plants,
51.
Apatite, composition,
73.
Aphis, cabbage,
344.
Apparent
and real specific gravity
compared,
86.
Apples,
349.
Arid and humid soils
compared, 81,
120.
Ash:
amount
in
plants,
56.
uses by plants
and
animals,
56.
Astragalus,
284.
Atmosphere
in soil formation,
78.
B
Bacteria,
139.
action
on organic matter,
141.
and soil
nitrogen,
142.
classes
of,
139.
description, 139, 140.
food and
growth,
140.
how the farmer
may
assist,
144.
number
of,
in
soils,
139.
Barley,
215.
adaptation,
216.
alkali
resistance,
216.
cultivation,
217.
description,
215.
distribution,
216.
enemies,
218.
harvesting,
217.
history,
215.
marketing,
218.
pests,
218.
seeding,
217.
standard
varieties,
216.
uses,
219.
value,
219.
Basalt,
71.
Beans, 278,
349.
culture,
278.
description,
278.
harvesting,
280.
planting,
279.
use,
280.
Beetles, flea,
344.
Beets,
251.
culture and
good farming,
250.
relationships,
241.
sugar,
251.
Benefits
:
of
drainage,
108.
of
manure,
132.
of
organic matter,
88.
Bermuda-grass,
299.
Berseem,
275.
Bindweeds,
358.
Bird's-foot
trefoil,
284.
Blackleg
of
potato,
238.
Blade of
grass
leaf,
170.
Blight, early,
237.
Blowing
of
soils,treatment for, 159,
160.
Blue-grass, Kentucky, 304,
393.
434
Index
Clovers
and other
legumes, 254,
271.
Cocaine,
344.
Cocklebur, 375.
Coffee,
351.
Composition
of :
carbohydrates,
55.
fats and oils,56.
feldspars,
71.
gypsum,
73.
hornblende,
71.
mica,
71.
plants, 61,
122.
protein,
56.
pyroxene,
71.
soils,67, 70, 81, 119.
Conservation of
soil,
68.
Control of ;
June-grass,
297.
moisture, 10, 18,
100-117.
mustard,
181.
plant-food,
10.
plant composition
and
j'ield,
62.
Cork
cells,29,
32.
Corn, 191.
adaptation,
198.
culms,
193.
cultivation,
201.
dent, 195.
distribution,
197.
ear,
194.
enemies,
204.
factors in
production, 198,
199.
flint,
196.
flower, 194.
harvesting,
203.
history of, 191.
irrigation of, 202.
kernel
described,
194.
leaves,
193.
marketing,
206.
pests,
204.
pod,
197.
pop,
196.
relationships, 191.
root-system,
191.
seed and
planting, 200.
seed-bed
preparation, 199,
seed,
selection
of,
200;
silage,
203.
soft or flour,
197.
standard
varieties, 197.
Corn:
states
producing,
197.
storage,
205.
sweet,
196.
types,
195.
uses,
204.
value,
205.
with
cowpeas
and
rape,
203.
Corolla,
36.
Corrosive sublimate for
spray,
377.
Cortex,
29.
Cost of buildings,
398.
Cost of
drainage,
109.
Cotton, 333.
adaptation of,
335.
culture,
336.
description of,
335.
distribution,
336.
harvesting,
337.
history,
333.
marketing,
337.
use of,
337.
varieties,
334.
Cowpeas,
280.
adaptation,
281.
culture and
value,
282.
description,
280.
with
corn,
203.
Crimson clover,
275.
Critical
periods
of
plants
for
water,
105.
Critical
points
in soil
moisture,
93.
Crop production
limited
by elements,
122.
Crops :
adaptation of, 12, 21,
387.
adapted
to
dry-farming,
115.
as income,
387.
diversified,388.
knowledge of,
404.
miscellaneous,
341.
relation to soil
texture,
82.
staple,
382.
storage of,
405.
Cross-fertilization,362.
Crystalline rook,
71.
Cucumbers, 349.
Culms
:
of
corn,
193.
of
wheat, described, 170.
Index 435
Cultivation :
and
manuring, objects of, 20, 146,
148, 149.
and
moisture in
soil, 146, 149.
benefits derived
from, 145.
improvement of soil structure
by,
145.
Cultivators, kinds
of, 161.
Culture of :
alfalfa,263.
barley, 217.
beans, 278.
beets, 245.
brome-grass, smooth,
297.
clover, 255.
corn,
201.
cotton, 336.
cowpeas,
282.
field-peas, 277.
flax,338.
hemp, 341.
mangels, 252.
millets, 330.
oats,
212.
orchard-grass, 295,
296.
potatoes, 224,
234.
red
clover,
273.
redtop,
293.
rice,
221.
rutabagas, 254.
rye,
220.
sorghum, 325.
soybeans, 283.
Sudan-grass, 329,
sugar-beets, 245,
247.
timothy, 289.
tobacco,
346.
turnips,
253.
wheat, 175-178.
Curculios, cabbage,
344.
Cytoplasm,
25.
Dandelions,
374.
Decomposition
of
organic matter,
141,
153.
Definition of mineral,
70.
Denitrification,
144.
Dent
corn,
196.
Dependence
of man on plants
and
animals, 51, 53,
58.
Depreciation
in
machinery, 396.
Depth of drains, 110.
Depth
of
soils,81.
Description
of :
alfalfa,
258.
flower,
260.
leaves,
260.
roots,
258.
seeds,
260.
stems,
259.
barley,
215.
beans,
278.
Canada
blue-grass,
293.
carrots,
254.
clover,
271.
alsike,
274.
crimson,
275.
red,
272.
sweet,
274.
white,
274.
corn,
culms,
193.
ear,
194.
flower, 194.
kernel, 194.
leaves, 193.
roots,
191.
cotton,
335.
cowpeas,
280.
field-peas,
275.
flax,
338.
grass,
287.
Kentucky blue-grass,
293.
leaf,
34.
mangel-wurzels,
251.
millet, 330.
oats,
209.
orchard-grass,
295.
potatoes,
225
red
clover,
272.
redtop,
292.
rice,
221.
rutabagas,
253.
rye,
219.
smooth
brome-grass,
297.
sorghum, 320.
soybeans,
282.
sugar-beets,
243.
timothy,
288.
turnips,
253.
vetch,
284.
436 Index
Description
of:
wheat,
culm,
170.
kernel,
170.
root,
168.
Diabase,
71.
Diamond-back moths, 344.
Dicotyledonous plants, 35,
40.
Diffusion of salts,
45.
Diorite,
71.
Disease
prevention,
Bordeaux mix- ture,
337.
Diseases of :
alfalfa,267.
barley,
218.
beets, 248.
corn,
204.
potatoes, 236,
238.
sugar-beets,
248.
wheat, 176, 179, 180,
181.
Distribution of :
alfalfa,
262.
barley,
216.
beans,
278.
beets, 245.
blue-grass, 294.
brome-grass,
394.
buckwheat, 222.
corn, 197,
198.
cotton, 335, 336.
cowpeas,
281.
mangels,
252.
millet, 329, 330.
native
grass,
304.
oats, 210,
211.
orchard-grass,295.
potatoes,
228.
red
clover,
272.
redtop, 293.
rice,221.
rye, 219, 220.
sorghum, 323.
Sudan-grass,
329.
sugar-cane,
347.
sweet
clover,
275.
sweet potatoes,
347.
timothy, 289.
tobacco, 345.
wheat, 173.
white
clover,
274.
Diversification of
crops,
383, 388.
Diversity
of
crops, advantage
of
under
irrigation,
106.
Division of cells, 40.
Dolomite, composition
and
impor- tance,
71.
Domestication of plants and
animals,
53, 54.
Drainage :
and the alkali
problem, 108,
156.
benefits
of,
108.
cost of, 109.
reduces
heaving, 109.
scope
of
problem,
109.
Drains :
covered, 110.
depth to lay,
110.
open ditches, advantages
and dis- advantages,
110.
procedure
in
installing, 110.
Drouth-resistant
plants, 16,
21.
Dry-farm :
areas
of the U. S., 112.
crops,
115.
machinery for,
117.
tillagemethods, 116.
Dry-farming :
in relation to rainfall.111.
scope
of
problem,
111.
soils suited
to, 113.
sorghums for,
319.
tillagein, 116.
Dry matter, cost of, 47.
Dry-rot
of
potatoes,
238.
Duty
of
machinery,
395.
Dye plants, 351.
E
Ear of
corn described, 194.
Early blight,
237.
Effect of manure on plants, 131.
Effect of water on development
of
plants, 10.
Elements
limiting
crop
production,
122.
Elevation and
temperature,
16.
Elevators, grain, 136.
Embryo of wheat kernel
described,
171.
Embryo or
germ,
37.
Index 437
Emmer, 222.
Endodermis,
29, 32.
Enemies
:
of
cabbage,
rape,
and
kale,
343.
of
corn,
204.
of
oats, 214.
Entomology, 4.
Environment
:
adaptation of
plants to, 12, 21, 48,
149.
and native
vegetation,
9.
modifications
by
man,
9.
relation of
plants to,
9.
response
of
plants to,
4.
Enzymes,
action
of, 43,
60.
Epidermis,
25.
Equipment,
necessary,
393.
Erosion
:
conditions where
troublesome, 158.
factors
affecting,
158.
methods of
preventing,
158.
Evaporation
from
soils, prevention
of,
95.
Executive
ability
of
farmer,
403.
Exhaustion of soils
by
removal of
plant-food,
123.
Existence, struggle for,
50.
Factors in
crop
production, 12,
20.
Factors of
plant growth and their
control,
10.
Families of
plants,
26.
Farm
:
accounts,
403.
buUdings,
398.
good
roads
on,
384.
planning,
381.
size
of,
400.
Farmer,
executive ability,
400.
Farmer's income,
403.
Farming :
machinery
for,
392.
management
of,
402.
organization
of,
400.
persistence
needed in,
382.
rearranging,
384.
relation
of
sugar-beets to,
250.
types
of,
402.
Farm manure :
losses
in,
133.
value
of, 126,
131.
Farmstead, 383.
convenience in
arrangement of,
383.
location
of, 383.
Fats and oils :
composition,
56.
occurrence,
56.
uses,
57.
Feldspars, composition
and
impor- tance,
71.
Fences
:
neat, 385.
unnecessary,
385.
Fenu-greek,
284.
Ferns, 26.
Fertility
of
soil,importance
of
con- servation,
68.
Fertilization, 259.
Fertilization of
corn,
194.
Fertilizers :
advantages
of
home-mixing,
130.
commonly used,
126.
indirect,
126.
judgment
needed in
applying,
127.
needed
by
different
crops,
136.
phosphorus,
128.
potassium,
129.
used as stimulants,
130.
used for nitrogen, 127, 128.
value used in U. S.,
126.
waste of, 126.
Fescues, 301.
Field-peas,
275.
adaptation,
276.
culture,
277.
description,
275.
harvesting,
277.
irrigation,
277.
seeding,
276.
use
and
value,
277.
Fields,
size and shape of,
384.
Fiber :
animal, 333.
miscellaneous,
341.
vegetable,
333.
Fibro-vascular
bundles,
32.
Fixation of
nitrogen, 128,
142.
438
Index
Flax:
adaptation,
338.
culture,
338.
description,
338.
fiber,
339.
history of,
338.
seed,
339.
use of,
340.
value of,
340.
Flea-beetles,
344.
on beets, 249.
Flint,
71.
Flint
corn,
196.
Florida
beggar weed,
284.
Flour quality,
182.
Flower :
described,
36.
parts of,
359.
Fluctuations in
yield
due to climate,
13.
Food:
of bacteria,
140.
reserve
in
plants
and animals, 59,
60.
storage by plants,
185.
storage
in seed,
60.
Forage
crops
compared, 291.
Forage grasses,
288.
Forces in transference of food, 49.
Formalin for seed
diseases,
238.
Formation of cellulose
by plants,
43.
Formation of humus,
141.
Former plants, products of,
52.
Foxtail,
367.
Frost :
crops
hardy toward,
13.
effect on some common
crops,
13,
14.
factors
influencing,
14.
injury
to
crops,
nature
of,
14.
time
of,
14.
Fruits,
349.
citrus,349.
small, 349.
tropical,
351.
Function of
plant parts,
27.
Functions, specialization of, 39.
Furrow
irrigation, advantages of,
103.
Fusarium
oxysponim,
238.
Fusarium
wilt,
238.
G
Gardens, roof,
351.
Genus,
26.
Germination and
oxygen,
42.
Glacial soils,
78.
Glaciers,
action in soil
formation,
77.
Gliadin,
182.
Gluten,
182.
Glutenin, 182.
Gneisses, 71,
72.
Grades of
wheat,
188.
Grain :
drilling,396.
handling on a large scale, 186.
loss
in
storage,
189.
speculation,
189.
Graminese, plants
included
under,
168.
Granite, 70,
73.
Grapes, seedless,
364.
Grass, Bermuda,
299.
blade
of,
170.
leaf sheath
of,
170.
Grasses, 286.
description,
287.
forage,
288.
importance of,
287.
mixtures for
pasture,
305.
native,
304.
relationships, 286.
Grasspeas,
284.
Gravitational
water,
its
importance,
91, 92.
Greenhouses, 351.
Green
manure,
136.
'
Grimm
alfalfa,261.
Growth in
higher plants, 39, 40.
Guar, 284.
Gypsum, composition
and impor- tance,
73.
H
Handling manure,
134.
Hard wheat
regions,
172.
Harvest control
by crop
and ma- chinery,
62.
Harvesting
of :
alfalfa,264,
269.
barley,
217.
beans, 280.
Index 439
Harvesting of:
beets, 250.
brome-grass,smooth,
298.
corn,
203.
cotton, 337.
field-peas,277.
mangels, 252.
oats,
213.
orchard-grass, 295.
potatoes,
235.
red
clover, 273.
rice,
221.
soybeans, 283.
sugar-beets, 347, 349.
timothy, 290.
wheat, 178, 189.
Hay, oat,
208.
Heart-rot of beets, 248.
'
Heat and cold as agents
in soil for- mation,
74.
'
Heat:
factors
influencing, 87,
88.
importance of,
87.
of soils and moisture, 9,
18.
total, 16.
Heaving
of soil reduced
by drainage,
109.
Hematite, 73.
Hemlock, 371.
Hemp,
240.
adaptation,
240.
cultivation of, 341.
Manila,
341.
New Zealand,
341.
Herbicides, use of,
376.
Hessian flies,injury
to wheat, 180.
Home-mixing
of fertilizers,
130.
Hops,
351.
Hornblende, qomposition
and im- portance,
71.
Hornstone,
71.
Horticulture,
its field,
4.
House-gardens,
351.
Housing machinery,
397.
Humid and arid soils compared,
120.
Humus formation,
141.
Hungarian
clover,
275.
Hyacinth
beans,
284.
Hydrous
silicates
of magnesia,
72.
of alumina,
72.
of lime,
72.
Hygroscopic
water,
93.
definition,92.
importance, 93.
I
Ice in soil
formation,
77.
Implements :
classes on farm,
150.
to kill
weeds,
148.
Improvement
of
crops,
353.
by breeding
of
plants, 356.
by
cultivation of
crops,
357.
by selection,
361.
defined, 354.
gains from, 353.
ideals
of, 356.
methods
of, 353,
357.
need
of, 353.
pastures,
308.
seed, clean,
357.
seed
impurities in, 358.
varieties, adapted, 356.
Improvement
of soil
structure,
145.
Income, Farmers',
403.
Income from
crops,
387.
Increase in size of
plants, means of,
40.
Indicators of soil
acidity,
157.
Indirect fertilizers,126, 130.
Injury :
by alkali, nature of
46,
156.
of
frost,
14.
to wheat
by chinch-bug,
180.
Inoculation for alfalfa,
262.
Insect
pests
of :
alfalfa,
267.
barley,
218.
beets, 249.
cabbage,
344.
corn,
204.
oats,
214.
potatoes,
236.
sugar-beets,
249.
wheat, 180.
Iron minerals, 71, 72,
73.
Iron sulfate for
spray,
377.
use by plants, 43.
Irrigation by flooding, advantages,
104.
440 Index
Irrigation
of
:
alfalfa,264.
corn,
202.
orchard-grass,
349.
potatoes,
234.
rice,
221.
sugar-beets,
247.
Irrigation water :
amount to
use,
104.
measurement,
102.
methods of
applying,
103.
sources of
supply,
100.
storage, advantages of, 101, 102.
use of too much,
106.
when
to apply,
105.
Istle,341.
Jaokbeans, 284.
Japan clover,
284.
Jasper,
71.
Jethro
TuU, 44.
Johnson-grass,
300.
Judging value of land, 161.
June-grass,
297.
control
of,
181.
Jute,
341.
K
Kale, 343.
enemies
of,
343.
Kentucky blue-grass, 293,
304.
adaptation,
294.
description, 293.
seeding, 294.
value and
use,
294.
Kernel of
corn described, 194.
Kinds of
cultivators,
151.
Knowledge
of
crops,
404.
Kohlrabi,
342.
Kudju, 284.
Labor of
man
and
horse, 403,
404.
Land:
effect of
vegetation on
value
of, 161.
judging
value
of, 161.
value in relation to plant-food,
124.
waste,
386.
Larkspur,
371.
Late
blight of
potatoes,
237.
Leaf, description of, 34.
Leaf-spot
of
beets, 248.
Leaf-weevil, alfalfa,269,
371.
Leaves of
corn,
193.
Legumes,
271-285.
and
nitrogen fixation,
142.
description,
258.
Lespedeza or Japan clover,
284.
Life
depends on sunshine, 69.
Lime:
as a fertilizer,
129.
feldspars,
71.
for soil acidity, 157.
hydrous
silicates
of,
72.
sulfate
of,
73.
Limestone,
72.
dissolved
by
carbon
dioxide,
72.
Limonite,
73.
Liquid manure,
133.
Living,
standard
of,
and
wheat, 184.
Location of farmstead, 383.
Loco,
371.
Loopers, cabbage,
344.
Loss in
weight
of
plants by respira- tion,
42.
Losses in farm
manure,
133.
Lupines,
284.
M
Machinery:
care
in
selecting,
394.
care of,
397.
cooperation, 395.
depreciation of, 396.
duty of,
395.
for
dry-farming,
117.
for
farming,
392.
housing,
397.
size,
395.
Maggot, cabbage-root,
344.
Magnesia minerals, 71,
72.
Magnesium
used
by plants,
43.
Magnetite,
73.
Maguey,
341.
Mallow,
374.
Malt
barley,
217.
Man :
dependence on plants
and animals,
51, 53, 58.
to control the
earth, 63.
442 Index
Movement of
capillary water,
92.
Movements of soil
moisture, 96.
Mung beans,
284.
Mustard, 375.
control
of, 181.
tumbling,
359.
N
Native
grasses,
304.
Native
grass pastures,
304.
Natural
selection, 359,
360.
Negative
factors in
crop production,
12, 20.
New Zealand
hemp,
341.
Nitrification,142.
Nitrogen,
45.
and wheat
quality, 182.
cycle, 143.
fertilizers,127, 128.
fixation,128,
142.
its
importance
in
soils,122.
of soil and
bacteria,
142.
restoration
by bacteria, 142.
sources of
supply, 127.
Nodes of
grasses,
170.
Nodules of
alfalfa,259.
Nucleus,
25.
Nurse
crops
for
alfalfa,263.
Nuts,
351.
O
Oat-grass,
tall
meadow,
29,
304.
Oats,
208.
adaptation, 210.
and
peas
for
forage, 276,
277.
cultivation, 212.
description
of
plant, 209.
distribution, 210, 211.
enemies, 214.
harvesting
and
storing, 213.
hay, 208.
history, 208.
marketing, 213.
panicle of
oats,
209.
pests,
214.
relationships,
209.
seeding, 212.
spikelets of
oats, 210.
uses,
213.
Oats:
varieties,212.
yields by states,
211.
Occurrence of fats and
oils,56.
Ochrus,
284.
Oil formation
by plants, 43.
Opal,
71.
Opium, 344.
Opportunities in
agriculture,
3.
Oranges, seedless, 364.
Orchard-grass, 295-304.
adaptation, 295.
description, 295.
harvesting,
296.
irrigation,349.
seeding, 295.
value and
use,
296.
Orchard, soils,349.
cultivation, 349.
Organic matter :
action
on soil,141.
arid and humid
regions compared,
119.
beneficial effects
on soils,88.
decomposition, 141, 143.
how
maintained, 88.
plant-food
content
of, 124.
sources of,
88.
Organisms
of the soil
:
bacteria,
139.
importance of, 138.
kinds, 138.
Organization of
farming,
400.
Origin
of
branches, 37.
Origin
of
buds,
37.
Orthoclase
feldspar,
72.
Osmosis, 44,
46.
Over-irrigation,
waste
accompanying
practice,
106.
Overstocking pastures,
309.
Ovule, 35.
Oxygen :
and
life,10, 41,
42.
as an agent
in soil
formation,
78.
liberation
by plants, 43.
limits
growth,
49.
use to plants,
42.
Palisade
cells,34.
Panicle, 37.
Index 443
Paris
green,
344.
Parts of
flower,359.
Pastures
:
aUalfa, 267, 304.
definition
of, 302.
for
different
animals,
307.
grasses
used
for, 304.
importance
of, 303.
improving, 308.
management of, 310.
mixed
grass,
304.
native
grass,
304.
on dry-farms,
306.
ordinary conditions,
308.
origin,
302.
overstocking, 309.
permanent,
302.
qualities of, 303.
temporary,
303.
wheat-grass, 304.
Pathology of
plants
and
animals,
4.
Peaches, 349, 385.
Peanuts, 284.
Pearl
millet,
331.
Pears, 349.
Peas, 349.
Perieycle, 32.
Permanent
agriculture
and minerals
in
soil,
125.
Persian
clover,
275.
Pests,
20.
Phloem, 30, 32,
33.
Phosphate
of
lime,
73.
Phosphorus :
fertilizers,sources,
128.
its
importance, 43,
122.
Phosphorus-loving crops,
119, 136.
Photosynthesis,
42.
Pigweeds,
367.
Pistil,
36.
Planning a rotation, important
fac- tors
in,
153.
Planning
the farm,
381.
Planning work,
391.
Plant and animal pathology,
4.
Plant-breeding, development of,
364.
Plant compounds
useful to
man,
54.
Plant-food ;
and
productivity
of soils,
124.
availability
of,
121.
balance needed,
125.
Plant-food
:
control of, 10.
in organic matter,
124.
in
soils,
120.
manufacture
of,
43.
method of
transferring,
48.
of the
soil,
old
theories,
118.
removed
by crojis,
122.
Plant indicators of soil
acidity,
157.
Plant
parts
and their
functions,
27.
Plants
:
adaptation to environment, 12, 21,
48,
149.
and
animals,
their
interdependence,
51.
as
affected
by sunlight, 18.
as agents
in soil
formation,
79.
ash
of,
56.
content of
carbohydrates,
55.
control
of,by planting
and
pruning,
62.
difference in food
demands, 119,
136.
how injured by alkali, 156.
in relation to winds, 19.
man's interest
in, 50,
52.
use
of carbon dioxide
by, 42, 43,
57.
Plant
structure, necessity
for
study,
23.
Plasma
membrane,
25.
Plastids, 25,
34.
Plowing :
injury
to wet
land,
84.
objects of, 146,
148.
Plows, compared,
150.
Pod
corn,
197.
Pop corn,
196.
Poppies,
351.
Potash-containing minerals,
71.
Potash
feldspar,
71.
Potassium, 43.
a limiting factor,
123.
as fertilizer,
129.
fertilizers,sources,
129.
Potassium-loving
crops,
119,
136.
Potato, 224, 361.
acre-jdelds,
228.
adaptations,
228.
blight,
237.
cultivation, 234.
cultural
requirements,
224.
444
Index
Potato:
description,
225.
digger,
396.
diseases, 236,
238.
distribution,
228.
early
crop,
233.
harvesting,
235.
history,
224.
insects, 236.
internal brown
spot,
238.
marketing,
235.
pests,
236.
planting, 233.
relationships,
225.
second
growth,
238.
seed-bed, 230.
seed cutting, 233.
seed
selection,
231.
storage,
235.
uses,
239.
varieties,
227.
yield,
228.
Preventing erosion,
158.
Productivity
in land
valuation,
163.
Profits,man
and horse
labor, 403,
404.
Properties
of soils affected
by texture,
81.
Protein compounds,
43.
composition,
56.
concentration by animals,
59.
occurrence
in
plants, 56,
60.
uses to animals,
56.
Protoplasm,
24.
Pruning, 62.
Pteridophytes or ferns,
26.
Pumpkins,
349.
Pyroxene, composition
and
impor- tance,
71.
Q
Quack-grass,
358.
Quality
in wheat, 182.
Quality
of wheat and
climate, 183.
Quartz, proportion
of earth made
of,
71.
R
Rape,
343.
enemies
of,
343.
or
cowpeas
with
corn,
203.
Real
specificgravity,
86.
Reclamation of alkali lands, 156.
Red
clover,
271.
adaptation,
273.
description,
272.
distribution,
272.
harvesting,
273.
history,
271.
importance,
271.
"
sickness." 271.
"
value,
273.
Redtop, 292,
304.
adaptation,
292.
culture,
293.
description,
292.
value and
use,
293.
Regions
for hard
wheat,
172.
Relation of corn to
other
cereals,191.
Relation of
plants to their environ- ment,
9.
Relationship
of
cereals,
168.
Reproduction
of
plants,
359.
Reserve food in animals and
plants,
59,
60.
Respiration, 41,
42.
Response
of
plants
to peculiar en- vironment,
49.
Rhizoctonia, 238.
Rice,
221.
description,
221.
harvesting,
221.
history,
221.
production
of world,
221.
uses,
221.
Rivers,
their
importance
in soil for- mation,
76.
Rock:
definition
of,
70.
soil-forming,
73.
weathering agents,
74.
Rolling land,
effect on moisture,
150.
Roof-gardens,
351.
Roots,
27.
adjustability of,
27.
cap
of, 28.
crops,
plants included,
241.
development
of
corn,
191.
development
of wheat, 168.
general characteristics,
241.
growing section
of,
28.
hair, 27, 44, 46.
system,
of
alfalfa, 30, 258.
Index
445
Rootstocks
or underground stems,
37.
Rosette of
potatoes,
238.
Rotation of
crops
:
and
plant-food, 119.
benefits
from, 151.
principles to
guide in, 153.
Rotation, planning
a,
133,
Rubber, 351.
Russian
thistle,358, 359.
dispersion of, 181.
Rust of
wheat, 180.
Rutabagas, 253.
culture,
253.
description, 253.
seeding, 254.
use
and
value,
254.
Rye,
219.
adaptation,
220.
description,
219.
distribution, 219,
220.
field
treatment,
220.
history,
219.
seeding,
220.
uses,
220.
Rye-grass, 301,
304.
S
Sagebrush,
367.
Salt-grass,
301,
304.
Salts :
diffusion of,
45.
for
spray,
376.
injurious
to plants,
155.
sodium, injurious,
155.
Sampling
soils for analysis,
120.
Sandstone,
71.
Sanfoin,
284.
Sap,
rate of movement in
plants,
49.
Scab, potatoes,
238.
Schist,
72.
Seasonal adaptability
of
crops
and
profitableproduction,
13.
Season, length of,
and
crop
produc- tion,
12.
Seaweeds,
26.
Second-foot defined.
Sedentary
soils,
79.
Sedges, 301,
304.
103.
Seed:
definition,
359.
essentials of good, 365.
growth
and
description,
37.
home-grown,
231.
production
of
alfalfa,
269.
selection for
corn,
200.
selection for
potatoes,
231.
storage
of food
in,
60.
Seed-bed for
grain, preparation of,
175, 199.
Seeding blue-grass, 294.
Selecting machinery,
394.
Selection
:
artificial,360.
methods
of,
358.
natural, 359, 360.
of
crops,
361.
Serpentine,
72.
Serradella, 284.
Shape
of fields,384.
Sheath of
grass
leaf,
170.
Siberian
alfalfa,
261.
Siderite,
73.
Sieve tubes, 33,
48.
Silica,
minerals composed of, 71,
72.
Sisal,
341.
Size of :
fields,384.
machinery,
395.
soil
particles,
82.
Slender
wheat-grass,
301.
Small-grains,
364.
Smooth brome-grass, 304,
397.
adaptation,
297.
culture,
297.
description,
297.
harvesting,
298.
value and
use,
298.
Smut :
closed
or stinking,
179.
description of,
179.
loose, 180.
treatment for,
176.
Snow as an agent
in soil
formation,
76.
Soda
feldspars,
71.
Sodium salts, injurious effects on
plants,
155.
Soft or
flour
corn,
197.
Soft wheat
regions, 171.
446 Index
SoU:
acidity
and
crop
production,
157.
acidity
corrected
by lime,
157.
aeration, 86.
bacteria,
139.
classification,
79.
condition,
effect on
crops,
68.
definition
of,
67.
depth
and structure in land valua- tion,
162.
erosion,
factors
effecting,
158.
exhaustion
by
crops,
123.
factors, influencing plants,
19.
formation,
action of
atmosphere,
78.
formation
by
heat and
cold,
74.
formation, by ice,
77.
formation, by plants, 79.
formation, by rivers,
76.
formation, snow an
agent in,
76.
.
forming minerals, 70, 71.
forming rocks,
73.
management,
need of
up-to-date
methods
in,
69.
moisture and soil
heat, 9, 18.
particles,size
of,
82.
particles,tillage
affected
by,
81.
permanence of,
68.
suited to
dry-farming,
113.
texture and surface
area,
83.
thickness and
composition of,
67.
water as agent
in
forming,
75.
Soiling,302.
advantages of,
313.
conditions
favoring, 312.
crop
management for, 316.
definition,
312.
disadvantages of, 312.
SoUs:
agents
active in formation
of,
74.
amount of
plant-food in,
120.
analysis of,
119.
blowing of, 160.
classification
of,
79.
composition of,
119.
depletion
of
fertility by leaching,
123.
determining
fertilizer needs
of,
127.
each one a problem,
154.
evaporation from, 95.
exhaustion
of,
123.
Soils:
formed
by wind, 78.
for
wheat,
174.
judging of,
161.
named
according
to size of
par- ticles,
82.
not
inexhaustible,
125.
not suited for
dry-farming, 113.
of
glacial origin, 78.
origin and
composition, 70,
81.
sedentary,
79.'
sour soils,157.
correction
of,
157.
texture
of, 81.
Solvent action of
water,
76.
Sorghum : "
adaptation, 323.
broom-corn,
323.
cultivation, 325.
description, 320.
distribution, 323.
enemies,
328.
grain,
322.
harvesting, 326.
history,
319.
marketing,
328.
planting,
325.
relationships,
320.
sweet,
322.
uses
and
value,
327.
varieties of
classification,322.
yields,
326.
Sorghums
and
millets,
318.
importance on dry-farms, 319.
Sow-thistle, Perennial,
358.
Soybeans,
282.
adaptation,
283.
culture, 283.
description,
282.
harvesting, 283.
value
as feed, 283.
Specialization, 383.
Specialization of
cells,
26.
Specialization of functions in
higher
plants, 39.
Specialties,
389.
Species defined,
26.
Specific gravity
of
soils,
86.
Spermatophytes or seed
plants, 26.
Spike,
37.
Spike
of wheat
described,
170.
Index 447
Sprays, 376.
carbolic
acid,
376.
copper sulfate,376.
corrosive
sublimate, 377.
iron
sulfate,
377.
salt,376.
Squash, 349.
Stamens, 36.
Standard of
living and
wheat,
184.
Starch
:
manufacture
by plants,
43.
produced
by sunlight,
19.
use by plants, 60.
Stable
crops,
382.
Stem, 30, 33.
Stigma, 36.
Stinking or closed
smut,
179.
Stock
on farm,
381.
Stomata, 34.
Stooling
of
wheat, 170.
Storage :
alfalfa,265.
beets, 250.
corn,
205.
crops,
405.
food
by plants,
60.
of
grain
from
pests,
185.
of
manure,
133.
potatoes, 235,
236.
Structure
:
complexity of,
in
soils,84.
factors
affecting,
84.
of
cells,' 24,
25.
of soil and
cultivation, 145.
of soil and land
value, 162.
of
soils,definition, 83.
Structure and
tilth, 84.
Structure of plant, 23.
Struggle
for existence, 50.
Style,
36.
Sub-irrigation,
104.
Sub-soil of arid and humid
regions
compared,
81.
Successful farming,
406.
Sudan-grass, description, 329.
culture,
329.
Sugar :
analysis
of in
sugar-cane,
346.
change to starch,
43.
maimfacture, 251.
storage
in
plants,
61.
Sugar-beets,
241.
adaptation,
243.
alkali
resistance, 245.
blight, 248.
cultivation,247.
description, 243.
diseases, 248.
harvesting, 347, 349.
heart
-rot,
248.
history,
241.
insect
pests,
249.
irrigating,247.
leaf-spot, 248.
marketing,
250.
pests,
249.
relation to good fanning, 250.
seed and
seeding, 247.
seed-bed
preparation, 245.
storing,
250.
thinning, 247.
use
and
value, 250.
weed
troubles, 248,
249.
Sugar-cane, 356.
analysis
of
sugar
from,
347.
description, 347.
distribution, 347.
Sugar
in
plants, 61,
250.
wheat, 184,
185.
Siilfur
uses by plants, 43.
Sunlight,
and starch
production, 19.
effect on plants, 18.
Sunshine, the means of all
life,59.
Sweet
clover, 274.
control
of, 181.
Sweet
corn,
196.
Sweet
potatoes,
347.
adaptation,
347.
distribution, 347.
use,
347.
Talc, composition,
72.
Tall meadow
oat-grass, 299, 304.
Tangier peas,
284.
Tap-roots,
30.
Tea, 351.
Temperature :
and elevation, 16.
daily fluctuations,
16.
relation to winds, 19.
448 Index
Temporary pastures,
303.
Terracing to
prevent washing
of
soils,
159.
Texture of soil and water retention,
92,
93.
Texture of
soils,81, 82.
Thallophytes,
26.
.
Theories of
plant-food,
118.
Thistle
:
Canada, 358.
Russian, 358,
359.
"
TiUage :
as
affected
by size,of soil
particles,
81.
objects
of in
dry -farming,
116.
Tilth and
structure,
84.
Timber
crops,
361.
Timothy, 288,
304.
adaptation, 289.
culture,
289.
description,
288.
enemies,
292.
harvest, 290.
origin,
288.
planting,
290.
states
producing,
289.
value,
291.
Tissue, definition of, 25.
Tobacco,
344.
culture
of, 346.
curing,
346.
distribution, 345.
marketing,
346.
Topography
in land
valuation,
161.
Total
heat, 16.
Tracheal tubes, 29, 30,
48.
Transferring plant-food,
48.
Translocation of food in
plants,
38.
Transpiration,
46.
Transportation
within
plants,
48.
Transported soils,79.
Trefoil, bird's-foot,284.
yellow,
275.
Tropical fruits,
351.
Truck
crops,
349.
Tull, Jethro,
44.
Tumbleweed,
371.
Tumbling mustard, 359.
Turnips :
culture, 253.
description,
253.
Turnips:
seeding,
253.
use
and
value,
254.
Type
of
farming, 402.
Types
of
corn,
195.
U
Underground stems,
37.
Use of :
alfalfa,
266.
amendments for
alkali,
126.
blue-grass,
294.
brome-grass, smooth, 298.
carbohydrates by plants, 55,
56.
clover,
255.
cotton,
337.
fats and
oils,
57.
field
peas,
277.
fiax,340.
herbicides,
376.
lime for acid
soil,
157.
mangels,
252.
oats,
213.
orchard-grass,
296.
potatoes,
239.
proteins to animals,
56.
red
clover,
273.
redtop,
293.
rice,
221.
rutabagas,
254.
rye,
220.
soil
analysis,
127.
sugar-beets,
250.
sweet
potatoes,
347.
turnips,
254.
vetch,
284.
water by plants, 47,
96.
wheat, 183,
280.
Useful products
of former
plants,
52.
Vacuoles,
25.
Value of :
alfalfa,261,
266.
analysis
of
soil,
127.
bacteria,
142.
barley,
219.
beans,
280.
brome-grass, smooth, 298.
450 Index
Weeds:
biennial,
367.
control, 372.
cultivating
for
destroying,
373.
definition,366,
367.
eradictaion
of,
373.
history, 366.
injurious to wheat, 181.
injury
done
by, 147,
371.
introduction
of, 369.
laws, 373.
losses
from, 370.
methods of
destruction, 375.
occurrence,
368.
of:
alfalfa,267.
beets, 248.
potatoes,
236.
sugar-beets, 248,
249.
wheat, 181.
perennial, 368.
poisonous,
371.
rotation of
crops
helps eradicate,
376.
spraying for,
376.
summer-fallowing for, 376.
Western
wheat-grass, 301.
Wheat :
and standard of
living, 184.
amount to
sow,
176.
distribution, 173.
Durum, 362.
exchanged,
189.
factors
determining quality, 183.
flour, 171, 182.
geographical origin, 167.
grades of,
188.
growth above ground, 170.
hardiness, regions affecting, 171,
172.
harvesting,
178.
history of cultivation, 167.
improved varieties, 172.
insect
pests of, 180.
joint
worm,
181.
kernel
described, 170.
loss
by
not
grading, 189.
marketing, 187.
origin
of
word,
167.
pests,
180.
preparaing
for
planting, 175,
176.
Wheat:
quality in, 182.
regions for soft,
171.
relationships, 168.
root
development,
168.
rust,
180.
seed-bed
preparation,
175.
smut, 176, 179, 180.
soils
for,
174.
speculation,
189.
spike described,
170.
storage of, 184, 185.
Turkey red, 362.
use
and
value, 183.
varieties,
171.
weeds
injurious to,
181.
Wheat-grass, 301, 304.
When to apply irrigation water,
105.
White
clover, 274.
Wind,
action in soil
formation,
78.
Wind in relation to plants,
19.
Wind
regulates temperature,
19.
Worms, cabbage,
344.
X
/
Xylem, 29, 30,
33.
Yellow
trefoil,
275.
Yield of :
alfalfa,262, 263.
alfalfa
seed,
263.
barley,
216.
beans,
280.
Bermuda-grass, 300.
blue-grass,
294.
buckwheat, 223.
cabbage, 343.
carrots,
255.
corn, 197, 198, 199,
201.
cotton, 335, 336.
cowpeas,
282.
crops
relation to soil condition,
68.
emmer,
222.
field-peas,
271.
flax,338.
forage
crops,
291.
Johnson-grass, 301.
kale, 343.
Index
451
Yield
of:
lessened
by weeds,
370.
mangel-wurzels, 252.
millet, 330, 331.
oat-grass, 299.
oats, 210, 211,
212.
orchard-grass, 295,
296.
pearl millet, 331.
penicillaria,331.
poor
and
good, 353, 355, 358,
365.
rape,
354.
red
clover, 272,
273.
redtop, 293.
rice,221.
rutabagas, 254.
rye,
219.
soiling
crops,
312, 313,
314.
soybeans,
283.
Yield of:
Sudan-grass, 329.
sugar-beets,
245.
sugar-cane,
347.
sweet clover,
275.
sweet
potatoes,
349.
teosinte,
331.
timothy, 289, 290, 291.
tobacco, 345.
turnips,
254.
vetch, 284.
white
clover,
274.
Zeolites,composition
and
importance,
72.
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